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<TITLE>History of Europe - Wikipedia</TITLE>

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<H1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">History of Europe</H1>			<DIV id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content">
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				<DIV id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><DIV class="mw-parser-output"><P>The <B>history of Europe</B> covers the peoples inhabiting <A href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</A> from <A href="/wiki/Prehistoric" class="mw-redirect" title="Prehistoric">prehistory</A> to the present.</P>
<P>The period known as <A href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</A> began with the emergence of the city-states of <A href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</A>. Later, the <A href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</A> came to dominate the entire <A href="/wiki/Mediterranean_basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean basin">Mediterranean basin</A>. The fall of the Roman Empire in AD 476 traditionally marks the start of the <A href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</A>. Beginning in the 14th century a <A href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</A> of knowledge challenged traditional doctrines in science and theology. Simultaneously, the <A href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</A> set up Protestant churches primarily in Germany, Scandinavia and England. After 1800, the <A href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</A> brought prosperity to Britain and Western Europe. The main powers set up colonies in most of the Americas and Africa, and parts of Asia. In the 20th century, <A href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</A>, and <A href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</A> resulted in massive numbers of deaths. The <A href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</A> dominated European geo-politics from 1947 to 1989. Unification into a <A href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</A> moved forward after 1950, with some setbacks. Today, most countries west of Russia belong to the <A href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</A> military alliance, along with the United States and Canada.</P>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:205px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Abraham_Ortelius_Map_of_Europe.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Abraham_Ortelius_Map_of_Europe.jpg/203px-Abraham_Ortelius_Map_of_Europe.jpg" width="203" height="149" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Abraham_Ortelius_Map_of_Europe.jpg/305px-Abraham_Ortelius_Map_of_Europe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Abraham_Ortelius_Map_of_Europe.jpg/406px-Abraham_Ortelius_Map_of_Europe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2749" data-file-height="2017" /></A>
<DIV class="thumbcaption">
<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:Abraham_Ortelius_Map_of_Europe.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
Europe depicted by <A href="/wiki/Antwerp" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</A> cartographer <A href="/wiki/Abraham_Ortelius" title="Abraham Ortelius">Abraham Ortelius</A> in 1595</DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<P></P>
<DIV id="toc" class="toc">
<DIV class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr">
<H2>Contents</H2>
<SPAN class="toctoggle"> [<A role="button" tabindex="0" class="togglelink">hide</A>] </SPAN></DIV>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><A href="#Overview"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Overview</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><A href="#Prehistory"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Prehistory</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><A href="#Minoans_and_Mycenae_2700–1100_BC"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Minoans and Mycenae 2700–1100 BC</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><A href="#Classical_antiquity"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Classical antiquity</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><A href="#Ancient_Greece"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Ancient Greece</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><A href="#The_rise_of_Rome"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">The rise of Rome</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><A href="#Decline_of_the_Roman_Empire"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Decline of the Roman Empire</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><A href="#Late_Antiquity_and_Migration_Period"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Late Antiquity and Migration Period</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><A href="#Middle_Ages"><SPAN class="tocnumber">5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Middle Ages</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><A href="#Byzantium"><SPAN class="tocnumber">5.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Byzantium</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><A href="#Early_Middle_Ages"><SPAN class="tocnumber">5.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Early Middle Ages</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-12"><A href="#Feudal_Christendom"><SPAN class="tocnumber">5.2.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Feudal Christendom</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><A href="#High_Middle_Ages"><SPAN class="tocnumber">5.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">High Middle Ages</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-14"><A href="#A_divided_church"><SPAN class="tocnumber">5.3.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">A divided church</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-15"><A href="#Holy_wars"><SPAN class="tocnumber">5.3.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Holy wars</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><A href="#Late_Middle_Ages"><SPAN class="tocnumber">5.4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Late Middle Ages</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><A href="#Early_modern_Europe"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Early modern Europe</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><A href="#Renaissance"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Renaissance</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><A href="#Exploration_and_trade"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Exploration and trade</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><A href="#Reformation"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Reformation</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><A href="#Mercantilism_and_colonial_expansion"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6.4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Mercantilism and colonial expansion</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><A href="#Crisis_of_the_17th_century"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6.5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Crisis of the 17th century</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><A href="#Age_of_Absolutism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6.6</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Age of Absolutism</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-24"><A href="#Thirty_Years'_War_1618–1648"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6.6.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Thirty Years' War 1618–1648</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-25"><A href="#War_of_the_Spanish_Succession"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6.6.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">War of the Spanish Succession</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-26"><A href="#Prussia"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6.6.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Prussia</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-27"><A href="#Russia"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6.6.4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Russia</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><A href="#Enlightenment"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6.7</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Enlightenment</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><A href="#From_revolution_to_imperialism_(1789–1914)"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">From revolution to imperialism (1789–1914)</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-30"><A href="#Industrial_Revolution"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Industrial Revolution</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-31"><A href="#Era_of_the_French_Revolution"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Era of the French Revolution</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-32"><A href="#Napoleon"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Napoleon</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-33"><A href="#Impact_of_the_French_Revolution"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7.3.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Impact of the French Revolution</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-34"><A href="#Religion"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7.4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Religion</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-35"><A href="#Protestantism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7.4.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Protestantism</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-36"><A href="#Nations_rising"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7.5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Nations rising</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-37"><A href="#Emerging_nationalism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7.5.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Emerging nationalism</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-4 tocsection-38"><A href="#Germany"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7.5.1.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Germany</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-4 tocsection-39"><A href="#Italy"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7.5.1.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Italy</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-4 tocsection-40"><A href="#Greece"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7.5.1.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Greece</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-41"><A href="#Serbia"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7.5.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Serbia</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-42"><A href="#Poland"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7.5.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Poland</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-43"><A href="#Conservative_forces"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7.5.4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Conservative forces</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-44"><A href="#France_under_Napoleon_III"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7.5.5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">France under Napoleon III</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-45"><A href="#Major_powers"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7.5.6</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Major powers</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-46"><A href="#Bismarck's_Germany"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7.5.7</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Bismarck's Germany</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-47"><A href="#Imperialism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7.6</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Imperialism</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-48"><A href="#1914–1945:_Two_World_wars"><SPAN class="tocnumber">8</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">1914–1945: Two World wars</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-49"><A href="#World_War_I"><SPAN class="tocnumber">8.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">World War I</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-50"><A href="#Paris_Peace_Conference"><SPAN class="tocnumber">8.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Paris Peace Conference</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-51"><A href="#Interwar"><SPAN class="tocnumber">8.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Interwar</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-52"><A href="#Fascism_and_authoritarianism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">8.3.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Fascism and authoritarianism</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-53"><A href="#Great_Depression:_1929–1939"><SPAN class="tocnumber">8.4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Great Depression: 1929–1939</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-54"><A href="#World_War_II"><SPAN class="tocnumber">8.5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">World War II</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-55"><A href="#Cold_War_Era"><SPAN class="tocnumber">9</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Cold War Era</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-56"><A href="#Economic_recovery"><SPAN class="tocnumber">9.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Economic recovery</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-57"><A href="#Recent_history"><SPAN class="tocnumber">10</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Recent history</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-58"><A href="#Chronology"><SPAN class="tocnumber">11</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Chronology</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-59"><A href="#See_also"><SPAN class="tocnumber">12</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">See also</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-60"><A href="#Notes"><SPAN class="tocnumber">13</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Notes</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-61"><A href="#References"><SPAN class="tocnumber">14</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">References</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-62"><A href="#Bibliography"><SPAN class="tocnumber">15</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Bibliography</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-63"><A href="#Surveys"><SPAN class="tocnumber">15.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Surveys</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-64"><A href="#Geography_and_atlases"><SPAN class="tocnumber">15.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Geography and atlases</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-65"><A href="#Major_nations"><SPAN class="tocnumber">15.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Major nations</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-66"><A href="#Classical"><SPAN class="tocnumber">15.4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Classical</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-67"><A href="#Late_Roman"><SPAN class="tocnumber">15.5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Late Roman</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-68"><A href="#Medieval"><SPAN class="tocnumber">15.6</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Medieval</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-69"><A href="#Early_modern"><SPAN class="tocnumber">15.7</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Early modern</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-70"><A href="#19th_century"><SPAN class="tocnumber">15.8</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">19th century</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-71"><A href="#Since_1900"><SPAN class="tocnumber">15.9</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Since 1900</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-72"><A href="#Agriculture_and_economy"><SPAN class="tocnumber">15.10</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Agriculture and economy</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-73"><A href="#Diplomacy"><SPAN class="tocnumber">15.11</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Diplomacy</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-74"><A href="#Empires_and_interactions"><SPAN class="tocnumber">15.12</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Empires and interactions</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-75"><A href="#Ideas_and_science"><SPAN class="tocnumber">15.13</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Ideas and science</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-76"><A href="#Religion_2"><SPAN class="tocnumber">15.14</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Religion</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-77"><A href="#Social"><SPAN class="tocnumber">15.15</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Social</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-78"><A href="#Warfare"><SPAN class="tocnumber">15.16</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Warfare</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-79"><A href="#Women_and_gender"><SPAN class="tocnumber">15.17</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Women and gender</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-80"><A href="#External_links"><SPAN class="tocnumber">16</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">External links</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<P></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Overview">Overview</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>Some of the best-known civilizations of prehistoric Europe were the <A href="/wiki/Minoan_civilization" title="Minoan civilization">Minoan</A> and the <A href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean</A>, which flourished during the <A href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</A> until they <A href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronze Age collapse">collapsed</A> in a short period of time around 1200 BC.</P>
<P>The period known as <A href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</A> began with the emergence of the city-states of <A href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</A>. After ultimately checking the <A href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Persian</A> advance in Europe through the <A href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars" title="Greco-Persian Wars">Greco-Persian Wars</A> in the 5th century BC, Greek influence reached its zenith under the expansive empire of <A href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</A>, spreading throughout <A href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</A>, <A href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</A>, and other parts of Europe. The <A href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</A> came to dominate the entire <A href="/wiki/Mediterranean_basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean basin">Mediterranean basin</A>. By 300 AD the Roman Empire was divided into the <A href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</A> and <A href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern</A> empires. During the 4th and 5th centuries, the <A href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</A> of <A href="/wiki/Northern_Europe" title="Northern Europe">Northern Europe</A> grew in strength, and repeated attacks led to the <A href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</A>. AD 476 traditionally marks the end of the classical period and the start of the <A href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</A>.</P>
<P>In <A href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</A>, Germanic peoples became more powerful in the remnants of the former Western Roman Empire and established kingdoms and empires of their own. Of all of the Germanic peoples, the <A href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</A> would rise to a position of <A href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">hegemony</A> over Western Europe, the <A href="/wiki/Frankish_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish Empire">Frankish Empire</A> reaching its peak under <A href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</A> around 800. This empire was later divided into several parts; <A href="/wiki/West_Francia" title="West Francia">West Francia</A> would evolve into the <A href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">Kingdom of France</A>, while <A href="/wiki/East_Francia" title="East Francia">East Francia</A> would evolve into the <A href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</A>, a precursor to modern Germany and Italy. The <A href="/wiki/British_Isles" title="British Isles">British Isles</A> were the site of several large-scale migrations.</P>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</A>, a period of migrations of Scandinavian peoples, occurred from the late 8th century to the middle 11th century. The <A href="/wiki/Normans" title="Normans">Normans</A>, a Viking people who settled in Northern France, had a significant impact on many parts of Europe, from the <A href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_England" title="Norman conquest of England">Norman conquest of England</A> to <A href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_southern_Italy" title="Norman conquest of southern Italy">Southern Italy and Sicily</A>. The <A href="/wiki/Rus%27_people" title="Rus' people">Rus' people</A> founded <A href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</A>, which evolved into Russia. After 1000 the <A href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</A> were a series of religiously motivated military expeditions originally intended to bring the <A href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</A> back under Christian rule. The Crusaders opened trade routes which enabled the merchant republics of <A href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</A> and <A href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</A> to become major economic powers. The <A href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</A>, a related movement, worked to reconquer <A href="/wiki/Iberia" class="mw-redirect" title="Iberia">Iberia</A> for <A href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</A>.</P>
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The peasants preparing the fields for the winter with a <A href="/wiki/Harrow_(tool)" title="Harrow (tool)">harrow</A> and sowing for the winter grain, from <I><A href="/wiki/The_Very_Rich_Hours_of_the_Duke_of_Berry" class="mw-redirect" title="The Very Rich Hours of the Duke of Berry">The Very Rich Hours of the Duke of Berry</A></I>, c.1410</DIV>
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<P><A href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</A> in the <A href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</A> was dominated by the rise and fall of the <A href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</A>. Led by <A href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</A>, the Mongols were a group of <A href="/wiki/Steppe_nomad" class="mw-redirect" title="Steppe nomad">steppe nomads</A> who established a decentralized empire which, at its height, extended from China in the east to the Black and Baltic Seas in Europe. As Mongol power waned towards the <A href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</A>, the <A href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Moscow" title="Grand Duchy of Moscow">Grand Duchy of Moscow</A> rose to become the strongest of the numerous Russian principalities and republics and would grow into the <A href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsardom of Russia</A> in 1547. The Late Middle Ages represented a period of upheaval in Europe. The epidemic known as the <A href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</A> and an associated famine caused demographic catastrophe in Europe as the population plummeted. Dynastic struggles and wars of conquest kept many of the states of Europe at war for much of the period. In Scandinavia, the <A href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</A> dominated the political landscape, while England fought with Scotland in the <A href="/wiki/Wars_of_Scottish_Independence" title="Wars of Scottish Independence">Wars of Scottish Independence</A> and with France in the <A href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</A>. In <A href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central Europe</A>, the <A href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</A> became a large territorial empire, while the Holy Roman Empire, which was an <A href="/wiki/Elective_monarchy" title="Elective monarchy">elective monarchy</A>, came to be dominated for centuries by the <A href="/wiki/House_of_Habsburg" title="House of Habsburg">House of Habsburg</A>. Russia continued to expand southward and eastward into former Mongol lands. In the <A href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</A>, the <A href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</A> overran Byzantine lands, culminating in the <A href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</A> in 1453, which historians mark as the end of the Middle Ages.</P>
<P>Beginning in the 14th century in <A href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</A> and later spreading through Europe, a <A href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</A> of knowledge challenged traditional doctrines in science and theology. The rediscovery of classical Greek and Roman knowledge had an enormous liberating effect on intellectuals. Simultaneously, the <A href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</A> under German <A href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</A> questioned Papal authority. <A href="/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII</A> seized control of the English Church and its lands. The <A href="/wiki/European_religious_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="European religious wars">European religious wars</A> between German and Spanish rulers. The <A href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</A> ended Muslim rule in <A href="/wiki/Iberia" class="mw-redirect" title="Iberia">Iberia</A>. By the 1490s a series of oceanic explorations marked the <A href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</A>, establishing direct links with Africa, <A href="/wiki/The_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="The Americas">the Americas</A>, and Asia. Religious wars continued to be fought in Europe, until the 1648 <A href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</A>. The <A href="/wiki/Spanish_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish empire">Spanish crown</A> maintained its hegemony in Europe and was the leading power on the continent until the signing of the <A href="/wiki/Treaty_of_the_Pyrenees" title="Treaty of the Pyrenees">Treaty of the Pyrenees</A>, which ended a conflict between Spain and France that had begun during the <A href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</A>. An unprecedented series of major wars and political revolutions took place around Europe and the world in the period between 1610 and 1700.<SUP id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-1">[1]</A></SUP></P>
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A <A href="/wiki/Watt_steam_engine" title="Watt steam engine">Watt steam engine</A>. The <A href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam engine</A>, fuelled primarily by coal, propelled the <A href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</A> in 19th century <A href="/wiki/Northwestern_Europe" title="Northwestern Europe">Northwestern Europe</A>.</DIV>
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<P>The <A href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</A> began in <A href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Britain</A>, based on coal, steam, and textile mills. Political change in <A href="/wiki/Continental_Europe" title="Continental Europe">continental Europe</A> was spurred by the <A href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</A> under the motto <I><A href="/wiki/Libert%C3%A9,_%C3%A9galit%C3%A9,_fraternit%C3%A9" title="Liberté, égalité, fraternité">liberté, égalité, fraternité</A></I>. <A href="/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon Bonaparte">Napoleon Bonaparte</A> took control, made many reforms inside France, and transformed Western Europe. But his rise stimulated both nationalism and reaction and he was defeated in 1814–15 as the old royal conservatives returned to power.</P>
<P>The period between 1815 and 1871 saw revolutionary attempts in much of Europe (apart from Britain). They all failed however. As industrial work forces grew in Western Europe, <A href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</A> and <A href="/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union">trade union</A> activity developed. The last vestiges of <A href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfdom</A> were abolished <A href="/wiki/Serfdom_in_Russia" title="Serfdom in Russia">in Russia</A> in 1861. Greece and the other Balkan nations began a long slow road to independence from the Ottoman Empire, starting in the 1820s. Italy was unified in its <A href="/wiki/Risorgimento" class="mw-redirect" title="Risorgimento">Risorgimento</A> in 1860. After the <A href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</A> of 1870–71, <A href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</A> unified the German states into an empire that was politically and militarily dominant until 1914. Most of Europe scrambled for imperial colonies <A href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">in Africa</A> and Asia in <A href="/wiki/The_Age_of_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="The Age of Empire">the Age of Empire</A>. Britain and France built the largest empires, while diplomats ensured there were no major wars in Europe, apart from the <A href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</A> of the 1850s.</P>
<P>The outbreak of the <A href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</A> in 1914 was precipitated by the rise of nationalism in <A href="/wiki/Southeastern_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Southeastern Europe">Southeastern Europe</A> as the <A href="/wiki/Great_Powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Powers">Great Powers</A> took sides. The 1917 <A href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</A> led the <A href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</A> to become the world's first <A href="/wiki/Communist_state" title="Communist state">communist state</A>, the <A href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</A>. The <A href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allies</A>, led by Britain and France, defeated the <A href="/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</A>, led by the <A href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</A> and <A href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</A>, in 1918. During the <A href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference,_1919" title="Paris Peace Conference, 1919">Paris Peace Conference</A> the <A href="/wiki/The_Big_Four_(World_War_I)" title="The Big Four (World War I)">Big Four</A> imposed their terms in a series of treaties, especially the <A href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</A>. The war's human and material devastation was unprecedented.</P>
<P>Germany lost its overseas empire and several provinces, had to pay large reparations, and was humiliated by the victors. They in turn had large debts to the United States. The 1920s were prosperous until 1929 when the <A href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</A> broke out, which led to the collapse of democracy in many European states. The <A href="/wiki/Nazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi">Nazi</A> regime under <A href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</A> came to power in 1933, rearmed Germany, and along with <A href="/wiki/Italian_Fascism" title="Italian Fascism">Mussolini's Italy</A> sought to assert themselves on the continent by demands and appeasement, leading eventually to the <A href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</A>. Most of the fighting took place on the <A href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</A>, and the war ended with the defeat of the <A href="/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">Axis powers</A>, leaving the USSR and the United States dominating Eastern and Western Europe respectively. The <A href="/wiki/Iron_Curtain" title="Iron Curtain">Iron Curtain</A> now separated the east under Moscow's control from the <A href="/wiki/Capitalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Capitalist">capitalist</A> West. The United States launched the <A href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</A> from 1948–51 and <A href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</A> from 1949, and rebuilt industrial economies that all were thriving by the 1950s. France and <A href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</A> took the lead in forming the <A href="/wiki/European_Economic_Community" title="European Economic Community">European Economic Community</A>, which eventually became the <A href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</A> (EU). Secularization saw the weakening of Protestant and Catholic churches across most of Europe, except where they were symbols of anti-government resistance, as in Poland. The <A href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</A> brought an end to both Soviet hegemony and <A href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</A> in Eastern Europe. Germany was reunited, <A href="/wiki/Maastricht_Treaty" title="Maastricht Treaty">Europe's integration deepened</A>, and both NATO and the EU expanded to the east. The EU came under increasing pressure because of the <A href="/wiki/Great_Recession" title="Great Recession">worldwide recession after 2008</A>.</P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Prehistory">Prehistory</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Prehistory">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <A href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Europe" title="Prehistoric Europe">Prehistoric Europe</A>, <A href="/wiki/Palaeolithic_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeolithic Europe">Palaeolithic Europe</A>, <A href="/wiki/Mesolithic_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesolithic Europe">Mesolithic Europe</A>, <A href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">Neolithic Europe</A>, <A href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</A>, <A href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">Bronze Age Europe</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Iron Age Europe</A></DIV>
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<A href="/wiki/Aurochs" title="Aurochs">Aurochs</A> in <A href="/wiki/Palaeolithic" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeolithic">Palaeolithic</A> <A href="/wiki/Cave_painting" title="Cave painting">cave paintings</A> in <A href="/wiki/Lascaux" title="Lascaux">Lascaux</A>, France.</DIV>
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<P><I><A href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</A></I> migrated from Africa to Europe before the emergence of modern humans. <A href="/wiki/L%C3%A9zignan-la-C%C3%A8be" title="Lézignan-la-Cèbe">Lézignan-la-Cèbe</A> in France, <A href="/wiki/Orce" title="Orce">Orce</A><SUP id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-2">[2]</A></SUP> in Spain, <A href="/wiki/Monte_Poggiolo" title="Monte Poggiolo">Monte Poggiolo</A><SUP id="cite_ref-nationalgeographic.it_3-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-nationalgeographic.it-3">[3]</A></SUP> Italy and <A href="/wiki/Kozarnika" title="Kozarnika">Kozarnika</A> in Bulgaria are amongst the oldest Palaeolithic sites in Europe.</P>
<P>The earliest appearance of <A href="/wiki/Anatomically_modern_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomically modern humans">anatomically modern people</A> in Europe has been dated to 35,000 BC, usually referred to as the Cro-Magnon man. Some locally developed transitional cultures (Uluzzian in Italy and Greece, Altmühlian in Germany, <A href="/w/index.php?title=Szeletian&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Szeletian (page does not exist)">Szeletian</A> in Central Europe and <A href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2telperronian" title="Châtelperronian">Châtelperronian</A> in the southwest) use clearly <A href="/wiki/Upper_Palaeolithic" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper Palaeolithic">Upper Palaeolithic</A> technologies at very early dates.</P>
<P>Nevertheless, the definitive advance of these technologies is made by the <A href="/wiki/Aurignacian" title="Aurignacian">Aurignacian</A> culture. The origins of this culture can be located in the <A href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</A> (Ahmarian) and Hungary (first full Aurignacian). By 35,000 BC, the Aurignacian culture and its technology had extended through most of Europe. The last <A href="/wiki/Neanderthals" class="mw-redirect" title="Neanderthals">Neanderthals</A> seem to have been forced to retreat during this process to the southern half of the <A href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</A>.</P>
<P>Around 28,000 BC a new technology/culture appeared in the western region of Europe: the <A href="/wiki/Gravettian" title="Gravettian">Gravettian</A>. This technology/culture has been theorised to have come with migrations of people from the <A href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</A>.</P>
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Map showing the Neolithic expansions from the 7th to the 5th millennium BC, including the <A href="/wiki/Cardium_Pottery" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardium Pottery">Cardium Culture</A> in blue.</DIV>
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<P>Around 16,000 BC, Europe witnessed the appearance of a new culture, known as <A href="/wiki/Magdalenian" title="Magdalenian">Magdalenian</A>, possibly rooted in the old Gravettian. This culture soon superseded the <A href="/wiki/Solutrean" title="Solutrean">Solutrean</A> area and the Gravettian of mainly France, Spain, Germany, Italy, Poland, Portugal and Ukraine. The <A href="/wiki/Hamburg_culture" title="Hamburg culture">Hamburg culture</A> prevailed in Northern Europe in the 14th and the 13th millennium BC as the <A href="/wiki/Creswellian" class="mw-redirect" title="Creswellian">Creswellian</A> (also termed the British Late Magdalenian) did shortly after in the British Islands. Around 12,500 BC, the <A href="/wiki/W%C3%BCrm_glaciation" title="Würm glaciation">Würm glaciation</A> ended. Slowly, through the following millennia, temperatures and sea levels rose, changing the environment of prehistoric people. Nevertheless, Magdalenian culture persisted until c. 10,000 BC, when it quickly evolved into two <I><A href="/wiki/Microlith" title="Microlith">microlithist</A></I> cultures: <A href="/wiki/Azilian" title="Azilian">Azilian</A> (<A href="/wiki/Federmesser" class="mw-redirect" title="Federmesser">Federmesser</A>), in Spain and southern France, and then <A href="/wiki/Sauveterrian" title="Sauveterrian">Sauveterrian</A>, in northern France and Central Europe, while in Northern Europe the <A href="/wiki/Lyngby_culture" title="Lyngby culture">Lyngby complex</A> succeeded the Hamburg culture with the influence of the <A href="/wiki/Federmesser" class="mw-redirect" title="Federmesser">Federmesser</A> group as well. Evidence of permanent settlement dates from the 8th millennium BC in the Balkans. The <A href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</A> reached Central Europe in the 6th millennium BC and parts of Northern Europe in the 5th and 4th millenniums BC.</P>
<H2><SPAN id="Minoans_and_Mycenae_2700.E2.80.931100_BC"></SPAN><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Minoans_and_Mycenae_2700–1100_BC">Minoans and Mycenae 2700–1100 BC</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Minoans and Mycenae 2700–1100 BC">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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The Treasury of <A href="/wiki/Atreus" title="Atreus">Atreus</A>, or Tomb of Agamemnon in Mycenae 1250 BC</DIV>
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<P>The first well-known literate civilization in Europe was that of the Minoans. The <A href="/wiki/Minoan_civilization" title="Minoan civilization">Minoan civilization</A> was a <A href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</A> civilization that arose on the island of <A href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</A> and flourished from approximately the 27th century BC to the 15th century BC.<SUP id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-4">[4]</A></SUP> It was rediscovered at the beginning of the 20th century through the work of the British archaeologist <A href="/wiki/Arthur_Evans" title="Arthur Evans">Arthur Evans</A>. <A href="/wiki/Will_Durant" title="Will Durant">Will Durant</A> referred to it as "the first link in the European chain".<SUP id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-5">[5]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The Minoans were replaced by the <A href="/wiki/Mycenaean_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycenaean civilization">Mycenaean civilization</A> which flourished during the period roughly between 1600 BC, when <A href="/wiki/Helladic" class="mw-redirect" title="Helladic">Helladic</A> culture in mainland Greece was transformed under influences from Minoan Crete, and 1100 BC. The major Mycenaean cities were <A href="/wiki/Mycenae" title="Mycenae">Mycenae</A> and <A href="/wiki/Tiryns" title="Tiryns">Tiryns</A> in Argolis, <A href="/wiki/Pylos" title="Pylos">Pylos</A> in Messenia, <A href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</A> in Attica, <A href="/wiki/Ancient_Thebes_(Boeotia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Thebes (Boeotia)">Thebes</A> and <A href="/wiki/Orchomenus_(Boeotia)" title="Orchomenus (Boeotia)">Orchomenus</A> in Boeotia, and <A href="/wiki/Iolkos" class="mw-redirect" title="Iolkos">Iolkos</A> in Thessaly. In <A href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</A>, the Mycenaeans occupied <A href="/wiki/Knossos" title="Knossos">Knossos</A>. Mycenaean settlement sites also appeared in <A href="/wiki/Epirus" title="Epirus">Epirus</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-6">[6]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-7">[7]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Macedonia_(region)" title="Macedonia (region)">Macedonia</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-8">[8]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-9">[9]</A></SUP> on islands in the <A href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean Sea</A>, on the coast of <A href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</A>, the <A href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-10">[10]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</A><SUP id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-11">[11]</A></SUP> and Italy.<SUP id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-12">[12]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-13">[13]</A></SUP> Mycenaean artefacts have been found well outside the limits of the Mycenean world.</P>
<P>Quite unlike the Minoans, whose society benefited from trade, the Mycenaeans advanced through conquest. Mycenaean civilization was dominated by a warrior <A href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">aristocracy</A>. Around 1400 BC, the Mycenaeans extended their control to Crete, center of the Minoan civilization, and adopted a form of the Minoan script (called <A href="/wiki/Linear_A" title="Linear A">Linear A</A>) to write their early form of <A href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</A> in <A href="/wiki/Linear_B" title="Linear B">Linear B</A>.</P>
<P>The Mycenaean civilization perished with the <A href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronze Age collapse">collapse of Bronze-Age civilization</A> on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea. The collapse is commonly attributed to the <A href="/wiki/Dorian_invasion" title="Dorian invasion">Dorian invasion</A>, although other theories describing natural disasters and climate change have been advanced as well.<SUP class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><SPAN title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2015)">citation needed</SPAN></A></I>]</SUP> Whatever the causes, the Mycenaean civilization had definitely disappeared after <A href="/wiki/LH_IIIC" class="mw-redirect" title="LH IIIC">LH III C</A>, when the sites of Mycenae and Tirynth were again destroyed and lost their importance. This end, during the last years of the 12th century BC, occurred after a slow decline of the Mycenaean civilization, which lasted many years before dying out. The beginning of the 11th century BC opened a new context, that of the protogeometric, the beginning of the geometric period, the <I><A href="/wiki/Greek_Dark_Ages" title="Greek Dark Ages">Greek Dark Ages</A></I> of traditional historiography.</P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Classical_antiquity">Classical antiquity</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Classical antiquity">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</A></DIV>
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The <A href="/wiki/Parthenon" title="Parthenon">Parthenon</A>, an <A href="/wiki/Ancient_Athens" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Athens">ancient Athenian</A> Temple on the <A href="/wiki/Acropolis" title="Acropolis">Acropolis</A> (hill-top city) fell to Rome in 176 BC</DIV>
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<P>The Greeks and the Romans left a legacy in Europe which is evident in European languages, <A href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">thought</A>, visual arts and law. Ancient Greece was a collection of city-states, out of which the original form of democracy developed. <A href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Athens</A> was the most powerful and developed city, and a cradle of learning from the time of <A href="/wiki/Pericles" title="Pericles">Pericles</A>. Citizens' forums debated and legislated policy of the state, and from here arose some of the most notable classical philosophers, such as <A href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</A>, <A href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</A>, the last of whom taught <A href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</A>.</P>
<P>Through his military campaigns, the king of the kingdom of <A href="/wiki/Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedon">Macedon</A>, Alexander, spread Hellenistic culture and learning to the banks of the <A href="/wiki/River_Indus" class="mw-redirect" title="River Indus">River Indus</A>. Meanwhile, the <A href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</A> strengthened through victory over <A href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</A> in the <A href="/wiki/Punic_Wars" title="Punic Wars">Punic Wars</A>. Greek wisdom passed into Roman institutions, as Athens itself was absorbed under the banner of the Senate and People of Rome—<A href="/wiki/Senatus_Populusque_Romanus" class="mw-redirect" title="Senatus Populusque Romanus">SPQR</A>.</P>
<P>The Romans expanded from Arabia to Britannia. In 44 BC as it approached its height, its dictator <A href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</A> was <A href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Julius_Caesar" title="Assassination of Julius Caesar">murdered</A> by senators in an attempt to restore the Republic. In the ensuing turmoil, <A href="/wiki/Octavian" class="mw-redirect" title="Octavian">Octavian</A> (ruled as Augustus; and as <I>divi filius</I>, or Son of God, as Julius had adopted him as an heir) usurped the reins of power and fought the Roman Senate. While proclaiming the rebirth of the Republic, he had ushered in the transfer of the Roman state from a republic to an empire, the <A href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</A>, which lasted for more than four centuries until the fall of the <A href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</A>.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Ancient_Greece">Ancient Greece</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Ancient Greece">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <A href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</A> and <A href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</A></DIV>
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A <A href="/wiki/Alexander_Mosaic" title="Alexander Mosaic">mosaic</A> showing <A href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</A> battling <A href="/wiki/Darius_III" title="Darius III">Darius III</A></DIV>
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<P>The <A href="/wiki/Hellenic_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenic civilisation">Hellenic civilisation</A> was a collection of city-states or <A href="/wiki/Poleis" class="mw-redirect" title="Poleis">poleis</A> with different governments and cultures that achieved notable developments in government, philosophy, science, mathematics, politics, sports, theatre and music.</P>
<P>The most powerful city-states were <A href="/wiki/Ancient_Athens" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Athens">Athens</A>, <A href="/wiki/History_of_Sparta" title="History of Sparta">Sparta</A>, <A href="/wiki/Thebes,_Greece" title="Thebes, Greece">Thebes</A>, <A href="/wiki/Ancient_Corinth" title="Ancient Corinth">Corinth</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Syracuse,_Sicily" title="Syracuse, Sicily">Syracuse</A>. Athens was a powerful Hellenic city-state and governed itself with an early form of <A href="/wiki/Direct_democracy" title="Direct democracy">direct democracy</A> invented by <A href="/wiki/Cleisthenes" title="Cleisthenes">Cleisthenes</A>; the citizens of Athens voted on legislation and executive bills themselves. Athens was the home of <A href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-enc1911_14-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-enc1911-14">[14]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</A>, and the <A href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Platonic Academy</A>.</P>
