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<H1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Industrial Revolution</H1>			<DIV id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content">
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A <A href="/wiki/Roberts_Loom" title="Roberts Loom">Roberts loom</A> in a weaving shed in 1835. Textiles were the leading industry of the Industrial Revolution and mechanized factories, powered by a central <A href="/wiki/Water_wheel" title="Water wheel">water wheel</A> or <A href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam engine</A>, were the new workplace.</DIV>
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<P>The <B>Industrial Revolution</B> was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. This transition included going from <A href="/wiki/Craft_production" title="Craft production">hand production methods</A> to <A href="/wiki/Machine" title="Machine">machines</A>, new <A href="/wiki/Chemical_manufacturing" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical manufacturing">chemical manufacturing</A> and <A href="/wiki/Puddling_(metallurgy)" title="Puddling (metallurgy)">iron production</A> processes, the increasing use of <A href="/wiki/Steam_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Steam power">steam power</A>, the development of <A href="/wiki/Machine_tool" title="Machine tool">machine tools</A> and the rise of the <A href="/wiki/Factory_system" title="Factory system">factory system</A>.</P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Textile" title="Textile">Textiles</A> were the dominant industry of the Industrial Revolution in terms of employment, value of output and <A href="/wiki/Capital_(economics)" title="Capital (economics)">capital</A> invested. The <A href="/wiki/Textile_industry" title="Textile industry">textile industry</A> was also the first to use modern production methods.<SUP id="cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_1-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-1">[1]</A></SUP><SUP class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<SPAN>40</SPAN></SUP></P>
<P>The Industrial Revolution began in <A href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</A>, and many of the technological <A href="/wiki/Innovation" title="Innovation">innovations</A> were of British origin.<SUP id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-2">[2]</A></SUP> By the mid-18th century Britain was the world's leading commercial nation<SUP id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-3">[3]</A></SUP>, controlling a global trading empire with <A href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_British_Empire" title="Territorial evolution of the British Empire">colonies in North America and Africa</A>, and with some political influence on the <A href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</A>, through the activities of the <A href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-David_Landes_1999_4-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-David_Landes_1999-4">[4]</A></SUP> The development of trade and the rise of business were major causes of the Industrial Revolution.<SUP id="cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_1-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-1">[1]</A></SUP><SUP class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<SPAN>15</SPAN></SUP></P>
<P>The Industrial Revolution marks a major turning point in history; almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth. Some economists say that the major impact of the Industrial Revolution was that the <A href="/wiki/Standard_of_living" title="Standard of living">standard of living</A> for the general population began to increase consistently for the first time in history, although others have said that it did not begin to meaningfully improve until the late 19th and 20th centuries.<SUP id="cite_ref-Lectures_on_Economic_Growth_5-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Lectures_on_Economic_Growth-5">[5]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Feinstein2014_6-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Feinstein2014-6">[6]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-SzreterMooney2014_7-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-SzreterMooney2014-7">[7]</A></SUP></P>
<P><A href="/wiki/GDP_per_capita" class="mw-redirect" title="GDP per capita">GDP per capita</A> was broadly stable before the Industrial Revolution and the emergence of the modern <A href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalist</A> economy,<SUP id="cite_ref-The_Industrial_Revolution_8-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-The_Industrial_Revolution-8">[8]</A></SUP> while the Industrial Revolution began an era of per-capita <A href="/wiki/Economic_growth" title="Economic growth">economic growth</A> in capitalist economies.<SUP id="cite_ref-The_Industrial_Revolution_''Past_and_Future''_9-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-The_Industrial_Revolution_''Past_and_Future''-9">[9]</A></SUP> Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the <A href="/wiki/History_of_the_world" title="History of the world">history of humanity</A> since the <A href="/wiki/Domestication" title="Domestication">domestication</A> of animals and plants.<SUP id="cite_ref-ReviewOfCambridge_10-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-ReviewOfCambridge-10">[10]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and <A href="/wiki/Social_change" title="Social change">social changes</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-revolution_11-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-revolution-11">[11]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-google1_12-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-google1-12">[12]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Rehabilitating_the_Industrial_Revolution_13-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Rehabilitating_the_Industrial_Revolution-13">[13]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-lorenzen_14-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-lorenzen-14">[14]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Eric_Hobsbawm" title="Eric Hobsbawm">Eric Hobsbawm</A> held that the Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the 1780s and was not fully felt until the 1830s or 1840s,<SUP id="cite_ref-revolution_11-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-revolution-11">[11]</A></SUP> while <A href="/wiki/T._S._Ashton" title="T. S. Ashton">T. S. Ashton</A> held that it occurred roughly between 1760 and 1830.<SUP id="cite_ref-google1_12-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-google1-12">[12]</A></SUP> Rapid <A href="/wiki/Industrialization" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrialization">industrialization</A> first began in Britain, starting with mechanized spinning in the 1780s,<SUP id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-15">[15]</A></SUP> with high rates of growth in steam power and iron production occurring after 1800. <A href="/wiki/Textile_industry" title="Textile industry">Mechanized textile production</A> spread from Great Britain to continental Europe and the United States in the early 19th century, with important centres of textiles, iron and coal emerging <A href="#Belgium">in Belgium</A> and the United States and later textiles in France.<SUP id="cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_1-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-1">[1]</A></SUP></P>
<P>An economic recession occurred from the late 1830s to the early 1840s when the adoption of the original innovations of the Industrial Revolution, such as mechanized spinning and weaving, slowed and their markets matured. Innovations developed late in the period, such as the increasing adoption of locomotives, steamboats and steamships, <A href="/wiki/Hot_blast" title="Hot blast">hot blast iron smelting</A> and new technologies, such as the <A href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph" title="Electrical telegraph">electrical telegraph</A>, widely introduced in the 1840s and 1850s, were not powerful enough to drive high rates of growth. Rapid economic growth began to occur after 1870, springing from a new group of innovations in what has been called the <A href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</A>. These new innovations included new steel making processes, the large-scale manufacture of machine tools and the use of increasingly advanced machinery in steam-powered factories.<SUP id="cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_1-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-1">[1]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-16">[16]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Roe1916_17-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Roe1916-17">[17]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-18">[18]</A></SUP></P>
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<H2>Contents</H2>
<SPAN class="toctoggle"> [<A role="button" tabindex="0" class="togglelink">hide</A>] </SPAN></DIV>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><A href="#Etymology"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Etymology</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><A href="#Important_technological_developments"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Important technological developments</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><A href="#Textile_manufacture"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Textile manufacture</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-4"><A href="#British_textile_industry_statistics"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.1.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">British textile industry statistics</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><A href="#Cotton"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.1.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Cotton</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-6"><A href="#Trade_and_textiles"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.1.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Trade and textiles</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7"><A href="#Pre-mechanized_European_textile_production"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.1.4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Pre-mechanized European textile production</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-8"><A href="#Invention_of_textile_machinery"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.1.5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Invention of textile machinery</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-9"><A href="#Wool"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.1.6</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Wool</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><A href="#Silk"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.1.7</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Silk</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><A href="#Iron_industry"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Iron industry</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-12"><A href="#UK_iron_production_statistics"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.2.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">UK iron production statistics</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-13"><A href="#Iron_process_innovations"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.2.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Iron process innovations</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><A href="#Steam_power"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Steam power</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><A href="#Machine_tools"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Machine tools</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><A href="#Chemicals"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Chemicals</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><A href="#Cement"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.6</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Cement</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><A href="#Gas_lighting"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.7</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Gas lighting</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><A href="#Glass_making"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.8</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Glass making</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><A href="#Paper_machine"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.9</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Paper machine</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><A href="#Agriculture"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.10</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Agriculture</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><A href="#Mining"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.11</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Mining</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><A href="#Transportation"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.12</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Transportation</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-24"><A href="#Canals_and_improved_waterways"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.12.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Canals and improved waterways</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-25"><A href="#Roads"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.12.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Roads</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-26"><A href="#Railways"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.12.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Railways</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><A href="#Other_developments"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.13</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Other developments</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28"><A href="#Social_effects"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Social effects</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-29"><A href="#Factory_system"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Factory system</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-30"><A href="#Standards_of_living"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Standards of living</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-31"><A href="#Food_and_nutrition"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.2.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Food and nutrition</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-32"><A href="#Housing"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.2.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Housing</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-33"><A href="#Sanitation"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.2.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Sanitation</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-34"><A href="#Water_supply"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.2.4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Water supply</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-35"><A href="#Increase_in_literacy"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.2.5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Increase in literacy</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-36"><A href="#Clothing_and_consumer_goods"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Clothing and consumer goods</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-37"><A href="#Population_increase"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Population increase</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-38"><A href="#Urbanization"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Urbanization</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-39"><A href="#Impact_on_women_and_family_life"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.6</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Impact on women and family life</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-40"><A href="#Labour_conditions"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.7</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Labour conditions</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-41"><A href="#Social_structure_and_working_conditions"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.7.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Social structure and working conditions</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-42"><A href="#Factories_and_urbanisation"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.7.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Factories and urbanisation</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-43"><A href="#Child_labour"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.7.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Child labour</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-44"><A href="#Organisation_of_labour"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.7.4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Organisation of labour</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-45"><A href="#Luddites"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.7.5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Luddites</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-46"><A href="#Destruction_of_hand_textile_production_in_India,_China,_etc."