Immunologic checkpoint blockade with antibodies that target cytotoxic T 
lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 (CTLA-4) and the programmed cell death protein 1 
pathway (PD-1/PD-L1) have demonstrated promise in a variety of malignancies. 
Ipilimumab (CTLA-4) and pembrolizumab (PD-1) are approved by the US Food and 
Drug Administration for the treatment of advanced melanoma, and additional 
regulatory approvals are expected across the oncologic spectrum for a variety of 
other agents that target these pathways. Treatment with both CTLA-4 and 
PD-1/PD-L1 blockade is associated with a unique pattern of adverse events called 
immune-related adverse events, and occasionally, unusual kinetics of tumor 
response are seen. Combination approaches involving CTLA-4 and PD-1/PD-L1 
blockade are being investigated to determine whether they enhance the efficacy 
of either approach alone. Principles learned during the development of CTLA-4 
and PD-1/PD-L1 approaches will likely be used as new immunologic checkpoint 
blocking antibodies begin clinical investigation.