<P>The Hellenic city-states established colonies on the shores of the <A href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</A> and the Mediterranean (<A href="/wiki/Asian_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asian Minor">Asian Minor</A>, Sicily and Southern Italy in <A href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</A>). By the late 6th century BC, all the Greek <A href="/wiki/City_states" class="mw-redirect" title="City states">city states</A> in Asia Minor had been incorporated into the <A href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Persian Empire</A>, while the latter had made territorial gains in the <A href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</A> (such as <A href="/wiki/Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedon">Macedon</A>, <A href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</A>, <A href="/wiki/Paeonia_(kingdom)" title="Paeonia (kingdom)">Paeonia</A>, etc.) and <A href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</A> proper as well. In the course of 5th century BC, some of the Greek city states attempted to overthrow Persian rule in the <A href="/wiki/Ionian_Revolt" title="Ionian Revolt">Ionian Revolt</A>, which failed. This sparked the <A href="/wiki/First_Persian_invasion_of_Greece" title="First Persian invasion of Greece">first Persian invasion of mainland Greece</A>. At some point during the ensuing <A href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars" title="Greco-Persian Wars">Greco-Persian Wars</A>, namely during the <A href="/wiki/Second_Persian_invasion_of_Greece" title="Second Persian invasion of Greece">Second Persian invasion of Greece</A>, and precisely after the <A href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae" title="Battle of Thermopylae">Battle of Thermopylae</A> and the <A href="/wiki/Battle_of_Artemisium" title="Battle of Artemisium">Battle of Artemisium</A>, almost all of Greece to the north of the <A href="/wiki/Isthmus_of_Corinth" title="Isthmus of Corinth">Isthmus of Corinth</A> had been overrun by the Persians,<SUP id="cite_ref-Warfare_in_the_Ancient_World_15-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Warfare_in_the_Ancient_World-15">[15]</A></SUP> but the Greek city states reached a decisive victory at the <A href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plataea" title="Battle of Plataea">Battle of Plataea</A>. With the end of the Greco-Persian wars, the Persians were eventually decisively forced to withdraw from their territories in Europe. The Greco-Persian Wars and the victory of the Greek <A href="/wiki/City_states" class="mw-redirect" title="City states">city states</A> directly influenced the entire further course of European history and would set its further tone. Some Greek city-states formed the <A href="/wiki/Delian_League" title="Delian League">Delian League</A> to continue fighting Persia, but Athens' position as leader of this league led Sparta to form the rival <A href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_League" title="Peloponnesian League">Peloponnesian League</A>. The <A href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War" title="Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian Wars</A> ensued, and the Peloponnesian League was victorious. Subsequently, discontent with <A href="/wiki/Spartan_hegemony" title="Spartan hegemony">Spartan hegemony</A> led to the <A href="/wiki/Corinthian_War" title="Corinthian War">Corinthian War</A> and the defeat of Sparta at the <A href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leuctra" title="Battle of Leuctra">Battle of Leuctra</A>.</P>
<P>Hellenic infighting left Greek city states vulnerable, and <A href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II of Macedon</A> united the Greek city states under his control. The son of Philip II, known as <A href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</A>, invaded neighboring <A href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Persia</A>, toppled and incorporated its domains, as well as invading Egypt and going as far off as <A href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</A>, increasing contact with people and cultures in these regions that marked the beginning of the <A href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</A>.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="The_rise_of_Rome">The rise of Rome</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: The rise of Rome">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <A href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</A>, <A href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</A></DIV>
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<A href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</A> addresses the <A href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</A> to denounce <A href="/wiki/Catiline" title="Catiline">Catiline</A>'s conspiracy to overthrow the <A href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</A>, by <A href="/wiki/Cesare_Maccari" title="Cesare Maccari">Cesare Maccari</A></DIV>
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<P>Much of Greek learning was assimilated by the nascent Roman state as it expanded outward from Italy, taking advantage of its enemies' inability to unite: the only challenge to Roman ascent came from the <A href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</A> colony of <A href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</A>, and its defeats in the three <A href="/wiki/Punic_Wars" title="Punic Wars">Punic Wars</A> marked the start of Roman <A href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">hegemony</A>. First governed by <A href="/wiki/Roman_kings" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman kings">kings</A>, then as a senatorial republic (the <A href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</A>), Rome finally became an empire at the end of the 1st century BC, under <A href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</A> and his <A href="/wiki/Authoritarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Authoritarian">authoritarian</A> successors.</P>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</A> had its centre in the Mediterranean, controlling all the countries on its shores; the northern border was marked by the <A href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</A> and <A href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</A> rivers. Under emperor <A href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</A> (2nd century AD) the empire reached its maximum expansion, controlling approximately 5,900,000 km<SUP>2</SUP> (2,300,000 sq mi) of land surface, including <A href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Britain</A>, <A href="/wiki/Dacia_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dacia (Roman province)">Romania</A> and parts of <A href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</A>. <A href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</A>, a period of peace, <A href="/wiki/Roman_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman civilisation">civilisation</A> and an efficient <A href="/wiki/Centralised_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Centralised government">centralised government</A> in the subject territories ended in the 3rd century, when a <A href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">series of civil wars</A> undermined Rome's economic and social strength.</P>
<P>In the 4th century, the emperors <A href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</A> and <A href="/wiki/Constantine_I_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I of the Roman Empire">Constantine</A> were able to slow down the process of decline by splitting the empire into a Western part with a capital in Rome and an Eastern part with the capital in Byzantium, or <A href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</A> (now Istanbul). Whereas Diocletian severely persecuted Christianity, Constantine declared an official end to state-sponsored <A href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">persecution of Christians</A> in 313 with the <A href="/wiki/Edict_of_Milan" title="Edict of Milan">Edict of Milan</A>, thus setting the stage for the <A href="/wiki/Christian_Church" title="Christian Church">Church</A> to become the <A href="/wiki/State_church_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="State church of the Roman Empire">state church of the Roman Empire</A> in about 380.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Decline_of_the_Roman_Empire">Decline of the Roman Empire</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Decline of the Roman Empire">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <A href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Decline of the Roman Empire">Decline of the Roman Empire</A> and <A href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</A></DIV>
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Map of the partition of the Roman Empire in 395, at the death of <A href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</A>: the <A href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</A> is shown in red and the <A href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire)</A> is shown in purple</DIV>
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<P>The Roman Empire had been repeatedly attacked by invading armies from Northern Europe and in 476, Rome finally fell. <A href="/wiki/Romulus_Augustus" class="mw-redirect" title="Romulus Augustus">Romulus Augustus</A>, the last <A href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</A> of the <A href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</A>, surrendered to the Germanic King <A href="/wiki/Odoacer" title="Odoacer">Odoacer</A>. The British historian <A href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</A> argued in <I><A href="/wiki/The_History_of_the_Decline_and_Fall_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire">The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</A></I> (1776) that the Romans had become decadent, they had lost civic virtue.</P>
<P>Gibbon said that the adoption of Christianity, meant belief in a better life after death, and therefore made people lazy and indifferent to the present. "From the eighteenth century onward", Glen W. Bowersock has remarked,<SUP id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-16">[16]</A></SUP> "we have been obsessed with the fall: it has been valued as an archetype for every perceived decline, and, hence, as a symbol for our own fears." It remains one of the greatest historical questions, and has a tradition rich in scholarly interest.</P>
<P>Some other notable dates are the <A href="/wiki/Battle_of_Adrianople" title="Battle of Adrianople">Battle of Adrianople</A> in 378, the death of <A href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</A> in 395 (the last time the Roman Empire was politically unified), the crossing of the <A href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</A> in 406 by <A href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic tribes</A> after the withdrawal of the legions to defend Italy against <A href="/wiki/Alaric_I" title="Alaric I">Alaric I</A>, the death of <A href="/wiki/Stilicho" title="Stilicho">Stilicho</A> in 408, followed by the disintegration of the western legions, the death of <A href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</A>, the last Roman Emperor who tried to reconquer the west, in 565, and the coming of Islam after 632. Many scholars maintain that rather than a "fall", the changes can more accurately be described as a complex transformation.<SUP id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-17">[17]</A></SUP> Over time many theories have been proposed on why the Empire fell, or whether indeed it fell at all.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Late_Antiquity_and_Migration_Period">Late Antiquity and Migration Period</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Late Antiquity and Migration Period">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <A href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antiquity">Late Antiquity</A> and <A href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</A></DIV>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png/220px-Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png" width="220" height="153" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png/330px-Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png/440px-Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png 2x" data-file-width="1954" data-file-height="1362" /></A>
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A simplified map of migrations from the 2nd to the 5th century. See also the <A href="/wiki/File:World_820.png" title="File:World 820.png">map of the world in 820 AD</A>.</DIV>
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<P>When Emperor Constantine had reconquered Rome under the banner of the <A href="/wiki/Christian_cross" title="Christian cross">cross</A> in 312, he soon afterwards issued the <A href="/wiki/Edict_of_Milan" title="Edict of Milan">Edict of Milan</A> in 313, declaring the legality of Christianity in the Roman Empire. In addition, Constantine officially shifted the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to the Greek town of Byzantium, which he renamed Nova Roma- it was later named Constantinople ("City of Constantine").</P>
<P>In 395 <A href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</A>, who had made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire, would be the last emperor to preside over a united Roman Empire. The empire was split into two halves: the <A href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</A> centred in <A href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</A>, and the Eastern Roman Empire (later to be referred to as the <A href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</A>) centred in Constantinople. The Western Roman Empire was repeatedly attacked by Germanic tribes (see: <A href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</A>), and in 476 finally fell to the <A href="/wiki/Heruli" class="mw-redirect" title="Heruli">Heruli</A> chieftain <A href="/wiki/Odoacer" title="Odoacer">Odoacer</A>.</P>
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Map showing Europe in 526 AD with the three dominating powers of the west</DIV>
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<P>Roman authority in the Western part of the empire had collapsed, and a power vacuum left in the wake of this collapse; the central organization, institutions, laws and power of Rome had broken down, resulting in many areas being open to invasion by migrating tribes. Over time, <A href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</A> and <A href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">manorialism</A> arose, two interlocking institutions that provided for division of land and labor, as well as a broad if uneven hierarchy of law and protection. These localised hierarchies were based on the bond of common people to the land on which they worked, and to a lord, who would provide and administer both local law to settle disputes among the peasants, as well as protection from outside invaders. Unlike under Roman rule, with its standard laws and military across the empire and its great bureaucracy to administer them and collect taxes, each lord (although having obligations to a higher lord) was largely sovereign in his domain. A peasant's lot could vary greatly depending on the leadership skills and attitudes to justice of the lord toward his people. <A href="/wiki/Tithe" title="Tithe">Tithes</A> or rents were paid to the lord, who in turn owed resources, and armed men in times of war, to his lord, perhaps a regional prince. However, the levels of hierarchy were varied over time and place.</P>
<P>The western provinces soon were to be dominated by three great powers: first, the <A href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</A> (<A href="/wiki/Merovingian_dynasty" title="Merovingian dynasty">Merovingian dynasty</A>) in <A href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</A> 481–843 AD, which covered much of present France and Germany; second, the <A href="/wiki/Visigothic_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Visigothic kingdom">Visigothic kingdom</A> 418–711 AD in the <A href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</A> (modern Spain); and third, the <A href="/wiki/Ostrogothic_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Ostrogothic kingdom">Ostrogothic kingdom</A> 493–553 AD in <A href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</A> and parts of the western <A href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</A> The Ostrogoths were later replaced by the <A href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Lombards" title="Kingdom of the Lombards">Kingdom of the Lombards</A> 568–774 AD. These new powers of the west built upon the Roman traditions until they evolved into a synthesis of Roman and Germanic cultures. Although these powers covered large territories, they did not have the great resources and bureaucracy of the Roman empire to control regions and localities. The ongoing invasions and boundary disputes usually meant a more risky and varying life than that under the empire. This meant that in general more power and responsibilities were left to local lords. On the other hand, it also meant more freedom, particularly in more remote areas.</P>
<P>In Italy, <A href="/wiki/Theodoric_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodoric the Great">Theodoric the Great</A> began the cultural romanization of the new world he had constructed. He made <A href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</A> a center of Romano-Greek culture of art and his court fostered a flowering of literature and philosophy in <A href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</A>. In Iberia, <A href="/wiki/Chindasuinth" title="Chindasuinth">King Chindasuinth</A> created the <A href="/wiki/Visigothic_Code" title="Visigothic Code">Visigothic Code</A>. <SUP id="cite_ref-google_18-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-google-18">[18]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In the feudal system, new princes and kings arose, the most powerful of which was arguably the Frankish ruler <A href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</A>. In 800, Charlemagne, reinforced by his massive territorial conquests, was crowned Emperor of the Romans (Imperator Romanorum) by <A href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_III" title="Pope Leo III">Pope Leo III</A>, effectively solidifying his power in western Europe. Charlemagne's reign marked the beginning of a new Germanic Roman Empire in the west, the <A href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</A>. Outside his borders, new forces were gathering. The <A href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</A> were marking out their territory, a <A href="/wiki/Great_Moravia" title="Great Moravia">Great Moravia</A> was growing, while the <A href="/wiki/Angles" title="Angles">Angles</A> and the <A href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</A> were securing their borders.</P>
<P>For the duration of the 6th century, the <A href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</A> was embroiled in a series of deadly conflicts, first with the Persian <A href="/wiki/Sassanid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid Empire">Sassanid Empire</A> (see <A href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars" title="Roman–Persian Wars">Roman–Persian Wars</A>), followed by the onslaught of the arising Islamic <A href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</A> (<A href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</A> and <A href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</A>). By 650, the provinces of <A href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Egypt" title="Muslim conquest of Egypt">Egypt</A>, <A href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Syria">Palestine and Syria</A> were lost to the <A href="/wiki/Rashidun_army" title="Rashidun army">Muslim forces</A>, followed by <A href="/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_Hispania" title="Umayyad conquest of Hispania">Hispania</A> and <A href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_southern_Italy" title="History of Islam in southern Italy">southern Italy</A> in the 7th and 8th centuries (see <A href="/wiki/Muslim_conquests" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquests">Muslim conquests</A>). The Arab invasion from the east was stopped after the intervention of the <A href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Empire" title="Bulgarian Empire">Bulgarian Empire</A> (see <A href="/wiki/Tervel_of_Bulgaria" title="Tervel of Bulgaria">Tervel of Bulgaria</A>).</P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Middle Ages">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <A href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</A> and <A href="/wiki/Medieval_demography" title="Medieval demography">Medieval demography</A></DIV>
<P>The Middle Ages are commonly dated from the <A href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall of the Western Roman Empire</A> (or by some scholars, before that) in the 5th century to the beginning of the <A href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</A> in the 16th century, marked by the rise of <A href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation states</A>, the division of Western Christianity in the <A href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Reformation</A>, the rise of <A href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanism</A> in the <A href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Italian Renaissance</A>, and the beginnings of European overseas expansion which allowed for the <A href="/wiki/Columbian_Exchange" title="Columbian Exchange">Columbian Exchange</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-19">[19]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-20">[20]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Byzantium">Byzantium</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Byzantium">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</A></DIV>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Hagia_Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics_2.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Hagia_Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics_2.jpg/220px-Hagia_Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics_2.jpg" width="220" height="141" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Hagia_Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics_2.jpg/330px-Hagia_Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Hagia_Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics_2.jpg/440px-Hagia_Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3132" data-file-height="2007" /></A>
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<A href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine I</A> and <A href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</A> offering their fealty to the Virgin Mary inside the <A href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</A></DIV>
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<P>Many consider Emperor <A href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine I</A> (reigned 306–337) to be the first "<A href="/wiki/Byzantine_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Emperor">Byzantine Emperor</A>". It was he who moved the imperial capital in 324 from <A href="/wiki/Nicomedia" title="Nicomedia">Nicomedia</A> to <A href="/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantium</A>, which re-founded as Constantinople, or Nova Roma ("<A href="/wiki/New_Rome" title="New Rome">New Rome</A>").<SUP id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-21">[21]</A></SUP> The city of <A href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</A> itself had not served as the capital since the reign of <A href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</A>. Some date the beginnings of the Empire to the reign of <A href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</A> (379–395) and Christianity's official supplanting of the pagan <A href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman religion</A>, or following his death in 395, when the empire was split into two parts, with capitals in Rome and Constantinople. Others place it yet later in 476, when <A href="/wiki/Romulus_Augustulus" title="Romulus Augustulus">Romulus Augustulus</A>, traditionally considered the last western Emperor, was deposed, thus leaving sole imperial authority with the emperor in the <A href="/wiki/Greek_East" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek East">Greek East</A>. Others point to the reorganisation of the empire in the time of <A href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</A> (c. 620) when Latin titles and usages were officially replaced with Greek versions. In any case, the changeover was gradual and by 330, when Constantine inaugurated his new capital, the process of hellenization and increasing <A href="/wiki/Christianisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianisation">Christianisation</A> was already under way. The Empire is generally considered to have ended after the <A href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall of Constantinople</A> to the <A href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Turks</A> in 1453. The <A href="/wiki/Plague_of_Justinian" title="Plague of Justinian">Plague of Justinian</A> was a <A href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">pandemic</A> that afflicted the <A href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</A>, including its capital <A href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</A>, in the years 541–542. It is estimated that the Plague of Justinian killed as many as 100 million people across the world.<SUP id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-22">[22]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-23">[23]</A></SUP> It caused <A href="/wiki/Medieval_demography" title="Medieval demography">Europe's population</A> to drop by around 50% between 541 and 700.<SUP id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-24">[24]</A></SUP> It also may have contributed to the success of the <A href="/wiki/Muslim_conquests" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquests">Muslim conquests</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-25">[25]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-26">[26]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Early_Middle_Ages">Early Middle Ages</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Early Middle Ages">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <A href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</A> and <A href="/wiki/Muslim_Conquest" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim Conquest">Muslim Conquest</A></DIV>
<P>The Early Middle Ages span roughly five centuries from 500 to 1000.<SUP id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-27">[27]</A></SUP></P>
<P>From the 7th century Byzantine history was greatly affected by the rise of Islam and the <A href="/wiki/Caliphates" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphates">Caliphates</A>. Muslim <A href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</A> first invaded historically Roman territory under <A href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_Bakr" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū Bakr">Abū Bakr</A>, first Caliph of the <A href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</A>, who entered <A href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Roman Syria</A> and <A href="/wiki/Roman_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Mesopotamia">Roman Mesopotamia</A>. As the Byzantines and neighboring <A href="/wiki/Sasanids" class="mw-redirect" title="Sasanids">Sasanids</A> were severely weakened by the time, amongst the most important reason(s) being the protracted, centuries-lasting and frequent <A href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_wars" title="Byzantine–Sasanian wars">Byzantine–Sasanian wars</A>, which included the climactic <A href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_602%E2%80%93628" title="Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628">Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628</A>, under <A href="/wiki/Umar" title="Umar">Umar</A>, the second Caliph, the Muslims entirely toppled the <A href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanid Persian Empire</A>, and decisively conquered Syria and Mesopotamia, as well as <A href="/wiki/Roman_Palestine" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Palestine">Roman Palestine</A>, <A href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Egypt">Roman Egypt</A>, and parts of <A href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</A> and <A href="/wiki/Africa_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Africa Province">Roman North Africa</A>. In the mid 7th century AD, following the <A href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest of Persia</A>, Islam penetrated into the <A href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</A> region, of which parts <A href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_Wars" title="Russo-Persian Wars">would later</A> permanently become part of <A href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-28">[28]</A></SUP> This trend, which included the conquests by the invading Muslim forces and by that the spread of Islam as well continued under Umar's successors and under the <A href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</A>, which conquered the rest of Mediterranean North Africa and most of the <A href="/wiki/Visigothic_Kingdom" title="Visigothic Kingdom">Iberian Peninsula</A>. Over the next centuries Muslim forces were able to take further European territory, including <A href="/wiki/Cyprus_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Cyprus in the Middle Ages">Cyprus</A>, Malta, <A href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Crete" title="Emirate of Crete">Crete</A>, and <A href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_southern_Italy" title="History of Islam in southern Italy">Sicily and parts of southern Italy</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-29">[29]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The Muslim conquest of Hispania began when the <A href="/wiki/Moors" title="Moors">Moors</A> (<A href="/wiki/Berber_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Berber people">Berbers</A> and <A href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arabs</A>) invaded the Christian <A href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigothic</A> kingdom of <A href="/wiki/Iberian_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Iberian peninsula">Hispania</A> in the year 711, under the Berber general <A href="/wiki/Tariq_ibn_Ziyad" title="Tariq ibn Ziyad">Tariq ibn Ziyad</A>. They landed at <A href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</A> on 30 April and worked their way northward. Tariq's forces were joined the next year by those of his Arab superior, <A href="/wiki/Musa_ibn_Nusair" class="mw-redirect" title="Musa ibn Nusair">Musa ibn Nusair</A>. During the eight-year campaign most of the <A href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</A> was brought under Muslim rule – save for small areas in the northwest (<A href="/wiki/Asturias" title="Asturias">Asturias</A>) and largely <A href="/wiki/Basque_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Basque people">Basque</A> regions in the <A href="/wiki/Pyrenees" title="Pyrenees">Pyrenees</A>. In 711, <A href="/wiki/Visigothic" class="mw-redirect" title="Visigothic">Visigothic</A> <A href="/wiki/Hispania" title="Hispania">Hispania</A> was very weakened because it was immersed in a serious internal crisis caused by a war of succession to the throne involving two Visigoth suitors. The Muslims took advantage of the crisis that crossed the <A href="/wiki/Hispania" title="Hispania">Hispano</A>-<A href="/wiki/Visigothic" class="mw-redirect" title="Visigothic">Visigothic</A> society to carry out their conquests. This territory, under the Arab name <A href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</A>, became part of the expanding <A href="/wiki/Umayyad" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad">Umayyad</A> empire.</P>
<P>The unsuccessful <A href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(717%E2%80%93718)" title="Siege of Constantinople (717–718)">second siege of Constantinople</A> (717) weakened the <A href="/wiki/Umayyad" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad">Umayyad dynasty</A> and reduced their prestige. In 722 <A href="/wiki/Don_Pelayo" class="mw-redirect" title="Don Pelayo">Don Pelayo</A>, a <A href="/wiki/Nobleman" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobleman">nobleman</A> of Visigothic origin, formed an army of 300 <A href="/wiki/Astures" title="Astures">Astur</A> soldiers, to confront Munuza's Muslim troops. In the <A href="/wiki/Battle_of_Covadonga" title="Battle of Covadonga">battle of Covadonga</A>, the Astures defeated the Arab-Moors, who decided to retire. The Christian victory marked the beginning of the <A href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</A> and the establishment of the <A href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Asturias" title="Kingdom of Asturias">Kingdom of Asturias</A>, whose first sovereign was Don Pelayo. The conquerors intended to continue their expansion in Europe and move northeast across the Pyrenees, but were defeated by the <A href="/wiki/Frankish_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish Empire">Frankish</A> leader <A href="/wiki/Charles_Martel" title="Charles Martel">Charles Martel</A> at the <A href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tours" title="Battle of Tours">Battle of Poitiers</A> in 732. The Umayyads were overthrown in 750 by the '<A href="/wiki/Abb%C4%81sids" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbāsids">Abbāsids</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-30">[30]</A></SUP> and, in 756, the Umayyads established an <A href="/wiki/Emirate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Emirate of Córdoba">independent emirate</A> in the Iberian Peninsula.<SUP id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-31">[31]</A></SUP></P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Feudal_Christendom">Feudal Christendom</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Feudal Christendom">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <A href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</A>, <A href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</A>, <A href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</A>, <A href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Caliphate of Córdoba</A>, <A href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Empire" title="Bulgarian Empire">Bulgarian Empire</A>, <A href="/wiki/Medieval_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval England">Medieval England</A>, <A href="/wiki/Medieval_Hungary" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Hungary">Medieval Hungary</A>, <A href="/wiki/Medieval_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Poland">Medieval Poland</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</A></DIV>
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Europe in 1000, with most European states already formed</DIV>
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Europe in 1204.</DIV>
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<P>The <A href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</A> emerged around 800, as <A href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</A>, king of the <A href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</A>, was crowned by the pope as emperor. His empire based in modern France, the <A href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</A> and Germany expanded into modern Hungary, Italy, <A href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</A>, Lower Saxony and Spain. He and his father received substantial help from an alliance with the Pope, who wanted help against the <A href="/wiki/Lombards" title="Lombards">Lombards</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-32">[32]</A></SUP></P>
<P>To the east, <A href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</A> was established in 681 and became the first <A href="/wiki/Slavic_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavic peoples">Slavic</A> country. The powerful <A href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Empire" title="Bulgarian Empire">Bulgarian Empire</A> was the main rival of Byzantium for control of the Balkans for centuries and from the 9th century became the cultural centre of Slavic Europe. The Empire created the <A href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic script</A> during the 10th century AD, at the <A href="/wiki/Preslav_Literary_School" title="Preslav Literary School">Preslav Literary School</A>. Two states, <A href="/wiki/Great_Moravia" title="Great Moravia">Great Moravia</A> and <A href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</A>, emerged among the Slavic peoples respectively in the 9th century. In the late 9th and 10th centuries, northern and western Europe felt the burgeoning power and influence of the <A href="/wiki/Viking" class="mw-redirect" title="Viking">Vikings</A> who raided, traded, conquered and settled swiftly and efficiently with their advanced seagoing vessels such as the <A href="/wiki/Longship" title="Longship">longships</A>. The <A href="/wiki/Invasion#Magyar_invasions_of_Europe" title="Invasion">Hungarians</A> pillaged mainland Europe, the <A href="/wiki/Pechenegs" title="Pechenegs">Pechenegs</A> raided Bulgaria, Rus States and the <A href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</A> states. In the 10th century independent kingdoms were established in Central Europe including Poland and the newly settled <A href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary" title="Kingdom of Hungary">Kingdom of Hungary</A>. The kingdoms of <A href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia_(925%E2%80%931102)" title="Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)">Croatia</A> and <A href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbia_(medieval)" title="Kingdom of Serbia (medieval)">Serbia</A> also appeared in the <A href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</A>. The subsequent period, ending around 1000, saw the further growth of <A href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</A>, which weakened the Holy Roman Empire.</P>
<P>In eastern Europe, <A href="/wiki/Volga_Bulgaria" title="Volga Bulgaria">Volga Bulgaria</A> became an Islamic state in 921, after <A href="/w/index.php?title=Alm%C4%B1%C5%9F_I&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Almış I (page does not exist)">Almış I</A> converted to Islam under the missionary efforts of <A href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Fadlan" title="Ahmad ibn Fadlan">Ahmad ibn Fadlan</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-33">[33]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Slavery in the early medieval period had mostly died out in western Europe by about the year 1000 AD, replaced by <A href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfdom</A>. It lingered longer in England and in peripheral areas linked to the Muslim world, where slavery continued to flourish. Church rules suppressed slavery of Christians. Most historians argue the transition was quite abrupt around 1000, but some see a gradual transition from about 300 to 1000.<SUP id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-34">[34]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="High_Middle_Ages">High Middle Ages</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: High Middle Ages">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</A></DIV>
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Europe in 1092</DIV>
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Europe in 1097, as the <A href="/wiki/First_Crusade" title="First Crusade">First Crusade</A> to the <A href="/wiki/Holy_Land" title="Holy Land">Holy Land</A> commences</DIV>
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<P>The slumber of the <A href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Dark Ages</A> was shaken by a renewed crisis in the Church. In 1054, the <A href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</A>, an insoluble split, occurred between the two remaining Christian seats in <A href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Rome</A> and <A href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Constantinople</A> (modern Istanbul).</P>
<P>The High Middle Ages of the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries show a <A href="/wiki/Medieval_demography" title="Medieval demography">rapidly increasing population</A> of Europe, which caused great social and political change from the preceding era. By 1250, the robust population increase greatly benefited the economy, reaching levels it would not see again in some areas until the 19th century.<SUP id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-35">[35]</A></SUP></P>
<P>From about the year 1000 onwards, Western Europe saw the last of the barbarian invasions and became more politically organized. The <A href="/wiki/Viking" class="mw-redirect" title="Viking">Vikings</A> had settled in Britain, Ireland, France and elsewhere, whilst Norse Christian kingdoms were developing in their Scandinavian homelands. The <A href="/wiki/Hungarian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Hungarian people">Magyars</A> had ceased their expansion in the 10th century, and by the year 1000, the Roman Catholic <A href="/wiki/Apostolic_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Apostolic Kingdom">Apostolic Kingdom</A> of Hungary was recognised in central Europe. With the brief exception of the <A href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasions</A>, major barbarian incursions ceased.</P>
<P>In the 11th century, populations north of the <A href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</A> began to settle new lands, some of which had reverted to wilderness after the end of the <A href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</A>. In what is known as the "great clearances", vast forests and marshes of Europe were cleared and cultivated. At the same time settlements moved beyond the traditional boundaries of the <A href="/wiki/Frankish_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish Empire">Frankish Empire</A> to new frontiers in Europe, beyond the <A href="/wiki/Elbe" title="Elbe">Elbe</A> river, tripling the size of Germany in the process. Crusaders founded <A href="/wiki/Crusader_states" title="Crusader states">European colonies</A> in the <A href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</A>, the majority of the <A href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Iberian Peninsula was conquered</A> from the Muslims, and the <A href="/wiki/Normans" title="Normans">Normans</A> colonised southern Italy, all part of the major population increase and resettlement pattern.</P>
<P>The High Middle Ages produced many different forms of intellectual, spiritual and <A href="/wiki/Medieval_art" title="Medieval art">artistic works</A>. The most famous are the great cathedrals as expressions of <A href="/wiki/Gothic_architecture" title="Gothic architecture">Gothic architecture</A>, which evolved from <A href="/wiki/Romanesque_architecture" title="Romanesque architecture">Romanesque architecture</A>. This age saw the rise of modern nation-states in Western Europe and the ascent of the famous Italian <A href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">city-states</A>, such as <A href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</A> and <A href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</A>. The influential popes of the Catholic Church called volunteer armies from across Europe to a series of <A href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</A> against the <A href="/wiki/Seljuq_dynasty" title="Seljuq dynasty">Seljuq Turks</A>, who occupied the <A href="/wiki/Holy_Land" title="Holy Land">Holy Land</A>. The rediscovery of the works of <A href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</A> led <A href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</A> and other thinkers to develop the philosophy of <A href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</A>.</P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="A_divided_church">A divided church</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: A divided church">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <A href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</A> and <A href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_England" title="Norman conquest of England">Norman conquest of England</A></DIV>
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The <A href="/wiki/Bayeux_Tapestry" title="Bayeux Tapestry">Bayeux Tapestry</A> depicts the <A href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hastings" title="Battle of Hastings">Battle of Hastings</A> and the events leading to it</DIV>
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<P>The Great Schism between the Western (Catholic) and Eastern (Orthodox) Christian Churches was sparked in 1054 by <A href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_IX" title="Pope Leo IX">Pope Leo IX</A> asserting authority over three of the seats in the <A href="/wiki/Pentarchy" title="Pentarchy">Pentarchy</A>, in Antioch, Jerusalem and Alexandria. Since the mid-8th century, the Byzantine Empire's borders had been shrinking in the face of Islamic expansion. <A href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</A> had been wrested back into Byzantine control by 1045, but the resurgent power of the Roman successors in the West claimed a right and a duty for the lost seats in Asia and Africa. Pope Leo sparked a further dispute by defending the <A href="/wiki/Filioque" title="Filioque">filioque</A> clause in the <A href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Nicene Creed</A> which the West had adopted customarily. The Orthodox today state that the XXVIIIth Canon of the <A href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Council of Chalcedon</A> explicitly proclaimed the equality of the Bishops of Rome and Constantinople. The Orthodox also state that the Bishop of Rome has authority only over his own diocese and does not have any authority outside his diocese. There were other less significant catalysts for the Schism however, including variance over <A href="/wiki/Liturgy" title="Liturgy">liturgy</A>. The Schism of Roman Catholic and <A href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Orthodox</A> followed centuries of estrangement between the Latin and Greek worlds.</P>
<P>Further changes were set afoot with a redivision of power in Europe. <A href="/wiki/William_the_Conqueror" title="William the Conqueror">William the Conqueror</A>, a <A href="/wiki/Duke_of_Normandy" title="Duke of Normandy">Duke of Normandy</A>, invaded England in 1066. The Norman Conquest was a pivotal event in <A href="/wiki/History_of_England" title="History of England">English history</A> for several reasons. This linked England more closely with continental Europe through the introduction of a Norman aristocracy, thereby lessening Scandinavian influence. It created one of the most powerful monarchies in Europe and engendered a sophisticated governmental system. Being based on an island, moreover, England was to develop a powerful navy and trade relationships that would come to constitute a vast part of the world including India, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and many key naval strategic points like <A href="/wiki/Bermuda" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</A>, <A href="/wiki/Suez" title="Suez">Suez</A>, Hong Kong and especially <A href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</A>. These strategic advantages grew and were to prove decisive until after the <A href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</A>.</P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Holy_wars">Holy wars</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Holy wars">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <A href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</A> and <A href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</A></DIV>
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The <A href="/wiki/Siege_of_Antioch" title="Siege of Antioch">Siege of Antioch</A>, from a medieval miniature painting, during the <A href="/wiki/First_Crusade" title="First Crusade">First Crusade</A></DIV>
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<P>After the <A href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</A>, <A href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</A> was adopted by the newly created kingdoms of Central Europe: <A href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</A>, Hungary and <A href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</A>. The Roman Catholic Church developed as a major power, leading to conflicts between the Pope and Emperor. The geographic reach of the Roman Catholic Church expanded enormously due to the conversions of pagan kings (Scandinavia, <A href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</A>, Poland, Hungary), the Christian <A href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</A> of <A href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</A>, and the <A href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">crusades</A>. Most of Europe was Roman Catholic in the 15th century.</P>
<P>Early signs of the rebirth of civilization in western Europe began to appear in the 11th century as trade started again in Italy, leading to the economic and cultural growth of independent <A href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">city-states</A> such as <A href="/wiki/Venice#History" title="Venice">Venice</A> and <A href="/wiki/History_of_Florence" title="History of Florence">Florence</A>; at the same time, nation-states began to take form in places such as France, England, Spain, and Portugal, although the process of their formation (usually marked by rivalry between the monarchy, the aristocratic feudal lords and the church) actually took several centuries. These new nation-states began writing in their own cultural vernaculars, instead of the traditional <A href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</A>. Notable figures of this movement would include <A href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante Alighieri</A> and <A href="/wiki/Christine_de_Pizan" title="Christine de Pizan">Christine de Pizan</A> (born Christina da Pizzano), the former writing in Italian, and the latter, although an Italian (Venice), relocated to France, writing in French. (See <A href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</A> for the latter two countries.) Elsewhere, the <A href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</A>, essentially based in Germany and Italy, further fragmented into a myriad of feudal principalities or small city states, whose subjection to the emperor was only formal.</P>
<P>The 13th and 14th centuries, when the <A href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</A> came to power, is often called the <I>Age of the Mongols</I>. Mongol armies expanded westward under the command of <A href="/wiki/Batu_Khan" title="Batu Khan">Batu Khan</A>. Their western conquests included almost all of Russia (save <A href="/wiki/Novgorod" class="mw-redirect" title="Novgorod">Novgorod</A>, which became a vassal),<SUP id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-36">[36]</A></SUP> the <A href="/wiki/Kipchak-Cuman_Confederation" class="mw-redirect" title="Kipchak-Cuman Confederation">Kipchak-Cuman Confederation</A>, Hungary, and Poland (which had remained a sovereign state). Mongolian records indicate that Batu Khan was planning a complete conquest of the remaining European powers, beginning with a winter attack on Austria, Italy and Germany, when he was recalled to <A href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</A> upon the death of Great Khan <A href="/wiki/%C3%96gedei_Khan" title="Ögedei Khan">Ögedei</A>. Most historians believe only his death prevented the complete conquest of Europe.<SUP class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><SPAN title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2009)">citation needed</SPAN></A></I>]</SUP> The areas of Eastern Europe and most of Central Asia that were under direct Mongol rule became known as the <A href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</A>. Under <A href="/wiki/Uzbeg_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Uzbeg Khan">Uzbeg Khan</A>, Islam became the official religion of the region in the early 14th century.<SUP id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-37">[37]</A></SUP> The invading Mongols, together with their mostly Turkic subjects, were known as <A href="/wiki/Tatar_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tatar people">Tatars</A>. In Russia, the Tatars ruled the various states of the Rus' through vassalage for over 300 years.</P>