><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.7.6</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Destruction of hand textile production in India, China, etc.</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-47"><A href="#Effect_on_cotton_production_and_expansion_of_slavery"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.7.7</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Effect on cotton production and expansion of slavery</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-48"><A href="#Impact_on_environment"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.8</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Impact on environment</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-49"><A href="#Industrialisation_beyond_the_United_Kingdom"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Industrialisation beyond the United Kingdom</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-50"><A href="#Continental_Europe"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Continental Europe</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-51"><A href="#Belgium"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.1.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Belgium</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-4 tocsection-52"><A href="#Demographic_effects"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.1.1.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Demographic effects</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-53"><A href="#France"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.1.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">France</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-54"><A href="#Germany"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.1.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Germany</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-55"><A href="#Sweden"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.1.4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Sweden</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-56"><A href="#Japan"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Japan</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-57"><A href="#United_States"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">United States</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-58"><A href="#Second_Industrial_Revolution"><SPAN class="tocnumber">5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Second Industrial Revolution</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-59"><A href="#Causes"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Causes</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-60"><A href="#Causes_in_Europe"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Causes in Europe</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-61"><A href="#Causes_in_Britain"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Causes in Britain</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-62"><A href="#Transfer_of_knowledge"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Transfer of knowledge</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-63"><A href="#Protestant_work_ethic"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6.3.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Protestant work ethic</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-64"><A href="#Opposition_from_Romanticism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Opposition from Romanticism</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-65"><A href="#See_also"><SPAN class="tocnumber">8</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">See also</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-66"><A href="#References"><SPAN class="tocnumber">9</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">References</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-67"><A href="#Sources"><SPAN class="tocnumber">9.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Sources</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-68"><A href="#External_links"><SPAN class="tocnumber">10</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">External links</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Etymology">Etymology</SPAN></H2>
<P>The earliest recorded use of the term "Industrial Revolution" seems to have been in a letter from 6 July 1799 written by French envoy <A href="/wiki/Louis-Guillaume_Otto" title="Louis-Guillaume Otto">Louis-Guillaume Otto</A>, announcing that France had entered the race to industrialise.<SUP id="cite_ref-The_industrial_revolution_in_national_context:_Europe_and_the_USA_19-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-The_industrial_revolution_in_national_context:_Europe_and_the_USA-19">[19]</A></SUP> In his 1976 book <I><A href="/wiki/Keywords:_A_Vocabulary_of_Culture_and_Society" title="Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society">Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society</A></I>, <A href="/wiki/Raymond_Williams" title="Raymond Williams">Raymond Williams</A> states in the entry for "Industry": "The idea of a new social order based on major industrial change was clear in <A href="/wiki/Robert_Southey" title="Robert Southey">Southey</A> and <A href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</A>, between 1811 and 1818, and was implicit as early as <A href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">Blake</A> in the early 1790s and <A href="/wiki/William_Wordsworth" title="William Wordsworth">Wordsworth</A> at the turn of the [19th] century." The term <I>Industrial Revolution</I> applied to technological change was becoming more common by the late 1830s, as in <A href="/wiki/J%C3%A9r%C3%B4me-Adolphe_Blanqui" title="Jérôme-Adolphe Blanqui">Jérôme-Adolphe Blanqui</A>'s description in 1837 of <I>la révolution industrielle</I>.<SUP id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-20">[20]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</A> in <I><A href="/wiki/The_Condition_of_the_Working_Class_in_England" title="The Condition of the Working Class in England">The Condition of the Working Class in England</A></I> in 1844 spoke of "an industrial revolution, a revolution which at the same time changed the whole of civil society". However, although Engels wrote in the 1840s, his book was not translated into English until the late 1800s, and his expression did not enter everyday language until then. Credit for popularising the term may be given to <A href="/wiki/Arnold_Toynbee" title="Arnold Toynbee">Arnold Toynbee</A>, whose 1881 lectures gave a detailed account of the term.<SUP id="cite_ref-The_Industrial_Revolution13_21-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-The_Industrial_Revolution13-21">[21]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Some historians, such as <A href="/wiki/John_Clapham_(economic_historian)" title="John Clapham (economic historian)">John Clapham</A> and <A href="/wiki/Nicholas_Crafts" title="Nicholas Crafts">Nicholas Crafts</A>, have argued that the economic and social changes occurred gradually and the term <I>revolution</I> is a misnomer. This is still a subject of debate among some historians.</P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Important_technological_developments">Important technological developments</SPAN></H2>
<P>The commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of innovations,<SUP id="cite_ref-The_Industrial_Revolution_–_Innovations_22-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-The_Industrial_Revolution_–_Innovations-22">[22]</A></SUP> beginning in the second half of the 18th century. By the 1830s the following gains had been made in important technologies:</P>
<UL>
<LI><B>Textiles</B> – mechanised cotton spinning powered by steam or water increased the output of a worker by a factor of around 500. The <A href="/wiki/Power_loom" title="Power loom">power loom</A> increased the output of a worker by a factor of over 40.<SUP id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-23">[23]</A></SUP> The <A href="/wiki/Cotton_gin" title="Cotton gin">cotton gin</A> increased productivity of removing seed from cotton by a factor of 50.<SUP id="cite_ref-Roe1916_17-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Roe1916-17">[17]</A></SUP> Large gains in productivity also occurred in spinning and weaving of wool and linen, but they were not as great as in cotton.<SUP id="cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_1-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-1">[1]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI><B>Steam power</B> – the efficiency of <A href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam engines</A> increased so that they used between one-fifth and one-tenth as much fuel. The adaptation of stationary steam engines to rotary motion made them suitable for industrial uses.<SUP id="cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_1-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-1">[1]</A></SUP><SUP class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<SPAN>82</SPAN></SUP> The high pressure engine had a high power to weight ratio, making it suitable for transportation.<SUP id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-24">[24]</A></SUP> Steam power underwent a rapid expansion after 1800.</LI>
<LI><B>Iron making</B> – the substitution of <A href="/wiki/Coke_(fuel)" title="Coke (fuel)">coke</A> for charcoal greatly lowered the fuel cost of <A href="/wiki/Pig_iron" title="Pig iron">pig iron</A> and <A href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">wrought iron</A> production.<SUP id="cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_1-6" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-1">[1]</A></SUP><SUP class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<SPAN>89–93</SPAN></SUP> Using coke also allowed larger blast furnaces,<SUP id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-25">[25]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-26">[26]</A></SUP> resulting in <A href="/wiki/Economies_of_scale" title="Economies of scale">economies of scale</A>. The steam engine began being used to power blast air in the mid 1750s, enabling a large increase iron production by overcoming the limitation of water power.<SUP id="cite_ref-Tylecote_1992_27-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Tylecote_1992-27">[27]</A></SUP> The cast iron blowing cylinder was first used in 1760. It was later improved by making it double acting, which allowed higher <A href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnace</A> temperatures. The <A href="/wiki/Puddling_(metallurgy)" title="Puddling (metallurgy)">puddling process</A> produced a structural grade iron at a lower cost than the <A href="/wiki/Finery_forge" title="Finery forge">finery forge</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_91_28-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969_91-28">[28]</A></SUP> The <A href="/wiki/Rolling_(metalworking)" title="Rolling (metalworking)">rolling mill</A> was fifteen times faster than hammering wrought iron. <A href="/wiki/Hot_blast" title="Hot blast">Hot blast</A> (1828) greatly increased fuel efficiency in iron production in the following decades.</LI>
<LI><B>Invention of machine tools</B> – The first <A href="/wiki/Machine_tools" class="mw-redirect" title="Machine tools">machine tools</A> were invented. These included the <A href="/wiki/Screw_cutting_lathe" class="mw-redirect" title="Screw cutting lathe">screw cutting lathe</A>, cylinder boring machine and the <A href="/wiki/Milling_(machining)" title="Milling (machining)">milling machine</A>. Machine tools made the economical manufacture of <A href="/wiki/Interchangeable_parts" title="Interchangeable parts">precision metal parts</A> possible, although it took several decades to develop effective techniques.<SUP id="cite_ref-Hounshell-1984_29-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Hounshell-1984-29">[29]</A></SUP></LI>
</UL>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Textile_manufacture">Textile manufacture</SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Textile_manufacture_during_the_Industrial_Revolution" title="Textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution">Textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution</A></DIV>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="British_textile_industry_statistics">British textile industry statistics</SPAN></H4>
<P>In 1750 Britain imported 2.5 million pounds of raw cotton, most of which was spun and woven by cottage industry in Lancashire. The work was done by hand in workers' homes or occasionally in shops of master weavers. In 1787 raw cotton consumption was 22 million pounds, most of which was cleaned, carded and spun on machines.<SUP id="cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_1-7" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-1">[1]</A></SUP><SUP class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<SPAN>41–42</SPAN></SUP></P>
<P>The share of value added by the cotton textile industry in Britain was 2.6% in 1760, 17% in 1801 and 22.4% in 1831. Value added by the British woollen industry was 14.1% in 1801. Cotton factories in Britain numbered approximately 900 in 1797. In 1760 approximately one-third of cotton cloth manufactured in Britain was exported, rising to two-thirds by 1800. In 1781 cotton spun amounted to 5.1 million pounds, which increased to 56 million pounds by 1800. In 1800 less than 0.1% of world cotton cloth was produced on machinery invented in Britain. In 1788 there were 50,000 spindles in Britain, rising to 7 million over the next 30 years.<SUP id="cite_ref-Beckert_2014_30-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Beckert_2014-30">[30]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Wages in <A href="/wiki/Lancashire" title="Lancashire">Lancashire</A>, a core region for cottage industry and later factory spinning and weaving, were about six times those in India in 1770, when overall <A href="/wiki/Productivity" title="Productivity">productivity</A> in Britain was about three times higher than in India.<SUP id="cite_ref-Beckert_2014_30-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Beckert_2014-30">[30]</A></SUP></P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Cotton">Cotton</SPAN></H4>
<P>Parts of India, China, Central America, South America and the Middle-East have a long history of hand manufacturing <A href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</A> textiles, which became a major industry sometime after 1000 AD. In tropical and subtropical regions where it was grown, most was grown by small farmers alongside their food crops and was spun and woven in households, largely for domestic consumption. In the 15th century China began to require households to pay part of their taxes in cotton cloth. By the 17th century almost all Chinese wore cotton clothing. Almost everywhere cotton cloth could be used as a <A href="/wiki/Medium_of_exchange" title="Medium of exchange">medium of exchange</A>. In India a significant amount of cotton textiles were manufactured for distant markets, often produced by professional weavers. Some merchants also owned small weaving workshops. India produced a variety of cotton cloth, some of exceptionally fine quality.<SUP id="cite_ref-Beckert_2014_30-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Beckert_2014-30">[30]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The early Spanish explorers found Native Americans growing a previously unknown species of good quality cotton: <I><A href="/wiki/Gossypium_hirsutum" title="Gossypium hirsutum">Gossypium hirsutum</A></I>. Cotton plantations were eventually established in the West Indies and the Americas which provided Britain with a source of this difficult to obtain raw material.<SUP id="cite_ref-Beckert_2014_30-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Beckert_2014-30">[30]</A></SUP> A strain of cotton seed brought from Mexico to Natchez, Mississippi, USA in 1806 became the parent genetic material for over 90% of world cotton production today; it produced <A href="/wiki/Cotton_Boll" class="mw-redirect" title="Cotton Boll">bolls</A> that were three to four times faster to pick.</P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Trade_and_textiles">Trade and textiles</SPAN></H4>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</A> was followed by a period of <A href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</A> beginning around the 16th century. Following the discovery of a trade route to India around southern Africa by the Portuguese, the Dutch established the Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie (abbr. VOC) or <A href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</A> and the British founded the <A href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</A>, along with smaller companies of different nationalities which established trading posts and employed agents to engage in trade throughout the Indian Ocean region and between the Indian Ocean region and North Atlantic Europe. One of the largest segments of this trade was in cotton textiles, which were purchased in India and sold in Southeast Asia, including the Indonesian archipelago, where spices were purchased for sale to Southeast Asia and Europe. By the mid-1760s cloth was over three-quarters of the East India Company's exports. Indian textiles were in demand in North Atlantic region of Europe where previously only wool and linen were available; however, the amount of cotton goods consumed in Western Europe was minor until the early 19th century.<SUP id="cite_ref-Beckert_2014_30-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Beckert_2014-30">[30]</A></SUP></P>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:282px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Colonisation_1754.png" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Colonisation_1754.png/280px-Colonisation_1754.png" width="280" height="123" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Colonisation_1754.png/420px-Colonisation_1754.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Colonisation_1754.png/560px-Colonisation_1754.png 2x" data-file-width="1425" data-file-height="625" /></A>