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"<A href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Lithuania#Christianization_by_Jogaila_and_Vytautas" title="Christianization of Lithuania">Christianization of Lithuania</A> in 1387", oil on canvas by <A href="/wiki/Jan_Matejko" title="Jan Matejko">Jan Matejko</A>, 1889, <A href="/wiki/Royal_Castle_in_Warsaw" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Castle in Warsaw">Royal Castle in Warsaw</A></DIV>
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<P>In the Northern Europe, <A href="/wiki/Konrad_of_Masovia" class="mw-redirect" title="Konrad of Masovia">Konrad of Masovia</A> gave <A href="/wiki/Chelmno" class="mw-redirect" title="Chelmno">Chelmno</A> to the <A href="/wiki/Teutonic_Knights" class="mw-redirect" title="Teutonic Knights">Teutonic Knights</A> in 1226 as a base for a Crusade against the <A href="/wiki/Old_Prussians" title="Old Prussians">Old Prussians</A> and <A href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy of Lithuania</A>. The <A href="/wiki/Livonian_Brothers_of_the_Sword" title="Livonian Brothers of the Sword">Livonian Brothers</A> of the Sword were defeated by the Lithuanians, so in 1237 Gregory IX merged the remainder of the order into the Teutonic Order as the <A href="/wiki/Livonian_Order" title="Livonian Order">Livonian Order</A>. By the middle of the century, the Teutonic Knights completed their conquest of the Prussians before conquering and converting the Lithuanians in the subsequent decades. The order also came into conflict with the Eastern Orthodox Church of the <A href="/wiki/Pskov_Republic" title="Pskov Republic">Pskov</A> and <A href="/wiki/Novgorod_Republic" title="Novgorod Republic">Novgorod Republics</A>. In 1240 the Orthodox Novgorod army defeated the Catholic Swedes in the <A href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Neva" title="Battle of the Neva">Battle of the Neva</A>, and, two years later, they defeated the Livonian Order in the <A href="/wiki/Battle_on_the_Ice" title="Battle on the Ice">Battle on the Ice</A>. The <A href="/wiki/Union_of_Krewo" title="Union of Krewo">Union of Krewo</A> in 1386, bringing two major changes in the history of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania: <A href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Lithuania" title="Christianization of Lithuania">conversion to Catholicism</A> and establishment of a <A href="/wiki/Dynastic_union" title="Dynastic union">dynastic union</A> between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the <A href="/wiki/Crown_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Crown of the Kingdom of Poland">Crown of the Kingdom of Poland</A> marked both the greatest territorial expansion of the Grand Duchy and the defeat of the Teutonic Knights in the <A href="/wiki/Battle_of_Grunwald" title="Battle of Grunwald">Battle of Grunwald</A> in 1410.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Late_Middle_Ages">Late Middle Ages</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Late Middle Ages">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <A href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</A>, <A href="/wiki/Lex_mercatoria" title="Lex mercatoria">Lex mercatoria</A>, <A href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</A></DIV>
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The spread of the "Black Death" from 1347 to 1351 through Europe</DIV>
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<P>The Late Middle Ages span the 14th and 15th centuries.<SUP id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-38">[38]</A></SUP> Around 1300, centuries of European prosperity and growth came to a halt. A series of famines and plagues, such as the <A href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1315%E2%80%931317" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Famine of 1315–1317">Great Famine of 1315–1317</A> and the <A href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</A> killed people in a matter of days, reducing the population of some areas by half as many survivors fled. Kishlansky reports:</P>
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<DD>The Black Death touched every aspect of life, hastening a process of social, economic, and cultural transformation already underway.... Fields were abandoned, workplaces stood idle, international trade was suspended. Traditional bonds of kinship, village and even religion were broken and the horrors of death, flight, and failed expectations. "People cared no more for dead men than we care for dead goats," wrote one survivor.<SUP id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-39">[39]</A></SUP></DD>
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<P>Depopulation caused labor to become scarcer; the survivors were better paid and peasants could drop some of the burdens of feudalism. There was also social unrest; France and England experienced serious peasant risings including the <A href="/wiki/Jacquerie" title="Jacquerie">Jacquerie</A> and the <A href="/wiki/Peasants%27_Revolt" title="Peasants' Revolt">Peasants' Revolt</A>. At the same time, the unity of the Catholic Church was shattered by the <A href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Great Schism</A>. Collectively these events have been called the <A href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Late_Middle_Ages" title="Crisis of the Late Middle Ages">Crisis of the Late Middle Ages</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-40">[40]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Beginning in the 14th century, the <A href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</A> became one of the most important <A href="/wiki/Trade_route" title="Trade route">trade routes</A>. The <A href="/wiki/Hanseatic_League" title="Hanseatic League">Hanseatic League</A>, an alliance of trading cities, facilitated the absorption of vast areas of Poland, <A href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</A> and <A href="/wiki/Terra_Mariana" title="Terra Mariana">Livonia</A> into trade with other European countries. This fed the growth of powerful states in this part of Europe including Poland-Lithuania, Hungary, Bohemia, and Muscovy later on. The conventional end of the <A href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</A> is usually associated with the fall of the city of <A href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</A> and of the <A href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</A> to the <A href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turks" title="Ottoman Turks">Ottoman Turks</A> in 1453. The Turks made the city the capital of their <A href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</A>, which lasted until 1922 and included <A href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</A>, Syria and most of the <A href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</A>. The <A href="/wiki/Ottoman_wars_in_Europe" title="Ottoman wars in Europe">Ottoman wars in Europe</A>, also sometimes referred to as the Turkish wars, marked an essential part of the history of the continent as a whole.</P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Early_modern_Europe">Early modern Europe</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Early modern Europe">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <A href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern Europe</A>; <A href="/wiki/Scientific_revolution" title="Scientific revolution">Scientific revolution</A>; and <A href="/wiki/International_relations,_1648%E2%80%931814" title="International relations, 1648–1814">International relations, 1648–1814</A></DIV>
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<A href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</A> (red) and <A href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetian</A> (green) maritime trade routes in the <A href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</A> and <A href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</A></DIV>
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<P>The Early Modern period spans the centuries between the <A href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</A> and the <A href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</A>, roughly from 1500 to 1800, or from the discovery of the <A href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</A> in 1492 to the <A href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</A> in 1789. The period is characterised by the rise to importance of science and increasingly rapid <A href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">technological progress</A>, secularised civic politics and the <A href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation state</A>. <A href="/wiki/Capitalist_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Capitalist economy">Capitalist economies</A> began their rise, beginning in northern Italian republics such as <A href="/wiki/Genoa" title="Genoa">Genoa</A>. The early modern period also saw the rise and dominance of the economic theory of <A href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">mercantilism</A>. As such, the early modern period represents the decline and eventual disappearance, in much of the European sphere, of <A href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</A>, serfdom and the power of the Catholic Church. The period includes the <A href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</A>, the disastrous <A href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</A>, the <A href="/wiki/European_colonisation_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="European colonisation of the Americas">European colonisation of the Americas</A> and the <A href="/wiki/European_witch-hunts" class="mw-redirect" title="European witch-hunts">European witch-hunts</A>.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Renaissance">Renaissance</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Renaissance">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</A></DIV>
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<I><A href="/wiki/Portrait_of_Luca_Pacioli" title="Portrait of Luca Pacioli">Portrait of Luca Pacioli</A></I>, the founder of accounting, by <A href="/wiki/Jacopo_de%27_Barbari" title="Jacopo de' Barbari">Jacopo de' Barbari</A> (<A href="/wiki/Museo_di_Capodimonte" title="Museo di Capodimonte">Museo di Capodimonte</A>).</DIV>
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<P>Despite these crises, the 14th century was also a time of great progress within the arts and sciences. A renewed interest in ancient <A href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</A> and <A href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</A> as well as more recent <A href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</A> texts<SUP id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-41">[41]</A></SUP> led to what has later been termed the <A href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Italian Renaissance</A>.</P>
<P>The Renaissance was a cultural movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the <A href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</A>. Beginning in Italy, and spreading to the north, west and <A href="/wiki/Middle_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Europe">middle Europe</A> during a cultural lag of some two and a half centuries, its influence affected literature, philosophy, art, politics, science, history, religion, and other aspects of intellectual enquiry.</P>
<P>The Italian <A href="/wiki/Petrarch" title="Petrarch">Petrarch</A> (Francesco di Petracco), deemed the first full-blooded Humanist, wrote in the 1330s: "I am alive now, yet I would rather have been born in another time." He was enthusiastic about Greek and Roman antiquity. In the 15th and 16th centuries the continuing enthusiasm for the ancients was reinforced by the feeling that the inherited culture was dissolving and here was a storehouse of ideas and attitudes with which to rebuild. <A href="/wiki/Matteo_Palmieri" title="Matteo Palmieri">Matteo Palmieri</A> wrote in the 1430s: "Now indeed may every thoughtful spirit thank god that it has been permitted to him to be born in a new age." The renaissance was born: a new age where learning was very important.</P>
<P>The Renaissance was inspired by the growth in study of Latin and Greek texts and the admiration of the Greco-Roman era as a golden age. This prompted many artists and writers to begin drawing from Roman and Greek examples for their works, but there was also much innovation in this period, especially by multi-faceted artists such as <A href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</A>. The Humanists saw their repossession of a great past as a Renaissance—a rebirth of civilization itself.<SUP id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-42">[42]</A></SUP></P>
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<A href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</A> (1452–1519), famed for the diversity of his talents.</DIV>
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<P>Important political precedents were also set in this period. <A href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Niccolò Machiavelli</A>'s political writing in <I><A href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</A></I> influenced later absolutism and real-politik. Also important were the many patrons who ruled states and used the artistry of the Renaissance as a sign of their power.</P>
<P>In all, the Renaissance could be viewed as an attempt by intellectuals to study and improve the secular and worldly, both through the revival of ideas from antiquity, and through novel approaches to thought—the immediate past being too "Gothic" in language, thought and sensibility.</P>
<P>During this period, Spain experienced the greatest epoch of cultural splendor in its history. This epoch is known as the <A href="/wiki/Golden_Age" title="Golden Age">Spanish Golden age</A> and took place between the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Exploration_and_trade">Exploration and trade</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Exploration and trade">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</A></DIV>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Cantino_Planisphere.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Cantino_Planisphere.jpg/220px-Cantino_Planisphere.jpg" width="220" height="103" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Cantino_Planisphere.jpg/330px-Cantino_Planisphere.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Cantino_Planisphere.jpg/440px-Cantino_Planisphere.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="299" /></A>
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<A href="/wiki/Cantino_planisphere" title="Cantino planisphere">Cantino planisphere</A>, 1502, earliest chart showing explorations by <A href="/wiki/Vasco_da_Gama" title="Vasco da Gama">Gama</A>, <A href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Columbus</A> and <A href="/wiki/Pedro_%C3%81lvares_Cabral" title="Pedro Álvares Cabral">Cabral</A></DIV>
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<P>Toward the end of the period, an era of discovery began. The growth of the <A href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</A>, culminating in the fall of Constantinople in 1453, cut off trading possibilities with the east. Western Europe was forced to discover new trading routes, as happened with Columbus' travel to the Americas in 1492, and <A href="/wiki/Vasco_da_Gama" title="Vasco da Gama">Vasco da Gama</A>'s circumnavigation of <A href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">India</A> and Africa in 1498.</P>
<P>The numerous wars did not prevent European states from exploring and conquering wide portions of the world, from Africa to Asia and the newly discovered Americas. In the 15th century, Portugal led the way in geographical exploration along the coast of Africa in search of a maritime route to India, followed by Spain near the close of the 15th century, dividing their exploration of the world according to the <A href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tordesillas" title="Treaty of Tordesillas">Treaty of Tordesillas</A> in 1494.<SUP id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-43">[43]</A></SUP> They were the first states to set up colonies in America and European <A href="/wiki/Factory_(trading_post)" title="Factory (trading post)">trading posts (factories)</A> along the shores of Africa and Asia, establishing the first direct European diplomatic contacts with Southeast Asian states in 1511, China in 1513 and Japan in 1542. In 1552, Russian tsar <A href="/wiki/Ivan_the_Terrible" title="Ivan the Terrible">Ivan the Terrible</A> conquered two major <A href="/wiki/Tatar" class="mw-redirect" title="Tatar">Tatar</A> khanates, the <A href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Kazan" title="Khanate of Kazan">Khanate of Kazan</A> and the <A href="/wiki/Astrakhan_Khanate" title="Astrakhan Khanate">Astrakhan Khanate</A>. The <A href="/wiki/Yermak_Timofeyevich" title="Yermak Timofeyevich">Yermak</A>'s voyage of 1580 led to the annexation of the Tatar <A href="/wiki/Siberian_Khanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Siberian Khanate">Siberian Khanate</A> into Russia, and the Russians would soon after conquer the rest of <A href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</A>, steadily expanding to the east and south over the next centuries. Oceanic explorations soon followed by France, England and the Netherlands, who explored the Portuguese and Spanish trade routes into the Pacific Ocean, reaching Australia in 1606<SUP id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-44">[44]</A></SUP> and New Zealand in 1642.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Reformation">Reformation</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Reformation">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</A></DIV>
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<A href="/wiki/The_Ninety-Five_Theses" class="mw-redirect" title="The Ninety-Five Theses">The Ninety-Five Theses</A> of German monk <A href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</A>, which criticized the Catholic Church</DIV>
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Map of Europe in 1648</DIV>
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<P>With the development of the <A href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</A>, new ideas spread throughout Europe and challenged traditional doctrines in science and theology. Simultaneously, the <A href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</A> under German <A href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</A> questioned Papal authority. The most common dating of the Reformation begins in 1517, when Luther published <I><A href="/wiki/The_Ninety-Five_Theses" class="mw-redirect" title="The Ninety-Five Theses">The Ninety-Five Theses</A></I>, and concludes in 1648 with the <A href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Westphalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Westphalia">Treaty of Westphalia</A> that ended years of <A href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">European religious wars</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-45">[45]</A></SUP></P>
<P>During this period corruption in the Catholic Church led to a sharp backlash in the <A href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</A>. It gained many followers especially among princes and kings seeking a stronger state by ending the influence of the Catholic Church. Figures other than <A href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</A> began to emerge as well like <A href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">John Calvin</A> whose <A href="/wiki/Calvinism" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</A> had influence in many countries and King <A href="/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII of England</A> who broke away from the Catholic Church in England and set up the <A href="/wiki/Anglican_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglican Church">Anglican Church</A>; his daughter <A href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England" title="Elizabeth I of England">Queen Elizabeth</A> finished the organization of the church. These religious divisions brought on a wave of wars inspired and driven by religion but also by the ambitious monarchs in Western Europe who were becoming more centralised and powerful.</P>
<P>The Protestant Reformation also led to a strong reform movement in the Catholic Church called the <A href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</A>, which aimed to reduce corruption as well as to improve and strengthen Catholic dogma. Two important groups in the Catholic Church who emerged from this movement were the <A href="/wiki/Jesuits" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuits">Jesuits</A>, who helped keep Spain, Portugal, Poland and other European countries within the Catholic fold, and the Oratorians of <A href="/wiki/Saint_Philip_Neri" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Philip Neri">Saint Philip Neri</A>, who ministered to the faithful in Rome, restoring their confidence in the Church of Jesus Christ that subsisted substantially in the Church of Rome. Still, the Catholic Church was somewhat weakened by the Reformation, portions of Europe were no longer under its sway and kings in the remaining Catholic countries began to take control of the church institutions within their kingdoms.</P>
<P>Unlike many European countries, the <A href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</A> and Hungary were more tolerant. While still enforcing the predominance of Catholicism, they continued to allow the large religious minorities to maintain their faiths, traditions and customs. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth became divided among Catholics, Protestants, Orthodox, Jews and a small Muslim population.</P>
<P>Another important development in this period was the growth of pan-European sentiments. Eméric Crucé (1623) came up with the idea of the <A href="/wiki/European_Council" title="European Council">European Council</A>, intended to end wars in Europe; attempts to create lasting peace were no success, although all European countries (except the Russian and Ottoman Empires, regarded as foreign) agreed to make peace in 1518 at the <A href="/wiki/Treaty_of_London_(1518)" title="Treaty of London (1518)">Treaty of London</A>. Many wars broke out again in a few years. The Reformation also made European peace impossible for many centuries.</P>
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<A href="/wiki/Europa_regina" title="Europa regina">Europa regina</A>, 1570 print by <A href="/wiki/Sebastian_M%C3%BCnster" title="Sebastian Münster">Sebastian Münster</A> of <A href="/wiki/Basel" title="Basel">Basel</A></DIV>
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<P>Another development was the idea of 'European superiority'. The ideal of civilisation was taken over from the ancient Greeks and Romans: Discipline, education and living in the city were required to make people civilised; Europeans and non-Europeans were judged for their civility, and Europe regarded itself as superior to other continents. There was a movement by some such as <A href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Montaigne</A> that regarded the non-Europeans as a better, more natural and primitive people. Post services were founded all over Europe, which allowed a <A href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">humanistic</A> interconnected network of intellectuals across Europe, despite religious divisions. However, the Roman Catholic Church banned many leading scientific works; this led to an intellectual advantage for Protestant countries, where the banning of books was regionally organised. <A href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</A> and other advocates of science tried to create unity in Europe by focusing on the unity in nature.<SUP><A href="#Notes">1</A></SUP> In the 15th century, at the end of the Middle Ages, powerful sovereign states were appearing, built by the <A href="/wiki/New_Monarchs" title="New Monarchs">New Monarchs</A> who were centralising power in France, England, and Spain. On the other hand, the Parliament in the <A href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</A> grew in power, taking legislative rights from the Polish king. The new state power was contested by parliaments in other countries especially England. New kinds of states emerged which were co-operation agreements among territorial rulers, cities, farmer republics and knights.</P>
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<A href="/wiki/Alberico_Gentili" title="Alberico Gentili">Alberico Gentili</A>, the Father of international law.</DIV>
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<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Mercantilism_and_colonial_expansion">Mercantilism and colonial expansion</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Mercantilism and colonial expansion">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">Mercantilism</A></DIV>
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Animated map showing the evolution of <A href="/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">Colonial empires</A> from 1492 to the present</DIV>
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<P>The <A href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian</A> states (Spain and Portugal) were able to dominate <A href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</A> (American) colonial activity in the 16th century. The Spanish constituted the first global empire and during the 16th century and the first half of the 17th century, Spain was the most powerful nation in the world, but was increasingly challenged by <A href="/wiki/British_colonisation_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="British colonisation of the Americas">British</A>, <A href="/wiki/French_colonisation_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="French colonisation of the Americas">French</A>, and the short-lived <A href="/wiki/New_Netherland" title="New Netherland">Dutch</A> and <A href="/wiki/New_Sweden" title="New Sweden">Swedish</A> colonial efforts of the 17th and 18th centuries. New forms of trade and expanding horizons made new forms of <A href="/wiki/Federalism" title="Federalism">government</A>, <A href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">law</A> and <A href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">eco</A><A href="/wiki/Free_market" title="Free market">nomics</A> necessary.</P>
<P>Colonial expansion continued in the following centuries (with some setbacks, such as successful wars of independence in the <A href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">British American colonies</A> and then later <A href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haiti</A>, <A href="/wiki/Mexican_War_of_Independence" title="Mexican War of Independence">Mexico</A>, <A href="/wiki/Argentine_War_of_Independence" title="Argentine War of Independence">Argentina</A>, <A href="/wiki/Brazilian_Independence" class="mw-redirect" title="Brazilian Independence">Brazil</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Latin_American_wars_of_independence" title="Latin American wars of independence">others</A> amid European turmoil of the <A href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</A>; Haiti unique in abolishing slavery). Spain had control of a large part of North America, all of Central America and a great part of South America, the Caribbean and the <A href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</A>; Britain took the whole of Australia and New Zealand, most of India, and large parts of Africa and North America; France held parts of Canada and India (nearly all of which was lost to Britain <A href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1763)" title="Treaty of Paris (1763)">in 1763</A>), <A href="/wiki/French_Indochina" title="French Indochina">Indochina</A>, large parts of Africa and the Caribbean islands; the Netherlands gained the <A href="/wiki/Indies" class="mw-redirect" title="Indies">East Indies</A> (now <A href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</A>) and islands in the Caribbean; Portugal obtained Brazil and several territories in Africa and Asia; and later, powers such as Germany, Belgium, Italy and Russia acquired further colonies.</P>
<P>This expansion helped the economy of the countries owning them. <A href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">Trade</A> flourished, because of the minor stability of the empires. By the late 16th century, American silver accounted for one-fifth of Spain's total budget.<SUP id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-46">[46]</A></SUP> The European countries fought wars that were largely paid for by the money coming in from the colonies. Nevertheless, the profits of the <A href="/wiki/Slave_trade#The_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave trade">slave trade</A> and of plantations of the <A href="/wiki/West_Indies" title="West Indies">West Indies</A>, then the most profitable of all the British colonies, amounted to less than 5% of the <A href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</A>'s economy (but was generally more profitable) at the time of the <A href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</A> in the late 18th century.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Crisis_of_the_17th_century">Crisis of the 17th century</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Crisis of the 17th century">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
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Contemporary woodcut depicting the <A href="/wiki/Second_Defenestration_of_Prague" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Defenestration of Prague">Second Defenestration of Prague</A> (1618), which marked the beginning of the Bohemian Revolt, which began the first part of the Thirty Years' War.</DIV>
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<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <A href="/wiki/The_General_Crisis" title="The General Crisis">The General Crisis</A></DIV>
<P>The 17th century was an era of crisis.<SUP id="cite_ref-Geoffrey_Parker_and_Lesley_M._Smith,_eds._1997_47-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Geoffrey_Parker_and_Lesley_M._Smith,_eds._1997-47">[47]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Trevor_Aston_1965_48-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Trevor_Aston_1965-48">[48]</A></SUP> Many historians have rejected the idea, while others promote it as an invaluable insight into the warfare, politics, economics,<SUP id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-49">[49]</A></SUP> and even art.<SUP id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-50">[50]</A></SUP> The <A href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</A> (1618–1648) focused attention on the massive horrors that wars could bring to entire populations.<SUP id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-51">[51]</A></SUP> The 1640s in particular saw more state breakdowns around the world than any previous or subsequent period.<SUP id="cite_ref-Geoffrey_Parker_and_Lesley_M._Smith,_eds._1997_47-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Geoffrey_Parker_and_Lesley_M._Smith,_eds._1997-47">[47]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Trevor_Aston_1965_48-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Trevor_Aston_1965-48">[48]</A></SUP> The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the largest state in Europe, temporarily disappeared. In addition, there were secessions and upheavals in several parts of the Spanish empire, the world's first global empire. In Britain the entire Stuart monarchy (England, Scotland, Ireland, and its North American colonies) rebelled. Political insurgency and a spate of popular revolts seldom equalled shook the foundations of most states in Europe and Asia. More wars took place around the world in the mid-17th century than in almost any other period of recorded history. The crises spread far beyond Europe—for example Ming China, the most populous state in the world, collapsed. Across the Northern Hemisphere, the mid-17th century experienced almost unprecedented death rates. Geoffrey Parker, a British historian, suggests that environmental factors may have been in part to blame, especially global cooling.<SUP id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-52">[52]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-53">[53]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Age_of_Absolutism">Age of Absolutism</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Age of Absolutism">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <A href="/wiki/Political_absolutism" class="mw-redirect" title="Political absolutism">Political absolutism</A> and <A href="/wiki/International_relations,_1648%E2%80%931814" title="International relations, 1648–1814">International relations, 1648–1814</A></DIV>
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Maria Theresa being crowned Queen of Hungary, <A href="/wiki/St._Martin%27s_Cathedral,_Bratislava" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Martin's Cathedral, Bratislava">St. Martin's Cathedral</A>, <A href="/wiki/Bratislava" title="Bratislava">Bratislava</A>.</DIV>
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<P><BR />
The "absolute" rule of powerful monarchs such as <A href="/wiki/Louis_XIV" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</A> (ruled France 1643–1715),<SUP id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-54">[54]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Peter_the_Great" title="Peter the Great">Peter the Great</A> (ruled Russia 1682–1725),<SUP id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-55">[55]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Maria_Theresa" title="Maria Theresa">Maria Theresa</A> (ruled Habsburg lands 1740–1780) and <A href="/wiki/Frederick_the_Great" title="Frederick the Great">Frederick the Great</A> (ruled Prussia 1740–86),<SUP id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-56">[56]</A></SUP> produced powerful centralized states, with strong armies and powerful bureaucracies, all under the control of the king.<SUP id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-57">[57]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Throughout the early part of this period, capitalism (through <A href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">mercantilism</A>) was replacing feudalism as the principal form of economic organisation, at least in the western half of Europe. The expanding colonial frontiers resulted in a <A href="/wiki/Commercial_Revolution" title="Commercial Revolution">Commercial Revolution</A>. The period is noted for the rise of modern science and the application of its findings to technological improvements, which animated the <A href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</A> after 1750.</P>
<P>The Reformation had profound effects on the unity of Europe. Not only were nations divided one from another by their religious orientation, but some states were torn apart internally by religious strife, avidly fostered by their external enemies. France suffered this fate in the 16th century in the series of conflicts known as the <A href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</A>, which ended in the triumph of the <A href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">Bourbon Dynasty</A>. England avoided this fate for a while and settled down under <A href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England" title="Elizabeth I of England">Elizabeth</A> to a moderate <A href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglicanism</A>. Much of modern-day Germany was made up of numerous small sovereign states under the theoretical framework of the <A href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</A>, which was further divided along internally drawn sectarian lines. The <A href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</A> is notable in this time for its <A href="/wiki/Religious_tolerance" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious tolerance">religious indifference</A> and a general immunity to the horrors of European religious strife.</P>
<H4><SPAN id="Thirty_Years.27_War_1618.E2.80.931648"></SPAN><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Thirty_Years'_War_1618–1648">Thirty Years' War 1618–1648</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Thirty Years' War 1618–1648">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</A> was fought between 1618 and 1648, across Germany and neighboring areas, and involved most of the major European powers except England and Russia.<SUP id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-58">[58]</A></SUP> Beginning as a religious conflict between Protestants and Catholics in <A href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</A>, it quickly developed into a general war involving Catholics versus Protestants for the most part. The major impact of the war, in which <A href="/wiki/Mercenary" title="Mercenary">mercenary</A> armies were extensively used, was the devastation of entire regions scavenged bare by the foraging armies. Episodes of widespread famine and disease, and the breakup of family life, devastated the population of the German states and, to a lesser extent, the <A href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</A>, Bohemia and Italy, while bankrupting many of the regional powers involved. Between one-fourth and one-third of the German population perished from direct military causes or from disease and starvation, as well as postponed births.<SUP id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-59">[59]</A></SUP></P>
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After the <A href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</A>, Europe's borders were still stable in 1708</DIV>
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<P>After the <A href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</A>, which ended the war in favour of nations deciding their own religious allegiance, <A href="/wiki/Political_absolutism" class="mw-redirect" title="Political absolutism">absolutism</A> became the norm of the continent, while parts of Europe experimented with constitutions foreshadowed by the <A href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</A> and particularly the <A href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</A>. European military conflict did not cease, but had less disruptive effects on the lives of Europeans. In the advanced northwest, <A href="/wiki/The_Enlightenment" class="mw-redirect" title="The Enlightenment">the Enlightenment</A> gave a philosophical underpinning to the new outlook, and the continued spread of literacy, made possible by the <A href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</A>, created new secular forces in thought.</P>
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Map of Europe in <A href="/wiki/1794_Samuel_Dunn_Map_of_the_World_in_Hemispheres" class="mw-redirect" title="1794 Samuel Dunn Map of the World in Hemispheres">1794 Samuel Dunn Map of the World</A></DIV>
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<P>From the <A href="/wiki/Union_of_Krewo" title="Union of Krewo">Union of Krewo</A> (1385) central and eastern Europe was dominated by <A href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland_(1385%E2%80%931569)" title="Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)">Kingdom of Poland</A> and <A href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy of Lithuania</A>. In the 16th and 17th centuries Central and Eastern Europe was an arena of conflict for domination of the continent between Sweden, the <A href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</A> and the <A href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</A>. The <A href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</A> continued dominance central and eastern Europe until series of wars: <A href="/wiki/Khmelnytsky_Uprising" title="Khmelnytsky Uprising">Khmelnytsky Uprising</A>, <A href="/wiki/Russo-Polish_War_(1654%E2%80%9367)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russo-Polish War (1654–67)">Russo-Polish War</A> and the <A href="/wiki/Deluge_(history)" title="Deluge (history)">Deluge</A>. This period saw a gradual decline of these three powers which were eventually replaced by new enlightened absolutist monarchies: Russia, Prussia and Austria. By the turn of the 19th century they had become new powers, having <A href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">divided Poland</A> between themselves, with Sweden and Turkey having experienced substantial territorial losses to Russia and Austria respectively as well as pauperisation.</P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="War_of_the_Spanish_Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: War of the Spanish Succession">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</A> (1701–1715) was a major war with France opposed by a coalition of England, the Netherlands, the Austrian Empire, and Prussia. <A href="/wiki/John_Churchill,_1st_Duke_of_Marlborough" title="John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough">Duke of Marlborough</A> commander the English and Dutch victory at the <A href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_Blenheim&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle Blenheim (page does not exist)">Battle Blenheim</A> in 1704. The main issue was whether France under King Louis XIV would take control of Spain's very extensive possessions and thereby become by far the dominant power, or be forced to share power with other major nations. After initial allied successes, the long war produced a military stalemate and ended with the <A href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Utrecht" title="Treaty of Utrecht">Treaty of Utrecht</A>, which was based on a balance of power in Europe. Historian <A href="/wiki/Russell_Weigley" title="Russell Weigley">Russell Weigley</A> argues that the many wars almost never accomplished more than they cost.<SUP id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-60">[60]</A></SUP> British historian <A href="/wiki/G._M._Trevelyan" title="G. M. Trevelyan">G. M. Trevelyan</A> argues:</P>
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<DD>That Treaty [of Utrecht], which ushered in the stable and characteristic period of Eighteenth-Century civilization, marked the end of danger to Europe from the old French monarchy, and it marked a change of no less significance to the world at large, — the maritime, commercial and financial supremacy of Great Britain.<SUP id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-61">[61]</A></SUP></DD>
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<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Prussia">Prussia</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Prussia">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<P><A href="/wiki/Frederick_the_Great" title="Frederick the Great">Frederick the Great</A>, king of Prussia 1740–86, modernized the Prussian army, introduced new tactical and strategic concepts, fought mostly successful wars and doubled the size of Prussia. Frederick had a rationale based on Enlightenment thought: he fought total wars for limited objectives. The goal was to convince rival kings that it was better to negotiate and make peace than to fight him.<SUP id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-62">[62]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-63">[63]</A></SUP></P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Russia">Russia</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Russia">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<P>Russia with its numerous wars and rapid expansion was in a continuous state of financial crisis, which it covered by borrowing from Amsterdam and issuing paper money that caused inflation. Russia boasted a large and powerful army, a very large and complex internal bureaucracy, and a splendid court that rivaled Paris and London. However the government was living far beyond its means and seized Church lands, leaving organized religion in a weak condition. Throughout the 18th century Russia remained "a poor, backward, overwhelmingly agricultural, and illiterate country."<SUP id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-64">[64]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Enlightenment">Enlightenment</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Enlightenment">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</A></DIV>
<P>The <I>Enlightenment</I> was a powerful, widespread cultural movement of intellectuals beginning in late 17th-century Europe emphasizing the power of <A href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</A> rather than tradition; it was especially favourable to science (especially Isaac Newton's physics) and hostile to religious orthodoxy (especially of the Catholic Church).<SUP id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-65">[65]</A></SUP> It sought to analyze and reform society using reason, to challenge ideas grounded in tradition and faith, and to advance knowledge through the <A href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</A>. It promoted scientific thought, skepticism, and intellectual interchange.<SUP id="cite_ref-Alan_Charles_Kors_2003_66-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Alan_Charles_Kors_2003-66">[66]</A></SUP> The Enlightenment was a revolution in human thought. This new way of thinking was that rational thought begins with clearly stated principles, uses correct logic to arrive at conclusions, tests the conclusions against evidence, and then revises the principles in the light of the evidence.<SUP id="cite_ref-Alan_Charles_Kors_2003_66-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Alan_Charles_Kors_2003-66">[66]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Enlightenment thinkers opposed superstition. Some Enlightenment thinkers collaborated with <A href="/wiki/Enlightened_absolutism" title="Enlightened absolutism">Enlightened despots</A>, absolutist rulers who attempted to forcibly impose some of the new ideas about government into practice. The ideas of the Enlightenment exerted significant influence on the culture, politics, and governments of Europe.<SUP id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-67">[67]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Originating in the 17th century, it was sparked by philosophers <A href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</A> (1562–1626), <A href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</A> (1632–1677), <A href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</A> (1632–1704), <A href="/wiki/Pierre_Bayle" title="Pierre Bayle">Pierre Bayle</A> (1647–1706), <A href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</A> (1694–1778), <A href="/wiki/Francis_Hutcheson_(philosopher)" title="Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)">Francis Hutcheson</A>, (1694–1746), <A href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</A> (1711–1776) and physicist <A href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</A> (1643–1727).<SUP id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-68">[68]</A></SUP> Ruling princes often endorsed and fostered these figures and even attempted to apply their ideas of government in what was known as <A href="/wiki/Enlightened_absolutism" title="Enlightened absolutism">enlightened absolutism</A>. The <A href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</A> is closely tied to the Enlightenment, as its discoveries overturned many traditional concepts and introduced new perspectives on nature and man's place within it. The Enlightenment flourished until about 1790–1800, at which point the Enlightenment, with its emphasis on reason, gave way to <A href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</A>, which placed a new emphasis on emotion; a <A href="/wiki/Counter-Enlightenment" title="Counter-Enlightenment">Counter-Enlightenment</A> began to increase in prominence. The Romantics argued that the Enlightenment was <A href="/wiki/Reductionistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Reductionistic">reductionistic</A> insofar as it had largely ignored the forces of imagination, mystery, and sentiment.<SUP id="cite_ref-Casey_69-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Casey-69">[69]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In France, Enlightenment was based in the <A href="/wiki/Salon_(gathering)" title="Salon (gathering)">salons</A> and culminated in the great <I><A href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die" title="Encyclopédie">Encyclopédie</A></I> (1751–72) edited by <A href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Denis Diderot</A> (1713–1784) and (until 1759) <A href="/wiki/Jean_le_Rond_d%27Alembert" title="Jean le Rond d'Alembert">Jean le Rond d'Alembert</A> (1717–1783) with contributions by hundreds of leading intellectuals who were called <I><A href="/wiki/Philosophes" title="Philosophes">philosophes</A></I>, notably <A href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</A> (1694–1778), <A href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</A> (1712–1778) and <A href="/wiki/Charles_de_Secondat,_Baron_de_Montesquieu" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu">Montesquieu</A> (1689–1755). Some 25,000 copies of the 35 volume encyclopedia were sold, half of them outside France. These new intellectual strains would spread to urban centres across Europe, notably England, Scotland, the German states, the Netherlands, Poland, Russia, Italy, Austria, and Spain, as well as <A href="/wiki/Thirteen_colonies" class="mw-redirect" title="Thirteen colonies">Britain's American colonies.</A></P>
<P>The political ideals of the Enlightenment influenced the <A href="/wiki/American_Declaration_of_Independence" class="mw-redirect" title="American Declaration of Independence">American Declaration of Independence</A>, the <A href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">United States Bill of Rights</A>, the French <A href="/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen" title="Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen">Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen</A>, and the Polish–Lithuanian <A href="/wiki/Constitution_of_May_3,_1791" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of May 3, 1791">Constitution of May 3, 1791</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-70">[70]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Taking a long-term historical perspective, Norman Davies has argued that <A href="/wiki/Freemasonry" title="Freemasonry">Freemasonry</A> was a powerful force on behalf of <A href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</A> and Enlightenment ideas in Europe, from about 1700 to the 20th century. It expanded rapidly during the <A href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</A>, reaching practically every country in Europe. It was especially attractive to royalty, powerful aristocrats and politicians as well as intellectuals, artists and political activists. Its great enemy was the Roman Catholic Church, so that in countries with a large Catholic element, such as France, Italy, Austria, Spain (and Mexico), much of the ferocity of the political battles involve the confrontation between the Church and Freemasonry.<SUP id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-71">[71]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-72">[72]</A></SUP> Twentieth century totalitarian movements, especially the Fascists and Communists, crushed the Freemasons.<SUP id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-73">[73]</A></SUP></P>