<DIV class="thumbcaption">
<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:Colonisation_1754.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
European colonial empires at the start of the Industrial Revolution.</DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Pre-mechanized_European_textile_production">Pre-mechanized European textile production</SPAN></H4>
<P>By 1600 Flemish refugees began weaving cotton cloth in English towns where cottage spinning and weaving of wool and linen was well established; however, they were left alone by the <A href="/wiki/Guild" title="Guild">guilds</A> who did not consider cotton a threat. Earlier European attempts at cotton spinning and weaving were in 12th century Italy and 15th century southern Germany, but these industries eventually ended when the supply of cotton was cut off. The <A href="/wiki/Moors" title="Moors">Moors</A> in Spain grew, spun and wove cotton beginning around the 10th century.<SUP id="cite_ref-Beckert_2014_30-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Beckert_2014-30">[30]</A></SUP></P>
<P>British cloth could not compete with Indian cloth because India's labor cost was approximately one-fifth to one-sixth that of Britain's.<SUP id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-31">[31]</A></SUP> In 1700 and 1721 the British government passed <A href="/wiki/Calico_Acts" title="Calico Acts">Calico Acts</A> in order to <A href="/wiki/Protectionism" title="Protectionism">protect</A> the domestic woollen and linen industries from the increasing amounts of cotton fabric imported from India.<SUP id="cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_1-8" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-1">[1]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Ayers1989_32-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Ayers1989-32">[32]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The demand for heavier fabric was met by a domestic industry based around <A href="/wiki/Lancashire" title="Lancashire">Lancashire</A> that produced <A href="/wiki/Fustian" title="Fustian">fustian</A>, a cloth with flax <A href="/wiki/Warp_(weaving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Warp (weaving)">warp</A> and cotton <A href="/wiki/Weft" class="mw-redirect" title="Weft">weft</A>. Flax was used for the warp because wheel-spun cotton did not have sufficient strength, but the resulting blend was not as soft as 100% cotton and was more difficult to sew.<SUP id="cite_ref-Ayers1989_32-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Ayers1989-32">[32]</A></SUP></P>
<P>On the eve of the Industrial Revolution, spinning and weaving were done in households, for domestic consumption and as a cottage industry under the <A href="/wiki/Putting-out_system" title="Putting-out system">putting-out system</A>. Occasionally the work was done in the workshop of a master weaver. Under the putting-out system, home-based workers produced under contract to merchant sellers, who often supplied the raw materials. In the off season the women, typically farmers' wives, did the spinning and the men did the weaving. Using the <A href="/wiki/Spinning_wheel" title="Spinning wheel">spinning wheel</A>, it took anywhere from four to eight spinners to supply one hand loom weaver.<SUP id="cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_1-9" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-1">[1]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Ayers1989_32-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Ayers1989-32">[32]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-McNeil1990_33-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-McNeil1990-33">[33]</A></SUP><SUP class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<SPAN>823</SPAN></SUP></P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Invention_of_textile_machinery">Invention of textile machinery</SPAN></H4>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/Flying_shuttle" title="Flying shuttle">flying shuttle</A> patented in 1733 by <A href="/wiki/John_Kay_(flying_shuttle)" title="John Kay (flying shuttle)">John Kay</A>, with a number of subsequent improvements including an important one in 1747, doubled the output of a weaver, worsening the imbalance between spinning and weaving. It became widely used around Lancashire after 1760 when John's son, <A href="/wiki/Robert_Kay_(inventor)" title="Robert Kay (inventor)">Robert</A>, invented the drop box, which facilitated changing thread colors.<SUP id="cite_ref-McNeil1990_33-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-McNeil1990-33">[33]</A></SUP><SUP class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<SPAN>821–22</SPAN></SUP></P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Lewis_Paul" title="Lewis Paul">Lewis Paul</A> patented the roller <A href="/wiki/Spinning_frame" title="Spinning frame">spinning frame</A> and the flyer-and-bobbin system for drawing wool to a more even thickness. The technology was developed with the help of John Wyatt of <A href="/wiki/Birmingham" title="Birmingham">Birmingham</A>. Paul and Wyatt opened a mill in Birmingham which used their new rolling machine powered by a donkey. In 1743 a factory opened in <A href="/wiki/Northampton" title="Northampton">Northampton</A> with 50 spindles on each of five of Paul and Wyatt's machines. This operated until about 1764. A similar mill was built by <A href="/wiki/Daniel_Bourn" title="Daniel Bourn">Daniel Bourn</A> in <A href="/wiki/Leominster" title="Leominster">Leominster</A>, but this burnt down. Both Lewis Paul and Daniel Bourn patented <A href="/wiki/Carding" title="Carding">carding</A> machines in 1748. Based on two sets of rollers that travelled at different speeds, it was later used in the first <A href="/wiki/Cotton_mill" title="Cotton mill">cotton spinning mill</A>. Lewis's invention was later developed and improved by <A href="/wiki/Richard_Arkwright" title="Richard Arkwright">Richard Arkwright</A> in his <A href="/wiki/Water_frame" title="Water frame">water frame</A> and <A href="/wiki/Samuel_Crompton" title="Samuel Crompton">Samuel Crompton</A> in his <A href="/wiki/Spinning_mule" title="Spinning mule">spinning mule</A>.</P>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:232px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Spinning_jenny.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Spinning_jenny.jpg/230px-Spinning_jenny.jpg" width="230" height="190" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Spinning_jenny.jpg/345px-Spinning_jenny.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Spinning_jenny.jpg/460px-Spinning_jenny.jpg 2x" data-file-width="705" data-file-height="582" /></A>
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Model of the <A href="/wiki/Spinning_jenny" title="Spinning jenny">spinning jenny</A> in a museum in <A href="/wiki/Wuppertal" title="Wuppertal">Wuppertal</A>. Invented by <A href="/wiki/James_Hargreaves" title="James Hargreaves">James Hargreaves</A> in 1764, the spinning jenny was one of the innovations that started the revolution.</DIV>
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<P>In 1764 in the village of Stanhill, Lancashire, <A href="/wiki/James_Hargreaves" title="James Hargreaves">James Hargreaves</A> invented the <A href="/wiki/Spinning_jenny" title="Spinning jenny">spinning jenny</A>, which he patented in 1770. It was the first practical spinning frame with multiple spindles.<SUP id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-34">[34]</A></SUP> The jenny worked in a similar manner to the spinning wheel, by first clamping down on the fibres, then by drawing them out, followed by twisting.<SUP id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-35">[35]</A></SUP> It was a simple, wooden framed machine that only cost about £6 for a 40-spindle model in 1792,<SUP id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-36">[36]</A></SUP> and was used mainly by home spinners. The jenny produced a lightly twisted yarn only suitable for <A href="/wiki/Weft" class="mw-redirect" title="Weft">weft</A>, not <A href="/wiki/Warp_(weaving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Warp (weaving)">warp</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-McNeil1990_33-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-McNeil1990-33">[33]</A></SUP><SUP class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<SPAN>825–27</SPAN></SUP></P>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/Spinning_frame" title="Spinning frame">spinning frame</A> or water frame was developed by Richard Arkwright who, along with two partners, patented it in 1769. The design was partly based on a spinning machine built for Thomas High by clockmaker John Kay, who was hired by Arkwright.<SUP id="cite_ref-McNeil1990_33-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-McNeil1990-33">[33]</A></SUP><SUP class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<SPAN>827–30</SPAN></SUP> For each spindle, the water frame used a series of four pairs of rollers, each operating at a successively higher rotating speed, to draw out the fibre, which was then twisted by the spindle. The roller spacing was slightly longer than the fibre length. Too close a spacing caused the fibres to break while too distant a spacing caused uneven thread. The top rollers were leather-covered and loading on the rollers was applied by a weight. The weights kept the twist from backing up before the rollers. The bottom rollers were wood and metal, with fluting along the length. The water frame was able to produce a hard, medium count thread suitable for warp, finally allowing 100% cotton cloth to be made in Britain. A horse powered the first factory to use the spinning frame. Arkwright and his partners used water power at a factory in Cromford, Derbyshire in 1771, giving the invention its name.</P>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Mule-jenny.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Mule-jenny.jpg/220px-Mule-jenny.jpg" width="220" height="174" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Mule-jenny.jpg/330px-Mule-jenny.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Mule-jenny.jpg/440px-Mule-jenny.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="395" /></A>
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The only surviving example of a <A href="/wiki/Spinning_mule" title="Spinning mule">spinning mule</A> built by the inventor <A href="/wiki/Samuel_Crompton" title="Samuel Crompton">Samuel Crompton</A>. The mule produced high-quality thread with minimal labour.</DIV>
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<P><A href="/wiki/Samuel_Crompton" title="Samuel Crompton">Samuel Crompton</A>'s <A href="/wiki/Spinning_mule" title="Spinning mule">Spinning Mule</A> was introduced in 1779. Mule implies a hybrid because it was a combination of the spinning jenny and the water frame, in which the spindles were placed on a carriage, which went through an operational sequence during which the rollers stopped while the carriage moved away from the drawing roller to finish drawing out the fibres as the spindles started rotating.<SUP id="cite_ref-McNeil1990_33-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-McNeil1990-33">[33]</A></SUP><SUP class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<SPAN>832</SPAN></SUP> Crompton's mule was able to produce finer thread than hand spinning and at a lower cost. Mule spun thread was of suitable strength to be used as warp, and finally allowed Britain to produce highly competitive yarn in large quantities.<SUP id="cite_ref-McNeil1990_33-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-McNeil1990-33">[33]</A></SUP><SUP class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<SPAN>832</SPAN></SUP></P>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Marshall%27s_flax-mill,_Holbeck,_Leeds_-_interior_-_c.1800.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Marshall%27s_flax-mill%2C_Holbeck%2C_Leeds_-_interior_-_c.1800.jpg/220px-Marshall%27s_flax-mill%2C_Holbeck%2C_Leeds_-_interior_-_c.1800.jpg" width="220" height="168" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Marshall%27s_flax-mill%2C_Holbeck%2C_Leeds_-_interior_-_c.1800.jpg/330px-Marshall%27s_flax-mill%2C_Holbeck%2C_Leeds_-_interior_-_c.1800.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Marshall%27s_flax-mill%2C_Holbeck%2C_Leeds_-_interior_-_c.1800.jpg/440px-Marshall%27s_flax-mill%2C_Holbeck%2C_Leeds_-_interior_-_c.1800.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1254" data-file-height="957" /></A>
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Interior of Marshall's <A href="/wiki/Temple_Works" title="Temple Works">Temple Works</A></DIV>
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<P>Realising that the expiration of the Arkwright patent would greatly increase the supply of spun cotton and lead to a shortage of weavers, Edmund Cartwright developed a vertical <A href="/wiki/Power_loom" title="Power loom">power loom</A> which he patented in 1785. In 1776 he patented a two-man operated loom which was more conventional.<SUP id="cite_ref-McNeil1990_33-6" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-McNeil1990-33">[33]</A></SUP><SUP class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<SPAN>834</SPAN></SUP> Cartwright built two factories; the first burned down and the second was sabotaged by his workers. Cartwright's loom design had several flaws, the most serious being thread breakage. Samuel Horrocks patented a fairly successful loom in 1813. Horock's loom was improved by Richard Roberts in 1822 and these were produced in large numbers by Roberts, Hill & Co.<SUP id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-37">[37]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The demand for cotton presented an opportunity to planters in the Southern United States, who thought upland cotton would be a profitable crop if a better way could be found to remove the seed. <A href="/wiki/Eli_Whitney" title="Eli Whitney">Eli Whitney</A> responded to the challenge by inventing the inexpensive <A href="/wiki/Cotton_gin" title="Cotton gin">cotton gin</A>. With a cotton gin a man could remove seed from as much upland cotton in one day as would have previously taken a woman working two months to process at one pound per day.<SUP id="cite_ref-Roe1916_17-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Roe1916-17">[17]</A></SUP></P>
<P>These advances were capitalised on by <A href="/wiki/Entrepreneur" class="mw-redirect" title="Entrepreneur">entrepreneurs</A>, of whom the best known is Richard Arkwright. He is credited with a list of inventions, but these were actually developed by such people as <A href="/wiki/Thomas_Highs" title="Thomas Highs">Thomas Highs</A> and <A href="/wiki/John_Kay_(spinning_frame)" title="John Kay (spinning frame)">John Kay</A>; Arkwright nurtured the inventors, patented the ideas, financed the initiatives, and protected the machines. He created the <A href="/wiki/Cotton_mill" title="Cotton mill">cotton mill</A> which brought the production processes together in a factory, and he developed the use of power – first horse power and then <A href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">water power</A>—which made cotton manufacture a mechanised industry. Other inventors increased the efficiency of the individual steps of spinning (carding, twisting and spinning, and rolling) so that the supply of <A href="/wiki/Yarn" title="Yarn">yarn</A> increased greatly. Before long <A href="/wiki/Watt_steam_engine" title="Watt steam engine">steam power</A> was applied to drive textile machinery. <A href="/wiki/Manchester" title="Manchester">Manchester</A> acquired the nickname <A href="/wiki/Cottonopolis" title="Cottonopolis">Cottonopolis</A> during the early 19th century owing to its sprawl of textile factories.<SUP id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-38">[38]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Although mechanization dramatically decreased the cost of cotton cloth, by the mid-19th century machine-woven cloth still could not equal the quality of hand-woven Indian cloth, in part due to the fineness of thread made possible by the type of cotton used in India, which allowed high tread counts. However, the high productivity of British textile manufacturing allowed coarser grades of British cloth to undersell hand spun and woven fabric in low-wage India, eventually destroying the industry.<SUP id="cite_ref-Beckert_2014_30-6" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Beckert_2014-30">[30]</A></SUP></P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Wool">Wool</SPAN></H4>
<P>The earliest European attempts at mechanized spinning were with wool; however, wool spinning proved more difficult to mechanize than cotton. Productivity improvement in wool spinning during the Industrial Revolution was significant, but was far less than that of cotton.<SUP id="cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_1-10" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-1">[1]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-David_Landes_1999_4-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-David_Landes_1999-4">[4]</A></SUP></P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Silk">Silk</SPAN></H4>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Silkmill1.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Silkmill1.jpg/220px-Silkmill1.jpg" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Silkmill1.jpg/330px-Silkmill1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Silkmill1.jpg/440px-Silkmill1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></A>
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Lombe's Mill site today, rebuilt as <A href="/wiki/Derby_Silk_Mill" title="Derby Silk Mill">Derby Silk Mill</A></DIV>
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<P>Arguably the first highly mechanised factory was <A href="/wiki/John_Lombe" title="John Lombe">John Lombe</A>'s <A href="/wiki/Derby_Industrial_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Derby Industrial Museum">water-powered silk mill</A> at <A href="/wiki/Derby" title="Derby">Derby</A>, operational by 1721. Lombe learned silk thread manufacturing by taking a job in Italy and acting as an industrial spy; however, becasue the silk industry there was a closely guarded secret, the state of the industry there is unknown. Although Lombe's factory was technically successful, the supply of raw silk from Italy was cut off to eliminate competition. In order to promote manufacturing the Crown paid for models of Lombe's machinery which were exhibited in the <A href="/wiki/Tower_of_London" title="Tower of London">Tower of London</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-39">[39]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-40">[40]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Iron_industry">Iron industry</SPAN></H3>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Reverberatory_furnace_diagram.png" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Reverberatory_furnace_diagram.png/220px-Reverberatory_furnace_diagram.png" width="220" height="140" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Reverberatory_furnace_diagram.png/330px-Reverberatory_furnace_diagram.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Reverberatory_furnace_diagram.png 2x" data-file-width="351" data-file-height="224" /></A>
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The <A href="/wiki/Reverberatory_furnace" title="Reverberatory furnace">reverberatory furnace</A> could produce <A href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">cast iron</A> using mined coal. The burning coal remained separate from the iron and so did not contaminate the iron with impurities like sulphur and silica. This opened the way to increased iron production.</DIV>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Ironbridge_6.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Ironbridge_6.jpg/220px-Ironbridge_6.jpg" width="220" height="164" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Ironbridge_6.jpg/330px-Ironbridge_6.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Ironbridge_6.jpg/440px-Ironbridge_6.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2216" data-file-height="1648" /></A>
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<A href="/wiki/The_Iron_Bridge" title="The Iron Bridge">The Iron Bridge</A>, <A href="/wiki/Shropshire" title="Shropshire">Shropshire</A>, England, the world's first bridge constructed of iron.<SUP id="cite_ref-Iron_bridge_41-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Iron_bridge-41">[41]</A></SUP></DIV>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:282px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Puddling_furnace_int_captions.png" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Puddling_furnace_int_captions.png/280px-Puddling_furnace_int_captions.png" width="280" height="283" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Puddling_furnace_int_captions.png/420px-Puddling_furnace_int_captions.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Puddling_furnace_int_captions.png/560px-Puddling_furnace_int_captions.png 2x" data-file-width="578" data-file-height="585" /></A>
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Horizontal (lower) and vertical (upper) cross-sections of a single puddling furnace. A. Fireplace grate; B. Firebricks; C. Cross binders; D. Fireplace; E. Work door; F. Hearth; G. Cast iron retaining plates; H. Bridge wall</DIV>
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<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="UK_iron_production_statistics">UK iron production statistics</SPAN></H4>
<P>Bar iron was the commodity form of iron used as the raw material for making hardware goods such as nails, wire, hinges, horse shoes, wagon tires, chains, etc. and for structural shapes. A small amount of bar iron was converted into steel. <A href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">Cast iron</A> was used for pots, stoves and other items where its brittleness was tolerable. Most cast iron was refined and converted to bar iron, with substantial losses. Bar iron was also made by the <A href="/wiki/Bloomery" title="Bloomery">bloomery</A> process, which was the predominant iron smelting process until the late 18th century.</P>
<P>In the UK in 1720 there were 20,500 tons of cast iron produced with charcoal and 400 tons with coke. In 1750 charcoal iron production was 24,500 and coke iron was 2,500 tons. In 1788 the production of charcoal cast iron was 14,000 tons while coke iron production was 54,000 tons. In 1806 charcoal cast iron production was 7,800 tons and coke cast iron was 250,000 tons.<SUP id="cite_ref-Tylecote_1992_27-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Tylecote_1992-27">[27]</A></SUP><SUP class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<SPAN>125</SPAN></SUP></P>
<P>In 1750 the UK imported 31,200 tons of bar iron and either refined from cast iron or directly produced 18,800 tons of bar iron using charcoal and 100 tons using coke. In 1796 the UK was making 125,000 tons of bar iron with coke and 6,400 tons with charcoal; imports were 38,000 tons and exports were 24,600 tons. In 1806 the UK did not import bar iron but exported 31,500 tons.<SUP id="cite_ref-Tylecote_1992_27-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Tylecote_1992-27">[27]</A></SUP><SUP class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<SPAN>125</SPAN></SUP></P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Iron_process_innovations">Iron process innovations</SPAN></H4>
<P>A major change in the iron industries during the era of the Industrial Revolution was the replacement of <A href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">wood</A> and other bio-fuels with coal. For a given amount of heat, coal required much less labour to mine than cutting wood and converting it to charcoal,<SUP id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-42">[42]</A></SUP> and coal was much more abundant than wood, supplies of which were becoming scarce before the enormous increase in iron production that took place in the late 18th century.<SUP id="cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_1-11" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-1">[1]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Tylecote_1992_27-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Tylecote_1992-27">[27]</A></SUP><SUP class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<SPAN>122</SPAN></SUP> By 1750 <A href="/wiki/Coke_(fuel)" title="Coke (fuel)">coke</A> had generally replaced charcoal in smelting of copper and lead and was in widespread use in making glass. In the smelting and refining of iron, coal and <A href="/wiki/Coke_(fuel)" title="Coke (fuel)">coke</A> produced inferior iron to that made with charcoal because of the coal's sulfur content. Low sulfur coals were known, but they still contained harmful amounts. Conversion of coal to coke only slightly reduces the sulfur content.<SUP id="cite_ref-Tylecote_1992_27-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Tylecote_1992-27">[27]</A></SUP><SUP class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<SPAN>122–125</SPAN></SUP> A minority of coals are coking.</P>
<P>Another factor limiting the iron industry before the Industrial Revolution was the scarcity of water power to power blast bellows. This was solved by the steam engine.<SUP id="cite_ref-Tylecote_1992_27-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Tylecote_1992-27">[27]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Use of coal in iron <A href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">smelting</A> started somewhat before the Industrial Revolution, based on innovations by Sir <A href="/wiki/Clement_Clerke" title="Clement Clerke">Clement Clerke</A> and others from 1678, using coal <A href="/wiki/Reverberatory_furnace" title="Reverberatory furnace">reverberatory furnaces</A> known as cupolas. These were operated by the flames playing on the <A href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">ore</A> and charcoal or <A href="/wiki/Coke_(fuel)" title="Coke (fuel)">coke</A> mixture, <A href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">reducing</A> the <A href="/wiki/Oxide" title="Oxide">oxide</A> to metal. This has the advantage that impurities (such as sulphur ash) in the coal do not migrate into the metal. This technology was applied to <A href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</A> from 1678 and to <A href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</A> from 1687. It was also applied to iron foundry work in the 1690s, but in this case the reverberatory furnace was known as an air furnace. (The <A href="/wiki/Cupola_furnace" title="Cupola furnace">foundry cupola</A> is a different, and later, innovation.)</P>
<P>By 1709 <A href="/wiki/Abraham_Darby_I" title="Abraham Darby I">Abraham Darby</A> made progress using coke to fuel his <A href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnaces</A> at <A href="/wiki/Coalbrookdale" title="Coalbrookdale">Coalbrookdale</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-43">[43]</A></SUP> However, the coke <A href="/wiki/Pig_iron" title="Pig iron">pig iron</A> he made was not suitable for making wrought iron and was used mostly for the production of <A href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">cast iron</A> goods, such as pots and kettles. He had the advantage over his rivals in that his pots, cast by his patented process, were thinner and cheaper than theirs.</P>
<P>Coke pig iron was hardly used to produce <A href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">wrought iron</A> until 1755-56, when Darby's son <A href="/wiki/Abraham_Darby_II" title="Abraham Darby II">Abraham Darby II</A> built furnaces at <A href="/wiki/Horsehay" title="Horsehay">Horsehay</A> and <A href="/wiki/Ketley" title="Ketley">Ketley</A> where low sulfur coal was available (and not far from Coalbrookdale). These new furnaces were equipped with water-powered bellows, the water being pumped by <A href="/wiki/Newcomen_atmospheric_engine" title="Newcomen atmospheric engine">Newcomen steam engines</A>. The Newcomen engines were not attached directly to the blowing cylinders because the engines would not produce a steady air blast. Abraham Darby III installed similar steam-pumped, water-powered blowing cylinders at the Dale Company when he took control in 1768. The Dale Company used several Newcomen engines to drain its mines and made parts for engines which it sold throughout the country.<SUP id="cite_ref-Tylecote_1992_27-6" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Tylecote_1992-27">[27]</A></SUP><SUP class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<SPAN>123–125</SPAN></SUP></P>
<P>Steam engines made the use higher-pressure and volume blast practical; however, the leather used in bellows was expensive to replace. In 1757 iron master <A href="/wiki/John_Wilkinson_(industrialist)" title="John Wilkinson (industrialist)">John Wilkinson</A> patented a hydraulic powered <A href="/wiki/Blowing_engine" title="Blowing engine">blowing engine</A> for blast furnaces.<SUP id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-44">[44]</A></SUP> The blowing cylinder for blast furnaces was introduced in 1760 and the first blowing cylinder made of cast iron is believed to be the one used at Carrington in 1768 that was designed by <A href="/wiki/John_Smeaton" title="John Smeaton">John Smeaton</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Tylecote_1992_27-7" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Tylecote_1992-27">[27]</A></SUP><SUP class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<SPAN>124, 135</SPAN></SUP> Cast iron cylinders for use with a piston were difficult to manufacture; the cylinders had to be free of holes and had to be machined smooth and straight to remove any warping. <A href="/wiki/James_Watt" title="James Watt">James Watt</A> had great difficulty trying to have a cylinder made for his first steam engine. In 1774 John Wilkinson, who built a cast iron blowing cylinder for his iron works, invented a precision boring machine for boring cylinders. After Wilkinson bored the first successful cylinder for a <A href="/wiki/Boulton_and_Watt" title="Boulton and Watt">Boulton and Watt</A> steam engine in 1776, he was given an exclusive contract for providing cylinders.<SUP id="cite_ref-Roe1916_17-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Roe1916-17">[17]</A></SUP> After Watt developed a rotary steam engine in 1782, they were widely applied to blowing, hammering, rolling and slitting.<SUP id="cite_ref-Tylecote_1992_27-8" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Tylecote_1992-27">[27]</A></SUP><SUP class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<SPAN>124</SPAN></SUP></P>
<P>The solutions to the sulfur problem were the addition of sufficient limestone to the furnace to force sulfur into the slag and the use of low sulfur coal. Use of lime or limestone required higher furnace temperatures to form a free-flowing slag. The increased furnace temperature made possible by improved blowing also increased the capacity of blast furnaces and allowed for increased furnace height.<SUP id="cite_ref-Tylecote_1992_27-9" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Tylecote_1992-27">[27]</A></SUP><SUP class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<SPAN>123–125</SPAN></SUP> In addition to lower cost and greater availability, coke had other important advantages over charcoal in that it was harder and made the column of materials (iron ore, fuel, slag) flowing down the blast furnace more porous and did not crush in the much taller furnaces of the late 19th century.<SUP id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-45">[45]</A></SUP></P>
<P>As cast iron was became cheaper and widely available, it began being a structural material for bridges and buildings. A famous early example was the <A href="/wiki/The_Iron_Bridge" title="The Iron Bridge">Iron Bridge</A> built in 1778 with cast iron produced by <A href="/wiki/Abraham_Darby_III" title="Abraham Darby III">Abraham Darby III</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Iron_bridge_41-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Iron_bridge-41">[41]</A></SUP> However, most cast iron was converted to <A href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">wrought iron</A>, which was turned into hardware items such as nails, wire, chains, agricultural implements, tools and wagon tires.</P>
<P>Europe relied on the <A href="/wiki/Bloomery" title="Bloomery">bloomery</A> for most of its wrought iron until the large scale production of cast iron. Conversion of cast iron was done in a <A href="/wiki/Finery_forge" title="Finery forge">finery forge</A>, as it long had been. An improved refining process known as <A href="/wiki/Potting_and_stamping" title="Potting and stamping">potting and stamping</A> was developed, but this was superseded by <A href="/wiki/Henry_Cort" title="Henry Cort">Henry Cort</A>'s <A href="/wiki/Puddling_furnace" class="mw-redirect" title="Puddling furnace">puddling</A> process. Cort developed two significant iron manufacturing processes: <A href="/wiki/Rolling_(metalworking)" title="Rolling (metalworking)">rolling</A> in 1783 and <A href="/wiki/Puddling_(metallurgy)" title="Puddling (metallurgy)">puddling</A> in 1784.<SUP id="cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_1-12" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-1">[1]</A></SUP><SUP class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<SPAN>91</SPAN></SUP> Puddling produced a structural grade iron at a relatively low cost.</P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Puddling_(metallurgy)" title="Puddling (metallurgy)">Puddling</A> was a means of decarburizing molten pig iron by slow oxidation in a reverberatory furnace by manually stirring it with a long rod. The decarburized iron, having a higher melting point than cast iron, was raked into globs by the puddler. When the glob a large enough the puddler would remove it. Puddling was backbreaking and extremely hot work. Few puddlers lived to be 40.<SUP id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-46">[46]</A></SUP> Because puddling was done in a reverberatory furnace, coal or coke could be used as fuel. The puddling process continued to be used until the late 19th century when iron was being displaced by steel. Because puddling required human skill in sensing the iron globs, it was never successfully mechanised. Rolling was an important part of the puddling process because the grooved rollers expelled most of the molten slag and consolidated the mass of hot wrought iron. Rolling was 15 times faster at this than a <A href="/wiki/Trip_hammer" title="Trip hammer">trip hammer</A>. A different use of rolling, which was done at lower temperatures than that for expelling slag, was in the production of iron sheets, and later structural shapes such as beams, angles and rails.</P>