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<H2><SPAN id="From_revolution_to_imperialism_.281789.E2.80.931914.29"></SPAN><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="From_revolution_to_imperialism_(1789–1914)">From revolution to imperialism (1789–1914)</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: From revolution to imperialism (1789–1914)">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <A href="/wiki/19th_century" title="19th century">19th century</A> and <A href="/wiki/International_relations_of_the_Great_Powers_(1814%E2%80%931919)" title="International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)">International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)</A></DIV>
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The boundaries set by the Congress of Vienna, 1815.</DIV>
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<P>The "<A href="/wiki/The_long_19th_century" class="mw-redirect" title="The long 19th century">long 19th century</A>", from 1789 to 1914 saw the drastic social, political and economic changes initiated by the <A href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</A>, the <A href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</A> and the <A href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</A>. Following the reorganisation of the political map of Europe at the <A href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</A> in 1815, Europe experienced the rise of Nationalism, the rise of the <A href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</A> and the peak of the <A href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</A>, which was paralleled by the <A href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Decline of the Ottoman Empire">decline of the Ottoman Empire</A>. Finally, the rise of the <A href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</A> and the <A href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Austro-Hungarian Empire">Austro-Hungarian Empire</A> initiated the course of events that culminated in the outbreak of the <A href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</A> in 1914.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Industrial_Revolution">Industrial Revolution</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Industrial Revolution">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</A></DIV>
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London's chimney sky in 1870, by <A href="/wiki/Gustave_Dor%C3%A9" title="Gustave Doré">Gustave Doré</A></DIV>
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<P>The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th century and early 19th century when major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, and transport affected <A href="/wiki/Socioeconomics" title="Socioeconomics">socioeconomic</A> and cultural conditions in Britain and subsequently spread throughout Europe and North America and eventually the world, a process that continues as industrialisation. Technological advancements, most notably the invention of the steam engine by Scottish engineer James Watt, were major catalysts in the industrialisation of Britain and, later, the wider world. It started in England and Scotland in the mid-18th century with the mechanisation of the textile industries, the development of iron-making techniques and the increased use of refined coal. Trade expansion was enabled by the introduction of <A href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">canals</A>, improved roads and railways. The introduction of <A href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam power</A> (fuelled primarily by coal) and powered machinery (mainly in <A href="/wiki/Textile_manufacturing" title="Textile manufacturing">textile manufacturing</A>) underpinned the dramatic increases in production capacity.<SUP id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-74">[74]</A></SUP> The development of all-metal <A href="/wiki/Machine_tool" title="Machine tool">machine tools</A> in the first two decades of the 19th century facilitated the manufacture of more production machines for manufacturing in other industries. The effects spread throughout Western Europe and North America during the 19th century, eventually affecting most of the world. The impact of this change on society was enormous.<SUP id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-75">[75]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Era_of_the_French_Revolution">Era of the French Revolution</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Era of the French Revolution">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <A href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</A>, <A href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</A></DIV>
<P>Historians <A href="/wiki/R.R._Palmer" class="mw-redirect" title="R.R. Palmer">R.R. Palmer</A> and <A href="/wiki/Joel_Colton" title="Joel Colton">Joel Colton</A> argue:</P>
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<DD>In 1789 France fell into revolution, and the world has never since been the same. The French Revolution was by far the most momentous upheaval of the whole revolutionary age. It replaced the "old regime" with "modern society," and at its extreme phase became very radical, so much so that all later revolutionary movements have looked back to it as a predecessor to themselves.... From the 1760s to 1848, the role of France was decisive.<SUP id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-76">[76]</A></SUP></DD>
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<P>The era of the French Revolution and the subsequent Napoleonic wars was a difficult time for monarchs. Tsar <A href="/wiki/Paul_I_of_Russia" title="Paul I of Russia">Paul I of Russia</A> was assassinated; King <A href="/wiki/Louis_XVI_of_France" title="Louis XVI of France">Louis XVI of France</A> was executed, as was his queen <A href="/wiki/Marie_Antoinette" title="Marie Antoinette">Marie Antoinette</A>. Furthermore, kings <A href="/wiki/Charles_IV_of_Spain" title="Charles IV of Spain">Charles IV of Spain</A>, <A href="/wiki/Ferdinand_VII_of_Spain" title="Ferdinand VII of Spain">Ferdinand VII of Spain</A> and <A href="/wiki/Gustav_IV_Adolf_of_Sweden" title="Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden">Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden</A> were deposed as were ultimately the Emperor Napoleon and all of the relatives he had installed on various European thrones. King <A href="/wiki/Frederick_William_III_of_Prussia" title="Frederick William III of Prussia">Frederick William III of Prussia</A> and Emperor <A href="/wiki/Francis_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor">Francis II of Austria</A> barely clung to their thrones. <A href="/wiki/George_III_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="George III of the United Kingdom">King George III of England</A> lost the better part of his empire.<SUP id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-77">[77]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</A> (1775–1783) was the first successful revolt of a colony against a European power. It proclaimed, in the words of <A href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</A>, that "all men are created equal," a position based on the principles of the Enlightenment. It rejected aristocracy and established a <A href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">republican form of government</A> under <A href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</A> that attracted worldwide attention.<SUP id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-78">[78]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The French Revolution (1789–1804) was a product of the same democratic forces in the <A href="/wiki/Atlantic_World" title="Atlantic World">Atlantic World</A> and had an even greater impact.<SUP id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-79">[79]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Victor_Alphonse_Aulard" title="François Victor Alphonse Aulard">French historian François Aulard</A> says:</P>
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<DD>From the social point of view, the Revolution consisted in the suppression of what was called the feudal system, in the emancipation of the individual, in greater division of landed property, the abolition of the privileges of noble birth, the establishment of equality, the simplification of life.... The French Revolution differed from other revolutions in being not merely national, for it aimed at benefiting all humanity."<SUP id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-80">[80]</A></SUP></DD>
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The storming of the <A href="/wiki/Bastille" title="Bastille">Bastille</A> in the French Revolution of 1789</DIV>
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<P>French intervention in the <A href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</A> had nearly bankrupted the state. After repeated failed attempts at financial reform, King <A href="/wiki/Louis_XVI_of_France" title="Louis XVI of France">Louis XVI</A> had to convene the <A href="/wiki/Estates-General_of_1789" class="mw-redirect" title="Estates-General of 1789">Estates-General</A>, a representative body of the country made up of three estates: the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners. The third estate, joined by members of the other two, declared itself to be a <A href="/wiki/National_Assembly_(French_Revolution)" title="National Assembly (French Revolution)">National Assembly</A> and swore an <A href="/wiki/Tennis_Court_Oath" title="Tennis Court Oath">oath</A> not to dissolve until France had a constitution and created, in July, the <A href="/wiki/National_Constituent_Assembly_(France)" title="National Constituent Assembly (France)">National Constituent Assembly</A>. At the same time the people of Paris revolted, famously storming the <A href="/wiki/Bastille" title="Bastille">Bastille</A> prison on 14 July 1789.</P>
<P>At the time the assembly wanted to create a <A href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</A>, and over the following two years passed various laws including the <A href="/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen" title="Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen">Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen</A>, the <A href="/wiki/Abolition_of_feudalism_in_France" title="Abolition of feudalism in France">abolition of feudalism</A>, and a <A href="/wiki/Civil_Constitution_of_the_Clergy" title="Civil Constitution of the Clergy">fundamental change</A> in the relationship between France and Rome. At first the king agreed with these changes and enjoyed reasonable popularity with the people. As anti-royalism increased along with threat of foreign invasion, the king tried to flee and join France's enemies. He was captured and on 12 January 1793, having been convicted of treason, he was guillotined.</P>
<P>On 20 September 1792 the <A href="/wiki/National_Convention" title="National Convention">National Convention</A> abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic. Due to the emergency of <A href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="French Revolutionary Wars">war</A>, the National Convention created the <A href="/wiki/Committee_of_Public_Safety" title="Committee of Public Safety">Committee of Public Safety</A>, controlled by <A href="/wiki/Maximilien_de_Robespierre" class="mw-redirect" title="Maximilien de Robespierre">Maximilien de Robespierre</A> of the <A href="/wiki/Jacobin_Club" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacobin Club">Jacobin Club</A>, to act as the country's executive. Under Robespierre, the committee initiated the <A href="/wiki/Reign_of_Terror" title="Reign of Terror">Reign of Terror</A>, during which up to 40,000 people were executed in Paris, mainly nobles and those convicted by the <A href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Tribunal" title="Revolutionary Tribunal">Revolutionary Tribunal</A>, often on the flimsiest of evidence. Internal tensions at Paris drove the Committee towards increasing assertions of radicalism and increasing suspicions, fueling new terror: A few months into this phase, more and more prominent revolutionaries were being sent to the guillotine by Robespierre and his faction, for example <A href="/wiki/Madame_Roland" title="Madame Roland">Madame Roland</A> and <A href="/wiki/Georges_Danton" title="Georges Danton">Georges Danton</A>. Elsewhere in the country, counter-revolutionary <A href="/wiki/War_in_the_Vend%C3%A9e" title="War in the Vendée">insurrections</A> were brutally suppressed. The regime was overthrown in the <A href="/wiki/Thermidorian_Reaction" title="Thermidorian Reaction">coup of 9 Thermidor</A> (27 July 1794) and Robespierre was executed. The regime which followed ended the Terror and relaxed Robespierre's more extreme policies.</P>
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The <A href="/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo" title="Battle of Waterloo">Battle of Waterloo</A>, where <A href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</A> was defeated by the Seventh Coalition in 1815</DIV>
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<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Napoleon">Napoleon</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Napoleon">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P><A href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon Bonaparte</A> was one of the world's most famous soldiers and statesmen, leading France to great victories over numerous European enemies. Despite modest origins he became Emperor and restructured much of European diplomacy, politics and law, until he was forced to abdicate in 1814. His 100-day comeback in 1815 failed at the <A href="/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo" title="Battle of Waterloo">Battle of Waterloo</A>, and he died in exile on a remote island, remembered as a great hero by many Frenchmen and as a great villain by British and other enemies.</P>
<P>Napoleon, despite his youth, was France's most successful general in the Revolutionary wars, having conquered large parts of <A href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</A> and forced the Austrians to sue for peace. In 1799 on <A href="/wiki/18_Brumaire" class="mw-redirect" title="18 Brumaire">18 Brumaire</A> (9 November) he overthrew the feeble government, replacing it with the <A href="/wiki/French_Consulate" title="French Consulate">Consulate</A>, which he dominated. He gained popularity in France by restoring the Church, keeping taxes low, centralizing power in Paris, and winning glory on the battlefield. In 1804 he crowned himself <A href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">Emperor</A>. In 1805, Napoleon planned to invade Britain, but a renewed British alliance with Russia and Austria (<A href="/wiki/Third_Coalition" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Coalition">Third Coalition</A>), forced him to turn his attention towards the continent, while at the same time the French fleet was demolished by the British at the <A href="/wiki/Battle_of_Trafalgar" title="Battle of Trafalgar">Battle of Trafalgar</A>, ending any plan to invade Britain. On 2 December 1805, Napoleon defeated a numerically superior Austro-Russian army at <A href="/wiki/Battle_of_Austerlitz" title="Battle of Austerlitz">Austerlitz</A>, forcing Austria's withdrawal from the coalition (see <A href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Pressburg_(1805)" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Pressburg (1805)">Treaty of Pressburg</A>) and dissolving the <A href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</A>. In 1806, a <A href="/wiki/Fourth_Coalition" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourth Coalition">Fourth Coalition</A> was set up. On 14 October Napoleon defeated the Prussians at the <A href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jena-Auerstedt" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Jena-Auerstedt">Battle of Jena-Auerstedt</A>, marched through Germany and defeated the Russians on 14 June 1807 at <A href="/wiki/Battle_of_Friedland" title="Battle of Friedland">Friedland</A>. The <A href="/wiki/Treaties_of_Tilsit" title="Treaties of Tilsit">Treaties of Tilsit</A> divided Europe between France and Russia and created the <A href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Warsaw" title="Duchy of Warsaw">Duchy of Warsaw</A>.</P>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Berezyna.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Berezyna.jpg/220px-Berezyna.jpg" width="220" height="127" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Berezyna.jpg/330px-Berezyna.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Berezyna.jpg/440px-Berezyna.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="463" /></A>
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Napoleon's army at the retreat from <A href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</A> at the <A href="/wiki/Berezina" class="mw-redirect" title="Berezina">Berezina</A> river</DIV>
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<P>On 12 June 1812 Napoleon <A href="/wiki/French_invasion_of_Russia" title="French invasion of Russia">invaded Russia</A> with a <A href="/wiki/Grande_Arm%C3%A9e" title="Grande Armée">Grande Armée</A> of nearly 700,000 troops. After the measured victories at <A href="/wiki/Battle_of_Smolensk_(1812)" title="Battle of Smolensk (1812)">Smolensk</A> and <A href="/wiki/Battle_of_Borodino" title="Battle of Borodino">Borodino</A> Napoleon occupied Moscow, only to find it burned by the retreating Russian army. He was forced to withdraw. On the march back his army was harassed by <A href="/wiki/Cossacks" title="Cossacks">Cossacks</A>, and suffered disease and starvation. Only 20,000 of his men survived the campaign. By 1813 the tide had begun to turn from Napoleon. Having been defeated by a <A href="/wiki/Sixth_Coalition" class="mw-redirect" title="Sixth Coalition">seven nation army</A> at the <A href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leipzig" title="Battle of Leipzig">Battle of Leipzig</A> in October 1813, he was forced to abdicate after the <A href="/wiki/Six_Days%27_Campaign" title="Six Days' Campaign">Six Days' Campaign</A> and the occupation of Paris. Under the Treaty of Fontainebleau he was exiled to the island of <A href="/wiki/Elba" title="Elba">Elba</A>. He returned to France on 1 March 1815 (see <A href="/wiki/Hundred_Days" title="Hundred Days">Hundred Days</A>), raised an army, but was finally defeated by a British and Prussian force at the <A href="/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo" title="Battle of Waterloo">Battle of Waterloo</A> on 18 June 1815 and exiled to a small British island in the South Atlantic.</P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Impact_of_the_French_Revolution">Impact of the French Revolution</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Impact of the French Revolution">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Influence_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Influence of the French Revolution">Influence of the French Revolution</A></DIV>
<P>Roberts finds that the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars, from 1793 to 1815, caused 4 million deaths (of whom 1 million were civilians); 1.4 million were French deaths.<SUP id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-81">[81]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Outside France the Revolution had a major impact. Its ideas became widespread. Roberts argues that Napoleon was responsible for key ideas of the modern world, so that, "meritocracy, equality before the law, property rights, religious toleration, modern secular education, sound finances, and so on-were protected, consolidated, codified, and geographically extended by Napoleon during his 16 years of power."<SUP id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-82">[82]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Furthermore, the French armies in the 1790s and 1800s directly overthrew feudal remains in much of western Europe. They liberalised <A href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">property laws</A>, ended <A href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">seigneurial dues</A>, abolished the <A href="/wiki/Guild" title="Guild">guild</A> of merchants and craftsmen to facilitate entrepreneurship, legalised of divorce, closed the <A href="/wiki/Ghetto" title="Ghetto">Jewish ghettos</A> and made Jews equal to everyone else. The <A href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Inquisition</A> ended as did the <A href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</A>. The power of church courts and religious authority was sharply reduced and <A href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">equality under the law</A> was proclaimed for all men.<SUP id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-83">[83]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In foreign affairs, the French Army down to 1812 was quite successful. Roberts says that Napoleon fought 60 battles, losing only seven.<SUP id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-84">[84]</A></SUP> France conquered Belgium and turned it into another province of France. It conquered the Netherlands, and made it a puppet state. It took control of the German areas on the left bank of the Rhine River and set up a puppet regime. It conquered Switzerland and most of Italy, setting up a series of puppet states. The result was glory for France, and an infusion of much needed money from the conquered lands, which also provided direct support to the French Army. However the enemies of France, led by Britain and funded by the inexhaustible British Treasury, formed a Second Coalition in 1799 (with Britain joined by Russia, the Ottoman Empire and Austria). It scored a series of victories that rolled back French successes, and trapped the French Army in Egypt. Napoleon himself slipped through the British blockade in October 1799, returning to Paris, where he overthrew the government and made himself the ruler.<SUP id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-85">[85]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-86">[86]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Napoleon conquered most of <A href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</A> in the name of the French Revolution in 1797–99. He consolidated old units and split up Austria's holdings. He set up a series of new republics, complete with new codes of law and abolition of old feudal privileges. Napoleon's <A href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Republic" title="Cisalpine Republic">Cisalpine Republic</A> was centered on Milan; Genoa became a republic; the Roman Republic was formed as well as the small <A href="/wiki/Ligurian_Republic" title="Ligurian Republic">Ligurian Republic</A> around Genoa. The <A href="/wiki/Parthenopean_Republic" title="Parthenopean Republic">Neapolitan Republic</A> was formed around Naples, but it lasted only five months. He later formed the <A href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</A>, with his brother as King. In addition, France turned the Netherlands into the <A href="/wiki/Batavian_Republic" title="Batavian Republic">Batavian Republic</A>, and Switzerland into the <A href="/wiki/Helvetic_Republic" title="Helvetic Republic">Helvetic Republic</A>. All these new countries were satellites of France, and had to pay large subsidies to Paris, as well as provide military support for Napoleon's wars. Their political and administrative systems were modernized, the metric system introduced, and trade barriers reduced. Jewish ghettos were abolished. Belgium and Piedmont became integral parts of France.<SUP id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-87">[87]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Most of the new nations were abolished and returned to prewar owners in 1814. However, Artz emphasizes the benefits the Italians gained from the French Revolution:</P>
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<DD>For nearly two decades the <A href="/wiki/Italians" title="Italians">Italians</A> had the excellent codes of law, a fair system of taxation, a better economic situation, and more religious and intellectual toleration than they had known for centuries.... Everywhere old physical, economic, and intellectual barriers had been thrown down and the Italians had begun to be aware of a common nationality.<SUP id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-88">[88]</A></SUP></DD>
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<P>Likewise in <A href="/wiki/History_of_Switzerland" title="History of Switzerland">Switzerland</A> the long-term impact of the French Revolution has been assessed by Martin:</P>
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<DD>It proclaimed the equality of citizens before the law, equality of languages, freedom of thought and faith; it created a Swiss citizenship, basis of our modern nationality, and the separation of powers, of which the old regime had no conception; it suppressed internal tariffs and other economic restraints; it unified weights and measures, reformed civil and penal law, authorized mixed marriages (between Catholics and Protestants), suppressed torture and improved justice; it developed education and public works.<SUP id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-89">[89]</A></SUP></DD>
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<P>The greatest impact came of course in France itself. In addition to effects similar to those in Italy and Switzerland, France saw the introduction of the principle of legal equality, and the downgrading of the once powerful and rich Catholic Church to just a bureau controlled by the government. Power became centralized in Paris, with its strong bureaucracy and an army supplied by conscripting all young men. French politics were permanently polarized—new names were given, "left" and "right" for the supporters and opponents of the principles of the Revolution.</P>
<P>British historian Max Hastings says there is no question that as a military genius Napoleon ranks with Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar in greatness. However, in the political realm, historians debate whether Napoleon was "an enlightened despot who laid the foundations of modern Europe or, instead, a megalomaniac who wrought greater misery than any man before the coming of Hitler".<SUP id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-90">[90]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Religion">Religion</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Religion">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_19th_century" title="Christianity in the 19th century">Christianity in the 19th century</A></DIV>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Protestantism">Protestantism</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Protestantism">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<P>Historian <A href="/wiki/Kenneth_Scott_Latourette" title="Kenneth Scott Latourette">Kenneth Scott Latourette</A> argues that the outlook for Protestantism at the start of the 19th century was discouraging. It was a regional religion based in northwestern Europe, with an outpost in the sparsely settled United States. It was closely allied with government, as in Scandinavia, the Netherlands, Prussia, and especially Great Britain. The alliance came at the expense of independence, as the government made the basic policy decisions, down to such details as the salaries of ministers and location of new churches. The dominant intellectual currents of the Enlightenment promoted rationalism, and most Protestant leaders preached a sort of deism. Intellectually, the new methods of historical and anthropological study undermine automatic acceptance of biblical stories, as did the sciences of geology and biology. Industrialization was a strongly negative factor, as workers who moved to the city seldom joined churches. The gap between the church and the unchurched grew rapidly, and secular forces, based both in socialism and liberalism undermine the prestige of religion. Despite the negative forces, Protestantism demonstrated a striking vitality by 1900. Shrugging off Enlightenment rationalism, Protestants embraced <A href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">romanticism</A>, with the stress on the personal and the invisible. Entirely fresh ideas as expressed by <A href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Friedrich Schleiermacher</A>, <A href="/wiki/Soren_Kierkegaard" class="mw-redirect" title="Soren Kierkegaard">Soren Kierkegaard</A>, <A href="/wiki/Albrecht_Ritschl" title="Albrecht Ritschl">Albrecht Ritschl</A> and <A href="/wiki/Adolf_von_Harnack" title="Adolf von Harnack">Adolf von Harnack</A> restored the intellectual power of theology. There was more attention to historic creeds such as the Augsburg, the Heidelberg, and the Westminster confessions. In England, Anglicans emphasize the historically Catholic components of their heritage, as the High Church element reintroduced vestments and incense into their rituals. The stirrings of <A href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">pietism</A> on the Continent, and <A href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">evangelicalism</A> in Britain expanded enormously, leading the devout away from an emphasis on formality and ritual and toward an inner sensibility toward personal relationship to Christ. Social activities, in education and in opposition to social vices such as slavery, alcoholism and poverty provided new opportunities for social service. Above all, worldwide missionary activity became a highly prized goal, proving quite successful in close cooperation with the imperialism of the British, German, and Dutch empires.<SUP id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-91">[91]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Nations_rising">Nations rising</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Nations rising">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <A href="/wiki/International_relations_of_the_Great_Powers_(1814%E2%80%931919)" title="International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)">International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)</A>, <A href="/wiki/Serbian_Revolution" title="Serbian Revolution">Serbian Revolution</A>, <A href="/wiki/Italian_unification" title="Italian unification">Italian unification</A>, <A href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence" title="Greek War of Independence">Greek War of Independence</A></DIV>
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Cheering the <A href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</A> in Berlin</DIV>
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<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Emerging_nationalism">Emerging nationalism</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Emerging nationalism">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <A href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</A></DIV>
<P>The political development of nationalism and the push for <A href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">popular sovereignty</A> culminated with the ethnic/national revolutions of Europe. During the 19th century nationalism became one of the most significant political and social forces in history; it is typically listed among the top causes of <A href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-92">[92]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-93">[93]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Napoleon's conquests of the German and Italian states around 1800–1806 played a major role in stimulating nationalism and the demands for national unity.<SUP id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-94">[94]</A></SUP></P>
<H5><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Germany">Germany</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Germany">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H5>
<P>In the German states east of Prussia <A href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</A> abolished many of the old or medieval relics, such as dissolving the <A href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</A> in 1806.<SUP id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-95">[95]</A></SUP> He imposed rational legal systems and demonstrated how dramatic changes were possible. For example, his organization of the <A href="/wiki/Confederation_of_the_Rhine" title="Confederation of the Rhine">Confederation of the Rhine</A> in 1806 promoted a feeling of nationalism. Nationalists sought to encompass masculinity in their quest for strength and unity.<SUP id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-96">[96]</A></SUP> In the 1860s it was Prussian chancellor <A href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</A> who achieved German unification in 1870 after the many smaller states followed Prussia's leadership in wars against Denmark, Austria and France.<SUP id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-97">[97]</A></SUP></P>
<H5><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Italy">Italy</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Italy">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H5>
<P>Italian nationalism emerged in the 19th century and was the driving force for <A href="/wiki/Italian_unification" title="Italian unification">Italian unification</A> or the "Risorgimento" (meaning the Resurgence or revival). It was the political and intellectual movement that consolidated different states of the Italian peninsula into the single state of the Kingdom of Italy in 1860. The memory of the Risorgimento is central to both Italian nationalism and Italian historiography.<SUP id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-98">[98]</A></SUP></P>
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Beginning in 1821, the <A href="/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence" title="Greek War of Independence">Greek War of Independence</A> began as a rebellion by Greek revolutionaries against the ruling Ottoman Empire.</DIV>
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<H5><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Greece">Greece</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Greece">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H5>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence" title="Greek War of Independence">Greek War of Independence</A></DIV>
<P>The Greek drive for independence from the Ottoman Empire inspired supporters across Christian Europe, especially in Britain. France, Russia and Britain intervened to make this nationalist dream become reality.<SUP id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-99">[99]</A></SUP></P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Serbia">Serbia</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Serbia">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/History_of_Serbia" title="History of Serbia">History of Serbia</A></DIV>
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Breakup of Yugoslavia</DIV>
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<P>For centuries the Orthodox Christian Serbs were ruled by the <A href="/wiki/Muslim" title="Muslim">Muslim</A>-controlled <A href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</A>. The success of the <A href="/wiki/Serbian_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Serbian revolution">Serbian revolution</A> against <A href="/wiki/History_of_Ottoman_Serbia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ottoman Serbia">Ottoman rule</A> in 1817 marked the foundation of modern <A href="/wiki/Principality_of_Serbia" title="Principality of Serbia">Principality of Serbia</A>. It achieved <I>de facto</I> independence in 1867 and finally gained recognition by the Great Powers in the <A href="/wiki/Berlin_Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="Berlin Congress">Berlin Congress of 1878</A>. The Serbs developed a larger vision for nationalism in <A href="/wiki/Pan-Slavism" title="Pan-Slavism">Pan-Slavism</A> and with Russian support sought to pull the other Slavs out of the <A href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian Empire</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-100">[100]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-101">[101]</A></SUP> Austria, with German backing, tried to crush Serbia in 1914 but Russia intervened, thus igniting the <A href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</A> in which Austria dissolved into nation states.<SUP id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-102">[102]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In 1918, the region of <A href="/wiki/Vojvodina" title="Vojvodina">Vojvodina</A> proclaimed its <A href="/wiki/Banat,_Ba%C4%8Dka_and_Baranja" title="Banat, Bačka and Baranja">secession</A> from Austria-Hungary to unite with the pan-Slavic <A href="/wiki/State_of_Slovenes,_Croats_and_Serbs" title="State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs">State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs</A>; the Kingdom of Serbia joined the union on 1 December 1918, and the country was named <A href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbs,_Croats,_and_Slovenes" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes">Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes</A>. It was renamed <A href="/wiki/Yugoslavia" title="Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</A>, which was never able to tame the multiple nationalities and religions and it flew apart in civil war in the 1990s.</P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Poland">Poland</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Poland">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">History of Poland</A></DIV>
<P>The cause of Polish nationalism was repeatedly frustrated before 1918. In the 1790s, Germany, Russia and Austria <A href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">partitioned Poland</A>. Napoleon set up the <A href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Warsaw" title="Duchy of Warsaw">Duchy of Warsaw</A>, a new Polish state that ignited a spirit of nationalism. Russia took it over in 1815 as <A href="/wiki/Congress_Poland" title="Congress Poland">Congress Poland</A> with the tsar as King of Poland. Large-scale nationalist revolts erupted <A href="/wiki/November_Uprising" title="November Uprising">in 1830</A> and <A href="/wiki/January_Uprising" title="January Uprising">1863–64</A> but were harshly crushed by Russia, which tried to Russify the Polish language, culture and religion. The collapse of the Russian Empire in the First World War enabled the major powers to reestablish an independent Poland, which survived until 1939. Meanwhile, Poles in areas controlled by Germany moved into heavy industry but their religion came under attack by Bismarck in the <A href="/wiki/Kulturkampf" title="Kulturkampf">Kulturkampf</A> of the 1870s. The Poles joined German Catholics in a well-organized new <A href="/wiki/Centre_Party_(Germany)" title="Centre Party (Germany)">Centre Party</A>, and defeated Bismarck politically. He responded by stopping the harassment and cooperating with the Centre Party.<SUP id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-103">[103]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-104">[104]</A></SUP></P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Conservative_forces">Conservative forces</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Conservative forces">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<P>After the defeat of revolutionary France, the other great powers tried to restore the situation which existed before 1789. In 1815 at the <A href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</A>, the major powers of Europe managed to produce a peaceful <A href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_in_international_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Balance of power in international relations">balance of power</A> among the various European empires. This was known as the <A href="/wiki/Metternich" class="mw-redirect" title="Metternich">Metternich</A> system. However, their efforts were unable to stop the spread of revolutionary movements: the middle classes had been deeply influenced by the ideals of the French revolution, the <A href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</A> brought important economical and social changes. The working classes and some intellectuals became a base for socialist, communist and <A href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">anarchistic</A> ideas (especially those summarised by <A href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</A> and <A href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</A> in <I><A href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</A></I>). The middle classes and businessmen promoted liberalism, free trade and capitalism. Aristocratic elements concentrated in government service, the military and the established churches. Nationalist movements (in Germany, Italy, Poland, Hungary, and elsewhere) called upon the "racial" unity (which usually meant a common language and an imagined common ethnicity) to seek national unification and/or liberation from foreign rule. As a result, the period between 1815 and 1871 saw a large number of revolutionary attempts and independence wars. Greece successfully revolted against Ottoman rule in the 1820s. European diplomats and intellectuals saw the Greek struggle for independence, with its accounts of Turkish atrocities, in a romantic light.</P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="France_under_Napoleon_III">France under Napoleon III</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: France under Napoleon III">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<P><A href="/wiki/Napoleon_III" title="Napoleon III">Napoleon III</A>, nephew of Napoleon I, returned to France from exile in 1848, bringing a famous name that promised to stabilize the chaotic political situation. He was elected president and elected himself Emperor, a move approved later by a large majority of the French electorate. He modernized Paris, and build up the economy. He was most famous for his aggressive foreign policy in Europe, Mexico, and worldwide. He helped in the unification of Italy by fighting the Austrian Empire and joined the <A href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</A> on the side of the United Kingdom and the Ottoman Empire against Russia. His empire collapsed after being defeated in the <A href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-105">[105]</A></SUP> France gave up monarchs and became the democratic but anti-clerical <A href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">French Third Republic</A>, which lasted until 1940.<SUP id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-106">[106]</A></SUP></P>
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<A href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Giuseppe Garibaldi</A>'s redshirts during the <A href="/wiki/Battle_of_Calatafimi" title="Battle of Calatafimi">Battle of Calatafimi</A>, part of the <A href="/wiki/Italian_Unification" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Unification">Italian Unification</A>.</DIV>
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<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Major_powers">Major powers</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Major powers">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<TABLE class="wikitable">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH>Country</TH>
<TH>Population in millions (year)</TH>
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<TR>
<TD>Russia</TD>
<TD>71.8 (1870)</TD>
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<TR>
<TD>Germany</TD>
<TD>42.7 (1875)</TD>
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<TD>Austria-Hungary</TD>
<TD>37.3 (1876)</TD>
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<TD>France</TD>
<TD>36.9 (1876)</TD>
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<TD>Great Britain</TD>
<TD>33.7 (1877)</TD>
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<TD>Italy</TD>
<TD>26.8 (1876)</TD>
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<TD>Source:</TD>
<TD><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americanannualc22unkngoog"><I>Appleton Annual Cyclopedia: 1877</I> (1878) p 281</A></TD>
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<P>Most European states had become <A href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional</A> (rather than absolute) monarchies by 1871, and Germany and Italy merged many small city-states to become united nation-states. Germany in particular increasingly dominated the continent in terms of economics and political power. Meanwhile, on a global scale, Great Britain, with its far-flung <A href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</A>, unmatched Royal Navy, and powerful bankers, became the world's first global power. The sun never set on its territories, while an informal empire operated through British financiers, entrepreneurs, traders and engineers who established operations in many countries, and largely dominated Latin America. The British were especially famous for financing and constructing railways around the world.<SUP id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-107">[107]</A></SUP></P>
<H4><SPAN id="Bismarck.27s_Germany"></SPAN><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Bismarck's_Germany">Bismarck's Germany</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Bismarck's Germany">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
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Otto von Bismarck, Chancellor of Germany</DIV>
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<P>From his base in Prussia, <A href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</A> in the 1860s engineered a series of short, decisive wars, that <A href="/wiki/Unification_of_Germany" title="Unification of Germany">unified most of the German states</A> (excluding Austria) into a powerful <A href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</A> under Prussian leadership. He humiliated France in the process, but kept on good terms with Austria-Hungary. With that accomplished by 1871 he then skillfully used <A href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">balance of power</A> diplomacy to preserve Germany's new role and keep Europe at peace. He was removed from office in 1890 by an aggressive young Kaiser <A href="/wiki/Wilhelm_II,_German_Emperor" title="Wilhelm II, German Emperor">Wilhelm II</A>, who pursued a disruptive foreign policy that polarized Europe into rival camps. These rival camps went to war with each other in 1914.<SUP id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-108">[108]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Imperialism">Imperialism</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Imperialism">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <A href="/wiki/Colonial_Empires" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonial Empires">Colonial Empires</A>, <A href="/wiki/History_of_colonialism" title="History of colonialism">History of colonialism</A>, <A href="/wiki/Habsburg_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Habsburg Empire">Habsburg Empire</A>, <A href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</A>, <A href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French colonial empire</A>, <A href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</A>, <A href="/wiki/Dutch_Empire" title="Dutch Empire">Dutch Empire</A>, <A href="/wiki/Italian_colonial_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian colonial empire">Italian colonial empire</A>, and <A href="/wiki/German_colonial_empire" title="German colonial empire">German colonial empire</A></DIV>
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The <A href="/wiki/Berlin_Conference_(1884)" class="mw-redirect" title="Berlin Conference (1884)">Berlin Conference (1884)</A> headed by <A href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</A> that regulated European colonization in Africa during the <A href="/wiki/New_Imperialism" title="New Imperialism">New Imperialism</A> period</DIV>
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<P><A href="/wiki/Colonial_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonial empires">Colonial empires</A> were the product of the European <A href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</A> from the 15th century. The initial impulse behind these dispersed maritime empires and those that followed was trade, driven by the new ideas and the capitalism that grew out of the <A href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</A>. Both the <A href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</A> and <A href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</A> quickly grew into the first global political and economic systems with territories spread around the world.</P>
<P>Subsequent major European colonial empires included the <A href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French</A>, <A href="/wiki/Dutch_Empire" title="Dutch Empire">Dutch</A>, and <A href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</A> empires. The latter, consolidated during the period of British maritime hegemony in the 19th century, became the largest empire in history because of the improved ocean transportation technologies of the time as well as electronic communication through the telegraph, cable, and radio. At its height in 1920, the British Empire covered a quarter of the Earth's land area and comprised a quarter of its population. Other European countries, such as <A href="/wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Belgian colonial empire">Belgium</A>, <A href="/wiki/German_colonial_empire" title="German colonial empire">Germany</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Italian_colonial_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian colonial empire">Italy</A>, pursued colonial empires as well (mostly in Africa), but they were smaller. Ignoring the oceans, Russia built its <A href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</A> through conquest by land in Eastern Europe, and Asia.</P>
<P>By the mid-19th century, the <A href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</A> had declined enough to become a target for other global powers (see <A href="/wiki/History_of_the_Balkans" title="History of the Balkans">History of the Balkans</A>). This instigated the <A href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</A> in 1854 and began a tenser period of minor clashes among the globe-spanning empires of Europe that eventually set the stage for the <A href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</A>. In the second half of the 19th century, the <A href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia" title="Kingdom of Sardinia">Kingdom of Sardinia</A> and the <A href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</A> carried out a series of wars that resulted in the creation of <A href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</A> and <A href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</A> as nation-states, significantly changing the balance of power in Europe. From 1870, <A href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</A> engineered a German hegemony of Europe that put France in a critical situation. It slowly rebuilt its relationships, seeking alliances with Russia and Britain to control the growing power of Germany. In this way, two opposing sides—the <A href="/wiki/Triple_Alliance_(1882)" title="Triple Alliance (1882)">Triple Alliance of 1882</A> (Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy) and the <A href="/wiki/Triple_Entente" title="Triple Entente">Triple Entente of 1907</A> (Britain, France and Russia)—formed in Europe, improving their military forces and alliances year-by-year.</P>