<P>The puddling process was improved in 1818 by Baldwyn Rogers, who replaced some of the sand lining on the reverberatory furnace bottom with iron oxide.<SUP id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-47">[47]</A></SUP> In 1838 <A href="/wiki/Joseph_Hall_(metallurgist)" title="Joseph Hall (metallurgist)">John Hall</A> patented the use of roasted tap cinder (iron silicate) for the furnace bottom, greatly reducing the loss of iron through increased slag caused by a sand lined bottom. The tap cinder also tied up some phosphorus, but this was not understood at the time.<SUP id="cite_ref-Tylecote_1992_27-10" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Tylecote_1992-27">[27]</A></SUP><SUP class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<SPAN>166</SPAN></SUP> Hall's process also used iron scale or rust, which reacted with carbon in the molten iron. Hall's process, called <I>wet puddling</I>, reduced losses of iron with the slag from almost 50% to around 8%.<SUP id="cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_1-13" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-1">[1]</A></SUP><SUP class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<SPAN>93</SPAN></SUP></P>
<P>Puddling became widely used after 1800. Up to that time British iron manufacturers had used considerable amounts of iron imported from Sweden and Russia to supplement domestic supplies. Because of the increased British production, imports began to decline in 1785 and by the 1790s Britain eliminated imports and became a net exporter of bar iron.</P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Hot_blast" title="Hot blast">Hot blast</A>, patented by <A href="/wiki/James_Beaumont_Neilson" title="James Beaumont Neilson">James Beaumont Neilson</A> in 1828, was the most important development of the 19th century for saving energy in making pig iron. By using waste exhaust heat to preheat combustion air, the amount of fuel to make a unit of pig iron was reduced at first by between one-third using coal or two-thirds using coke;<SUP id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-48">[48]</A></SUP> however, the efficiency gains continued as the technology improved.<SUP id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-49">[49]</A></SUP> Hot blast also raised the operating temperature of furnaces, increasing their capacity. Using less coal or coke meant introducing fewer impurities into the pig iron. This meant that lower quality coal or <A href="/wiki/Anthracite" title="Anthracite">anthracite</A> could be used in areas where coking coal was unavailable or too expensive;<SUP id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-50">[50]</A></SUP> however, by the end of the 19th century transportation costs fell considerably.</P>
<P>Shortly before the Industrial Revolution an improvement was made in the production of <A href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</A>, which was an expensive commodity and used only where iron would not do, such as for cutting edge tools and for springs. <A href="/wiki/Benjamin_Huntsman" title="Benjamin Huntsman">Benjamin Huntsman</A> developed his <A href="/wiki/Crucible_steel" title="Crucible steel">crucible steel</A> technique in the 1740s. The raw material for this was blister steel, made by the <A href="/wiki/Cementation_process" title="Cementation process">cementation process</A>.</P>
<P>The supply of cheaper iron and steel aided a number of industries, such as those making nails, hinges, wire and other hardware items. The development of <A href="/wiki/Machine_tool" title="Machine tool">machine tools</A> allowed better working of iron, causing it to be increasingly used in the rapidly growing machinery and engine industries.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Steam_power">Steam power</SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Steam_power_during_the_Industrial_Revolution" title="Steam power during the Industrial Revolution">Steam power during the Industrial Revolution</A></DIV>
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A <A href="/wiki/Watt_steam_engine" title="Watt steam engine">Watt steam engine</A>. <A href="/wiki/James_Watt" title="James Watt">James Watt</A> transformed the <A href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam engine</A> from a <A href="/wiki/Reciprocating_motion" title="Reciprocating motion">reciprocating motion</A> that was used for pumping to a <A href="/wiki/Rotation" title="Rotation">rotating motion</A> suited to industrial applications. Watt and others significantly improved the efficiency of the steam engine.</DIV>
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<P>The development of the <A href="/wiki/Stationary_steam_engine" title="Stationary steam engine">stationary steam engine</A> was an important element of the Industrial Revolution; however, during the early period of the Industrial Revolution, most industrial power was supplied by water and wind. In Britain by 1800 an estimated 10,000 horsepower was being supplied by steam. By 1815 steam power had grown to 210,000 hp.<SUP id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-51">[51]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The first commercially successful industrial use of steam power was due to <A href="/wiki/Thomas_Savery" title="Thomas Savery">Thomas Savery</A> in 1698. He constructed and patented in London a low-lift combined vacuum and pressure water pump, that generated about one <A href="/wiki/Horsepower" title="Horsepower">horsepower</A> (hp) and was used in numerous water works and in a few mines (hence its "brand name", <I>The Miner's Friend</I>). Savery's pump was economical in small horsepower ranges, but was prone to boiler explosions in larger sizes. Savery pumps continued to be produced until the late 18th century.</P>
<P>The first successful piston steam engine was introduced by <A href="/wiki/Thomas_Newcomen" title="Thomas Newcomen">Thomas Newcomen</A> before 1712. A number of Newcomen engines were installed in Britain for draining hitherto unworkable deep mines, with the engine on the surface; these were large machines, requiring a significant amount of capital to build, and produced upwards of 5 hp (3.7 kW). They were also used to power municipal water supply pumps. They were extremely inefficient by modern standards, but when located where coal was cheap at pit heads, opened up a great expansion in coal mining by allowing mines to go deeper. Despite their disadvantages, Newcomen engines were reliable and easy to maintain and continued to be used in the coalfields until the early decades of the 19th century. By 1729, when Newcomen died, his engines had spread (first) to Hungary in 1722, Germany, Austria, and Sweden. A total of 110 are known to have been built by 1733 when the joint patent expired, of which 14 were abroad. In the 1770s the engineer <A href="/wiki/John_Smeaton" title="John Smeaton">John Smeaton</A> built some very large examples and introduced a number of improvements. A total of 1,454 engines had been built by 1800.<SUP id="cite_ref-allen_52-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-allen-52">[52]</A></SUP></P>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Newcomens_Dampfmaschine_aus_Meyers_1890.png" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Newcomens_Dampfmaschine_aus_Meyers_1890.png/170px-Newcomens_Dampfmaschine_aus_Meyers_1890.png" width="170" height="207" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Newcomens_Dampfmaschine_aus_Meyers_1890.png/255px-Newcomens_Dampfmaschine_aus_Meyers_1890.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Newcomens_Dampfmaschine_aus_Meyers_1890.png/340px-Newcomens_Dampfmaschine_aus_Meyers_1890.png 2x" data-file-width="366" data-file-height="446" /></A>
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<A href="/wiki/Newcomen_steam_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Newcomen steam engine">Newcomen's steam-powered atmospheric engine</A> was the first practical piston steam engine. Subsequent steam engines were to power the Industrial Revolution.</DIV>
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<P>A fundamental change in working principles was brought about by <A href="/wiki/Scottish_people" title="Scottish people">Scotsman</A> <A href="/wiki/James_Watt" title="James Watt">James Watt</A>. With financial support from his business partner <A href="/wiki/English_people" title="English people">Englishman</A> <A href="/wiki/Matthew_Boulton" title="Matthew Boulton">Matthew Boulton</A>, he had succeeded by 1778 in perfecting his <A href="/wiki/Watt_steam_engine" title="Watt steam engine">steam engine</A>, which incorporated a series of radical improvements, notably the closing off of the upper part of the cylinder, thereby making the low-pressure steam drive the top of the piston instead of the atmosphere, use of a steam jacket and the celebrated separate steam condenser chamber. The separate condenser did away with the cooling water that had been injected directly into the cylinder, which cooled the cylinder and wasted steam. Likewise, the steam jacket kept steam from condensing in the cylinder, also improving efficiency. These improvements increased engine efficiency so that Boulton & Watts engines used only 20–25% as much coal per horsepower-hour as Newcomen's. Boulton and Watt opened the <A href="/wiki/Soho_Foundry" title="Soho Foundry">Soho Foundry</A> for the manufacture of such engines in 1795.</P>
<P>By 1783 the Watt steam engine had been fully developed into a <A href="/wiki/Single-_and_double-acting_cylinders" title="Single- and double-acting cylinders">double-acting</A> rotative type, which meant that it could be used to directly drive the rotary machinery of a factory or mill. Both of Watt's basic engine types were commercially very successful, and by 1800, the firm <A href="/wiki/Boulton_and_Watt" title="Boulton and Watt">Boulton & Watt</A> had constructed 496 engines, with 164 driving reciprocating pumps, 24 serving <A href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnaces</A>, and 308 powering mill machinery; most of the engines generated from 5 to 10 hp (3.7 to 7.5 kW).</P>
<P>Until about 1800 the most common pattern of steam engine was the <A href="/wiki/Beam_engine" title="Beam engine">beam engine</A>, built as an integral part of a stone or brick engine-house, but soon various patterns of self-contained rotative engines (readily removable, but not on wheels) were developed, such as the <A href="/wiki/Table_engine" title="Table engine">table engine</A>. Around the start of the 19th century, at which time the Boulton and Watt patent expired, the Cornish engineer <A href="/wiki/Richard_Trevithick" title="Richard Trevithick">Richard Trevithick</A> and the American <A href="/wiki/Oliver_Evans" title="Oliver Evans">Oliver Evans</A> began to construct higher-pressure non-condensing steam engines, exhausting against the atmosphere. High pressure yielded an engine and boiler compact enough to be used on mobile road and rail <A href="/wiki/Locomotive" title="Locomotive">locomotives</A> and <A href="/wiki/Steamboat" title="Steamboat">steam boats</A>.</P>
<P>The development of <A href="/wiki/Machine_tool" title="Machine tool">machine tools</A>, such as the engine <A href="/wiki/Lathe" title="Lathe">lathe</A>, <A href="/wiki/Planer_(metalworking)" title="Planer (metalworking)">planing</A>, milling and shaping machines powered by these engines, enabled all the metal parts of the engines to be easily and accurately cut and in turn made it possible to build larger and more powerful engines.</P>
<P>Small industrial power requirements continued to be provided by animal and human muscle until widespread <A href="/wiki/Electrification" title="Electrification">electrification</A> in the early 20th century. These included <A href="/wiki/Crank_(mechanism)" title="Crank (mechanism)">crank</A>-powered, <A href="/wiki/Treadle" title="Treadle">treadle</A>-powered and horse-powered workshop and light industrial machinery.<SUP id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-53">[53]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Machine_tools">Machine tools</SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Machine_tool" title="Machine tool">Machine tool</A></DIV>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <A href="/wiki/Interchangeable_parts" title="Interchangeable parts">Interchangeable parts</A></DIV>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Maudslay_screw-cutting_lathes_of_circa_1797_and_1800.png" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maudslay_screw-cutting_lathes_of_circa_1797_and_1800.png/220px-Maudslay_screw-cutting_lathes_of_circa_1797_and_1800.png" width="220" height="315" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maudslay_screw-cutting_lathes_of_circa_1797_and_1800.png/330px-Maudslay_screw-cutting_lathes_of_circa_1797_and_1800.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maudslay_screw-cutting_lathes_of_circa_1797_and_1800.png/440px-Maudslay_screw-cutting_lathes_of_circa_1797_and_1800.png 2x" data-file-width="523" data-file-height="749" /></A>
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<A href="/wiki/Henry_Maudslay" title="Henry Maudslay">Maudslay</A>'s famous early <A href="/wiki/Screw-cutting_lathe" title="Screw-cutting lathe">screw-cutting lathes</A> of circa 1797 and 1800</DIV>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Middletown_milling_machine_1818--001.png" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Middletown_milling_machine_1818--001.png/220px-Middletown_milling_machine_1818--001.png" width="220" height="62" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Middletown_milling_machine_1818--001.png/330px-Middletown_milling_machine_1818--001.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Middletown_milling_machine_1818--001.png/440px-Middletown_milling_machine_1818--001.png 2x" data-file-width="690" data-file-height="195" /></A>
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The Middletown <A href="/wiki/Milling_(machining)" title="Milling (machining)">milling machine</A> of circa 1818, associated with Robert Johnson and Simeon North</DIV>
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<P>Pre-industrial machinery was built by various craftsmen – <A href="/wiki/Millwright" title="Millwright">millwrights</A> built water and windmills, <A href="/wiki/Carpenter" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpenter">carpenters</A> made wooden framing, and smiths and turners made metal parts. Wooden components had the disadvantage of changing dimensions with temperature and humidity, and the various joints tended to rack (work loose) over time. As the Industrial Revolution progressed, machines with metal parts and frames became more common. Other important uses of metal parts were in firearms and threaded fasteners, such as machine screws, bolts and nuts. There was also the need for precision in making parts. Precision would allow better working machinery, interchangeability of parts and standardization of threaded fasteners.</P>
<P>The demand for metal parts led to the development of several <A href="/wiki/Machine_tool" title="Machine tool">machine tools</A>. They have their origins in the tools developed in the 18th century by makers of clocks and watches and scientific instrument makers to enable them to batch-produce small mechanisms.</P>
<P>Before the advent of machine tools, metal was worked manually using the basic hand tools of hammers, files, scrapers, saws and chisels. Consequently, the use of metal machine parts was kept to a minimum. Hand methods of production were very laborious and costly and precision was difficult to achieve.<SUP id="cite_ref-Hounshell-1984_29-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Hounshell-1984-29">[29]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Roe1916_17-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Roe1916-17">[17]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The first large precision machine tool was the cylinder <A href="/wiki/Boring_(manufacturing)" title="Boring (manufacturing)">boring machine</A> invented by <A href="/wiki/John_Wilkinson_(industrialist)" title="John Wilkinson (industrialist)">John Wilkinson</A> in 1774. It used for boring the large-diameter cylinders on early steam engines. Wilkinson's boring machine differed from earlier <A href="/wiki/Cantilever" title="Cantilever">cantilevered</A> machines used for boring cannon in that the cutting tool was mounted on a beam that ran through the cylinder being bored and was supported outside on both ends.<SUP id="cite_ref-Roe1916_17-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Roe1916-17">[17]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/Planer_(metalworking)" title="Planer (metalworking)">planing machine</A>, the <A href="/wiki/Milling_(machining)" title="Milling (machining)">milling machine</A> and the <A href="/wiki/Shaper" title="Shaper">shaping machine</A> were developed in the early decades of the 19th century. Although the milling machine was invented at this time, it was not developed as a serious workshop tool until somewhat later in the 19th century.<SUP id="cite_ref-Hounshell-1984_29-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Hounshell-1984-29">[29]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Roe1916_17-6" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Roe1916-17">[17]</A></SUP></P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Henry_Maudslay" title="Henry Maudslay">Henry Maudslay</A>, who trained a school of machine tool makers early in the 19th century, was a mechanic with superior ability who had been employed at the <A href="/wiki/Royal_Arsenal" title="Royal Arsenal">Royal Arsenal</A>, <A href="/wiki/Woolwich" title="Woolwich">Woolwich</A>. He worked as an apprentice in the Royal Gun Foundry of <A href="/wiki/Jan_Verbruggen" title="Jan Verbruggen">Jan Verbruggen</A>. In 1774 <A href="/wiki/Jan_Verbruggen" title="Jan Verbruggen">Jan Verbruggen</A> had installed a <A href="/wiki/Horizontal_boring_machine" title="Horizontal boring machine">horizontal boring machine</A> in Woolwich which was the first industrial size <A href="/wiki/Lathe" title="Lathe">Lathe</A> in the UK. Maudslay was hired away by <A href="/wiki/Joseph_Bramah" title="Joseph Bramah">Joseph Bramah</A> for the production of high-security metal locks that required precision craftsmanship. Bramah patented a lathe that had similarities to the slide rest lathe. Maudslay perfected the slide rest lathe, which could cut machine screws of different thread pitches by using changeable gears between the spindle and the lead screw. Before its invention screws could not be cut to any precision using various earlier lathe designs, some of which copied from a template.<SUP id="cite_ref-Roe1916_17-7" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Roe1916-17">[17]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-McNeil1990_33-7" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-McNeil1990-33">[33]</A></SUP><SUP class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<SPAN>392–95</SPAN></SUP> The slide rest lathe was called one of history's most important inventions. Although it was not entirely Maudslay's idea, he was the first person to build a functional lathe using a combination of known innovations of the lead screw, slide rest and change gears.<SUP id="cite_ref-Roe1916_17-8" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Roe1916-17">[17]</A></SUP><SUP class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<SPAN>31, 36</SPAN></SUP></P>