<H2><SPAN id="1914.E2.80.931945:_Two_World_wars"></SPAN><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="1914–1945:_Two_World_wars">1914–1945: Two World wars</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: 1914–1945: Two World wars">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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Military alliances leading to World War; Triple Entente in green; Central Powers in brown</DIV>
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<P>German-American historian <A href="/wiki/Konrad_Jarausch" title="Konrad Jarausch">Konrad Jarausch</A>, asked if he agreed that "the European record of the past century [was] just one gigantic catastrophe", argues:</P>
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<DD>It is true that the first half of the 20th century was full of internecine warfare, economic depression, ethnic cleansing and racist genocide that killed tens of millions of people, more than any other period in human history. But looking only at the disasters creates an incomplete perception, because the second half of the century witnessed a much more positive development in spite of the Cold War. After the defeat of Fascism in 1945, the peaceful revolution of 1989/90 also liberated the East from Communist control in a quite unexpected fashion. As a result, Europeans generally live more free, prosperous and healthy lives than ever before.<SUP id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-109">[109]</A></SUP></DD>
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<P>The "<A href="/wiki/Short_twentieth_century" title="Short twentieth century">short twentieth century</A>", from 1914 to 1991, included the <A href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</A>, the <A href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</A> and the <A href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</A>. The First World War used modern technology to kill millions of soldiers. Victory by Britain, France, the United States and other allies drastically changed the map of Europe, ending four major land empires (the Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires) and leading to the creation of nation-states across Central and Eastern Europe. The <A href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</A> in Russia led to the creation of the <A href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</A> (1917–1991) and the rise of the international communist movement. Widespread economic prosperity was typical of the period before 1914, and 1920–1929. After the onset of the <A href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</A> in 1929, however, democracy collapsed in most of Europe. Fascists took control in Italy, and the even more aggressive Nazi movement led by Adolf Hitler took control of Germany, 1933–45. The Second World War was fought on an even larger scale than the First war, killing many more people, and using even more advanced technology. It ended with the division of Europe between East and West, with the East under the control of the Soviet Union and the West dominated by NATO. The two sides engaged in the <A href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</A>, with actual conflict taking place not in Europe but in Asia in the Korean War and the Vietnam War. The Imperial system collapsed. The remaining <A href="/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">colonial empires</A> ended through the <A href="/wiki/Decolonisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Decolonisation">decolonisation</A> of European rule in Africa and Asia. The fall of Soviet Communism (1989– 1991) left the West dominant and enabled the <A href="/wiki/Reunification_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Reunification of Germany">reunification of Germany</A>. It accelerated the process of a <A href="/wiki/European_integration" title="European integration">European integration</A> to include Eastern Europe. The European Union continues today, but with German economic dominance. Since the worldwide Great Recession of 2008, European growth has been slow, and financial crises have hit Greece and other countries. Social divisiveness has been caused by large-scale immigration and radical Islamic rejection of European norms. While Russia is a weak version of the old Soviet Union, it has been confronting Europe in Ukraine and other areas.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="World_War_I">World War I</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: World War I">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <A href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</A>, <A href="/wiki/Home_front_during_World_War_I" title="Home front during World War I">Home front during World War I</A>, <A href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_World_War_I" title="Diplomatic history of World War I">Diplomatic history of World War I</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_World_War_I" title="Economic history of World War I">Economic history of World War I</A></DIV>
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Trenches and sand bags were defences against machine guns and artillery on the Western Front, 1914–1918</DIV>
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<P>After the relative peace of most of the 19th century, the rivalry between European powers, compounded by a rising nationalism among ethnic groups, exploded in August 1914, when the <A href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</A> started. Over 65 million European soldiers were mobilised from 1914 to 1918; 20 million soldiers and civilians died, and 21 million were seriously wounded.<SUP id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-110">[110]</A></SUP> On one side were Germany, <A href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</A>, the <A href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</A> and <A href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</A> (the <A href="/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</A>/<A href="/wiki/Triple_Alliance_(1882)" title="Triple Alliance (1882)">Triple Alliance</A>), while on the other side stood <A href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbia</A> and the <I><A href="/wiki/Triple_Entente" title="Triple Entente">Triple Entente</A></I> – the coalition of France, Britain and Russia, which were joined by Italy in 1915, Romania in 1916 and by the United States in 1917. The Western Front involved especially brutal combat without any territorial gains by either side. Single battles like Verdun and the Somme killed hundreds of thousands of men while leaving the stalemate unchanged. Heavy artillery and machine guns caused most of the casualties, supplemented by poison gas. Czarist Russia collapsed in the <A href="/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February Revolution</A> of 1917 and Germany claimed victory on the <A href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Eastern Front (World War I)">Eastern Front</A>. After eight months of liberal rule, the <A href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</A> brought <A href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</A> and the Bolsheviks to power, leading to the creation of the Soviet Union in place of the disintegrated Russian Empire. With American entry into the war in 1917 on the Allied side, and the failure of Germany's spring 1918 offensive, Germany had run out of manpower, while an average of 10,000 American troops were arriving in France every day in the summer of 1918. Germany's allies, <A href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</A> and the <A href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</A>, surrendered and dissolved, followed by Germany on 11 November 1918.<SUP id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-111">[111]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-112">[112]</A></SUP> The victors forced Germany to assume responsibility for the conflict and pay war reparations.</P>
<P>One factor in determining the outcome of the war was that the Allies had significantly more economic resources they could spend on the war. One estimate (using 1913 US dollars) is that the Allies spent $58 billion on the war and the Central Powers only $25 billion. Among the Allies, Britain spent $21 billion and the U.S. $17 billion; among the Central Powers Germany spent $20 billion.<SUP id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-113">[113]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Paris_Peace_Conference">Paris Peace Conference</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Paris Peace Conference">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference,_1919" title="Paris Peace Conference, 1919">Paris Peace Conference, 1919</A></DIV>
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Europe in 1919</DIV>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:452px;"><A href="/wiki/File:William_Orpen_%E2%80%93_The_Signing_of_Peace_in_the_Hall_of_Mirrors,_Versailles_1919,_Ausschnitt.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/William_Orpen_%E2%80%93_The_Signing_of_Peace_in_the_Hall_of_Mirrors%2C_Versailles_1919%2C_Ausschnitt.jpg/450px-William_Orpen_%E2%80%93_The_Signing_of_Peace_in_the_Hall_of_Mirrors%2C_Versailles_1919%2C_Ausschnitt.jpg" width="450" height="161" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/William_Orpen_%E2%80%93_The_Signing_of_Peace_in_the_Hall_of_Mirrors%2C_Versailles_1919%2C_Ausschnitt.jpg/675px-William_Orpen_%E2%80%93_The_Signing_of_Peace_in_the_Hall_of_Mirrors%2C_Versailles_1919%2C_Ausschnitt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/William_Orpen_%E2%80%93_The_Signing_of_Peace_in_the_Hall_of_Mirrors%2C_Versailles_1919%2C_Ausschnitt.jpg/900px-William_Orpen_%E2%80%93_The_Signing_of_Peace_in_the_Hall_of_Mirrors%2C_Versailles_1919%2C_Ausschnitt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2238" data-file-height="800" /></A>
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Detail from <A href="/wiki/William_Orpen" title="William Orpen">William Orpen</A>'s painting <I>The Signing of Peace in the Hall of Mirrors, Versailles, 28th June 1919</I>, showing the signing of the peace treaty by a minor German official opposite to the representatives of the winning powers.</DIV>
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<P>The world war was settled by the victors at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. Two dozen nations sent delegations, and there were many nongovernmental groups, but the defeated powers were not invited.<SUP id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-114">[114]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The "<A href="/wiki/The_Big_Four_(World_War_I)" title="The Big Four (World War I)">Big Four</A>" were President <A href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</A> of the United States, Prime Minister <A href="/wiki/David_Lloyd_George" title="David Lloyd George">David Lloyd George</A> of Great Britain, <A href="/wiki/George_Clemenceau" class="mw-redirect" title="George Clemenceau">George Clemenceau</A> of France, and, of least importance, Italian Prime Minister <A href="/wiki/Vittorio_Orlando" class="mw-redirect" title="Vittorio Orlando">Vittorio Orlando</A>. They met together informally 145 times and made all the major decisions, which in turn were ratified by the others.<SUP id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-115">[115]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The major decisions were the creation of the <A href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</A>; the six peace treaties with defeated enemies, most notable the <A href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</A> with Germany; the awarding of German and Ottoman overseas possessions as <A href="/wiki/League_of_Nations_mandate" title="League of Nations mandate">"mandates"</A>, chiefly to Britain and France; and the drawing of new national boundaries (sometimes with plebiscites) to better reflect the forces of nationalism.<SUP id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-116">[116]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-117">[117]</A></SUP></P>
<P>As the conference's decisions were enacted <A href="/wiki/Unilaterally" class="mw-redirect" title="Unilaterally">unilaterally</A>, and largely on the whims of the Big Four, for its duration <A href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</A> was effectively the center of a <A href="/wiki/World_government" title="World government">world government</A>, which deliberated over and implemented the sweeping changes to the <A href="/wiki/Political_geography" title="Political geography">political geography</A> of <A href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</A>. Most famously, the Treaty of Versailles itself weakened <A href="/wiki/Reichswehr" title="Reichswehr">Germany's military</A> and placed <A href="/wiki/War_Guilt_Clause" class="mw-redirect" title="War Guilt Clause">full blame for the war</A> and <A href="/wiki/World_War_I_reparations" title="World War I reparations">costly reparations</A> on its shoulders – the humiliation and resentment in Germany is sometimes considered as one of the causes of Nazi success and indirectly a <A href="/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_II" title="Causes of World War II">cause of World War II</A>.</P>
<P>At the insistence of President Wilson, the Big Four required Poland to sign a treaty on 28 June 1919 that guaranteed <A href="/wiki/Minority_rights" title="Minority rights">minority rights</A> in the new nation. Poland signed under protest, and made little effort to enforce the specified rights for <A href="/wiki/Germans" title="Germans">Germans</A>, <A href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</A>, <A href="/wiki/Ukrainians" title="Ukrainians">Ukrainians</A>, and other minorities. Similar treaties were signed by Czechoslovakia, Romania, Yugoslavia, Greece, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, and later by Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania. Finland and Germany were not asked to sign a <A href="/wiki/Minority_Treaties" title="Minority Treaties">minority rights treaty</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-118">[118]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Interwar">Interwar</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Interwar">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <A href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_I" title="Aftermath of World War I">Aftermath of World War I</A>, <A href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</A>, and <A href="/wiki/International_relations_(1919%E2%80%931939)" title="International relations (1919–1939)">International relations (1919–1939)</A></DIV>
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Interwar Europe in 1923</DIV>
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<P>In the <A href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</A> (1919) the winners imposed relatively hard conditions on Germany and recognised the new states (such as <A href="/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic" title="Second Polish Republic">Poland</A>, <A href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</A>, <A href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</A>, <A href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</A>, <A href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia" title="Kingdom of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</A>, <A href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</A>, <A href="/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</A>, <A href="/wiki/Latvia" title="Latvia">Latvia</A>, <A href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</A>) created in central Europe from the defunct German, Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires, based on national (ethnic) self-determination. It was a peaceful era with a few small wars before 1922 such as the <A href="/wiki/Ukrainian%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Ukrainian–Soviet War">Ukrainian–Soviet War</A> (1917–1921) and the <A href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Polish–Soviet War">Polish–Soviet War</A> (1919–1921). Prosperity was widespread, and the major cities sponsored a youth culture called the "<A href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</A>" that was often featured in the cinema, which attracted very large audiences.</P>
<P>The Allied victory in the First World War seem to mark the triumph of <A href="/wiki/History_of_Liberalism" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Liberalism">liberalism</A>, not just in the Allied countries themselves, but also in Germany and in the new states of Eastern Europe, as well as Japan. Authoritarian militarism as typified by Germany had been defeated and discredited. Historian Martin Blinkhorn argues that the liberal themes were ascendant in terms of "cultural pluralism, religious and ethnic toleration, national self-determination, free-market economics, representative and responsible government, free trade, unionism, and the peaceful settlement of international disputes through a new body, the League of Nations."<SUP id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-119">[119]</A></SUP> However, as early as 1917, the emerging liberal order was being challenged by the new <A href="/wiki/Communist_International" title="Communist International">communist movement</A> taking inspiration from the Russian Revolution. Communist revolts were beaten back everywhere else, but they did succeed in Russia.<SUP id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-120">[120]</A></SUP></P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Fascism_and_authoritarianism">Fascism and authoritarianism</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Fascism and authoritarianism">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<P>Italy adopted an authoritarian system known as <A href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</A> in 1922; it became a model for Hitler in Germany and for right wing elements in other countries. Historian <A href="/wiki/Stanley_G._Payne" title="Stanley G. Payne">Stanley G. Payne</A> says Fascism in Italy was:</P>
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<DD>A primarily political dictatorship....The Fascist Party itself had become almost completely bureaucratized and subservient to, not dominant over, the state itself. Big business, industry, and finance retained extensive autonomy, particularly in the early years. The armed forces also enjoyed considerable autonomy....The Fascist militia was placed under military control....The judicial system was left largely intact and relatively autonomous as well. The police continued to be directed by state officials and were not taken over by party leaders...nor was a major new police elite created....There was never any question of bringing the Church under overall subservience.... Sizable sectors of Italian cultural life retained extensive autonomy, and no major state propaganda-and-culture ministry existed....The Mussolini regime was neither especially sanguinary nor particularly repressive.<SUP id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-121">[121]</A></SUP></DD>
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<P>Authoritarian regimes were established in the 1930s in <A href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Germany</A>, <A href="/wiki/Estado_Novo_(Portugal)" title="Estado Novo (Portugal)">Portugal</A>, <A href="/wiki/Austrofascism" title="Austrofascism">Austria</A>, Poland, <A href="/wiki/4th_of_August_Regime" title="4th of August Regime">Greece</A>, the Baltic countries and <A href="/wiki/Francoist_Spain" title="Francoist Spain">Spain</A>. By 1940, there were only four liberal democracies left on the European continent: <A href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">France</A>, Finland, Switzerland and Sweden.<SUP id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-122">[122]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN id="Great_Depression:_1929.E2.80.931939"></SPAN><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Great_Depression:_1929–1939">Great Depression: 1929–1939</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Great Depression: 1929–1939">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</A></DIV>
<P>After the <A href="/wiki/Wall_Street_Crash_of_1929" title="Wall Street Crash of 1929">Wall Street Crash of 1929</A>, nearly the whole world sank into a <A href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</A>, as prices fell, profits fell, and unemployment soared. The worst hit sectors included heavy industry, export-oriented agriculture, mining and lumbering, and construction. World trade fell by two thirds.<SUP id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-123">[123]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Liberalism and democracy were discredited. In most of Europe, as well as in Japan and most of Latin America, nation after nation turned to dictators and authoritarian regimes. The most momentous change of government came when Hitler and his Nazis took power in Germany in 1933. A major civil war took place in <A href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spain</A>, with the nationalists winning. The League of Nations was helpless as Italy conquered Ethiopia and Japan seized Manchuria in 1931 and took over most of China starting in 1937.<SUP id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-124">[124]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</A> (1936–1939) was marked by numerous small battles and sieges, and many atrocities, until the rebels (the Nationalists), led by <A href="/wiki/Francisco_Franco" title="Francisco Franco">Francisco Franco</A>, won in 1939. There was military intervention as Italy sent land forces, and Germany sent smaller elite air force and armoured units to the Nationalists. The Soviet Union sold armaments to the leftist Republicans on the other side, while the Communist parties in numerous countries sent soldiers to the "<A href="/wiki/International_Brigades" title="International Brigades">International Brigades</A>." The civil war did not escalate into a larger conflict, but did become a worldwide ideological battleground that pitted the left, the communist movement and many liberals against Catholics, conservatives, and fascists. Britain, France and the US remained neutral and refused to sell military supplies to either side. Worldwide there was a decline in pacifism and a growing sense that another world war was imminent, and that it would be worth fighting for.<SUP id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-125">[125]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="World_War_II">World War II</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: World War II">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <A href="/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_II" title="Causes of World War II">Causes of World War II</A>, <A href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</A>, <A href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_World_War_II" title="Diplomatic history of World War II">Diplomatic history of World War II</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Home_front_during_World_War_II" title="Home front during World War II">Home front during World War II</A></DIV>
<P>In the <A href="/wiki/Munich_Agreement" title="Munich Agreement">Munich Agreement</A> of 1938, Britain and France adopted a policy of <A href="/wiki/Appeasement" title="Appeasement">appeasement</A> as they gave Hitler what he wanted out of Czechoslovakia in the hope that it would bring peace. It did not. In 1939 Germany took over the rest of Czechoslovakia and appeasement policies gave way to hurried rearmament as Hitler next turned his attention to Poland.</P>
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American and Soviet troops <A href="/wiki/Elbe_Day" title="Elbe Day">meet in April 1945</A>, east of the <A href="/wiki/Elbe_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Elbe River">Elbe River</A>.</DIV>
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<P>After allying with Japan in the <A href="/wiki/Anti-Comintern_Pact" title="Anti-Comintern Pact">Anti-Comintern Pact</A> and then also with <A href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</A>'s <A href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</A> in the "<A href="/wiki/Pact_of_Steel" title="Pact of Steel">Pact of Steel</A>", and finally signing a <A href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">non-aggression treaty</A> with the Soviet Union in August 1939, Hitler launched the <A href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</A> on 1 September 1939 by attacking Poland. To his surprise Britain and France declared war on Germany, but there was little fighting during the "Phoney War" period. War began in earnest in spring 1940 with the successful Blitzkrieg conquests of Denmark, Norway, the Low Countries, and France. Britain remained alone but refused to negotiate, and defeated Germany's air attacks in the <A href="/wiki/Battle_of_Britain" title="Battle of Britain">Battle of Britain</A>. Hitler's goal was to control Eastern Europe but because of his failure to defeat Britain and the Italian failures in North Africa and the Balkans, the great attack on the Soviet Union was delayed until June 1941. Despite initial successes, the German army was stopped close to Moscow in December 1941.<SUP id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-126">[126]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Over the next year the tide was turned and the Germans started to suffer a series of defeats, for example in the siege of <A href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad" title="Battle of Stalingrad">Stalingrad</A> and at <A href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kursk" title="Battle of Kursk">Kursk</A>. Meanwhile, Japan (allied to Germany and Italy since September 1940) attacked Britain and the United States on 7 December 1941; Germany then completed its over-extension by declaring war on the United States. War raged between the Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan) and the <A href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allied Forces</A> (British Empire, Soviet Union, and the United States). The Allied Forces won in North Africa, invaded Italy in 1943, and recaptured France in 1944. In the spring of 1945 Germany itself was invaded from the east by the Soviet Union and from the west by the other Allies. As the Red Army conquered the <A href="/wiki/Reichstag_building" title="Reichstag building">Reichstag</A> in Berlin, Hitler committed suicide and Germany surrendered in early May.<SUP id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-127">[127]</A></SUP> World War II was the deadliest conflict in human history, causing <A href="/wiki/World_War_II_casualties" title="World War II casualties">between 50 and 80 million deaths</A>, the majority of whom were civilians (approximately 38 to 55 million).<SUP id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-128">[128]</A></SUP></P>
<P>This period was also marked by systematic genocide. In 1942–45, separately from the war-related deaths, the <A href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazis</A> killed an additional number of over 11 million civilians <A href="/wiki/IBM_and_the_Holocaust" title="IBM and the Holocaust">identified through IBM-enabled censuses</A>, including the <A href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">majority of the Jews</A> and <A href="/wiki/Porajmos" title="Porajmos">Gypsies</A> of Europe, millions of <A href="/wiki/Nazi_crimes_against_ethnic_Poles" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi crimes against ethnic Poles">Polish</A> and <A href="/wiki/Generalplan_Ost" title="Generalplan Ost">Soviet</A> Slavs, and also homosexuals, <A href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</A>, misfits, disabled, and political enemies. Meanwhile, in the 1930s the Soviet system of <A href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">forced labour</A>, <A href="/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Population transfer in the Soviet Union">expulsions</A> and <A href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">allegedly engineered famine</A> had a similar death toll. During and after the war millions of civilians were affected by forced population transfers.<SUP id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-129">[129]</A></SUP></P>
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Western European colonial empires in <A href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</A> and <A href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</A> disintegrated after World War II</DIV>
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<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Cold_War_Era">Cold War Era</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Cold War Era">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <A href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</A>, <A href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</A>, <A href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</A>, and <A href="/wiki/European_Economic_Community" title="European Economic Community">European Economic Community</A></DIV>
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East German construction workers building the Berlin Wall, 20 November 1961</DIV>
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Remains of the "<A href="/wiki/Iron_curtain" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron curtain">Iron curtain</A>" in <A href="/wiki/Dev%C3%ADnska_Nov%C3%A1_Ves" title="Devínska Nová Ves">Devínska Nová Ves</A>, <A href="/wiki/Bratislava" title="Bratislava">Bratislava</A> (Slovakia).</DIV>
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<P>The world wars ended the pre-eminent position of Britain, France and Germany in the Europe and the world.<SUP id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-130">[130]</A></SUP> At the <A href="/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta Conference</A>, Europe was divided into spheres of influence between the victors of World War II, and soon became the principal zone of contention in the <A href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</A> between the two power blocs, the <A href="/wiki/Western_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Western countries">Western countries</A> and the <A href="/wiki/Communist_bloc" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist bloc">Communist bloc</A>. The United States and the majority of European liberal democracies at the time (United Kingdom, France, Italy, Netherlands, West Germany etc.) established the <A href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</A> military alliance. Later, the Soviet Union and its satellites (Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, <A href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</A>, Hungary, Poland, and Romania) in 1955 established the <A href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</A> as a counterpoint to NATO. The Warsaw Pact had a much larger ground force, but the American-French-British nuclear umbrellas protected NATO.</P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Communist_state" title="Communist state">Communist states</A> were imposed by the Red Army in the East, while parliamentary democracy became the dominant form of government in the West. Most historians point to its success as the product of exhaustion with war and dictatorship, and the promise of continued economic prosperity. Martin Conway also adds that an important impetus came from the anti-Nazi wartime political coalitions.<SUP id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-131">[131]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Economic_recovery">Economic recovery</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Economic recovery">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <A href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</A> and <A href="/wiki/European_Economic_Community" title="European Economic Community">European Economic Community</A></DIV>
<P>The United States gave away about $20 billion in <A href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</A> grants and other grants and low-interest long-term loans to Western Europe, 1945 to 1951. Historian Michael J. Hogan argues that American aid was critical in stabilizing the economy and politics of Western Europe. It brought in modern management that dramatically increased productivity, and encouraged cooperation between labor and management, and among the member states. Local Communist parties were opposed, and they lost prestige and influence and a role in government. In strategic terms, says Hogan, the Marshall Plan strengthened the West against The possibility of a Communist invasion or political takeover.<SUP id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-132">[132]</A></SUP> However, the Marshall Plan's role in the rapid recovery has been debated. Most reject the idea that it only miraculously revived Europe, since the evidence shows that a general recovery was already under way thanks to other aid programs from the United States. Economic historians Bradford De Long and <A href="/wiki/Barry_Eichengreen" title="Barry Eichengreen">Barry Eichengreen</A> conclude it was, " History's Most Successful Structural Adjustment Program." They state:</P>
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<DD>It was not large enough to have significantly accelerated recovery by financing investment, aiding the reconstruction of damaged infrastructure, or easing commodity bottlenecks. We argue, however, that the Marshall Plan did play a major role in setting the stage for post-World War II Western Europe's rapid growth. The conditions attached to Marshall Plan aid pushed European political economy in a direction that left its post World War II "mixed economies" with more "market" and less "controls" in the mix.<SUP id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-133">[133]</A></SUP></DD>
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<P>The Soviet Union concentrated on its own recovery. It seized and transferred most of Germany's industrial plants and it exacted war reparations from East Germany, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria, using Soviet-dominated joint enterprises. It used trading arrangements deliberately designed to favor the Soviet Union. Moscow controlled the Communist parties that ruled the satellite states, and they followed orders from the Kremlin. Historian Mark Kramer concludes:</P>
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<DD>The net outflow of resources from eastern Europe to the Soviet Union was approximately $15 billion to $20 billion in the first decade after World War II, an amount roughly equal to the total aid provided by the United States to western Europe under the Marshall Plan.<SUP id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-134">[134]</A></SUP></DD>
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<P>Western Europe began economic and then political integration, with the aim to unite the region and defend it. This process included organisations such as the <A href="/wiki/European_Coal_and_Steel_Community" title="European Coal and Steel Community">European Coal and Steel Community</A>, which grew and evolved into the <A href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</A>, and the <A href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</A>. The <A href="/wiki/Solidarno%C5%9B%C4%87" class="mw-redirect" title="Solidarność">Solidarność</A> movement in the 1980s weakened the Communist government in Poland. At the time the Soviet leader <A href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</A> initiated <A href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">perestroika</A> and <A href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">glasnost</A>, which weakened Soviet influence in Europe, particularly in the USSR. In 1989 the Berlin Wall came down and Communist governments outside the Soviet Union were deposed. In 1990 the Federal Republic of Germany absorbed East Germany, after making large cash payments to the USSR. In 1991 the Communist Party in Moscow collapsed, <A href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">ending the USSR</A>, which split into fifteen independent states. The largest, Russia, took the Soviet Union's seat on the <A href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">United Nations Security Council</A>. The most violent dissolution happened in <A href="/wiki/Yugoslavia" title="Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</A>, in the Balkans. Four (<A href="/wiki/Slovenia" title="Slovenia">Slovenia</A>, Croatia, <A href="/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</A> and <A href="/wiki/Republic_of_Macedonia" title="Republic of Macedonia">Macedonia</A>) out of six Yugoslav republics declared independence and for most of them a violent war ensued, in some parts lasting until 1995. In 2006 Montenegro seceded and became an independent state. In the post–Cold War era, NATO and the EU have been gradually admitting most of the former members of the Warsaw Pact.</P>
<P>Looking at the half century after the war historian <A href="/wiki/Walter_Laqueur" title="Walter Laqueur">Walter Lacquer</A> concluded:</P>
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<DD>"The postwar generations of European elites aimed to create more democratic societies. They wanted to reduce the extremes of wealth and poverty and provide essential social services in a way that prewar generations had not. They had had quite enough of unrest and conflict. For decades many Continental societies had more or less achieved these aims and had every reason to be proud of their progress. Europe was quiet and civilized. Europe's success was based on recent painful experience: the horrors of two world wars; the lessons of dictatorship; the experiences of fascism and communism. Above all, it was based on a feeling of European identity and common values—or so it appeared at the time."<SUP id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-135">[135]</A></SUP></DD>
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<P>The post-war period also witnessed a significant rise in the standard of living of the Western European working class. As noted by one historical text, "within a single generation, the working classes of Western Europe came to enjoy the multiple pleasures of the consumer society."<SUP id="cite_ref-google2_136-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-google2-136">[136]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Western Europe's industrial nations in the 1970s were hit by a global economic crisis. They had obsolescent heavy industry, and suddenly had to pay very high energy prices which caused sharp inflation. Some of them also had inefficient nationalized railways and heavy industries. In the important field of computer technology, European nations lagged behind the United States. They also faced high government deficits and growing unrest led by militant labour unions. There was an urgent need for new economic directions. Germany and Sweden sought to create a social consensus behind a gradual restructuring. Germany's efforts proved highly successful. In Britain under the leadership of <A href="/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher" title="Margaret Thatcher">Margaret Thatcher</A>, the solution was shock therapy, high interest rates, austerity, and selling off inefficient corporations as well as the public housing, which was sold off to the tenants. One result was escalating social tensions in Britain, led by the militant coal miners. Thatcher eventually defeated her opponents and radically changed the British economy, but the controversy never went away as shown by the hostile demonstrations at the time of her death in 2013.<SUP id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-137">[137]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Recent_history">Recent history</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Recent history">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <A href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">History of the European Union</A></DIV>
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Germans standing on top of the <A href="/wiki/Berlin_Wall" title="Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</A> at the <A href="/wiki/Brandenburg_Gate" title="Brandenburg Gate">Brandenburg Gate</A>, November 1989; it would begin to be torn apart in the following days.</DIV>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:262px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Cold_War_border_changes.png" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Cold_War_border_changes.png/260px-Cold_War_border_changes.png" width="260" height="189" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Cold_War_border_changes.png/390px-Cold_War_border_changes.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Cold_War_border_changes.png/520px-Cold_War_border_changes.png 2x" data-file-width="599" data-file-height="436" /></A>
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Changes in national boundaries after the end of the Cold War</DIV>
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<P>Following the end of the Cold War, the <A href="/wiki/European_Economic_Community" title="European Economic Community">European Economic Community</A> pushed for closer integration, co-operation in foreign and home affairs, and started to increase its membership into the neutral and former communist countries. In 1993, the <A href="/wiki/Maastricht_Treaty" title="Maastricht Treaty">Maastricht Treaty</A> established the <A href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</A>, succeeding the EEC and furthering political co-operation. The neutral countries of Austria, Finland and Sweden acceded to the EU, and those that didn't join were tied into the EU's economic market via the <A href="/wiki/European_Economic_Area" title="European Economic Area">European Economic Area</A>. These countries also entered the <A href="/wiki/Schengen_Agreement" title="Schengen Agreement">Schengen Agreement</A> which lifted border controls between member states.<SUP id="cite_ref-Europa_History_90-99_138-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Europa_History_90-99-138">[138]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The Maastricht Treaty created a single currency for most EU members. The <I><A href="/wiki/Euro" title="Euro">euro</A></I> was created in 1999 and replaced all previous currencies in participating states in 2002. The most notable exception to the currency union, or <I><A href="/wiki/Eurozone" title="Eurozone">eurozone</A></I>, was the United Kingdom, which also did not sign the Schengen Agreement.</P>
<P>EU did not participate in the <A href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Wars" title="Yugoslav Wars">Yugoslav Wars</A>, and was divided on supporting the United States in the 2003–2011 <A href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</A>. NATO has been part of the <A href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%93present)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–present)">war in Afghanistan</A>, but at a much lower level of involvement than the United States.</P>
<P>In 2004, the EU <A href="/wiki/2004_enlargement_of_the_European_Union" title="2004 enlargement of the European Union">gained 10 new members</A>. (<A href="/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</A>, <A href="/wiki/Latvia" title="Latvia">Latvia</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</A>, which had been part of the Soviet Union; <A href="/wiki/Czech_Republic" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</A>, <A href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</A>, <A href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</A>, <A href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Slovenia" title="Slovenia">Slovenia</A>, five former-communist countries; <A href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</A>, and the divided island of <A href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</A>.) These were followed by <A href="/wiki/2007_enlargement_of_the_European_Union" title="2007 enlargement of the European Union">Bulgaria and Romania in 2007</A>. Russia's regime had interpreted these expansions as violations against NATO's promise to not expand "one inch to the east" in 1990.<SUP id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-139">[139]</A></SUP> Russia engaged in a number of bilateral disputes about gas supplies with <A href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</A> and <A href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</A> which endangered gas supplies to Europe. Russia also engaged in a <A href="/wiki/Russo-Georgian_War" title="Russo-Georgian War">minor war with Georgia</A> in 2008.</P>
<P>Supported by the United States and some European countries, <A href="/wiki/Kosovo" title="Kosovo">Kosovo</A>'s government <A href="/wiki/2008_Kosovo_declaration_of_independence" title="2008 Kosovo declaration of independence">unilaterally declared independence</A> from Serbia on 17 February 2008.</P>
<P>Public opinion in the EU turned against enlargement, partially due to what was seen as over-eager expansion including Turkey gaining candidate status. The <A href="/wiki/Treaty_establishing_a_Constitution_for_Europe" title="Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe">European Constitution</A> was rejected <A href="/wiki/Referendums_related_to_the_European_Union" title="Referendums related to the European Union">in France and the Netherlands</A>, and then (as the <A href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Lisbon" title="Treaty of Lisbon">Treaty of Lisbon</A>) in Ireland, although a second vote passed in Ireland in 2009.</P>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%9308" class="mw-redirect" title="Financial crisis of 2007–08">financial crisis of 2007–08</A> <A href="/wiki/Great_Recession" title="Great Recession">effected</A> Europe, and government responded with <A href="/wiki/Anti-austerity_movement" title="Anti-austerity movement">austerity measures</A>. Limited <A href="/wiki/National_accounts" title="National accounts">ability</A> of the smaller EU nations (most notably <A href="/wiki/Economy_of_Greece#2010–present_government_debt_crisis" title="Economy of Greece">Greece</A>) to handle their debts led to social unrest, government liquidation, and financial insolvency. In May 2010, the German parliament agreed to loan 22.4 billion euros to Greece over three years, with the stipulation that Greece follow strict austerity measures. See <A href="/wiki/European_sovereign-debt_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="European sovereign-debt crisis">European sovereign-debt crisis</A>.</P>
<P>Beginning in 2014, <A href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</A> has been in a <A href="/wiki/2014_Ukrainian_revolution" title="2014 Ukrainian revolution">state of revolution</A> and unrest with two breakaway regions (<A href="/wiki/Donetsk" title="Donetsk">Donetsk</A> and <A href="/wiki/Lugansk" class="mw-redirect" title="Lugansk">Lugansk</A>) attempting to join <A href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</A> as full <A href="/wiki/Federal_subjects_of_Russia" title="Federal subjects of Russia">federal subjects</A>. (<I>See <A href="/wiki/War_in_Donbass" title="War in Donbass">War in Donbass</A>.</I>) On 16 March, a <A href="/wiki/Crimean_status_referendum,_2014" title="Crimean status referendum, 2014">referendum</A> was held in <A href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</A> leading to the <I><A href="/wiki/De_facto" title="De facto">de facto</A></I> secession of Crimea and its largely internationally unrecognized <A href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Federation" title="Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation">annexation</A> to the Russian Federation as the <A href="/wiki/Republic_of_Crimea" title="Republic of Crimea">Republic of Crimea</A>.</P>
<P>The future of the EU was plunged into doubt in June 2016 when a <A href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum,_2016" title="United Kingdom European Union membership referendum, 2016">United Kingdom membership referendum</A> resulted in the country's <A href="/wiki/Brexit" title="Brexit">intended withdrawal</A>. 52% of the British voters voted to leave the EU, leading into a complex separation process implying <A href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum,_2016" title="Aftermath of the United Kingdom European Union membership referendum, 2016">political and economic changes</A> for both the UK and the remaining European Union countries.</P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Chronology">Chronology</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Chronology">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="div-col columns column-count column-count-2" style="-moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;">
<UL>
<LI>700 BC: <A href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</A> composes <I><A href="/wiki/Iliad" title="Iliad">The Iliad</A></I>, an epic poem that represents the first piece of European literature.</LI>
<LI>440 BC: <A href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</A> defends Athenian <A href="/wiki/Political_freedom" title="Political freedom">political freedom</A> in the <I><A href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)">Histories</A></I>.</LI>
<LI>323 BC: <A href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</A> dies and his <A href="/wiki/Macedonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonian Empire">Macedonian Empire</A> fragments.</LI>
<LI>44 BC: <A href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</A> is murdered. The <A href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</A> enters its terminal crisis.</LI>
<LI>27 BC: Establishment of the <A href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</A> under <A href="/wiki/Octavian" class="mw-redirect" title="Octavian">Octavian</A>.</LI>
</UL>
<P><B>AD</B></P>
<UL>
<LI>45–55 (ca): First <A href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</A> congregations in mainland Greece and in Rome.</LI>
<LI>293: <A href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</A> reorganizes the Empire by creating the <A href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarchy</A>.</LI>
<LI>330: <A href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine</A> makes <A href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</A> into his capital, a <A href="/wiki/New_Rome" title="New Rome">new Rome</A>.</LI>
<LI>395: Following the death of <A href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</A>, the Empire is permanently split into the <A href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</A> (later Byzantium) and the <A href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</A>.</LI>
<LI>476: <A href="/wiki/Odoacer" title="Odoacer">Odoacer</A> captures <A href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</A> and deposes the last Roman emperor in the west: traditionally seen as the end date of the <A href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</A>.</LI>
<LI>527: <A href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</A> is <A href="/wiki/Coronation" title="Coronation">crowned</A> emperor of <A href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantium</A>. Orders the editing of <I><A href="/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Corpus Juris Civilis</A></I>, <A href="/wiki/Digest_(Roman_law)" title="Digest (Roman law)">Digest (Roman law)</A>.</LI>
<LI>597: Beginning of Roman Catholic <A href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianization of Anglo-Saxon England">Christianization of Anglo-Saxon England</A> (missions and churches had been in existence well before this date, but their contacts with Rome had been loose or nonexistent)</LI>
<LI>600: <A href="/wiki/Saint_Columbanus" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Columbanus">Saint Columbanus</A> uses the term "Europe" in a letter.</LI>