<P>Maudslay left Bramah's employment and set up his own shop. He was engaged to build the machinery for making ships' pulley blocks for the <A href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</A> in the <A href="/wiki/Portsmouth_Block_Mills" title="Portsmouth Block Mills">Portsmouth Block Mills</A>. These machines were all-metal and were the first machines for <A href="/wiki/Mass_production" title="Mass production">mass production</A> and making components with a degree of <A href="/wiki/Interchangeable_parts" title="Interchangeable parts">interchangeability</A>. The lessons Maudslay learned about the need for stability and precision he adapted to the development of machine tools, and in his workshops he trained a generation of men to build on his work, such as <A href="/wiki/Richard_Roberts_(engineer)" title="Richard Roberts (engineer)">Richard Roberts</A>, <A href="/wiki/Joseph_Clement" title="Joseph Clement">Joseph Clement</A> and <A href="/wiki/Joseph_Whitworth" title="Joseph Whitworth">Joseph Whitworth</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Roe1916_17-9" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Roe1916-17">[17]</A></SUP></P>
<P><A href="/wiki/James_Fox_(engineer)" title="James Fox (engineer)">James Fox</A> of <A href="/wiki/Derby" title="Derby">Derby</A> had a healthy export trade in machine tools for the first third of the century, as did <A href="/wiki/Matthew_Murray" title="Matthew Murray">Matthew Murray</A> of Leeds. Roberts was a maker of high-quality machine tools and a pioneer of the use of jigs and gauges for precision workshop measurement.</P>
<P>The impact of machine tools during the Industrial Revolution was not that great because other than firearms, threaded fasteners and a few other industries there were few mass-produced metal parts. The techniques to make mass-produced metal parts made with sufficient precision to be <A href="/wiki/Interchangeable_parts" title="Interchangeable parts">interchangeable</A> is largely attributed to a program of the U.S. Department of War which perfected <A href="/wiki/Interchangeable_parts" title="Interchangeable parts">interchangeable parts</A> for firearms in the early 19th century.<SUP id="cite_ref-Hounshell-1984_29-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Hounshell-1984-29">[29]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In the half century following the invention of the fundamental machine tools the <A href="/wiki/Machine_industry" title="Machine industry">machine industry</A> became the largest industrial sector of the U.S. economy, by value added.<SUP id="cite_ref-faculty.wcas.northwestern.edu_54-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-faculty.wcas.northwestern.edu-54">[54]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Chemicals">Chemicals</SPAN></H3>
<P>The large-scale production of <A href="/wiki/Chemical_substance" title="Chemical substance">chemicals</A> was an important development during the Industrial Revolution. The first of these was the production of <A href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulphuric acid</A> by the <A href="/wiki/Lead_chamber_process" title="Lead chamber process">lead chamber process</A> invented by the Englishman <A href="/wiki/John_Roebuck" title="John Roebuck">John Roebuck</A> (<A href="/wiki/James_Watt" title="James Watt">James Watt</A>'s first partner) in 1746. He was able to greatly increase the scale of the manufacture by replacing the relatively expensive glass vessels formerly used with larger, less expensive chambers made of <A href="/wiki/Rivet" title="Rivet">riveted</A> sheets of <A href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</A>. Instead of making a small amount each time, he was able to make around 100 pounds (50 kg) in each of the chambers, at least a tenfold increase.</P>
<P>The production of an <A href="/wiki/Alkali" title="Alkali">alkali</A> on a large scale became an important goal as well, and <A href="/wiki/Nicolas_Leblanc" title="Nicolas Leblanc">Nicolas Leblanc</A> succeeded in 1791 in introducing a method for the production of <A href="/wiki/Sodium_carbonate" title="Sodium carbonate">sodium carbonate</A>. The <A href="/wiki/Leblanc_process" title="Leblanc process">Leblanc process</A> was a reaction of sulphuric acid with sodium chloride to give sodium sulphate and <A href="/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid" title="Hydrochloric acid">hydrochloric acid</A>. The <A href="/wiki/Sodium_sulfate" title="Sodium sulfate">sodium sulphate</A> was heated with <A href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</A> (<A href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</A>) and coal to give a mixture of sodium carbonate and <A href="/wiki/Calcium_sulfide" title="Calcium sulfide">calcium sulphide</A>. Adding water separated the soluble sodium carbonate from the calcium sulphide. The process produced a large amount of pollution (the hydrochloric acid was initially vented to the air, and calcium sulphide was a useless waste product). Nonetheless, this synthetic <A href="/wiki/Sodium_carbonate" title="Sodium carbonate">soda ash</A> proved economical compared to that from burning specific plants (<A href="/wiki/Barilla" title="Barilla">barilla</A>) or from <A href="/wiki/Kelp" title="Kelp">kelp</A>, which were the previously dominant sources of soda ash,<SUP id="cite_ref-Clow52_55-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Clow52-55">[55]</A></SUP> and also to <A href="/wiki/Potash" title="Potash">potash</A> (<A href="/wiki/Potassium_carbonate" title="Potassium carbonate">potassium carbonate</A>) produced from hardwood ashes.</P>
<P>These two chemicals were very important because they enabled the introduction of a host of other inventions, replacing many small-scale operations with more cost-effective and controllable processes. Sodium carbonate had many uses in the glass, textile, soap, and <A href="/wiki/Paper" title="Paper">paper</A> industries. Early uses for sulphuric acid included pickling (removing rust) iron and steel, and for <A href="/wiki/Bleach" title="Bleach">bleaching</A> cloth.</P>
<P>The development of bleaching powder (<A href="/wiki/Calcium_hypochlorite" title="Calcium hypochlorite">calcium hypochlorite</A>) by Scottish chemist <A href="/wiki/Charles_Tennant" title="Charles Tennant">Charles Tennant</A> in about 1800, based on the discoveries of French chemist <A href="/wiki/Claude_Louis_Berthollet" title="Claude Louis Berthollet">Claude Louis Berthollet</A>, revolutionised the bleaching processes in the textile industry by dramatically reducing the time required (from months to days) for the traditional process then in use, which required repeated exposure to the sun in bleach fields after soaking the textiles with alkali or sour milk. Tennant's factory at St Rollox, North <A href="/wiki/Glasgow" title="Glasgow">Glasgow</A>, became the largest chemical plant in the world.</P>
<P>After 1860 the focus on chemical innovation was in <A href="/wiki/Dye" title="Dye">dyestuffs</A>, and Germany took world leadership, building a strong chemical industry.<SUP id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-56">[56]</A></SUP> Aspiring chemists flocked to German universities in the 1860–1914 era to learn the latest techniques. British scientists by contrast, lacked research universities and did not train advanced students; instead, the practice was to hire German-trained chemists.<SUP id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-57">[57]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Cement">Cement</SPAN></H3>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Thamestunnel.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Thamestunnel.jpg/220px-Thamestunnel.jpg" width="220" height="159" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Thamestunnel.jpg/330px-Thamestunnel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Thamestunnel.jpg/440px-Thamestunnel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="441" data-file-height="318" /></A>
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The <A href="/wiki/Thames_Tunnel" title="Thames Tunnel">Thames Tunnel</A> (opened 1843).<BR />
<A href="/wiki/Cement" title="Cement">Cement</A> was used in the world's first underwater tunnel.</DIV>
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<P>In 1824 <A href="/wiki/Joseph_Aspdin" title="Joseph Aspdin">Joseph Aspdin</A>, a British <A href="/wiki/Bricklayer" title="Bricklayer">bricklayer</A> turned builder, patented a chemical process for making <A href="/wiki/Portland_cement" title="Portland cement">portland cement</A> which was an important advance in the building trades. This process involves <A href="/wiki/Sintering" title="Sintering">sintering</A> a mixture of <A href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clay</A> and <A href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</A> to about 1,400 °C (2,552 °F), then <A href="/wiki/Grinding_(abrasive_cutting)" title="Grinding (abrasive cutting)">grinding</A> it into a fine powder which is then mixed with water, sand and <A href="/wiki/Gravel" title="Gravel">gravel</A> to produce <A href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">concrete</A>. Portland cement was used by the famous English engineer <A href="/wiki/Marc_Isambard_Brunel" title="Marc Isambard Brunel">Marc Isambard Brunel</A> several years later when constructing the <A href="/wiki/Thames_Tunnel" title="Thames Tunnel">Thames Tunnel</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-memphis_58-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-memphis-58">[58]</A></SUP> Cement was used on a large scale in the construction of the <A href="/wiki/London_sewerage_system" title="London sewerage system">London sewerage system</A> a generation later.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Gas_lighting">Gas lighting</SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Gas_lighting" title="Gas lighting">Gas lighting</A></DIV>
<P>Another major industry of the later Industrial Revolution was <A href="/wiki/Gas_lighting" title="Gas lighting">gas lighting</A>. Though others made a similar innovation elsewhere, the large-scale introduction of this was the work of <A href="/wiki/William_Murdoch" title="William Murdoch">William Murdoch</A>, an employee of Boulton & Watt, the <A href="/wiki/Birmingham" title="Birmingham">Birmingham</A> <A href="/wiki/Watt_steam_engine" title="Watt steam engine">steam engine</A> pioneers. The process consisted of the large-scale gasification of coal in furnaces, the purification of the gas (removal of sulphur, ammonia, and heavy hydrocarbons), and its storage and distribution. The first gas lighting utilities were established in London between 1812 and 1820. They soon became one of the major consumers of coal in the UK. Gas lighting affected social and industrial organisation because it allowed factories and stores to remain open longer than with tallow candles or oil. Its introduction allowed nightlife to flourish in cities and towns as interiors and streets could be lighted on a larger scale than before.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Glass_making">Glass making</SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Glass_production" title="Glass production">Glass production</A></DIV>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Crystal_Palace_interior.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Crystal_Palace_interior.jpg/220px-Crystal_Palace_interior.jpg" width="220" height="150" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Crystal_Palace_interior.jpg/330px-Crystal_Palace_interior.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Crystal_Palace_interior.jpg/440px-Crystal_Palace_interior.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1611" data-file-height="1095" /></A>
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The Crystal Palace held the <A href="/wiki/The_Great_Exhibition" title="The Great Exhibition">Great Exhibition</A> of 1851</DIV>
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<P>A new method of producing glass, known as the <A href="/wiki/Cylinder_blown_sheet_glass" title="Cylinder blown sheet glass">cylinder process</A>, was developed in Europe during the early 19th century. In 1832 this process was used by the <A href="/wiki/Chance_Brothers" title="Chance Brothers">Chance Brothers</A> to create sheet glass. They became the leading producers of window and plate glass. This advancement allowed for larger panes of glass to be created without interruption, thus freeing up the space planning in interiors as well as the fenestration of buildings. <A href="/wiki/The_Crystal_Palace" title="The Crystal Palace">The Crystal Palace</A> is the supreme example of the use of sheet glass in a new and innovative structure.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Paper_machine">Paper machine</SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Paper_machine" title="Paper machine">Paper machine</A></DIV>
<P>A machine for making a continuous sheet of paper on a loop of wire fabric was patented in 1798 by Nicholas Louis Robert who worked for <A href="/wiki/Saint-L%C3%A9ger_Didot" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint-Léger Didot">Saint-Léger Didot</A> family in France. The paper machine is known as a Fourdrinier after the financiers, brothers Sealy and <A href="/wiki/Henry_Fourdrinier" title="Henry Fourdrinier">Henry Fourdrinier</A>, who were <A href="/wiki/Stationers" class="mw-redirect" title="Stationers">stationers</A> in London. Although greatly improved and with many variations, the Fourdriner machine is the predominant means of paper production today.</P>
<P>The method of <A href="/wiki/Continuous_production" title="Continuous production">continuous production</A> demonstrated by the paper machine influenced the development of continuous rolling of iron and later steel and other <A href="/wiki/Continuous_production" title="Continuous production">continuous production</A> processes.<SUP id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-59">[59]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Agriculture">Agriculture</SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/British_Agricultural_Revolution" title="British Agricultural Revolution">British Agricultural Revolution</A></DIV>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/British_Agricultural_Revolution" title="British Agricultural Revolution">British Agricultural Revolution</A> is considered one of the causes of the Industrial Revolution because improved agricultural productivity freed up workers to work in other sectors of the economy.<SUP id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-60">[60]</A></SUP> However, per-capita food supply in Europe was stagnant or declining and did not improve in some parts of Europe until the late 18th century.<SUP id="cite_ref-Pomeranz_2000_61-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Pomeranz_2000-61">[61]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Industrial technologies that affected farming included the <A href="/wiki/Seed_drill" title="Seed drill">seed drill</A>, the <A href="/wiki/British_Agricultural_Revolution#The_Dutch_and_Rotherham_swing_(wheel-less)_plough" title="British Agricultural Revolution">Dutch plough</A>, which contained iron parts, and the threshing machine.</P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Jethro_Tull_(agriculturist)" title="Jethro Tull (agriculturist)">Jethro Tull</A> invented an improved seed drill in 1701. It was a mechanical seeder which distributed seeds evenly across a plot of land and planted them at the correct depth. This was important because the yield of seeds harvested to seeds planted at that time was around four or five. Tull's seed drill was very expensive and not very reliable and therefore did not have much of an impact. Good quality seed drills were not produced until the mid 18th century.<SUP id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-62">[62]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Joseph Foljambe's <I>Rotherham <A href="/wiki/Plough" title="Plough">plough</A></I> of 1730 was the first commercially successful iron plough.<SUP id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-63">[63]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-64">[64]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-65">[65]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-66">[66]</A></SUP> The <A href="/wiki/Threshing_machine" title="Threshing machine">threshing machine</A>, invented by <A href="/wiki/Andrew_Meikle" title="Andrew Meikle">Andrew Meikle</A> in 1784, displaced hand threshing with a <A href="/wiki/Flail" title="Flail">flail</A>, a laborious job that took about one-quarter of agricultural labour.<SUP id="cite_ref-Clark2007_67-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Clark2007-67">[67]</A></SUP><SUP class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<SPAN>286</SPAN></SUP> It took several decades to diffuse<SUP id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-68">[68]</A></SUP> and was the final straw for many farm labourers, who faced near starvation, leading to the 1830 agricultural rebellion of the <A href="/wiki/Swing_Riots" title="Swing Riots">Swing Riots</A>.</P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Machine_tools" class="mw-redirect" title="Machine tools">Machine tools</A> and metalworking techniques developed during the Industrial Revolution eventually resulted in precision manufacturing techniques in the late 19th century for mass-producing agricultural equipment, such as reapers, binders and combine harvesters.<SUP id="cite_ref-Hounshell-1984_29-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Hounshell-1984-29">[29]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Mining">Mining</SPAN></H3>
<P><A href="/wiki/History_of_coal_mining" title="History of coal mining">Coal mining</A> in Britain, particularly in <A href="/wiki/South_Wales" title="South Wales">South Wales</A>, started early. Before the steam engine, <A href="/wiki/Open-pit_mining" title="Open-pit mining">pits</A> were often shallow <A href="/wiki/Bell_pit" title="Bell pit">bell pits</A> following a seam of coal along the surface, which were abandoned as the coal was extracted. In other cases, if the geology was favourable, the coal was mined by means of an <A href="/wiki/Adit" title="Adit">adit</A> or <A href="/wiki/Drift_mining" title="Drift mining">drift mine</A> driven into the side of a hill. <A href="/wiki/Shaft_mining" title="Shaft mining">Shaft mining</A> was done in some areas, but the limiting factor was the problem of removing water. It could be done by hauling buckets of water up the shaft or to a <A href="/wiki/Sough" title="Sough">sough</A> (a tunnel driven into a hill to drain a mine). In either case, the water had to be discharged into a stream or ditch at a level where it could flow away by gravity. The introduction of the steam pump by <A href="/wiki/Savery" title="Savery">Savery</A> in 1698 and the <A href="/wiki/Newcomen_steam_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Newcomen steam engine">Newcomen steam engine</A> in 1712 greatly facilitated the removal of water and enabled shafts to be made deeper, enabling more coal to be extracted. These were developments that had begun before the Industrial Revolution, but the adoption of <A href="/wiki/John_Smeaton" title="John Smeaton">John Smeaton</A>'s improvements to the Newcomen engine followed by James Watt's more efficient steam engines from the 1770s reduced the fuel costs of engines, making mines more profitable. The <A href="/wiki/Cornish_engine" title="Cornish engine">Cornish engine</A>, developed in the 1810s, was much more efficient than the <A href="/wiki/Watt_steam_engine" title="Watt steam engine">Watt steam engine</A>.</P>
<P>Coal mining was very dangerous owing to the presence of <A href="/wiki/Firedamp" title="Firedamp">firedamp</A> in many coal seams. Some degree of safety was provided by the <A href="/wiki/Safety_lamp" title="Safety lamp">safety lamp</A> which was invented in 1816 by Sir <A href="/wiki/Humphry_Davy" title="Humphry Davy">Humphry Davy</A> and independently by <A href="/wiki/George_Stephenson" title="George Stephenson">George Stephenson</A>. However, the lamps proved a false dawn because they became unsafe very quickly and provided a weak light. Firedamp explosions continued, often setting off <A href="/wiki/Coal_dust" title="Coal dust">coal dust</A> <A href="/wiki/Explosion" title="Explosion">explosions</A>, so casualties grew during the entire 19th century. Conditions of work were very poor, with a high casualty rate from rock falls.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Transportation">Transportation</SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Transport_during_the_British_Industrial_Revolution" title="Transport during the British Industrial Revolution">Transport during the British Industrial Revolution</A></DIV>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <A href="/wiki/Productivity_improving_technologies_(economic_history)#Infrastructures" class="mw-redirect" title="Productivity improving technologies (economic history)">Productivity improving technologies (economic history) § Infrastructures</A></DIV>
<P>At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, inland transport was by navigable rivers and roads, with coastal vessels employed to move heavy goods by sea. Wagon ways were used for conveying coal to rivers for further shipment, but canals had not yet been widely constructed. Animals supplied all of the motive power on land, with sails providing the motive power on the sea. The first horse railways were introduced toward the end of the 18th century, with steam locomotives being introduced in the early decades of the 19th century. Improving sailing technologies boosted average sailing speed 50% between 1750 and 1830.<SUP id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-69">[69]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The Industrial Revolution improved Britain's transport infrastructure with a turnpike road network, a canal and waterway network, and a railway network. Raw materials and finished products could be moved more quickly and cheaply than before. Improved transportation also allowed new ideas to spread quickly.</P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Canals_and_improved_waterways">Canals and improved waterways</SPAN></H4>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_canal_system" title="History of the British canal system">History of the British canal system</A></DIV>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Barton-on-Irwell_11.05.02R.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Barton-on-Irwell_11.05.02R.jpg/170px-Barton-on-Irwell_11.05.02R.jpg" width="170" height="228" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Barton-on-Irwell_11.05.02R.jpg/255px-Barton-on-Irwell_11.05.02R.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Barton-on-Irwell_11.05.02R.jpg/340px-Barton-on-Irwell_11.05.02R.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1504" data-file-height="2016" /></A>
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The <A href="/wiki/Bridgewater_Canal" title="Bridgewater Canal">Bridgewater Canal</A>, famous because of its commercial success, crossing the <A href="/wiki/Manchester_Ship_Canal" title="Manchester Ship Canal">Manchester Ship Canal</A>, one of the last canals to be built.</DIV>
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<P>Before and during the Industrial Revolution navigation on several British rivers was improved by removing obstructions, straightening curves, widening and deepening and building navigation <A href="/wiki/Lock_(water_navigation)" title="Lock (water navigation)">locks</A>. Britain had over 1000 miles of navigable rivers and streams by 1750.<SUP id="cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_1-14" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-1">[1]</A></SUP><SUP class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<SPAN>46</SPAN></SUP></P>
<P>Canals and waterways allowed bulk materials to be economically transported long distances inland. This was because a horse could pull a barge with a load dozens of times larger than the load that could be drawn in a cart.<SUP id="cite_ref-McNeil1990_33-8" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-McNeil1990-33">[33]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Grübler_70-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Grübler-70">[70]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Building of canals dates to ancient times. The <A href="/wiki/Grand_Canal_(China)" title="Grand Canal (China)">Grand Canal</A> in China, "the world's largest artificial waterway and oldest canal still in existence," parts of which were started between the 6th and 4th centuries BC, is 1,121 miles (1,804 km) long and links <A href="/wiki/Hangzhou" title="Hangzhou">Hangzhou</A> with Beijing.<SUP id="cite_ref-Langmead_71-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Langmead-71">[71]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In the UK, canals began to be built in the late 18th century to link the major manufacturing centres across the country. Known for its huge commercial success, the <A href="/wiki/Bridgewater_Canal" title="Bridgewater Canal">Bridgewater Canal</A> in <A href="/wiki/North_West_England" title="North West England">North West England</A>, which opened in 1761 and was mostly funded by <A href="/wiki/Francis_Egerton,_3rd_Duke_of_Bridgewater" title="Francis Egerton, 3rd Duke of Bridgewater">The 3rd Duke of Bridgewater</A>. From <A href="/wiki/Worsley" title="Worsley">Worsley</A> to the rapidly growing town of <A href="/wiki/Manchester" title="Manchester">Manchester</A> its construction cost £168,000 (£22,589,130 as of 2013<SUP class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><A class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Industrial_Revolution&action=edit">[update]</A></SUP>),<SUP id="cite_ref-inflation-UK_72-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-inflation-UK-72">[72]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-73">[73]</A></SUP> but its advantages over land and river transport meant that within a year of its opening in 1761, the price of coal in Manchester fell by about half.<SUP id="cite_ref-Bridgewatercollieries_74-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Bridgewatercollieries-74">[74]</A></SUP> This success helped inspire a period of intense canal building, known as <A href="/wiki/Canal_Mania" title="Canal Mania">Canal Mania</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-75">[75]</A></SUP> New canals were hastily built in the aim of replicating the commercial success of the Bridgewater Canal, the most notable being the <A href="/wiki/Leeds_and_Liverpool_Canal" title="Leeds and Liverpool Canal">Leeds and Liverpool Canal</A> and the <A href="/wiki/Thames_and_Severn_Canal" title="Thames and Severn Canal">Thames and Severn Canal</A> which opened in 1774 and 1789 respectively.</P>
<P>By the 1820s a national network was in existence. Canal construction served as a model for the organisation and methods later used to construct the railways. They were eventually largely superseded as profitable commercial enterprises by the spread of the railways from the 1840s on. The last major canal to be built in the United Kingdom was the <A href="/wiki/Manchester_Ship_Canal" title="Manchester Ship Canal">Manchester Ship Canal</A>, which upon opening in 1894 was the largest <A href="/wiki/Ship_canal" title="Ship canal">ship canal</A> in the world,<SUP id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-76">[76]</A></SUP> and opened Manchester as a <A href="/wiki/Port_of_Manchester" title="Port of Manchester">port</A>. However it never achieved the commercial success its sponsors had hoped for and signalled canals as a dying mode of transport in an age dominated by railways, which were quicker and often cheaper.</P>
<P>Britain's canal network, together with its surviving mill buildings, is one of the most enduring features of the early Industrial Revolution to be seen in Britain.</P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Roads">Roads</SPAN></H4>
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Construction of the first macadam road in the United States (1823). In the foreground, workers are breaking stones "so as not to exceed 6 ounces in weight or to pass a two-inch ring".<SUP id="cite_ref-rakemanPainting_77-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-rakemanPainting-77">[77]</A></SUP></DIV>
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<P>France was known for having an excellent system of roads at the time of the Industrial Revolution; however, most of the roads on the European Continent and in the U.K. were in bad condition and dangerously rutted.<SUP id="cite_ref-Grübler_70-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Grübler-70">[70]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Hunter_1985_78-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Hunter_1985-78">[78]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Much of the original British road system was poorly maintained by thousands of local parishes, but from the 1720s (and occasionally earlier) <A href="/wiki/Toll_road" title="Toll road">turnpike</A> trusts were set up to charge tolls and maintain some roads. Increasing numbers of main roads were turnpiked from the 1750s to the extent that almost every main road in England and Wales was the responsibility of a <A href="/wiki/Turnpike_trusts" title="Turnpike trusts">turnpike trust</A>. New engineered roads were built by <A href="/wiki/John_Metcalf_(civil_engineer)" title="John Metcalf (civil engineer)">John Metcalf</A>, <A href="/wiki/Thomas_Telford" title="Thomas Telford">Thomas Telford</A> and most notably <A href="/wiki/John_Loudon_McAdam" title="John Loudon McAdam">John McAdam</A>, with the first '<A href="/wiki/Macadam" title="Macadam">macadamised</A>' stretch of road being Marsh Road at Ashton Gate, Bristol in 1816.<SUP id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-79">[79]</A></SUP> The major turnpikes radiated from London and were the means by which the Royal Mail was able to reach the rest of the country. Heavy goods transport on these roads was by means of slow, broad wheeled, carts hauled by teams of horses. Lighter goods were conveyed by smaller carts or by teams of <A href="/wiki/Packhorse" title="Packhorse">pack horse</A>. Stagecoaches carried the rich, and the less wealthy could pay to ride on <A href="/wiki/Un-sprung_cart" title="Un-sprung cart">carriers carts</A>.</P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Railways">Railways</SPAN></H4>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transport_in_Great_Britain" title="History of rail transport in Great Britain">History of rail transport in Great Britain</A></DIV>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Opening_Liverpool_and_Manchester_Railway.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Opening_Liverpool_and_Manchester_Railway.jpg/220px-Opening_Liverpool_and_Manchester_Railway.jpg" width="220" height="178" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Opening_Liverpool_and_Manchester_Railway.jpg/330px-Opening_Liverpool_and_Manchester_Railway.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Opening_Liverpool_and_Manchester_Railway.jpg/440px-Opening_Liverpool_and_Manchester_Railway.jpg 2x" data-file-width="741" data-file-height="599" /></A>
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Painting depicting the <A href="/wiki/Opening_of_the_Liverpool_and_Manchester_Railway" title="Opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway">opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway</A> in 1830, the first inter-city railway in the world and which spawned <A href="/wiki/Railway_Mania" title="Railway Mania">Railway Mania</A> due to its success.</DIV>
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<P>Reducing friction was one of the major reasons for the success of railroads compared to wagons. This was demonstrated on an iron plate covered wooden tramway in 1805 at Croydon, England.</P>
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<P>“A good horse on an ordinary turnpike road can draw two thousand pounds, or one ton. A party of gentlemen were invited to witness the experiment, that the superiority of the new road might be established by ocular demonstration. Twelve wagons were loaded with stones, till each wagon weighed three tons, and the wagons were fastened together. A horse was then attached, which drew the wagons with ease, six miles in two hours, having stopped four times, in order to show he had the power of starting, as well as drawing his great load.”<SUP id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-80">[80]</A></SUP></P>
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<P>Railways were made practical by the widespread introduction of inexpensive <A href="/wiki/Puddling_(metallurgy)" title="Puddling (metallurgy)">puddled iron</A> after 1800, the <A href="/wiki/Rolling_(metalworking)" title="Rolling (metalworking)">rolling mill</A> for making rails, and the development of the high-pressure steam engine also around 1800.</P>
<P>Wagonways for moving coal in the mining areas had started in the 17th century and were often associated with canal or river systems for the further movement of coal. These were all horse drawn or relied on gravity, with a stationary steam engine to haul the wagons back to the top of the incline. The first applications of the steam <A href="/wiki/Locomotive" title="Locomotive">locomotive</A> were on wagon or plate ways (as they were then often called from the cast-iron plates used). Horse-drawn public railways did not begin until the early years of the 19th century when improvements to pig and wrought iron production were lowering costs. See: <A href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution#Metallurgy" title="Industrial Revolution">Metallurgy</A></P>
<P>Steam locomotives began being built after the introduction of high-pressure steam engines after the expiration of the <A href="/wiki/Boulton_and_Watt" title="Boulton and Watt">Boulton and Watt</A> patent in 1800. High-pressure engines exhausted used steam to the atmosphere, doing away with the condenser and cooling water. They were also much lighter weight and smaller in size for a given horsepower than the stationary condensing engines. A few of these early locomotives were used in mines. Steam-hauled public railways began with the <A href="/wiki/Stockton_and_Darlington_Railway" title="Stockton and Darlington Railway">Stockton and Darlington Railway</A> in 1825.</P>
<P>The rapid introduction of railways followed the 1829 <A href="/wiki/Rainhill_Trials" title="Rainhill Trials">Rainhill Trials</A>, which demonstrated <A href="/wiki/Robert_Stephenson" title="Robert Stephenson">Robert Stephenson</A>'s successful locomotive design and the 1828 development of <A href="/wiki/Hot_blast" title="Hot blast">Hot blast</A>, which dramatically reduced the fuel consumption of making iron and increased the capacity the <A href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnace</A>.</P>