<LI>655: <A href="/wiki/Jus_patronatus" title="Jus patronatus">Jus patronatus</A>.</LI>
<LI>681: <A href="/wiki/Khan_Asparukh" class="mw-redirect" title="Khan Asparukh">Khan Asparukh</A> leads the Bulgars and invades the <A href="/wiki/Byzantine_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine empire">Byzantine empire</A> in the <A href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ongal" title="Battle of Ongal">Battle of Ongal</A>, and creates <A href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</A>.</LI>
<LI>718: <A href="/wiki/Tervel_of_Bulgaria" title="Tervel of Bulgaria">Tervel of Bulgaria</A> helps the <A href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</A> stop the Arabic invasion of <A href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</A>, and breaks the <A href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(717%E2%80%93718)" title="Siege of Constantinople (717–718)">siege of Constantinople</A>.</LI>
<LI>722: <A href="/wiki/Battle_of_Covadonga" title="Battle of Covadonga">Battle of Covadonga</A> in the Iberian Peninsula. <A href="/wiki/Pelagius_of_Asturias" title="Pelagius of Asturias">Pelayo</A>, a noble Visigoth, defeats a Muslim army that tried to conquer the Cantabrian coast. This helps establish the Christian <A href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Asturias" title="Kingdom of Asturias">Kingdom of Asturias</A>, and marks the beginning of the Reconquista.</LI>
<LI>732: At the <A href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tours" title="Battle of Tours">Battle of Tours</A>, the Franks stop the advance of the Arabs into Europe.</LI>
<LI>800: Coronation of <A href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</A> as <A href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman Emperor</A>.</LI>
<LI>813: Third Council of Tours: Priests are ordered to preach in the <A href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">native language of the population</A>.</LI>
<LI>843: <A href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Verdun" title="Treaty of Verdun">Treaty of Verdun</A>.</LI>
<LI>863: <A href="/wiki/Saints_Cyril_and_Methodius" title="Saints Cyril and Methodius">Saints Cyril and Methodius</A> arrive in <A href="/wiki/Great_Moravia" title="Great Moravia">Great Moravia</A>, initiating Christian mission among the Slav peoples.</LI>
<LI>864: <A href="/wiki/Boris_I_of_Bulgaria" title="Boris I of Bulgaria">Boris I of Bulgaria</A> baptises the whole nation, converting the population from <A href="/wiki/Tengri" title="Tengri">tengri</A>, to <A href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Bulgaria" title="Christianization of Bulgaria">Eastern Orthodox Christianity</A></LI>
<LI>872: <A href="/wiki/Unification_of_Norway" title="Unification of Norway">Unification of Norway</A>.</LI>
<LI>886: <A href="/wiki/Cyril_and_Methodius" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyril and Methodius">Cyril and Methodius</A> students – Sava, Kliment, Naum, Gorazd, Angelariy – arrive in <A href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</A>. The <A href="/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyrillic alphabet">Cyrillic alphabet</A> becomes the official <A href="/wiki/Bulgarian_alphabet" title="Bulgarian alphabet">Bulgarian alphabet</A>.</LI>
<LI>895: <A href="/wiki/Hungarian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Hungarian people">Hungarian people</A> led by <A href="/wiki/%C3%81rp%C3%A1d" title="Árpád">Árpád</A> start to settle in the <A href="/wiki/Carpathian_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpathian Basin">Carpathian Basin</A>.</LI>
<LI>917: In the <A href="/wiki/Battle_of_Achelous_(917)" title="Battle of Achelous (917)">Battle of Achelous (917)</A> <A href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</A> defeats the <A href="/wiki/Byzantine_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine empire">Byzantine empire</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Simeon_I_of_Bulgaria" title="Simeon I of Bulgaria">Simeon I of Bulgaria</A> is proclaimed as emperor, thus <A href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</A> becomes an <A href="/wiki/Bulgarian_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Bulgarian empire">empire</A>.</LI>
<LI>962: <A href="/wiki/Otto_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor">Otto I</A> of <A href="/wiki/East_Francia" title="East Francia">East Francia</A> is crowned as "Emperor" by the Pope, beginning the <A href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</A>.</LI>
<LI>988 <A href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus" class="mw-redirect" title="Kievan Rus">Kievan Rus</A> adopts Christianity, often seen as the origin of the <A href="/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="Russian Orthodox Church">Russian Orthodox Church</A>-</LI>
<LI>1054: Start of the <A href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</A>, which divides the Christian church for centuries.</LI>
<LI>1066: Successful <A href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_England" title="Norman conquest of England">Norman Invasion</A> of England by <A href="/wiki/William_the_Conqueror" title="William the Conqueror">William the Conqueror</A>.</LI>
<LI>1095: <A href="/wiki/Pope_Urban_II" title="Pope Urban II">Pope Urban II</A> calls for the <A href="/wiki/First_Crusade" title="First Crusade">First Crusade</A>.</LI>
<LI>12th century: The <A href="/wiki/12th_century_in_literature" title="12th century in literature">12th century in literature</A> saw an increase in the number of texts. The <A href="/wiki/Renaissance_of_the_12th_century" title="Renaissance of the 12th century">Renaissance of the 12th century</A> occurs.</LI>
<LI>1128: <A href="/wiki/Battle_of_S%C3%A3o_Mamede" title="Battle of São Mamede">Battle of São Mamede</A>, formation of Portuguese sovereignty.</LI>
<LI>1250: Death of <A href="/wiki/Frederick_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor">emperor Frederick II</A>; end of effective ability of German emperors to exercise control in Italy.</LI>
<LI>1303: The period of the <A href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</A> is over.</LI>
<LI>1309–1378: The <A href="/wiki/Avignon_Papacy" title="Avignon Papacy">Avignon Papacy</A></LI>
<LI>1315–1317: The <A href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1315%E2%80%931317" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Famine of 1315–1317">Great Famine of 1315–1317</A> in Northern Europe</LI>
<LI>1341: <A href="/wiki/Petrarch" title="Petrarch">Petrarch</A>, the "Father of <A href="/wiki/Renaissance_Humanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Renaissance Humanism">Humanism</A>", becomes the first <A href="/wiki/Poet_laureate" title="Poet laureate">poet laureate</A> since antiquity.</LI>
<LI>1337–1453: The <A href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</A> between England and France.</LI>
<LI>1348–1351: <A href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</A> kills about one-third of Europe's population.</LI>
<LI>1439: <A href="/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg">Johannes Gutenberg</A> invents first <A href="/wiki/Movable_type" title="Movable type">movable type</A> and the first <A href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</A> for books, starting the <A href="/wiki/Printing_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Printing Revolution">Printing Revolution</A>.</LI>
<LI>1453: <A href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</A> to the <A href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turks" title="Ottoman Turks">Ottoman Turks</A>.</LI>
<LI>1492: The <A href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</A> ends in the <A href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</A>. A Spanish expeditionary group, commanded by <A href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</A>, lands in the <A href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</A>.</LI>
<LI>1497: <A href="/wiki/Vasco_da_Gama" title="Vasco da Gama">Vasco da Gama</A> departs to India starting direct trade with Asia.</LI>
<LI>1498: <A href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</A> paints <I><A href="/wiki/The_Last_Supper_(Leonardo_da_Vinci)" title="The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)">The Last Supper</A></I> in Milan as the <A href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</A> flourishes.</LI>
<LI>1508: <A href="/wiki/Maximilian_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor">Maximilian I</A> the last ruling "<A href="/wiki/King_of_the_Romans" title="King of the Romans">King of the Romans</A>" and the first "elected Emperor of the Romans".</LI>
<LI>1517: <A href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</A> nails his 95 theses on indulgences to the door of the <A href="/wiki/All_Saints%27_Church,_Wittenberg" title="All Saints' Church, Wittenberg">church</A> in <A href="/wiki/Wittenberg" title="Wittenberg">Wittenberg</A>, triggering discussions which would soon lead to the <A href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Reformation</A></LI>
<LI>1519: <A href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan" title="Ferdinand Magellan">Ferdinand Magellan</A> and <A href="/wiki/Juan_Sebasti%C3%A1n_Elcano" title="Juan Sebastián Elcano">Juan Sebastián Elcano</A> begin first global circumnavigation. Their expedition returns in 1522.</LI>
<LI>1519: <A href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Hernán Cortés">Hernán Cortés</A> begins conquest of Mexico for Spain.</LI>
<LI>1532: <A href="/wiki/Francisco_Pizarro" title="Francisco Pizarro">Francisco Pizarro</A> begins the conquest of Peru (the <A href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca Empire</A>) for Spain.</LI>
<LI>1543: <A href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Nicolaus Copernicus</A> publishes <I><A href="/wiki/De_revolutionibus_orbium_coelestium" title="De revolutionibus orbium coelestium">De revolutionibus orbium coelestium</A> (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres)</I>.</LI>
<LI>1547: The <A href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Moscow" title="Grand Duchy of Moscow">Grand Duchy of Moscow</A> becomes the <A href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsardom of Russia</A>.</LI>
<LI>1582: The introduction of the <A href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Gregorian calendar</A>; Russia refuses to adopt it until 1918.</LI>
<LI>1610: <A href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</A> uses his telescope to discover the moons of Jupiter.</LI>
<LI>1618: The <A href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</A> brings massive devastation to central Europe.</LI>
<LI>1648: The <A href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</A> ends the Thirty Years' War, and introduces the principle of the integrity of the nation state.</LI>
<LI>1687: <A href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</A> publishes <I><A href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Principia Mathematica</A></I>, having a profound impact on <A href="/wiki/The_Enlightenment" class="mw-redirect" title="The Enlightenment">The Enlightenment</A>.</LI>
<LI>1699: <A href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Karlowitz" title="Treaty of Karlowitz">Treaty of Karlowitz</A> concludes the <A href="/wiki/Great_Turkish_War" title="Great Turkish War">Austro-Ottoman War</A>. This marks the end of Ottoman control of Central Europe and the beginning of Ottoman stagnation, establishing the Habsburg Monarchy as the dominant power in Central and Southeastern Europe.</LI>
<LI>1700: Outbreak of the <A href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</A> and the <A href="/wiki/Great_Northern_War" title="Great Northern War">Great Northern War</A>. The first would check the aspirations of <A href="/wiki/Louis_XIV" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</A>, king of France to dominate European affairs; the second would lead to Russia's emergence as a great power and a recognizably European state.</LI>
<LI>18th century: <A href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</A> spurs an intellectual renaissance across Europe.</LI>
<LI>1707: The <A href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Kingdom of Great Britain</A> is formed by the union of the <A href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">Kingdom of England</A> and the <A href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland" title="Kingdom of Scotland">Kingdom of Scotland</A>.</LI>
<LI>1712: <A href="/wiki/Thomas_Newcomen" title="Thomas Newcomen">Thomas Newcomen</A> invents first practical steam engine which begins <A href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</A> in Britain.</LI>
<LI>1721: Foundation of the <A href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</A>.</LI>
<LI>1775: <A href="/wiki/James_Watt" title="James Watt">James Watt</A> invents a new efficient steam engine accelerating the <A href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</A> in Britain.</LI>
<LI>1784: <A href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</A> publishes <I><A href="/wiki/Answering_the_Question:_What_Is_Enlightenment%3F" class="mw-redirect" title="Answering the Question: What Is Enlightenment?">Answering the Question: What Is Enlightenment?</A></I>.</LI>
<LI>1789: Beginning of the <A href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</A> and end of the absolute monarchy in France.</LI>
<LI>1792–1802: <A href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="French Revolutionary Wars">French Revolutionary Wars</A>.</LI>
<LI>1799: <A href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</A> comes to power as dictator of France.</LI>
<LI>1803–1815: <A href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</A> end in defeat of Napoleon.</LI>
<LI>1806: Napoleon abolishes the <A href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</A>.</LI>
<LI>1814–15: <A href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</A>; Treaty of Vienna; France is reduced to 1789 boundaries; Reactionary forces dominate across Europe.</LI>
<LI>1825: <A href="/wiki/George_Stephenson" title="George Stephenson">George Stephenson</A> opens the <A href="/wiki/Stockton_and_Darlington_Railway" title="Stockton and Darlington Railway">Stockton and Darlington Railway</A> the first steam train railway for passenger traffic in the world.</LI>
<LI>1836: <A href="/wiki/Louis_Daguerre" title="Louis Daguerre">Louis Daguerre</A> invents first practical photographic method, in effect the first camera.</LI>
<LI>1838: <A href="/wiki/SS_Great_Western" title="SS Great Western">SS <I>Great Western</I></A>, the first steamship built for regularly scheduled transatlantic crossings enters service.</LI>
<LI>1848: <A href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</A> and publication of <I><A href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</A></I>.</LI>
<LI>1852: Start of the <A href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</A>, which ends in 1855 in a defeat for Russia.</LI>
<LI>1859: <A href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</A> publishes <I>On the Origin of Species</I>.</LI>
<LI>1861: <A href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Unification of Italy">Unification of Italy</A> after victories by <A href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Giuseppe Garibaldi</A>.</LI>
<LI>1866: First commercially successful <A href="/wiki/Transatlantic_telegraph_cable" title="Transatlantic telegraph cable">transatlantic telegraph cable</A> is completed.</LI>
<LI>1860s: Russia <A href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861" title="Emancipation reform of 1861">emancipates its serfs</A> and <A href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</A> completes the first volume of <I><A href="/wiki/Das_Kapital" class="mw-redirect" title="Das Kapital">Das Kapital</A></I>.</LI>
<LI>1870: <A href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</A> and the fall of the <A href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second French Empire</A>.</LI>
<LI>1871: <A href="/wiki/Unification_of_Germany" title="Unification of Germany">Unification of Germany</A> under the direction of <A href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</A>.</LI>
<LI>1873: <A href="/wiki/Panic_of_1873" title="Panic of 1873">Panic of 1873</A> occurs. The <A href="/wiki/Long_Depression" title="Long Depression">Long Depression</A> begins.</LI>
<LI>1885: <A href="/wiki/Karl_Benz" title="Karl Benz">Karl Benz</A> invents <A href="/wiki/Benz_Patent-Motorwagen" title="Benz Patent-Motorwagen">Benz Patent-Motorwagen</A>, the world's first automobile.</LI>
<LI>1885: First permanent citywide <A href="/wiki/Tram" title="Tram">electrical tram</A> system in Europe (in <A href="/wiki/Sarajevo" title="Sarajevo">Sarajevo</A>).</LI>
<LI>1895: <A href="/wiki/Auguste_and_Louis_Lumi%C3%A8re" title="Auguste and Louis Lumière">Auguste and Louis Lumière</A> begin exhibitions of projected films before the paying public with their <A href="/wiki/Cinematograph" title="Cinematograph">cinematograph</A>, a portable camera, printer, and projector.</LI>
<LI>1902: <A href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</A> sends first transatlantic radio transmission.</LI>
<LI>1914: <A href="/wiki/Archduke_Franz_Ferdinand_of_Austria" title="Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria">Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria</A> is assassinated; <A href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</A> begins.</LI>
<LI>1917: <A href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</A> and the <A href="/wiki/Bolshevik" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolshevik">Bolsheviks</A> seize power in the <A href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</A>. The ensuing <A href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</A> lasts until 1922.</LI>
<LI>1918: World War I ends with the defeat of Germany and the Central Powers. Ten million soldiers killed; collapse of Russian, German, Austrian, and Ottoman empires.</LI>
<LI>1918: Collapse of the German Empire and monarchic system; founding of <A href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">Weimar Republic</A>.</LI>
<LI>1918: Worldwide Spanish flu epidemic kills millions in Europe.</LI>
<LI>1918: Austro-Hungarian Empire dissolves.</LI>
<LI>1919: <A href="/wiki/Versailles_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Versailles Treaty">Versailles Treaty</A> strips Germany of its colonies, several provinces and its navy and air force; limits army; Allies occupy western areas; reparations ordered.</LI>
<LI>1920: <A href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</A> begins operations; largely ineffective; defunct by 1939.</LI>
<LI>1921–22: Ireland divided; Irish Free State becomes independent and civil war erupts.</LI>
<LI>1922: <A href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</A> and the <A href="/wiki/National_Fascist_Party" title="National Fascist Party">Fascists</A> take power in Italy.</LI>
<LI>1929: Worldwide <A href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</A> begins with <A href="/wiki/Wall_Street_Crash_of_1929" title="Wall Street Crash of 1929">stock market crash</A> in <A href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</A>.</LI>
<LI>1933: <A href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</A> and the <A href="/wiki/Nazis" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazis">Nazis</A> take power in Germany.</LI>
<LI>1935: Italy conquers Ethiopia; League sanctions are ineffective.</LI>
<LI>1936: Start of the <A href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</A>; ends in 1939 with victory of Nationalists who are aided by Germany and Italy.</LI>
<LI>1938: Germany escalates the persecution of Jews with <A href="/wiki/Kristallnacht" title="Kristallnacht">Kristallnacht</A>.</LI>
<LI>1938: Appeasement of Germany by Britain and France; <A href="/wiki/Munich_agreement" class="mw-redirect" title="Munich agreement">Munich agreement</A> splits <A href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</A>; Germany seized the remainder in 1939.</LI>
<LI>1939: Britain and France hurriedly rearm; failed to arrange treaty with USSR.</LI>
<LI>1939: <A href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</A> and <A href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</A> agree partition of <A href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</A> in <A href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</A>.</LI>
<LI>1939: Germany <A href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">invades</A> <A href="/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic" title="Second Polish Republic">Poland</A>, starting the <A href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">Second World War</A>.</LI>
<LI>1940: Great Britain under <A href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</A> becomes the last nation to hold out against the Nazis after winning the <A href="/wiki/Battle_of_Britain" title="Battle of Britain">Battle of Britain</A>.</LI>
<LI>1941: U.S. begins large-scale <A href="/wiki/Lend-lease" class="mw-redirect" title="Lend-lease">lend-lease</A> aid to Britain, Free France, the USSR and other <A href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</A>; Canada also provides financial aid.</LI>
<LI>1941: Germany invades the Soviet Union in <A href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Operation Barbarossa</A>; fails to capture <A href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</A> or Leningrad.</LI>
<LI>1942: <A href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</A> commences the Holocaust — a <A href="/wiki/Final_Solution" title="Final Solution">Final Solution</A>, with the murder of 6 million Jews.</LI>
<LI>1943: After <A href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad" title="Battle of Stalingrad">Stalingrad</A> and <A href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kursk" title="Battle of Kursk">Kursk</A>, Soviet forces begin recapturing Nazi-occupied territory in the East.</LI>
<LI>1944: U.S., British and Canadian armed forces <A href="/wiki/Normandy_landings" title="Normandy landings">invade Nazi-occupied France</A> at <A href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normandy</A>.</LI>
<LI>1945: Hitler commits suicide, Mussolini is murdered. World War II ends with Europe in ruins and Germany defeated.</LI>
<LI>1945: <A href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</A> formed.</LI>
<LI>1947: The <A href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</A> begins a process of voluntarily dismantling with the granting of independence to <A href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</A> and <A href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</A>.</LI>
<LI>1947: <A href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</A> begins as Europe is polarized East versus West.</LI>
<LI>1948–51: U.S. provides large sums to rebuild Western Europe through the <A href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</A>; stimulates large-scale modernization of European industries and reduction of trade restrictions.</LI>
<LI>1949: The <A href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</A> alliance is established.</LI>
<LI>1955: USSR creates a rival military coalition, the <A href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</A>.</LI>
<LI>1950: The <A href="/wiki/Schuman_Declaration" title="Schuman Declaration">Schuman Declaration</A> begins the process of <A href="/wiki/European_integration" title="European integration">European integration</A>.</LI>
<LI>1954: The <A href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French Empire</A> begins to be dismantled; Withdraws from Vietnam.</LI>
<LI>1956: <A href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</A> signals the end of the effective power of the British Empire.</LI>
<LI>1956: <A href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian Uprising</A> defeated by Soviet military forces.</LI>
<LI>1957: <A href="/wiki/Treaties_of_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaties of Rome">Treaties of Rome</A> establish the <A href="/wiki/European_Economic_Community" title="European Economic Community">European Economic Community</A> from 1958.</LI>
<LI>1968: The <A href="/wiki/May_1968_events_in_France" title="May 1968 events in France">May 1968 events in France</A> lead France to the brink of revolution.</LI>
<LI>1968: The <A href="/wiki/Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague Spring</A> is defeated by <A href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">Warsaw Pact military forces</A>. The <A href="/wiki/Club_of_Rome" title="Club of Rome">Club of Rome</A> is founded.</LI>
<LI>1980: The <A href="/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">Solidarność</A> movement under <A href="/wiki/Lech_Wa%C5%82%C4%99sa" title="Lech Wałęsa">Lech Wałęsa</A> begins open, overground opposition to the Communist rule in Poland.</LI>
<LI>1985: <A href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</A> becomes leader of the Soviet Union and <A href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">begins reforms</A> which inadvertently leads to the fall of Communism and the Soviet Union.</LI>
<LI>1986: <A href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</A> occurs, the worst nuclear disaster in history.</LI>
<LI>1989: <A href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Communism overthrown</A> in all the <A href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</A> countries except the Soviet Union. Fall of the <A href="/wiki/Berlin_Wall" title="Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</A> (opening of unrestrained border crossings between east and west, which effectively deprived the wall of any relevance).</LI>
<LI>1990: <A href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">Reunification of Germany</A>.</LI>
<LI>1991: <A href="/wiki/Breakup_of_Yugoslavia" title="Breakup of Yugoslavia">Breakup of Yugoslavia</A> and the beginning of the <A href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Wars" title="Yugoslav Wars">Yugoslav Wars</A>.</LI>
<LI>1991: <A href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution of the Soviet Union</A> and the creation of the <A href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States" title="Commonwealth of Independent States">Commonwealth of Independent States</A>.</LI>
<LI>1993: <A href="/wiki/Maastricht_Treaty" title="Maastricht Treaty">Maastricht Treaty</A> establishes the <A href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</A>.</LI>
<LI>2002: End of European <A href="/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">colonial empires</A> with the independence of <A href="/wiki/East_Timor" title="East Timor">East Timor</A>, formerly <A href="/wiki/Portuguese_Timor" title="Portuguese Timor">Portuguese Timor</A>.</LI>
<LI>2004: Slovenia, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Cyprus and Malta <A href="/wiki/2004_enlargement_of_the_European_Union" title="2004 enlargement of the European Union">join the European Union</A>.</LI>
<LI>2007: Romania and Bulgaria <A href="/wiki/2007_enlargement_of_the_European_Union" title="2007 enlargement of the European Union">join the European Union</A>.</LI>
<LI>2008: The <A href="/wiki/Great_Recession#Effects_on_Europe" title="Great Recession">Great Recession</A> begins. Unemployment rises in some parts of Europe.</LI>
<LI>2013: Croatia <A href="/wiki/2013_enlargement_of_the_European_Union" title="2013 enlargement of the European Union">joins</A> the European Union.</LI>
<LI>2014: <A href="/wiki/2014_Ukrainian_revolution" title="2014 Ukrainian revolution">Revolution in Ukraine</A> and serious tensions between Russia, Ukraine and the European Union.</LI>
<LI>2015: <A href="/wiki/European_migrant_crisis" title="European migrant crisis">European migrant crisis</A> starts.</LI>
<LI>2016: United Kingdom <A href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum,_2016" title="United Kingdom European Union membership referendum, 2016">votes</A> to <A href="/wiki/Brexit" title="Brexit">leave the European Union</A>.</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: See also">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Atlantic_World" title="Atlantic World">Atlantic World</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History of Western civilization</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/House_of_European_History" title="House of European History">House of European History</A>, Museum scheduled to open in 2016 in Brussels</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_historians" title="List of historians">List of historians</A>, inclusive of most major historians</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_history_journals#Europe" title="List of history journals">List of history journals#Europe</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_largest_European_cities_in_history" title="List of largest European cities in history">List of largest European cities in history</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_predecessors_of_sovereign_states_in_Europe" title="List of predecessors of sovereign states in Europe">List of predecessors of sovereign states in Europe</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_by_date_of_formation#Europe" title="List of sovereign states by date of formation">List of sovereign states by date of formation § Europe</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Timeline_of_sovereign_states_in_Europe" title="Timeline of sovereign states in Europe">Timeline of sovereign states in Europe</A></LI>
</UL>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="reflist" style="list-style-type: decimal;"></DIV>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="References">References</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: References">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<OL class="references">
<LI id="cite_note-1"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-1"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Geoffrey Parker, "States Make War But Wars Also Break States,"<I>Journal of Military History</I> (2010) 74#1 pp 11–34</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-2"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-2"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.humanjourney.us/europe.html">"The Human Journey: Early Settlements in Europe"</A>. <I>www.humanjourney.us</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">24 March</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>. <Q>Human fossil evidence from sites such as Atapuerca in Spain suggests that they were a form of Homo erectus (sometimes called Homo ergaster).</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.humanjourney.us&rft.atitle=The+Human+Journey%3A+Early+Settlements+in+Europe&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.humanjourney.us%2Feurope.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Europe" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-nationalgeographic.it-3"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-nationalgeographic.it_3-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationalgeographic.it/scienza/2012/01/20/news/erano_padani_iprimi_abitanti_ditalia-807204/">National Geographic Italia – Erano padani i primi abitanti d’Italia</A><SPAN class="languageicon">(in Italian)</SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-4"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-4"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oxfordbibliographiesonline.com/display/id/obo-9780195389661-0071">"Ancient Crete"</A>. Oxfordbibliographiesonline.com. 15 February 2010<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">17 May</SPAN> 2012</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ancient+Crete&rft.pub=Oxfordbibliographiesonline.com&rft.date=2010-02-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foxfordbibliographiesonline.com%2Fdisplay%2Fid%2Fobo-9780195389661-0071&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Europe" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-5"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-5"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Durant, <I>The Life of Greece</I>; <I>The Story of Civilization</I> Part II, (New York: Simon & Schuster) 1939:11.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-6"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-6"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Hammond, N.G.L. (1976). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?ei=ltOgTfe6CMrZsgadzYjjAQ&ct=result&hl=el&id=O9saAAAAYAAJ&dq=epirus%2Bmycenaean%2Bparga&q=%22Moreover%2C+in+this+area+a+small+tholos-tomb+with+Mycenaean+pottery+of+III+B+style+and+a+Mycenaean+acropolis+have+been+reported+at+Kiperi+near+Parga%2C+and+another+Mycenaean+acropolis+lay+above+the+Oracle+of+the+Dead+on+the+hill+called+%22#search_anchor"><I>Migrations and invasions in Greece and adjacent areas</I></A>. Park Ridge, N.J.: Noyes P. p. 139. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8155-5047-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8155-5047-1">978-0-8155-5047-1</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Migrations+and+invasions+in+Greece+and+adjacent+areas&rft.place=Park+Ridge%2C+N.J.&rft.pages=139&rft.pub=Noyes+P.&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-8155-5047-1&rft.aulast=Hammond&rft.aufirst=N.G.L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fei%3DltOgTfe6CMrZsgadzYjjAQ%26ct%3Dresult%26hl%3Del%26id%3DO9saAAAAYAAJ%26dq%3Depirus%252Bmycenaean%252Bparga%26q%3D%2522Moreover%252C%2Bin%2Bthis%2Barea%2Ba%2Bsmall%2Btholos-tomb%2Bwith%2BMycenaean%2Bpottery%2Bof%2BIII%2BB%2Bstyle%2Band%2Ba%2BMycenaean%2Bacropolis%2Bhave%2Bbeen%2Breported%2Bat%2BKiperi%2Bnear%2BParga%252C%2Band%2Banother%2BMycenaean%2Bacropolis%2Blay%2Babove%2Bthe%2BOracle%2Bof%2Bthe%2BDead%2Bon%2Bthe%2Bhill%2Bcalled%2B%2522%23search_anchor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Europe" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-7"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-7"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Tandy, p. xii. "Figure 1: Map of Epirus showing the locations of known sites with Mycenaean remains"; Tandy, p. 2. "The strongest evidence for Mycenaean presence in Epirus is found in the coastal zone of the lower Acheron River, which in antiquity emptied into a bay on the Ionian coast known from ancient sources as <I>Glykys Limin</I> (Figure 2-A)."</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-8"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-8"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Borza, Eugene N. (1990). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=614pd07OtfQC&pg=PA64&dq=macedonia%2Bmycenaean&hl=el&ei=e9SgTeXjMcXrsgao8PT8AQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CDwQ6AEwBA#v=snippet&q=%22The%20existence%20of%20a%20Late%20Bronze%20Age%20Mycenaean%20settlement%20in%20the%20Petra%20not%20only%20confirms%20its%20importance%20as%20a%20route%20from%20an%20early%20period%2C%20but%20also%20extends%20the%20limits%20of%20Mycenaean%20settlement%20to%20the%20Macedonian%20frontier.%22&f=false"><I>In the shadow of Olympus : the emergence of Macedon</I></A> ([Nachdr.] ed.). Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 64. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00880-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00880-6">978-0-691-00880-6</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+the+shadow+of+Olympus+%3A+the+emergence+of+Macedon&rft.place=Princeton%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pages=64&rft.edition=%5BNachdr.%5D&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-691-00880-6&rft.aulast=Borza&rft.aufirst=Eugene+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D614pd07OtfQC%26pg%3DPA64%26dq%3Dmacedonia%252Bmycenaean%26hl%3Del%26ei%3De9SgTeXjMcXrsgao8PT8AQ%26sa%3DX%26oi%3Dbook_result%26ct%3Dresult%26resnum%3D5%26ved%3D0CDwQ6AEwBA%23v%3Dsnippet%26q%3D%2522The%2520existence%2520of%2520a%2520Late%2520Bronze%2520Age%2520Mycenaean%2520settlement%2520in%2520the%2520Petra%2520not%2520only%2520confirms%2520its%2520importance%2520as%2520a%2520route%2520from%2520an%2520early%2520period%252C%2520but%2520also%2520extends%2520the%2520limits%2520of%2520Mycenaean%2520settlement%2520to%2520the%2520Macedonian%2520frontier.%2522%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Europe" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-9"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-9"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aegeobalkanprehistory.net/img_articles/thumbs/tmb_75.jpg">"Aegeobalkan Prehistory – Mycenaean Sites"</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">17 May</SPAN> 2012</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Aegeobalkan+Prehistory+%E2%80%93+Mycenaean+Sites&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faegeobalkanprehistory.net%2Fimg_articles%2Fthumbs%2Ftmb_75.jpg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Europe" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-10"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-10"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">The Synchronisation of Civilisations in the eastern Mediterranean in the Second Millennium BC III, Proceedings of the SCIEM 2000 – 2nd EuroConference, Vienna, 28 May – 1 June 2003</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-11"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-11"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q4eYEG2FW28C&printsec=frontcover&dq=mycenaean+in+italy&source=bl&ots=-ghG9zKRED&sig=c0Ad6VYe2xTPyxnVGTqxNcvg9HE&hl=en&ei=Ll3VS42OK4uc_AaZh5moDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CBoQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q&f=false">Use and appreciation of Mycenaean pottery in the Levant, Cyprus and Italy</A>, Gert Jan van Wijngaarden, Amsterdam Archaeological Studies</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-12"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-12"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gla.ac.uk/departments/archaeology/research/projects/mycenaeansitaly/">The Mycenaeans and Italy: the archaeological and archaeometric ceramic evidence</A><SUP class="noprint Inline-Template"><SPAN style="white-space: nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><SPAN title=" Dead link since June 2015">dead link</SPAN></A></I>]</SPAN></SUP>, University of Glasgow, Department of Archaeology</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-13"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-13"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Emilio Peruzzi, <I>Mycenaeans in early Latium</I>, (Incunabula Graeca 75), Edizioni dell'Ateneo & Bizzarri, Roma, 1980</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-enc1911-14"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-enc1911_14-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080129232225/http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Socrates_%28philosopher%29">"Socrates"</A>. <I>1911 Encyclopædia Britannica</I>. 1911. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Socrates_%28philosopher%29">the original</A> on 29 January 2008<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">4 March</SPAN> 2008</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=1911+Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Socrates&rft.date=1911&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.1911encyclopedia.org%2FSocrates_%2528philosopher%2529&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Europe" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Warfare_in_the_Ancient_World-15"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Warfare_in_the_Ancient_World_15-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Brian Todd Carey, Joshua Allfree, John Cairns. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3OSfBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT32"><I>Warfare in the Ancient World</I></A> Pen and Sword, 19 jan. 2006 <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1848846304" title="Special:BookSources/1848846304">1848846304</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-16"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-16"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Bowersock, "The Vanishing Paradigm of the Fall of Rome" <I>Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences</I> <B>49</B>.8 (May 1996:29–43) p. 31.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-17"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-17"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Hunt, Lynn; Thomas R. Martin; Barbara H. Rosenwein; R. Po-chia Hsia; Bonnie G. Smith (2001). <I>The Making of the West, Peoples and Cultures</I>. A: To 1500. Bedford / St. Martins. p. 256. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-18365-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-18365-8">0-312-18365-8</A>. <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/229955165">229955165</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+the+West%2C+Peoples+and+Cultures&rft.pages=256&rft.pub=Bedford+%2F+St.+Martins&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F229955165&rft.isbn=0-312-18365-8&rft.au=Hunt%2C+Lynn&rft.au=Thomas+R.+Martin&rft.au=Barbara+H.+Rosenwein&rft.au=R.+Po-chia+Hsia&rft.au=Bonnie+G.+Smith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Europe" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-google-18"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-google_18-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Di Berardino, A.; D'Onofrio, G.; Studer, B. (2008). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2o5V2GWlaFIC"><I>History of Theology: The Middle Ages</I></A>. Liturgical Press. p. 26. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780814659168" title="Special:BookSources/9780814659168">9780814659168</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">18 May</SPAN> 2015</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Theology%3A+The+Middle+Ages&rft.pages=26&rft.pub=Liturgical+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780814659168&rft.au=Di+Berardino%2C+A.&rft.au=D%27Onofrio%2C+G.&rft.au=Studer%2C+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2o5V2GWlaFIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Europe" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-19"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-19"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Susan Wise Bauer, <I>The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade</I> (2010)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-20"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-20"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">* <CITE class="citation book">Kelly Boyd, ed. (1999). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0121vD9STIMC&pg=PA793"><I>Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing vol 2</I></A>. Taylor & Francis. pp. 791–94.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Historians+and+Historical+Writing+vol+2&rft.pages=791-94&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1999&rft.au=Kelly+Boyd%2C+ed.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0121vD9STIMC%26pg%3DPA793&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Europe" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN><SPAN class="citation-comment" style="display:none; color:#33aa33; margin-left:0.3em">CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (<A href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_Extra_text:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list">link</A>)</SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-21"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-21"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Fletcher, Banister, "Sir Banister Fletcher's A History of Architecture", Architectural Press; 20 edition (11 September 1996), <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7506-2267-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7506-2267-7">978-0-7506-2267-7</A>, pp 172</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-22"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-22"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061218044248/http://dpalm.med.uth.tmc.edu/courses/BT2003/BTstudents2003_files/Plague2003.htm">"The History of the Bubonic Plague"</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dpalm.med.uth.tmc.edu/courses/BT2003/BTstudents2003_files/Plague2003.htm">the original</A> on 18 December 2006.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Bubonic+Plague&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdpalm.med.uth.tmc.edu%2Fcourses%2FBT2003%2FBTstudents2003_files%2FPlague2003.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Europe" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-23"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-23"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071007012619/http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/news/newsreleases/1996/plague.htm">"Scientists Identify Genes Critical to Transmission of Bubonic Plague"</A>. .niaid.nih.gov. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/news/newsreleases/1996/plague.htm">the original</A> on 7 October 2007<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">31 January</SPAN> 2010</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Scientists+Identify+Genes+Critical+to+Transmission+of+Bubonic+Plague&rft.pub=.niaid.nih.gov&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww3.niaid.nih.gov%2Fnews%2Fnewsreleases%2F1996%2Fplague.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Europe" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-24"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-24"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Ralph R. Frerichs. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ph.ucla.edu/EPI/bioter/anempiresepidemic.html">"An Empire's Epidemic"</A>. Ph.ucla.edu<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">31 January</SPAN> 2010</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=An+Empire%27s+Epidemic&rft.pub=Ph.ucla.edu&rft.au=Ralph+R.+Frerichs&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ph.ucla.edu%2FEPI%2Fbioter%2Fanempiresepidemic.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Europe" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-25"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-25"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.justiniansflea.com/events.htm">"Justinian's Flea"</A>. Justiniansflea.com<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">31 January</SPAN> 2010</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Justinian%27s+Flea&rft.pub=Justiniansflea.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.justiniansflea.com%2Fevents.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Europe" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-26"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-26"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090202191807/http://www.iht.com/articles/2008/01/04/arts/idbriefs5H.php">"The Great Arab Conquests"</A>. <I>International Herald Tribune</I>. 29 March 2009. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iht.com/articles/2008/01/04/arts/idbriefs5H.php">the original</A> on 2 February 2009<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">31 January</SPAN> 2010</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=International+Herald+Tribune&rft.atitle=The+Great+Arab+Conquests&rft.date=2009-03-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iht.com%2Farticles%2F2008%2F01%2F04%2Farts%2Fidbriefs5H.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Europe" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-27"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-27"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Events used to mark the period's beginning include the sack of Rome by the <A href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</A> (410), the deposition of the last western <A href="/wiki/Roman_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Emperor">Roman Emperor</A> (476), the <A href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tolbiac" title="Battle of Tolbiac">Battle of Tolbiac</A> (496) and the <A href="/wiki/Gothic_War_(535%E2%80%93554)" title="Gothic War (535–554)">Gothic War</A> (535–552). Particular events taken to mark its end include the founding of the <A href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</A> by <A href="/wiki/Otto_I_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Otto I the Great">Otto I the Great</A> (962), the <A href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</A> (1054) and the <A href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_England" title="Norman conquest of England">Norman conquest of England</A> (1066).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-28"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-28"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Hunter, Shireen; et al. (2004). <I>Islam in Russia: The Politics of Identity and Security</I>. M.E. Sharpe. p. 3. <Q>(..) It is difficult to establish exactly when Islam first appeared in Russia because the lands that Islam penetrated early in its expansion were not part of Russia at the time, but were later incorporated into the expanding Russian Empire. Islam reached the Caucasus region in the middle of the seventh century as part of the Arab <A href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">conquest</A> of the Iranian Sassanian Empire.</Q></CITE> <SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+in+Russia%3A+The+Politics+of+Identity+and+Security&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=M.E.+Sharpe&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Hunter&rft.aufirst=Shireen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Europe" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-29"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-29"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Kennedy, Hugh (1995). "The Muslims in Europe". In McKitterick, Rosamund, <I>The New Cambridge Medieval History: c.500-c.700</I>, pp. 249–272. Cambridge University Press. 052136292X.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-30"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-30"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Joseph F. O´Callaghan, <I>Reconquest and crusade in Medieval Spain</I> (2002)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-31"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-31"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">George Holmes (ed.). <I>The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe</I>. <A href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</A>. p. 371. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-820073-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-820073-0">0-19-820073-0</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Illustrated+History+of+Medieval+Europe&rft.pages=371&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.isbn=0-19-820073-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Europe" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-32"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-32"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Michael Frassetto, <I>Early Medieval World, The: From the Fall of Rome to the Time of Charlemagne</I> (2013)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-33"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-33"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Gerald Mako, "The Islamization of the Volga Bulghars: A Question Reconsidered", Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 18, 2011, 199–223.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-34"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-34"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Seymour Drescher and Stanley L. Engerman, eds. <I>A Historical Guide to World Slavery</I> (1998) pp 197–200</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-35"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-35"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">John H. Mundy, <I>Europe in the high Middle Ages, 1150-1309</I> (1973) <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/europeinhighmidd00mund">online</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-36"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-36"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.is/20110427075859/https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/citd/RussianHeritage/4.PEAS/4.L/12.III.5.html">"The Destruction of Kiev"</A>. Tspace.library.utoronto.ca. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/citd/RussianHeritage/4.PEAS/4.L/12.III.5.html">the original</A> on 27 April 2011<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">17 May</SPAN> 2012</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Destruction+of+Kiev&rft.pub=Tspace.library.utoronto.ca&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftspace.library.utoronto.ca%2Fcitd%2FRussianHeritage%2F4.PEAS%2F4.L%2F12.III.5.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Europe" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-37"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-37"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">"<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9037242/Golden-Horde">Golden Horde</A>", in <I><A href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</A></I>, 2007.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-38"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-38"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Wallace K. Ferguson, <I>Europe in transition, 1300-1520</I> (1962) <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/europeintransiti00ferg">online</A>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-39"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-39"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Mark Kishlansky et al. <I>Civilization in the West: Volume 1 to 1715</I> (5th ed. 2003) p. 316</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-40"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-40"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Cantor, p. 480.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-41"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-41"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">e.g. <A href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Shatir" title="Ibn al-Shatir">Ibn al-Shatir</A>: <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/227960">The Planetary Theory of Ibn al-Shatir: Latitudes of the Planets</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-42"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-42"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Robert A. Nisbet (1980). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QDRWfZ9Ydw0C&pg=PA103"><I>History of the Idea of Progress</I></A>. Transaction Publishers. p. 103.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Idea+of+Progress&rft.pages=103&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=1980&rft.au=Robert+A.+Nisbet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQDRWfZ9Ydw0C%26pg%3DPA103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Europe" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-43"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-43"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303215021/http://www.kwabs.com/tordesillas_treaty.html">"kwabs.com"</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kwabs.com/tordesillas_treaty.html">the original</A> on 3 March 2016.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=kwabs.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kwabs.com%2Ftordesillas_treaty.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Europe" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-44"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-44"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">MacKnight, CC (1976). <I>The Voyage to Marege: Macassan Trepangers in Northern Australia</I>. Melbourne University Press.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-45"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-45"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Euan Cameron, <I>The European Reformation</I> (1991)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-46"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-46"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation encyclopaedia"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webcitation.org/5kwQDCbGf?url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761575057_13/spain.html"><I>Conquest in the Americas</I></A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761575057_13/spain.html">the original</A> on 31 October 2009.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conquest+in+the+Americas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fencarta.msn.com%2Fencyclopedia_761575057_13%2Fspain.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Europe" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Geoffrey_Parker_and_Lesley_M._Smith,_eds._1997-47"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Geoffrey_Parker_and_Lesley_M._Smith,_eds._1997_47-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Geoffrey_Parker_and_Lesley_M._Smith,_eds._1997_47-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Geoffrey Parker and Lesley M. Smith, eds. (1997). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-cJyz5jhkbkC"><I>The General Crisis of the Seventeenth Century</I></A>. Psychology Press.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+General+Crisis+of+the+Seventeenth+Century&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.au=Geoffrey+Parker+and+Lesley+M.+Smith%2C+eds.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-cJyz5jhkbkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Europe" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN><SPAN class="citation-comment" style="display:none; color:#33aa33; margin-left:0.3em">CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (<A href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_Extra_text:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list">link</A>)</SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Trevor_Aston_1965-48"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Trevor_Aston_1965_48-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Trevor_Aston_1965_48-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Trevor Aston, ed. <I>Crisis in Europe 1560–1660: Essays from Past and Present</I> (1965)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-49"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-49"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Jan de Vries, "The Economic Crisis of the Seventeenth Century after Fifty Years," <I>Journal of Interdisciplinary History</I> (2009) 40#2 pp. 151–194 <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40263652">in JSTOR</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-50"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-50"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Peter Burke, "The Crisis in the Arts of the Seventeenth Century: A Crisis of Representation?" <I>Journal of Interdisciplinary History</I> (2009) 40#2 pp. 239–261 <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40263655">in JSTOR</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-51"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-51"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Peter H. Wilson, <I>The Thirty Years' War: Europe's Tragedy</I> (2011)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-52"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-52"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Geoffrey Parker, "Crisis and Catastrophe: The Global Crisis of the Seventeenth Century Reconsidered," <I>American Historical Review</I> (2008) 113#4 pp. 1053–1079.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-53"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-53"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">J. B. Shank, "Crisis: A Useful Category of Post-Social Scientific Historical Analysis?" <I>American Historical Review</I> (2008) 113#4 pp. 1090–1099</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-54"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-54"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">John B. Wolf, <I>Louis XIV</I> (1968)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-55"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-55"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Lindsey Hughes, <I>Russia in the Age of Peter the Great</I> (1998).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-56"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-56"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">G. P. Gooch, <I>Frederick the Great: The Ruler, the Writer, the Man</I> (1947)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-57"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-57"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Max Beloff, <I>The age of absolutism, 1660–1815</I> (1966).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-58"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-58"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Peter H. Wilson, <I>Europe's Tragedy: A History of the Thirty Years War</I> (2009)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-59"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-59"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Henry Kamen, "The Economic and Social Consequences of the Thirty Years' War," <I>Past and Present</I> (1968) 39#1 pp 44–61 <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/649855">in JSTOR</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-60"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-60"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Russell Weigley, <I>The Age of Battles: The Quest for Decisive Warfare from Breitenfeld to Waterloo</I> (1991).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-61"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-61"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">G.M. Trevelyan, <I>A shortened history of England</I> (1942) p 363.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-62"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-62"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Paul M. Kennedy, ed. (1991). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nJvG-Pb9yqgC&pg=PA106"><I>Grand Strategies in War and Peace</I></A>. Yale U.P. p. 106.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grand+Strategies+in+War+and+Peace&rft.pages=106&rft.pub=Yale+U.P.&rft.date=1991&rft.au=Paul+M.+Kennedy%2C+ed.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnJvG-Pb9yqgC%26pg%3DPA106&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Europe" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN><SPAN class="citation-comment" style="display:none; color:#33aa33; margin-left:0.3em">CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (<A href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_Extra_text:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list">link</A>)</SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-63"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-63"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Dennis E. Showalter, <I>The Wars of Frederick the Great</I> (1996)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-64"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-64"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Nicholas Riasanovsky, <I>A History of Russia</I> (4th ed. 1984), p 284</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-65"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-65"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Margaret C. C. Jacob, <I>The Enlightenment: A Brief History with Documents</I> (2000)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Alan_Charles_Kors_2003-66"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Alan_Charles_Kors_2003_66-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Alan_Charles_Kors_2003_66-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Alan Charles Kors, <I>Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment</I> (Oxford UP, 2003)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-67"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-67"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Geoffrey Bruun, <I>The enlightened despots</I> (1967).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-68"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-68"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Sootin, Harry. "Isaac Newton." New York, Messner (1955).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Casey-69"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Casey_69-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Casey, Christopher (30 October 2008). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090513053304/http://ww2.jhu.edu/foundations/?p=8">"<SPAN style="padding-left:0.2em;">"</SPAN>Grecian Grandeurs and the Rude Wasting of Old Time": Britain, the Elgin Marbles, and Post-Revolutionary Hellenism"</A>. <I>Foundations. Volume III, Number 1</I>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ww2.jhu.edu/foundations/?p=8">the original</A> on 13 May 2009<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">25 June</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Foundations.+Volume+III%2C+Number+1&rft.atitle=%22Grecian+Grandeurs+and+the+Rude+Wasting+of+Old+Time%22%3A+Britain%2C+the+Elgin+Marbles%2C+and+Post-Revolutionary+Hellenism&rft.date=2008-10-30&rft.aulast=Casey&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fww2.jhu.edu%2Ffoundations%2F%3Fp%3D8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Europe" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-70"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-70"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Robert R. Palmer, <I>The Age of the Democratic Revolution</I> (1964)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-71"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-71"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Richard Weisberger et al., eds., <I>Freemasonry on both sides of the Atlantic: essays concerning the craft in the British Isles, Europe, the United States, and Mexico</I> (East European Monographs, 2002)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-72"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-72"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Margaret C. Jacob, <I>Living the Enlightenment: Freemasonry and politics in eighteenth-century Europe</I> (Oxford University Press, 1991).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-73"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-73"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Norman Davies, <I>Europe: A History</I> (1996) pp 634–635</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-74"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-74"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Business and Economics. <I>Leading Issues in Economic Development</I>, Oxford University Press US. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-511589-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-511589-9">0-19-511589-9</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN0195115899&id=CX9kBaVx4JkC&pg=PA98&lpg=PA98&sig=V0eO27c7koD8rrIV2EKv6-guB5s">Read it</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-75"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-75"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Russell Brown, Lester. <I>Eco-Economy</I>, James & James / Earthscan. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85383-904-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-85383-904-3">1-85383-904-3</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN1853839043&id=5aCyfUsHM6kC&pg=PA93&lpg=PA93&sig=1dsUat9P_-9dWWVRMpPt1udT8DQ">Read it</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-76"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-76"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">R.R. Palmer and Joel Colton, A History of the Modern World (5th ed. 1978), p. 341</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-77"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-77"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Steven Englund, <I>Napoleon: A Political Life</I> (2004) p. 388</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-78"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-78"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Gordon S. Wood, <I>The radicalism of the American Revolution</I> (2011).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-79"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-79"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">R. R. Palmer, <I>The Age of the Democratic Revolution: A Political History of Europe and America, 1760–1800: The Challenge</I> (1959) pp 4–5</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-80"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-80"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">A. Aulard in Arthur Tilley, ed. (1922). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7c45AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA115"><I>Modern France. A Companion to French Studies</I></A>. Cambridge UP. p. 115.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+France.+A+Companion+to+French+Studies&rft.pages=115&rft.pub=Cambridge+UP&rft.date=1922&rft.au=A.+Aulard+in+Arthur+Tilley%2C+ed.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7c45AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA115&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Europe" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN><SPAN class="citation-comment" style="display:none; color:#33aa33; margin-left:0.3em">CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (<A href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_Extra_text:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list">link</A>)</SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-81"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-81"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Andrew Roberts, "Why Napoleon merits the title 'the Great,'" <I>BBC History Magazine</I> (1 November 2014)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-82"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-82"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Roberts, "Why Napoleon merits the title 'the Great," <I>BBC History Magazine</I> (1 November 2014)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-83"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-83"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Robert R. Palmer and Joel Colton, <I>A History of the Modern World</I> (New York: McGraw Hill, 1995), pp. 428–9.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-84"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-84"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Andrew Roberts, "Why Napoleon merits the title 'the Great," <I>BBC History Magazine</I> (1 November 2014)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-85"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-85"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">William Doyle, <I>The Oxford History of the French Revolution</I> (1989) pp 341–68</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-86"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-86"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Steven T. Ross, <I>European Diplomatic History, 1789–1815: France Against Europe</I> (1969)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-87"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-87"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Alexander Grab, <I>Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe</I> (2003) pp 62–65, 78–79, 88–96, 115–17, 154–59</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-88"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-88"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Frederick B. Artz, <I>Reaction and Revolution: 1814–1832</I> (1934) pp 142–43</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-89"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-89"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">William Martin, <I>Histoire de la Suisse</I> (Paris, 1926), pp 187–88, quoted in Crane Brinson, <I>A Decade of Revolution: 1789–1799</I> (1934) p 235</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-90"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-90"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Max Hastings, "Everything Is Owed to Glory," <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/book-review-napoleon-a-life-by-andrew-roberts-1414788232?tesla=y&mod=WSJEUROPE_hpp_sections_ukintl&mg=reno64-wsj&url=https://www.wsj.com/article/SB12003192308051073864504580228211018002950.html?mod=WSJEUROPE_hpp_sections_ukintl"><I>Wall Street Journal</I> 31 October 2014</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-91"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-91"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Kenneth Scott Latourette, <I>Christianity in a Revolutionary Age, II: The Nineteenth Century in Europe: The Protestant and Eastern Churches</I> (1959) pp 428–31</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-92"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-92"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">John Horne (2012). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EjZHLXRKjtEC&pg=PA21"><I>A Companion to World War I</I></A>. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 21–22.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+World+War+I&rft.pages=21-22&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2012&rft.au=John+Horne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEjZHLXRKjtEC%26pg%3DPA21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Europe" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-93"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-93"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Aaron Gillette, "Why Did They Fight the Great War? A Multi-Level Class Analysis of the Causes of the First World War." <I>The History Teacher</I> 40.1 (2006): 45–58.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-94"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-94"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Hans Kohn, "Napoleon and the Age of Nationalism." <I>Journal of Modern History</I> (1950): 21–37 <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1875877">in JSTOR</A>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-95"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-95"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Alan Forrest and Peter H. Wilson, eds. <I>The Bee and the Eagle: Napoleonic France and the End of the Holy Roman Empire</I> (Palgrave Macmillan, 2009).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-96"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-96"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Karen Hagemann, "Of 'manly valor' and 'German Honor': nation, war, and masculinity in the age of the Prussian uprising against Napoleon." <I>Central European History</I> 30#2 (1997): 187–220.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-97"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-97"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Hagen Schulze, <I>The Course of German Nationalism: From Frederick the Great to Bismarck 1763–1867</I> (Cambridge UP, 1991).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-98"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-98"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Silvana Patriarca and Lucy Riall, eds., <I>The Risorgimento Revisited: Nationalism and Culture in Nineteenth-century Italy</I> (Palgrave Macmillan, 2011).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-99"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-99"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Alister E. McGrath (2012). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gIFfXCyAYmoC&pg=PT270"><I>Christian History: An Introduction</I></A>. p. 270. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-33783-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-33783-7">978-1-118-33783-7</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christian+History%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pages=270&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-118-33783-7&rft.au=Alister+E.+McGrath&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgIFfXCyAYmoC%26pg%3DPT270&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Europe" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-100"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-100"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Louis Levine, "Pan-Slavism and European Politics." <I>Political Science Quarterly</I> 29.4 (1914): 664–686. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2142012">in JSTOR free</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-101"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-101"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Charles Jelavich, <I>Tsarist Russia and Balkan nationalism: Russian influence in the internal affairs of Bulgaria and Serbia, 1879–1886</I> (1958).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-102"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-102"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Christopher Clark, <I>The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914</I> (2012)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-103"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-103"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Richard Blanke, <I>Prussian Poland in the German Empire (1871–1900)</I> (1981)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-104"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-104"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Norman Davies, <I>God's Playground: A History of Poland, Vol. 2: 1795 to the Present</I> (2005).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-105"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-105"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">J.P.T. Bury, <I>Napoleon III and the Second Empire</I> (1968).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-106"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-106"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Denis Brogan, <I>The French Nation: From Napoleon to Pétain, 1814–1940</I> (1957).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-107"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-107"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Andrew Porter and William Roger Louis, eds.. <I>The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume 3, The Nineteenth Century</I> (1999).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-108"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-108"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Theodore S Hamerow, ed., <I>Otto von Bismarck and imperial Germany: a historical assessment</I> (1994)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-109"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-109"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">See <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press.princeton.edu/releases/m10427.html">"An Interview with Konrad H. Jarausch, author of Out of Ashes: A New History of Europe in the Twentieth Century", Princeton University Press, June 2015</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-110"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-110"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="/wiki/Chris_Clark_(historian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chris Clark (historian)">Christopher Clark</A>, <I>The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914</I> (2013) p xxiii</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-111"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-111"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Overviews include David Stevenson, <I>Cataclysm: The First World War as Political Tragedy</I> (2005) and Ian F. W. Beckett, <I>The Great War: 1914–1918</I> (2nd ed. 2007)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-112"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-112"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">For reference see Martin Gilbert, <I>Atlas of World War I</I> (1995) and Spencer Tucker, ed., <I>The European Powers in the First World War: An Encyclopedia</I> (1996)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-113"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-113"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Gerd Hardach, <I>The First World War, 1914–1918</I> (1977) p 153, using estimated made by H. Menderhausen, <I>The Economics of War</I> (1941) p 305</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-114"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-114"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Margaret Macmillan, <A href="/wiki/Peacemakers:_The_Paris_Peace_Conference_of_1919_and_Its_Attempt_to_End_War" title="Peacemakers: The Paris Peace Conference of 1919 and Its Attempt to End War">Peacemakers: The Paris Peace Conference of 1919 and Its Attempt to End War</A> (2002)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-115"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-115"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">by Rene Albrecht-Carrie, <I>Diplomatic History of Europe Since the Congress of Vienna</I> (1958) p 363</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-116"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-116"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Sally Marks, <I>The Illusion of Peace: International Relations in Europe 1918–1933</I> (2nd ed. 2003)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-117"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-117"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Zara Steiner, <I>The Lights that Failed: European International History 1919–1933</I> (2007)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-118"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-118"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Carole Fink, "The Paris Peace Conference and the Question of Minority Rights," <I>Peace and Change: A journal of peace research</I> (1996) 21#3 pp 273–88</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-119"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-119"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Nicholas Atkin; Michael Biddiss (2008). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DFN_AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA244"><I>Themes in Modern European History, 1890–1945</I></A>. Routledge. pp. 243–44.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Themes+in+Modern+European+History%2C+1890%E2%80%931945&rft.pages=243-44&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2008&rft.au=Nicholas+Atkin&rft.au=Michael+Biddiss&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDFN_AgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA244&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Europe" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-120"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-120"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Gregory M. Luebbert, <I>Liberalism, fascism, or social democracy: Social classes and the political origins of regimes in interwar Europe</I> (Oxford UP, 1991).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-121"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-121"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Stanley G. Payne (1996). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x_MeR06xqXAC&pg=PA122"><I>A History of Fascism, 1914–1945</I></A>. U of Wisconsin Press. p. 122.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Fascism%2C+1914%E2%80%931945&rft.pages=122&rft.pub=U+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.au=Stanley+G.+Payne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx_MeR06xqXAC%26pg%3DPA122&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Europe" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-122"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-122"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Martin Blinkhorn, <I>The Fascist Challenge</I> in Gordon Martel, ed. <I>A Companion to Europe: 1900–1945</I> (2011) p 313</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-123"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-123"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Charles Kindleberger, <I>The World in Depression, 1929–1939</I> (2nd ed. 1986)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-124"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-124"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">David Clay Large, <I>Between Two Fires: Europe's Path in the 1930s</I> (1991)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-125"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-125"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Stanley G. Payne, <I>The Spanish Revolution</I> (1970) pp 262–76</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-126"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-126"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">I. C. B. Dear and M. R. D. Foot, eds., <I>The Oxford Companion to World War II</I> (1995) covers every country and major campaign.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-127"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-127"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Norman Davies, <I>No Simple Victory: World War II in Europe, 1939–1945</I> (2008)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-128"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-128"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://necrometrics.com/20c5m.htm">"Second''Second Source List and Detailed Death Tolls for the Twentieth Century Hemoclysm''"</A>. Users.erols.com<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2 May</SPAN> 2012</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Second%27%26%2339%3BSecond+Source+List+and+Detailed+Death+Tolls+for+the+Twentieth+Century+Hemoclysm%27%26%2339%3B&rft.pub=Users.erols.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnecrometrics.com%2F20c5m.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Europe" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-129"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-129"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Dinah Shelton, ed., <I>Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity</I> (3 vol. 2004)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-130"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-130"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">John Wheeler-Bennett, <I>The Semblance Of Peace: The Political Settlement After The Second World War</I> (1972) thorough diplomatic coverage 1939-1952.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-131"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-131"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Martin Conway, "The Rise and Fall of Western Europe's Democratic Age, 1945–1973," <I>Contemporary European History</I> (2004) 13#1 pp 67–88.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-132"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-132"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Michael J. Hogan, <I>The Marshall Plan: America, Britain and the Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1947–1952</I> (1989) pp. 26–28, 430–443.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-133"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-133"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">DeLong, J. Bradford; Eichengreen, Barry (1993). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kGCfmmlGtPEC&pg=PA189">"The Marshall Plan: History's Most Successful Structural Adjustment Program"</A>. In Dornbusch, Rudiger; Nolling, Wilhelm; Layard, Richard. <I>Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today</I>. MIT Press. pp. 189–230. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-04136-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-04136-7">0-262-04136-7</A> – via <A href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Marshall+Plan%3A+History%27s+Most+Successful+Structural+Adjustment+Program&rft.btitle=Postwar+Economic+Reconstruction+and+Lessons+for+the+East+Today&rft.pages=189-230&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-262-04136-7&rft.aulast=DeLong&rft.aufirst=J.+Bradford&rft.au=Eichengreen%2C+Barry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkGCfmmlGtPEC%26pg%3DPA189&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Europe" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-134"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-134"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Mark Kramer, "The Soviet Bloc and the Cold War in Europe," <CITE class="citation book">Klaus Larresm ed. (2014). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EyNcCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT174"><I>A Companion to Europe Since 1945</I></A>. Wiley. p. 79.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Europe+Since+1945&rft.pages=79&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2014&rft.au=Klaus+Larresm+ed.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEyNcCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT174&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Europe" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN><SPAN class="citation-comment" style="display:none; color:#33aa33; margin-left:0.3em">CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (<A href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_Extra_text:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list">link</A>)</SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-135"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-135"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Walter Laqueur, "The Slow Death of Europe", <I>The National Interest</I> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nationalinterest.org/commentary/why-the-euro-the-least-europes-worries-5767">16 August 2011 online</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-google2-136"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-google2_136-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Hay, W.A.; Sicherman, H. (2007). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VwDQ3jAGMX0C"><I>Is There Still a West?: The Future of the Atlantic Alliance</I></A>. University of Missouri Press, Queen Elizabeth also had a major breakdown causing her to die cause of the stress overload. p. 107. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780826265494" title="Special:BookSources/9780826265494">9780826265494</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">18 May</SPAN> 2015</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Is+There+Still+a+West%3F%3A+The+Future+of+the+Atlantic+Alliance&rft.pages=107&rft.pub=University+of+Missouri+Press%2C+Queen+Elizabeth+also+had+a+major+breakdown+causing+her+to+die+cause+of+the+stress+overload.&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780826265494&rft.au=Hay%2C+W.A.&rft.au=Sicherman%2C+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVwDQ3jAGMX0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Europe" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-137"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-137"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">David Priestland, "Margaret Thatcher?" ‘’BBC History Magazine’’ 1 May 2013</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Europa_History_90-99-138"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Europa_History_90-99_138-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://europa.eu/abc/history/1990-1999/index_en.htm">"A Europe without frontiers"</A>. <A href="/wiki/Europa_(web_portal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Europa (web portal)">Europa (web portal)</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">25 June</SPAN> 2007</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Europe+without+frontiers&rft.pub=Europa+%28web+portal%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feuropa.eu%2Fabc%2Fhistory%2F1990-1999%2Findex_en.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Europe" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-139"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-139"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">SPIEGEL ONLINE, Hamburg, Germany (26 November 2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/nato-s-eastward-expansion-did-the-west-break-its-promise-to-moscow-a-663315-2.html">"NATO's Eastward Expansion: Calming Russian Fears – SPIEGEL ONLINE"</A>. <I>SPIEGEL ONLINE</I>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SPIEGEL+ONLINE&rft.atitle=NATO%27s+Eastward+Expansion%3A+Calming+Russian+Fears+%E2%80%93+SPIEGEL+ONLINE&rft.date=2009-11-26&rft.au=SPIEGEL+ONLINE%2C+Hamburg%2C+Germany&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spiegel.de%2Finternational%2Fworld%2Fnato-s-eastward-expansion-did-the-west-break-its-promise-to-moscow-a-663315-2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Europe" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN><SPAN class="citation-comment" style="display:none; color:#33aa33; margin-left:0.3em">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<A href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list">link</A>)</SPAN></SPAN></LI>
</OL>
</DIV>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Bibliography">Bibliography</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Surveys">Surveys</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: Surveys">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<UL>
<LI>Blum, Jerome et al. <I>The European World</I> (2 vol. 2nd ed. 1970) university textbook; part 1, Middle Ages to 1815; <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/91116106/the-european-world-since-1815-triumph-and-transition">part 2 since 1815 online</A></LI>
<LI>Davies, Norman. <I>Europe: A History</I> (1998), advanced university textbook</LI>
<LI>Gay, Peter and R.K. Webb <I>Modern Europe: To 1815</I> (1973) <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/moderneurope00gayp">online</A>, university textbook
<UL>
<LI>Gay, Peter and R.K. Webb <I>Modern Europe: Since 1815</I> (1973), university textbook</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI>McKay, John P. et al. <I>A History of Western Society</I> (2 vol 2010) 1300pp; university textbook</LI>
<LI>Moncure, James A. ed. <I>Research Guide to European Historical Biography: 1450–Present</I> (4 vol 1992); 2140pp; historiographical guide to 200 major political and military leaders</LI>
<LI>Roberts, J. M. <I>The History of Europe</I> (1997), survey</LI>
<LI>Simms, Brendan. <I>Europe: The Struggle for Supremacy, from 1453 to the Present</I> (2013), survey</LI>
</UL>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Geography_and_atlases">Geography and atlases</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: Geography and atlases">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<UL>
<LI>Catchpole, Brian. <I>Map History of the Modern World</I> (1982)</LI>
<LI>Darby, H. C., and H. Fullard, eds. <I>The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 14: Atlas</I> (1970)</LI>
<LI>East, W. Gordon. <I>An Historical Geography of Europe</I> (4th ed. 1950)</LI>
<LI>Haywood, John. <I>Atlas of world history</I> (1997) <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=atlas%20world%20history%20haywood">online free</A></LI>
<LI>Kinder, Hermann and Werner Hilgemann. <I>Anchor Atlas of World History</I> (2 vol. 1978); advanced analytical maps, mostly of Europe</LI>
<LI>Pounds, Norman J. G. <I>An Historical Geography of Europe</I> (1990)</LI>
<LI>Talbert, Richard J.A. <I>Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World for iPad</I> (Princeton U.P. 2014) <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781400848768" title="Special:BookSources/9781400848768">9781400848768</A>; 102 interactive color maps from archaic Greece to the Late Roman Empire.</LI>
</UL>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Major_nations">Major nations</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: Major nations">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<UL>
<LI>Black, Jeremy. <I>A history of the British Isles</I> (1996)</LI>
<LI>Carr, Raymond, ed. <I>Spain: A history</I> (2000)</LI>
<LI>Clark, Christopher M. <I>Iron kingdom: the rise and downfall of Prussia, 1600–1947</I> (2006)</LI>
<LI>Davies, Norman. <I>The Isles: A History</I> (2001), Britain and Ireland</LI>
<LI>Duggan, Christopher. <I>A concise history of Italy</I> (2013).</LI>
<LI>Fraser, Rebecca. <I>The Story of Britain: From the Romans to the Present: A Narrative History</I> (2006)</LI>
<LI>Holborn, Hajo. vol 1: <I>A History of Modern Germany: The Reformation</I>; vol 2: <I>A History of Modern Germany: 1648–1840</I>; vol 3: <I>A history of modern Germany: 1840–1945</I> (1959). a standard scholarly survey.</LI>
<LI>Kamen, Henry. <I>A concise history of Spain</I> ( 1973)</LI>
<LI>Helle, Knut, ed. <I>The Cambridge History of Scandinavia</I> (Vol. 1. 2003)</LI>
<LI>Holmes, George, ed. <I>The Oxford illustrated history of medieval Europe</I> (2001).</LI>
<LI>Holmes, George, ed. <I>The Oxford illustrated history of Italy</I> (1997)</LI>
<LI>Jones, Colin. <I>The Cambridge Illustrated History of France</I> (1999)</LI>
<LI>Kitchen, Martin <I>The Cambridge Illustrated History of Germany</I> (1996).</LI>
<LI>Morgan, Kenneth O., ed. <I>The Oxford illustrated history of Britain</I> (1984)</LI>
<LI>Price, Roger. <I>A concise history of France</I> (2014)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Nicholas_V._Riasanovsky" title="Nicholas V. Riasanovsky">Riasanovsky, Nicholas V.</A>, and Mark D. Steinberg. <I>A History of Russia</I> (2 vol. 2010)</LI>
<LI>Sagarra, Eda. <I>A social history of Germany</I> (2003)</LI>
<LI>Tombs, Robert, <I>The English and their History</I> (2014) advanced history; <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/nov/17/the-english-and-their-history-review-robert-tombs-resounding-importance">online review</A></LI>
<LI>Wilson, Peter H. <I>Heart of Europe: A History of the Holy Roman Empire</I> (2016) 942pp</LI>
</UL>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Classical">Classical</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: Classical">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<UL>
<LI>Boardman, John, et al. eds. <I>The Oxford History of Greece and the Hellenistic World</I> (2nd ed. 2002) 520pp</LI>
<LI>Boardman, John, et al. eds. <I>The Oxford History of the Roman World</I> (2001)</LI>
<LI>Cartledge, Paul. <I>The Cambridge Illustrated History of Ancient Greece</I> (2002)</LI>
</UL>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Late_Roman">Late Roman</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: Late Roman">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Peter_Heather" title="Peter Heather">Heather, Peter</A>. <I>Empires and Barbarians: The Fall of Rome and the Birth of Europe</I> (Oxford University Press; 2010); 734 pages; Examines the migrations, trade, and other phenomena that shaped a recognizable entity of Europe in the first millennium.</LI>
<LI>Jones, A. H. M. <I>The Later Roman Empire, 284–602: A Social, Economic, and Administrative Survey</I> (2 Vol. 1964)</LI>
<LI>Mitchell, Stephen. <I>A History of the Later Roman Empire, AD 284–641: The Transformation of the Ancient World</I> (2006)</LI>
</UL>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Medieval">Medieval</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=68" title="Edit section: Medieval">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<UL>
<LI>Davis, R. H. C. <I>A History of Medieval Europe</I> (2nd ed. 2000)</LI>
<LI>Ferguson, Wallace K. <I>Europe in Transition, 1300–1520</I> (1962) <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/1608627/europe-in-transition-1300-1520">online</A></LI>
<LI>Hanawalt, Barbara. <I>The Middle Ages: An Illustrated History</I> (1999)</LI>
<LI>Holmes, George, ed. <I>The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe</I> (2001)</LI>
<LI>Koenigsberger, H. G. <I>Medieval Europe 400–1500</I> (1987)</LI>
<LI>Riddle, John M. <I>A history of the Middle Ages, 300–1500</I> (2008)</LI>
</UL>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Early_modern">Early modern</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=69" title="Edit section: Early modern">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<UL>
<LI>Blanning, T. C. W. <I>The Culture of Power and the Power of Culture: Old Regime Europe 1660–1789</I> (2003)</LI>
<LI>Cameron, Euan. <I>Early Modern Europe: An Oxford History</I> (2001)</LI>
<LI>Friedrich, Carl J. <I>The Age of the Baroque, 1610-1660</I> (1962); Despite the title, this is a wide-ranging Social, cultural, political and diplomatic history of Europe; <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ageofbaroque100frie">14-day borrowing copy</A></LI>
<LI>Hesmyr, Atle. <I>Scandinavia in the Early Modern Era; From Peasant Revolts and Witch Hunts to Constitution Drafting Yeomen</I> (2014)</LI>
<LI>McKay, Derek, and Hamish M. Scott. <I>The rise of the great powers 1648-1815</I> (3rd ed. 2014).</LI>
<LI>Rice, Eugene F. <I>The Foundations of Early Modern Europe, 1460–1559</I> (2nd ed. 1994) 240pp</LI>
<LI>Merriman, John. <I>A History of Modern Europe: From the Renaissance to the Present</I> (3rd ed. 2009, 2 vol), 1412 pp</LI>
<LI>Scott, Hamish, ed. <I>The Oxford Handbook of Early Modern European History, 1350–1750: Volume I: Peoples and Place</I> (2015).
<UL>
<LI>Scott, Hamish, ed. <I>The Oxford Handbook of Early Modern European History, 1350–1750: Volume II: Cultures and Power</I> (2015).</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI>Stoye, John. <I>Europe Unfolding, 1648-1688</I> (2nd ed. 2000).</LI>
<LI>Treasure, Geoffrey. <I>The Making of Modern Europe, 1648–1780</I> (3rd ed. 2003), overview of each major country and inter-relations</LI>
<LI>Wiesner, Merry E. <I>Early Modern Europe, 1450–1789</I> (Cambridge History of Europe) (2006)</LI>
</UL>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="19th_century">19th century</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=70" title="Edit section: 19th century">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<UL>
<LI>Anderson, M. S. <I>The Ascendancy of Europe: 1815–1914</I> (3rd ed. 2003)</LI>
<LI>Blanning, T. C. W. ed. <I>The Nineteenth Century: Europe 1789–1914</I> (Short Oxford History of Europe) (2000) 320pp</LI>
<LI>Bruun, Geoffrey. <I>Europe and the French Imperium, 1799-1814</I> (1938) <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/download/in.ernet.dli.2015.183653/2015.183653.Europe-And-The-French-Imperium-1799-1814_text.pdf">online</A>.</LI>
<LI>Cameron, Rondo. <I>France and the Economic Development of Europe, 1800–1914: Conquests of Peace and Seeds of War</I> (1961), awide-ranging economic and business history.</LI>
<LI>Evans, Richard J. <I>The Pursuit of Power: Europe 1815–1914</I> (2016), 934pp</LI>
<LI>Gildea, Robert. <I>Barricades and Borders: Europe 1800–1914</I> (Short Oxford History of the Modern World) (3rd ed. 2003) 544 pp, <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/read/55547824/barricades-and-borders-europe-1800-1914">online 2nd ed, 1996</A></LI>
<LI>Grab, Alexander. <I>Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe</I> (2003)</LI>
<LI>Kertesz, G.A. ed <I>Documents in the Political History of the European Continent 1815-1939</I> (1968), 507pp; several hundred short documents</LI>
<LI>Mason, David S. <I>A Concise History of Modern Europe: Liberty, Equality, Solidarity</I> (2011), since 1700</LI>
<LI>Merriman, John, and J. M. Winter, eds. <I>Europe 1789 to 1914: Encyclopedia of the Age of Industry and Empire</I> (5 vol. 2006)</LI>
<LI>Steinberg, Jonathan. <I>Bismarck: A Life</I> (2011)</LI>
<LI>Salmi, Hannu. <I>19th Century Europe: A Cultural History</I> (2008).</LI>
<LI>Taylor, A.J.P. <I><A href="/wiki/The_Struggle_for_Mastery_in_Europe_1848%E2%80%931918" title="The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848–1918">The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848–1918</A></I> (1954) <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/struggleformaste00ajpt">online free</A>; Advanced diplomatic history</LI>
</UL>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Since_1900">Since 1900</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=71" title="Edit section: Since 1900">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<UL>
<LI>Brose, Eric Dorn. <I>A History of Europe in the Twentieth Century</I> (2004) 548pp</LI>
<LI>Buchanan, Tom. <I>Europe's Troubled Peace: 1945 to the Present</I> (Blackwell History of Europe) (2012)</LI>
<LI>Cook, Bernard A. <I>Europe Since 1945: An Encyclopedia</I> (2 vol; 2001), 1465pp</LI>
<LI>Davies, Norman. <I><A href="/wiki/Europe_at_War_1939%E2%80%931945:_No_Simple_Victory" title="Europe at War 1939–1945: No Simple Victory">Europe at War 1939–1945: No Simple Victory</A></I> (2008)</LI>
<LI>Dear, I. C. B. and M. R. D. Foot, eds. <I>The Oxford Companion to World War II</I> (2006)</LI>
<LI>Jarausch, Konrad H. <I>Out of Ashes: A New History of Europe in the Twentieth Century</I> (2015), 870pp.</LI>
<LI>Judt, Tony. <I>Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945</I> (2006)</LI>
<LI>Martel, Gordon, ed. <I>A Companion to Europe, 1900–1950</I> (2011) 32 essays by scholars; emphasis on historiography</LI>
<LI>Mazower, Mark. <I>Dark Continent: Europe's Twentieth Century</I> (2000) 512pp</LI>
<LI>Merriman, John, and Jay Winter, eds. <I>Europe Since 1914: Encyclopedia of the Age War and Reconstruction</I> (5 vol. 2006)</LI>
<LI>Paxton, Robert O., and Julie Hessler. <I>Europe in the twentieth century</I> (<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Europe-Twentieth-Century-Robert-Paxton-ebook/dp/B00B7L8ZQ2/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1482129779&sr=8-1&keywords=Paxton%2C+Robert+O.%2C+and+Julie+Hessler.+Europe+in+the+twentieth+century.+Cengage+Learning%2C+2011.">5th edition 2011</A>.</LI>
<LI>Stone, Dan, ed. <I>The Oxford Handbook of Postwar European History</I> (2015).</LI>
<LI>Ther, Philipp. <I>Europe since 1989: A History</I> (Princeton UP, 2016) <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press.princeton.edu/titles/10812.html">excerpt</A>, 440pp</LI>
<LI>Toynbee, Arnold, ed. <I>Survey Of International Affairs: Hitler's Europe 1939-1946</I> (1954) <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.84095">online</A></LI>
<LI>Weinberg, Gerhard L. <I>A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II</I> (2005)</LI>
</UL>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Agriculture_and_economy">Agriculture and economy</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=72" title="Edit section: Agriculture and economy">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<UL>
<LI>Bakels, C. C. <I>The Western European Loess Belt: Agrarian History, 5300 BC – AD 1000</I> (2009)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Iv%C3%A1n_T._Berend" title="Iván T. Berend">Berend, Iván T.</A> <I>An Economic History of Twentieth-Century Europe</I> (2013)</LI>
<LI>Berend, Iván T. <I>Europe Since 1980</I> (2010), focus on economic history</LI>
<LI>Broadberry, Stephen, and Kevin H. O'Rourke, eds. <I>The Cambridge Economic History of Modern Europe</I> (2 vol 2010), 1700 to present</LI>
<LI>Dovring, Folke, ed. <I>Land and labor in Europe in the twentieth century: a comparative survey of recent agrarian history</I>. 1965. 511 pp</LI>
<LI>Gras, Norman. <I>A history of agriculture in Europe and America</I> (1925). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2845579">free online edition</A><SUP class="noprint Inline-Template"><SPAN style="white-space: nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><SPAN title=" Dead link since June 2017">permanent dead link</SPAN></A></I>]</SPAN></SUP></LI>
<LI>Milward, Alan S. and S. B. Saul. <I>The Development of the Economies of Continental Europe: 1850–1914</I> (1977)</LI>
<LI>Murray, Jacqueline. <I>The First European Agriculture</I> (1970)</LI>
<LI>Pollard, Sidney, ed. <I>Wealth and Poverty: an Economic History of the 20th Century</I> (1990), 260pp; global perspective <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wealthpovertyeco00poll">online free</A></LI>
<LI>Pounds, N.J.G. <I>An Economic History of Medieval Europe</I> (1994)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bernard_Slicher_van_Bath" title="Bernard Slicher van Bath">Slicher van Bath, B. H.</A> <I>The agrarian history of Western Europe, AD 500–1850</I> (1966)</LI>
<LI>Thorp, William Long. <I>Business Annals: United States, England, France, Germany, Austria, Russia, Sweden, Netherlands, Italy, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, South Africa, Australia, India, Japan, China</I> (1926) capsule summary of conditions in each country for each quarter-year 1790–1925</LI>
</UL>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Diplomacy">Diplomacy</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=73" title="Edit section: Diplomacy">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<UL>
<LI>Albrecht-Carrié, René. <I>A Diplomatic History of Europe Since the Congress of Vienna</I> (1958), 736pp, basic introduction 1815–1955</LI>
<LI>Black, Jeremy. <I>A History of Diplomacy</I> (2011)</LI>
<LI>Black, Jeremy. <I>European International Relations, 1648–1815</I> (2002)</LI>
<LI>Kertesz, G.A. ed <I>Documents in the Political History of the European Continent 1815-1939</I> (1968), 507pp; several hundred short documents</LI>
<LI>Langer, William. <I>An Encyclopedia of World History</I> (5th ed. 1973), very detailed outline</LI>
<LI>Macmillan, Margaret. <I>The War That Ended Peace: The Road to 1914</I> (2013) cover 1890s to 1914</LI>
<LI>Mowat, R. B. <I>History of European Diplomacy, 1451–1789</I> (1928) 324 pages <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/23721/a-history-of-european-diplomacy-1451-1789">online</A></LI>
<LI>Petrie, Charles. <I>Earlier diplomatic history, 1492–1713</I> (1949), covers all of Europe; <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015027344731;view=1up;seq=5">online</A><SUP class="noprint Inline-Template"><SPAN style="white-space: nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><SPAN title=" Dead link since April 2017">permanent dead link</SPAN></A></I>]</SPAN></SUP></LI>
<LI>Petrie, Charles. <I>Diplomatic History, 1713–1933</I> (1946), broad summary <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.503129">online free</A> also <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/4005380/diplomatic-history-1713-1933">online in Questia</A></LI>
<LI>Schroeder, Paul. <I>The Transformation of European Politics 1763–1848</I> (1994) <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/3696068/the-transformation-of-european-politics-1763-1848">online</A>; advanced diplomatic history</LI>
<LI>Steiner, Zara. <I>The Lights that Failed: European International History 1919–1933</I> (2007)</LI>
<LI>Steiner, Zara. <I>The Triumph of the Dark: European International History 1933–1939</I> (2011)</LI>
<LI>Taylor, A. J. P <I>The struggle for mastery in Europe, 1848–1918</I> (1954)</LI>
</UL>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Empires_and_interactions">Empires and interactions</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=74" title="Edit section: Empires and interactions">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<UL>
<LI>Bayly, C. A. ed. <I>Atlas of the British Empire</I> (1989). survey by scholars; heavily illustrated</LI>
<LI>Brendon, Piers. <I>The Decline and Fall of the British Empire, 1781–1997</I> (2008), wide-ranging survey</LI>
<LI>Darwin, John. <I>After Tamerlane: The Rise and Fall of Global Empires, 1400–2000</I> (2008).</LI>
<LI>James, Lawrence. <I>The Rise and Fall of the British Empire</I> (1997)</LI>
<LI>Tolan, John et al. eds. <I>Europe and the Islamic World: A History</I> (2013) <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/read/120884191/europe-and-the-islamic-world-a-history">online</A></LI>
</UL>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Ideas_and_science">Ideas and science</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=75" title="Edit section: Ideas and science">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<UL>
<LI>Heilbron, John L., ed. <I>The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science</I> (2003)</LI>
<LI>Outhwaite, William. <I>The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought</I> (2003).</LI>
<LI>Wiener, Philip P. <I>Dictionary of the History of Ideas</I> (5 vol 1973)</LI>
</UL>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Religion_2">Religion</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=76" title="Edit section: Religion">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<UL>
<LI>Latourette, Kenneth Scott. <I>Christianity in a Revolutionary Age: A History of Christianity in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries</I> (1958–69) vol 1, 2, and 4 for detailed country-by-country coverage</LI>
<LI>MacCulloch, Diarmaid. <I>Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years</I> (2011)</LI>
</UL>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Social">Social</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=77" title="Edit section: Social">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<UL>
<LI>Stearns, Peter N., ed. <I>Encyclopedia of European Social History</I> (6 vol 2000), 3000 pp</LI>
<LI>Tipton, F. and R. Aldrich. <I>An Economic and Social History of Europe, 1890–1939</I> (1987); <I>An Economic and Social History of Europe, 1939 to the Present</I> (1987)</LI>
</UL>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Warfare">Warfare</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=78" title="Edit section: Warfare">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<UL>
<LI>Archer, Christon I.; John R. Ferris, Holger H. Herwig. <I>World History of Warfare</I> (2002)</LI>
<LI><I>The Cambridge History of the First World War</I> (3 vol 2014) <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://universitypublishingonline.org/cambridge/histories/subject_title_list.jsf?subjectCode=15&heading=Warfare&tSort=title+closed&aSort=author+default_list&ySort=year+default_list">online</A></LI>
<LI><I>The Cambridge History of the Second World War</I> (3 vol 2015) <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://universitypublishingonline.org/cambridge/histories/subject_title_list.jsf?subjectCode=15&heading=Warfare&tSort=title+closed&aSort=author+default_list&ySort=year+default_list">online</A></LI>
<LI><CITE id="CITEREFDearFoot2001" class="citation book"><A href="/wiki/I._C._B._Dear" title="I. C. B. Dear">Dear, I. C. B.</A>; <A href="/wiki/M._R._D._Foot" title="M. R. D. Foot">Foot, M. R. D.</A>, eds. (2001) [1995]. <I>The Oxford Companion to World War II</I>. Oxford: <A href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</A>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-860446-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-860446-4">978-0-19-860446-4</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+World+War+II&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-860446-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Europe" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI>Dupuy, R. Ernest, <I>The Harper Encyclopedia of Military History: From 3500 BC to the Present</I> (1993)</LI>
<LI>Goldsworthy, Adrian, and John Keegan. <I>Roman Warfare</I> (2000)</LI>
<LI>Horne, John, ed. <I>A Companion to World War I</I> (2012)</LI>
<LI>Keegan, John. <I>A History of Warfare</I> (1994)</LI>
<LI>Kennedy, Paul. <I>The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers</I> (1989)</LI>
<LI>Paret, Peter, ed. <I>Makers of Modern Strategy</I> (1986), ideas of warfare</LI>
<LI>Rapport, Mike. <I>The Napoleonic Wars: A Very Short Introduction</I> (2013)</LI>
<LI>Sheehan, James J. <I>Where Have All the Soldiers Gone? The Transformation of Modern Europe</I> (2008).</LI>
<LI><CITE id="CITEREFWeinberg2005" class="citation book">Weinberg, Gerhard L. (2005). <I>A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II</I> (2nd ed.).</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+World+at+Arms%3A+A+Global+History+of+World+War+II&rft.edition=2nd&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Weinberg&rft.aufirst=Gerhard+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Europe" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN>; comprehensive overview with emphasis on diplomacy</LI>
<LI>Zeiler, Thomas W. and Daniel M. DuBois, eds. <I>A Companion to World War II</I> (2 vol 2013), 1030pp; comprehensive overview by scholars</LI>
</UL>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Women_and_gender">Women and gender</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=79" title="Edit section: Women and gender">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<UL>
<LI>Anderson, Bonnie S. and Judith P. Zinsser. <I>A History of Their Own: Women in Europe from Prehistory to the Present</I> (2nd ed 2000)</LI>
<LI>Bridenthal, Renate, et al. eds. <I>Becoming Visible: Women in European History</I> (3rd ed. 1997), 608pp; essays by scholars</LI>
<LI>Frey, Linda, Marsha Frey, Joanne Schneider. <I>Women in Western European History: A Select Chronological, Geographical, and Topical Bibliography</I> (1982) <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/70061929/women-in-western-european-history-a-select-chronological">online</A></LI>
<LI>Hufton, Olwen. <I>The Prospect Before Her: A History of Women in Western Europe, 1500–1800</I> (1996)</LI>
<LI>Herzog, Dagmar. <I>Sexuality in Europe: A Twentieth-Century History</I> (2011)</LI>
<LI>Offen, Karen. "Surveying European Women's History since the Millenium: A Comparative Review", <I>Journal of Women's History</I> Volume 22, Number 1, Spring 2010 <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjowh.0.13">10.1353/jowh.0.13</A></LI>
</UL>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&action=edit&section=80" title="Edit section: External links">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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<TD class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <I><B><A href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:History_of_Europe" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:History of Europe">History of Europe</A></B></I>.</TD>
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<TD class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: <I><B><A href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/European_History" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:European History">European History</A></B></I></TD>
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<TD class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikiversity has learning resources about <I><B><A href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/European_History" class="extiw" title="v:European History">European History</A></B></I></TD>
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<TD class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikivoyage has travel information for <I><B><A href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/European_history#Q7787" class="extiw" title="wikivoyage:European history">European history</A></B></I>.</TD>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" width="12" height="16" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></A> Media related to <A href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Old_maps_of_Europe" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Old maps of Europe">Old maps of Europe</A> at Wikimedia Commons</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" width="12" height="16" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></A> Media related to <A href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Atlas_of_European_history" class="extiw" title="commons:Atlas of European history">Atlas of European history</A> at Wikimedia Commons</LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hsozkult.geschichte.hu-berlin.de/eurhistxx.asp">EurhistXX: The Network for the Contemporary History of Europe</A>, edited in English from Berlin</LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bookshop.europa.eu/en/eurostat-yearbook-95-pbCA8193204/">Contains information on historical trends in living standards in various European countries</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://primary-sources.eui.eu/">European History Primary Sources</A> Online access to primary sources for historians</LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation web"><A href="/wiki/New_York_Public_Library" title="New York Public Library">New York Public Library</A>. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nypl.org/collections/nypl-recommendations/guides?field_subject_taxonomy_value=604">"History of Europe"</A>. <I>Research Guides</I>. USA.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Research+Guides&rft.atitle=History+of+Europe&rft.au=New+York+Public+Library&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nypl.org%2Fcollections%2Fnypl-recommendations%2Fguides%3Ffield_subject_taxonomy_value%3D604&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Europe" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
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<DIV id="History_of_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><A class="mw-selflink selflink">History of Europe</A></DIV>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Europe" title="Prehistoric Europe">Prehistory</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Paleolithic_Europe" title="Paleolithic Europe">Paleolithic Europe</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">Neolithic Europe</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">Bronze Age Europe</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Iron Age Europe</A></LI>
</UL>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</A></TH>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</A></LI>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</A></TH>
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<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</A></LI>
</UL>
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<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
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<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" title="Early modern France">Early modern France</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish Empire</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Habsburg_Monarchy" title="Habsburg Monarchy">Habsburg Monarchy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</A></LI>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</TH>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_Europe" title="Rise of nationalism in Europe">Nationalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/European_integration" title="European integration">European integration</A></LI>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art of Europe</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Genetic history of Europe</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">History of the Mediterranean region</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">History of the European Union</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History of Western civilization</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Europe" title="Maritime history of Europe">Maritime history of Europe</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Europe" title="Military history of Europe">Military history of Europe</A></LI>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
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<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Albania" title="History of Albania">Albania</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Andorra" title="History of Andorra">Andorra</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Armenia" title="History of Armenia">Armenia</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Austria" title="History of Austria">Austria</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Azerbaijan" title="History of Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Belarus" title="History of Belarus">Belarus</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Belgium" title="History of Belgium">Belgium</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="History of Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Bulgaria" title="History of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Croatia" title="History of Croatia">Croatia</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Cyprus" title="History of Cyprus">Cyprus</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_the_Czech_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Denmark" title="History of Denmark">Denmark</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Estonia" title="History of Estonia">Estonia</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Finland" title="History of Finland">Finland</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">France</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_(country)" title="History of Georgia (country)">Georgia</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">Germany</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Greece" title="History of Greece">Greece</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Hungary" title="History of Hungary">Hungary</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Iceland" title="History of Iceland">Iceland</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="History of the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Italy" title="History of Italy">Italy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Kazakhstan" title="History of Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Latvia" title="History of Latvia">Latvia</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Liechtenstein" title="History of Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuania" title="History of Lithuania">Lithuania</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Luxembourg" title="History of Luxembourg">Luxembourg</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_Macedonia" title="History of the Republic of Macedonia">Macedonia</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Malta" title="History of Malta">Malta</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Moldova" title="History of Moldova">Moldova</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Monaco" title="History of Monaco">Monaco</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Montenegro" title="History of Montenegro">Montenegro</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_the_Netherlands" title="History of the Netherlands">Netherlands</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Norway" title="History of Norway">Norway</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">Poland</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Portugal" title="History of Portugal">Portugal</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Romania" title="History of Romania">Romania</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russia</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_San_Marino" title="History of San Marino">San Marino</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Serbia" title="History of Serbia">Serbia</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Slovakia" title="History of Slovakia">Slovakia</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Slovenia" title="History of Slovenia">Slovenia</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Spain" title="History of Spain">Spain</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Sweden" title="History of Sweden">Sweden</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Switzerland" title="History of Switzerland">Switzerland</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Turkey" title="History of Turkey">Turkey</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Ukraine" title="History of Ukraine">Ukraine</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Vatican_City" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Vatican City">Vatican City</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States with limited<BR />
recognition</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Abkhazia" title="History of Abkhazia">Abkhazia</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_Artsakh" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Republic of Artsakh">Artsakh</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Kosovo" title="History of Kosovo">Kosovo</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Northern_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_South_Ossetia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of South Ossetia">South Ossetia</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Transnistria" title="History of Transnistria">Transnistria</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies and<BR />
other entities</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_the_%C3%85land_Islands" title="History of the Åland Islands">Åland</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_the_Faroe_Islands" title="History of the Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Gibraltar" title="History of Gibraltar">Gibraltar</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Guernsey" title="History of Guernsey">Guernsey</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_the_Isle_of_Man" title="History of the Isle of Man">Isle of Man</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Jersey" title="History of Jersey">Jersey</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Svalbard" title="History of Svalbard">Svalbard</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other entities</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">European Union</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</DIV>
<DIV role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Periods_of_the_history_of_Europe" style="padding:3px">
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<TBODY><TR>
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<UL>
<LI class="nv-view"><A href="/wiki/Template:Periods_of_the_History_of_Europe" title="Template:Periods of the History of Europe"><ABBR title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none;">v</ABBR></A></LI>
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<DIV id="Periods_of_the_history_of_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Periods of the <A class="mw-selflink selflink">history of Europe</A></DIV>
</TH>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TD colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Europe" title="Prehistoric Europe">Prehistoric Europe</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Modern_history#Europe" title="Modern history">Modern</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</DIV>
<DIV role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_by_continent" style="padding:3px">
<TABLE class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit" id="collapsibleTable4">
<TBODY><TR>
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</DIV>
<DIV id="History_by_continent" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History by continent</DIV>
</TH>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TD colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Africa" title="History of Africa">Africa</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_the_Americas" title="History of the Americas">Americas</A> (<A href="/wiki/History_of_North_America" title="History of North America">North America</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_South_America" title="History of South America">South America</A>)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Antarctica" title="History of Antarctica">Antarctica</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Australia" title="History of Australia">Australia</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Eurasia" title="History of Eurasia">Eurasia</A> (<A class="mw-selflink selflink">Europe</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Asia" title="History of Asia">Asia</A>)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Oceania" title="History of Oceania">Oceania</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</DIV>
<DIV role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Europe_articles" style="padding:3px">
<TABLE class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit" id="collapsibleTable5">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><SPAN class="collapseButton">[<A id="collapseButton5" href="#">show</A>]</SPAN>
<DIV class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
<UL>
<LI class="nv-view"><A href="/wiki/Template:Europe_topics" title="Template:Europe topics"><ABBR title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none;">v</ABBR></A></LI>
<LI class="nv-talk"><A href="/wiki/Template_talk:Europe_topics" title="Template talk:Europe topics"><ABBR title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none;">t</ABBR></A></LI>
<LI class="nv-edit"><A class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Europe_topics&action=edit"><ABBR title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none;">e</ABBR></A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<DIV id="Europe_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><A href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</A> <A href="/wiki/Index_of_Europe-related_articles" class="mw-redirect" title="Index of Europe-related articles">articles</A></DIV>
</TH>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A class="mw-selflink selflink">History</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Chronology</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Europe" title="Prehistoric Europe">Prehistory</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modernity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</A> & <A href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">II</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pax_Europaea" title="Pax Europaea">Pax Europaea</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Crisis_situations_and_unrest_in_Europe_since_2000" title="Crisis situations and unrest in Europe since 2000">Crisis situations and unrest since 2000</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Europe" title="Military history of Europe">Military</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_by_date_of_formation#Europe" title="List of sovereign states by date of formation">Sovereignty</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_predecessors_of_sovereign_states_in_Europe" title="List of predecessors of sovereign states in Europe">predecessor states</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Geography_of_Europe" title="Geography of Europe">Geography</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TD colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Area_and_population_of_European_countries" title="Area and population of European countries">Areas and populations</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_European_countries_by_area" title="List of European countries by area">Countries by area</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/European_microstates" title="European microstates">European microstates</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_metropolitan_areas_in_Europe" title="List of metropolitan areas in Europe">Largest metropolitan areas</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lists_of_cities_in_Europe" title="Lists of cities in Europe">Cities</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Extreme_points_of_Europe" title="Extreme points of Europe">Extreme points</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Geology_of_Europe" title="Geology of Europe">Geology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Europe" title="List of islands of Europe">Islands</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_lakes#Europe" title="List of lakes">Lakes</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_ranges#Europe" title="List of mountain ranges">Mountains</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Europe" title="List of rivers of Europe">Rivers</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_and_dependent_territories_in_Europe" title="List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Europe">Sovereign states and dependent territories</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_and_dependent_territories_in_Europe_by_population" class="mw-redirect" title="List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Europe by population">by population</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_villages_in_Europe" title="List of villages in Europe">Villages</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Politics_of_Europe" title="Politics of Europe">Politics</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TD colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TD colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Eurosphere" title="Eurosphere">Eurosphere</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/International_organisations_in_Europe" title="International organisations in Europe">International organisations</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/European_integration" title="European integration">Integration</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Law_in_Europe" title="Law in Europe">Law</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Politics_of_Europe" title="Politics of Europe">Politics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Post-Soviet_states" title="Post-Soviet states">Post-Soviet Europe</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Transatlantic_relations" title="Transatlantic relations">Transatlantic relations</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Intergovernmental</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States" title="Commonwealth of Independent States">Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe (CoE)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Collective_Security_Treaty_Organization" title="Collective Security Treaty Organization">Collective Security Treaty Organisation (CSTO)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/GUAM_Organization_for_Democracy_and_Economic_Development" title="GUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic Development">GUAM Organization</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe" title="Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe">Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe_statistics" title="Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe statistics">statistics</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><A href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_European_Union" title="Economy of the European Union">Economy</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Third-country_economic_relationships_with_the_European_Union" title="Third-country economic relationships with the European Union">relations</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/European_Union_free_trade_agreements" title="European Union free trade agreements">free trade agreements</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Educational_policies_and_initiatives_of_the_European_Union" title="Educational policies and initiatives of the European Union">Education</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/European_Economic_Area" title="European Economic Area">European Economic Area (EEA)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/European_Neighbourhood_Policy" title="European Neighbourhood Policy">European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/European_Union_Customs_Union" title="European Union Customs Union">European Union Customs Union (EUCU)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Eurozone" title="Eurozone">Eurozone</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_European_Union" title="Foreign relations of the European Union">Foreign relations</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Member_state_of_the_European_Union" title="Member state of the European Union">Members</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Future_enlargement_of_the_European_Union" title="Future enlargement of the European Union">enlargement</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_European_Union" title="Politics of the European Union">Politics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Schengen_Area" title="Schengen Area">Schengen Area</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/European_Union_statistics" title="European Union statistics">Statistics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Visa_policy_in_the_European_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Visa policy in the European Union">Visa policy</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Economy_of_Europe" title="Economy of Europe">Economy</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TD colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TD colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Europe" title="Economic history of Europe">History</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Financial_and_social_rankings_of_sovereign_states_in_Europe" title="Financial and social rankings of sovereign states in Europe">Financial (and social) rankings</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Free_trade_areas_in_Europe" title="Free trade areas in Europe">Free trade areas</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Energy_in_Europe" title="Energy in Europe">Energy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Europe">Telecommunications</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Transport_in_Europe" title="Transport in Europe">Transport</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Intergovernmental</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Central_European_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="Central European Free Trade Agreement">Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Customs_Union_of_Belarus,_Kazakhstan,_and_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Customs Union of Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Russia">Customs Union of Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Russia (CUBKR)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Eurasian_Economic_Community" title="Eurasian Economic Community">Eurasian Economic Community (EAEC)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/European_Free_Trade_Association" title="European Free Trade Association">European Free Trade Association (EFTA)</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Sovereign states by</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_European_countries_by_average_wage" title="List of European countries by average wage">Average wage</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_in_Europe_by_budget_revenues" title="List of sovereign states in Europe by budget revenues">Budget revenues</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_in_Europe_by_budget_revenues_per_capita" title="List of sovereign states in Europe by budget revenues per capita">per capita</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_in_Europe_by_Corruption_Perceptions_Index" class="mw-redirect" title="List of sovereign states in Europe by Corruption Perceptions Index">Corruption index</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_in_Europe_by_GDP_(nominal)" title="List of sovereign states in Europe by GDP (nominal)">GDP (nominal)</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_in_Europe_by_GDP_(nominal)_per_capita" title="List of sovereign states in Europe by GDP (nominal) per capita">per capita</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_in_Europe_by_GDP_(PPP)" class="mw-redirect" title="List of sovereign states in Europe by GDP (PPP)">GDP (PPP)</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_in_Europe_by_GDP_(PPP)_per_capita" title="List of sovereign states in Europe by GDP (PPP) per capita">per capita</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
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class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn" style="display: none;"><A href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="ইউরোপের ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be" style="display: none;"><A href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%95%D1%9E%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%8B" title="Гісторыя Еўропы – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old" style="display: none;"><A href="https://be-x-old.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%AD%D1%9E%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%8B" title="Гісторыя Эўропы – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-x-old" hreflang="be-x-old" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg" style="display: none;"><A href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B0" title="История на Европа – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar" style="display: none;"><A href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gschicht_vo_Eiropa" title="Gschicht vo Eiropa – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo" style="display: none;"><A href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A1%E0%BD%BC%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%BC%E0%BD%96%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A3%E0%BD%BC%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BE%92%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%B4%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8D" title="ཡོ་རོབ་གི་ལོ་རྒྱུས། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs" style="display: none;"><A href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historija_Evrope" title="Historija Evrope – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_d%27Europa" title="Història d'Europa – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv" style="display: none;"><A href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BD-%C3%A7%D1%83%D0%BB%C4%95" title="Европа кун-çулĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasaysayan_sa_Uropa" title="Kasaysayan sa Uropa – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs" style="display: none;"><A href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%9Bjiny_Evropy" title="Dějiny Evropy – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy" style="display: none;"><A href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanes_Ewrop" title="Hanes Ewrop – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da" style="display: none;"><A href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europas_historie" title="Europas historie – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de" style="display: none;"><A href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_Europas" title="Geschichte Europas – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es"><A href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_Europa" title="Historia de Europa – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo" style="display: none;"><A href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historio_de_E%C5%ADropo" title="Historio de Eŭropo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu" style="display: none;"><A href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europako_historia" title="Europako historia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa" style="display: none;"><A href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%BE%D8%A7" title="تاریخ اروپا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr"><A href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_l%27Europe" title="Histoire de l'Europe – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy" style="display: none;"><A href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skiednis_fan_Jeropa" title="Skiednis fan Jeropa – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl" style="display: none;"><A href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_Europa" title="Historia de Europa – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan" style="display: none;"><A href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%AD%90%E6%B4%B2%E5%97%B0%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2" title="歐洲嗰歷史 – Gan Chinese" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%A0%EB%9F%BD%EC%9D%98_%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC" title="유럽의 역사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy" style="display: none;"><A href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B5%D5%BE%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Եվրոպայի պատմություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi"><A href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="यूरोप का इतिहास – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr" style="display: none;"><A href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Povijest_Europe" title="Povijest Europe – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id"><A href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_Eropa" title="Sejarah Eropa – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historie_del_Europe" title="Historie del Europe – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is" style="display: none;"><A href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saga_Evr%C3%B3pu" title="Saga Evrópu – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it" style="display: none;"><A href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_dell%27Europa" title="Storia dell'Europa – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he" style="display: none;"><A href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%94" title="היסטוריה של אירופה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv" style="display: none;"><A href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eiropas_v%C4%93sture" title="Eiropas vēsture – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu" style="display: none;"><A href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eur%C3%B3pa_t%C3%B6rt%C3%A9nelme" title="Európa történelme – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk" style="display: none;"><A href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B0" title="Историја на Европа – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl" style="display: none;"><A href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%B3ria_de_la_Ouropa" title="Stória de la Ouropa – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl" style="display: none;"><A href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschiedenis_van_Europa" title="Geschiedenis van Europa – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="यूरोपको इतिहास – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%A8%E3%83%BC%E3%83%AD%E3%83%83%E3%83%91%E5%8F%B2" title="ヨーロッパ史 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no" style="display: none;"><A href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europas_historie" title="Europas historie – Norwegian" lang="no" hreflang="no" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn" style="display: none;"><A href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europeisk_historie" title="Europeisk historie – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam" style="display: none;"><A href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ischri_a_Yuurop" title="Ischri a Yuurop – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl" style="display: none;"><A href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_Europy" title="Historia Europy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt"><A href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_da_Europa" title="História da Europa – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istoria_Europei" title="Istoria Europei – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru"><A href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%8B" title="История Европы – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq" style="display: none;"><A href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_e_Evrop%C3%ABs" title="Historia e Evropës – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si" style="display: none;"><A href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%9D%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%94_%E0%B6%89%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%BA" title="යුරෝපානු ඉතිහාසය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple" style="display: none;"><A href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe – Simple English" lang="simple" hreflang="simple" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk" style="display: none;"><A href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dejiny_Eur%C3%B3py" title="Dejiny Európy – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh" style="display: none;"><A href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historija_Evrope" title="Historija Evrope – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi" style="display: none;"><A href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euroopan_historia" title="Euroopan historia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv" style="display: none;"><A href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europas_historia" title="Europas historia – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl" style="display: none;"><A href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasaysayan_ng_Europa" title="Kasaysayan ng Europa – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%90%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81" title="ஐரோப்பிய வரலாறு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th" style="display: none;"><A href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B8%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9B" title="ประวัติศาสตร์ยุโรป – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article"><A href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avrupa_tarihi" title="Avrupa tarihi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk" style="display: none;"><A href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%84%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B8" title="Історія Європи – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi" style="display: none;"><A href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%E1%BB%8Bch_s%E1%BB%AD_ch%C3%A2u_%C3%82u" title="Lịch sử châu Âu – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war" style="display: none;"><A href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaagi_han_Europa" title="Kaagi han Europa – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi" style="display: none;"><A href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A2_%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%90%D7%99%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%A2" title="היסטאריע פון אייראפע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh"><A href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%AC%A7%E6%B4%B2%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2" title="欧洲历史 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</A></LI>				<BUTTON class="mw-interlanguage-selector mw-ui-button" title="All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)">56 more</BUTTON></UL>
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document_title: History of Europe

token: History

token: of

token: Europe

token: wikipedia

token: Jump

token: to

token: navigation

token: search

token: The

token: history

token: covers

token: the

token: peoples

token: inhabiting

token: from

token: prehistory

token: present

token: period

token: known

token: as

token: classical

token: antiquity

token: began

token: with

token: emergence

token: city

token: states

token: ancient

token: Greece

token: Later

token: Roman

token: Empire

token: came

token: dominate

token: entire

token: Mediterranean

token: basin

token: fall

token: in

token: AD

token: traditionally

token: marks

token: start

token: Middle

token: Ages

token: Beginning

token: century

token: a

token: Renaissance

token: knowledge

token: challenged

token: traditional

token: doctrines

token: science

token: and

token: theology

token: Simultaneously

token: Protestant

token: Reformation

token: set

token: up

token: churches

token: primarily

token: Germany

token: Scandinavia

token: England

token: After

token: српскохрватски

question_text: the period of european history between ancient and modern eras