<P>On 15 September 1830, the <A href="/wiki/Liverpool_and_Manchester_Railway" title="Liverpool and Manchester Railway">Liverpool and Manchester Railway</A> was opened, the first inter-city railway in the world and was attended by Prime Minister, the <A href="/wiki/Arthur_Wellesley,_1st_Duke_of_Wellington" title="Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington">Duke of Wellington</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-81">[81]</A></SUP> The railway was engineered by <A href="/wiki/Joseph_Locke" title="Joseph Locke">Joseph Locke</A> and <A href="/wiki/George_Stephenson" title="George Stephenson">George Stephenson</A>, linked the rapidly expanding industrial town of <A href="/wiki/Manchester" title="Manchester">Manchester</A> with the port town of <A href="/wiki/Liverpool" title="Liverpool">Liverpool</A>. The <A href="/wiki/Opening_of_the_Liverpool_and_Manchester_Railway" title="Opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway">opening</A> was marred by problems, due to the primitive nature of the technology being employed, however problems were gradually ironed out and the railway became highly successful, transporting passengers and freight. The success of the inter-city railway, particularly in the transport of freight and commodities, led to <A href="/wiki/Railway_Mania" title="Railway Mania">Railway Mania</A>.</P>
<P>Construction of major railways connecting the larger cities and towns began in the 1830s but only gained momentum at the very end of the first Industrial Revolution. After many of the workers had completed the railways, they did not return to their rural lifestyles but instead remained in the cities, providing additional workers for the factories.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Other_developments">Other developments</SPAN></H3>
<P>Other developments included more efficient <A href="/wiki/Water_wheel" title="Water wheel">water wheels</A>, based on experiments conducted by the British engineer <A href="/wiki/John_Smeaton" title="John Smeaton">John Smeaton</A><SUP id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-82">[82]</A></SUP> the beginnings of a machine industry<SUP id="cite_ref-Roe1916_17-10" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Roe1916-17">[17]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-83">[83]</A></SUP> and the rediscovery of <A href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">concrete</A> (based on <A href="/wiki/Lime_mortar" title="Lime mortar">hydraulic lime mortar</A>) by <A href="/wiki/John_Smeaton" title="John Smeaton">John Smeaton</A>, which had been lost for 1300 years.<SUP id="cite_ref-reintroduction_84-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-reintroduction-84">[84]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Social_effects">Social effects</SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Life_in_Great_Britain_during_the_Industrial_Revolution" title="Life in Great Britain during the Industrial Revolution">Life in Great Britain during the Industrial Revolution</A></DIV>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Factory_system">Factory system</SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Factory_system" title="Factory system">Factory system</A></DIV>
<P>Prior to the Industrial Revolution, most of the workforce was employed in agriculture, either as self-employed farmers as landowners or tenants, or as landless agricultural labourers. It was common for families in various parts of the world to spin yarn, weave cloth and make their own clothing. Households also spun and wove for market production. At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution India, China and regions of Iraq and elsewhere in Asia and the Middle East produced most of the world's cotton cloth while Europeans produced wool and linen goods.</P>
<P>In Britain by the 16th century the <A href="/wiki/Putting-out_system" title="Putting-out system">putting-out system</A>, by which farmers and townspeople produced goods for market in their homes, often described as <I>cottage industry</I>, was being practiced. Typical putting out system goods included spinning and weaving. Merchant capitalist typically provided the raw materials, paid workers by the <A href="/wiki/Piece_work" title="Piece work">piece</A>, and were responsible for the sale of the goods. Embezzlement of supplies by workers and poor quality were common problems. The logistical effort in procuring and distributing raw materials and picking up finished goods were also limitations of the putting out system.<SUP id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-85">[85]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Some early spinning and weaving machinery, such as a <A href="/wiki/Spinning_jenny" title="Spinning jenny">40 spindle jenny</A> for about six pounds in 1792, was affordable for cottagers.<SUP id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-86">[86]</A></SUP> Later machinery such as spinning frames, <A href="/wiki/Spinning_mule" title="Spinning mule">spinning mules</A> and power looms were expensive (especially if water powered), giving rise to capitalist ownership of factories.</P>
<P>The majority of textile factory workers during the Industrial Revolution were unmarried women and children, including many orphans. They typically worked for 12 to 14 hours per day with only Sundays off. It was common for women take factory jobs seasonally during slack periods of farm work. Lack of adequate transportation, long hours and poor pay made it difficult to recruit and maintain workers.<SUP id="cite_ref-Beckert_2014_30-7" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Beckert_2014-30">[30]</A></SUP> Many workers, such as displaced farmers and agricultural workers, who had nothing but their labour to sell, became factory workers out of necessity. (See: <A href="/wiki/British_Agricultural_Revolution" title="British Agricultural Revolution">British Agricultural Revolution</A>, <A href="/wiki/Threshing_machine" title="Threshing machine">Threshing machine</A>)</P>
<P>The change in the social relationship of the factory worker compared to farmers and cottagers was viewed unfavourably by <A href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</A>, however, he recognized the increase in productivity made possible by technology.<SUP id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-87">[87]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Standards_of_living">Standards of living</SPAN></H3>
<P>Some economists, such as <A href="/wiki/Robert_Lucas,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Lucas, Jr.">Robert E. Lucas, Jr.</A>, say that the real impact of the Industrial Revolution was that "for the first time in history, the living standards of the masses of ordinary people have begun to undergo sustained growth ... Nothing remotely like this economic behaviour is mentioned by the classical economists, even as a theoretical possibility."<SUP id="cite_ref-Lectures_on_Economic_Growth_5-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Lectures_on_Economic_Growth-5">[5]</A></SUP> Others, however, argue that while growth of the economy's overall productive powers was unprecedented during the Industrial Revolution, living standards for the majority of the population did not grow meaningfully until the late 19th and 20th centuries, and that in many ways workers' living standards declined under early capitalism: for instance, studies have shown that real wages in Britain only increased 15% between the 1780s and 1850s, and that life expectancy in Britain did not begin to dramatically increase until the 1870s.<SUP id="cite_ref-Feinstein2014_6-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Feinstein2014-6">[6]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-SzreterMooney2014_7-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-SzreterMooney2014-7">[7]</A></SUP></P>
<P>During the Industrial Revolution, the <A href="/wiki/Life_expectancy" title="Life expectancy">life expectancy</A> of children increased dramatically. The percentage of the children born in London who died before the age of five decreased from 74.5% in 1730–1749 to 31.8% in 1810–1829.<SUP id="cite_ref-Buer_88-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Buer-88">[88]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The effects on living conditions the industrial revolution have been very controversial, and were hotly debated by economic and social historians from the 1950s to the 1980s.<SUP id="cite_ref-Woodward81_89-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Woodward81-89">[89]</A></SUP> A series of 1950s essays by <A href="/wiki/Henry_Phelps_Brown" title="Henry Phelps Brown">Henry Phelps Brown</A> and Sheila V. Hopkins later set the academic consensus that the bulk of the population, that was at the bottom of the social ladder, suffered severe reductions in their living standards.<SUP id="cite_ref-Woodward81_89-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Woodward81-89">[89]</A></SUP> During 1813–1913, there was a significant increase in worker wages.<SUP id="cite_ref-Trends_in_Real_Wages_in_Britain,_1750-1913_90-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Trends_in_Real_Wages_in_Britain,_1750-1913-90">[90]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-econlib_91-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-econlib-91">[91]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-hartwell_92-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-hartwell-92">[92]</A></SUP></P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Food_and_nutrition">Food and nutrition</SPAN></H4>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/British_Agricultural_Revolution" title="British Agricultural Revolution">British Agricultural Revolution</A></DIV>
<P>Chronic hunger and malnutrition were the norm for the majority of the population of the world including Britain and France, until the late 19th century. Until about 1750, in large part due to malnutrition, life expectancy in France was about 35 years and about 40 years in Britain. The United States population of the time was adequately fed, much taller on average and had life expectancy of 45–50 years although U.S. life expectancy declined by a few years by the mid 19th century.<SUP id="cite_ref-The_Escape_from_Hunger_and_Premature_Death,_1700-2100_93-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-The_Escape_from_Hunger_and_Premature_Death,_1700-2100-93">[93]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Food supply in Great Britain was adversely affected by the <A href="/wiki/Corn_Laws" title="Corn Laws">Corn Laws</A> (1815-1846). The Corn Laws, which imposed tariffs on imported grain, were enacted to keep prices high in order to benefit domestic producers. The Corn Laws were repealed in the early years of the <A href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">Great Irish Famine</A>.</P>
<P>The initial technologies of the Industrial Revolution, such as mechanized textiles, iron and coal, did little, if anything, to lower food prices.<SUP id="cite_ref-Pomeranz_2000_61-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Pomeranz_2000-61">[61]</A></SUP> In Britain and the Netherlands, food supply increased before the Industrial Revolution due to better agricultural practices; however, population grew too, as noted by <A href="/wiki/Thomas_Malthus" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Malthus">Thomas Malthus</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_1-15" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-1">[1]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Clark2007_67-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Clark2007-67">[67]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-94">[94]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-95">[95]</A></SUP> This condition is called the <A href="/wiki/Malthusian_trap" title="Malthusian trap">Malthusian trap</A>, and it finally started to overcome by transportation improvements, such as canals, improved roads and steamships.<SUP id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-96">[96]</A></SUP> Railroads and steamships were introduced near the end of the Industrial Revolution.<SUP id="cite_ref-Clark2007_67-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Clark2007-67">[67]</A></SUP></P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Housing">Housing</SPAN></H4>
<P>The very rapid growth in population in the 19th century in the cities included the new industrial and manufacturing cities, as well as service centers such as Edinburgh and London.<SUP id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-97">[97]</A></SUP> The critical factor was financing, which was handled by building societies that dealt directly with large contracting firms.<SUP id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-98">[98]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-99">[99]</A></SUP> Private renting from housing landlords was the dominant tenure. P. Kemp says this was usually of advantage to tenants.<SUP id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-100">[100]</A></SUP> People moved in so rapidly that there was not enough capital to build adequate housing for everyone, so low-income newcomers squeezed into increasingly overcrowded slums. Clean water, sanitation, and public health facilities were inadequate; the death rate was high, especially infant mortality, and tuberculosis among young adults. <A href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">Cholera</A> from polluted water and typhoid were endemic. Unlike rural areas, there were no famines such as devastated Ireland in the 1840s.<SUP id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-101">[101]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-102">[102]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-103">[103]</A></SUP></P>
<P>A large exposé literature grew up condemning the unhealthy conditions. By far the most famous publication was by one of the founders of the Socialist movement, <I><A href="/wiki/The_Condition_of_the_Working_Class_in_England" title="The Condition of the Working Class in England">The Condition of the Working Class in England</A></I> in 1844 <A href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</A> described backstreet sections of Manchester and other mill towns, where people lived in crude shanties and shacks, some not completely enclosed, some with dirt floors. These shanty towns had narrow walkways between irregularly shaped lots and dwellings. There were no sanitary facilities. Population density was extremely high.<SUP id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-104">[104]</A></SUP> Not everyone lived in such poor conditions. The Industrial Revolution also created a middle class of businessmen, clerks, foremen and engineers who lived in much better conditions.</P>
<P>Conditions improved over the course of the 19th century due to new public health acts regulating things such as sewage, hygiene and home construction. In the introduction of his 1892 edition, Engels notes that most of the conditions he wrote about in 1844 had been greatly improved. For example, the <A href="/wiki/Public_Health_Act_1875" title="Public Health Act 1875">Public Health Act 1875</A> led to the more sanitary <A href="/wiki/Byelaw_terraced_house" title="Byelaw terraced house">byelaw terraced house</A>.</P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Sanitation">Sanitation</SPAN></H4>
<P>In <I><A href="/wiki/The_Condition_of_the_Working_Class_in_England" title="The Condition of the Working Class in England">The Condition of the Working Class in England</A></I> in 1844 <A href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</A> described how untreated sewage created awful odors and turned the rivers green in industrial cities.</P>
<P>In 1854 <A href="/wiki/John_Snow" title="John Snow">John Snow</A> traced a cholera outbreak in Soho to fecal contamination of a public water well by a home cesspit. Snow's findings that cholera could be spread by contaminated water took some years to be accepted, but his work led to fundamental changes in the design of public water and waste systems.</P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Water_supply">Water supply</SPAN></H4>
<P>Pre-industrial water supply relied on gravity systems and pumping of water was done by water wheels. Pipes were typically made of wood. Steam powered pumps and iron pipes allowed the widespread piping of water to horse watering troughs and households.<SUP id="cite_ref-Hunter_1985_78-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Hunter_1985-78">[78]</A></SUP></P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Increase_in_literacy">Increase in literacy</SPAN></H4>
<P>The invention of the <A href="/wiki/Paper_machine" title="Paper machine">paper machine</A> and the application of steam power to the industrial processes of <A href="/wiki/Printing" title="Printing">printing</A> supported a massive expansion of newspaper and popular book publishing, which contributed to rising literacy and demands for mass political participation.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Clothing_and_consumer_goods">Clothing and consumer goods</SPAN></H3>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:BLW_Tea_and_coffee_service,_Staffordshire.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/BLW_Tea_and_coffee_service%2C_Staffordshire.jpg/220px-BLW_Tea_and_coffee_service%2C_Staffordshire.jpg" width="220" height="145" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/BLW_Tea_and_coffee_service%2C_Staffordshire.jpg/330px-BLW_Tea_and_coffee_service%2C_Staffordshire.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/BLW_Tea_and_coffee_service%2C_Staffordshire.jpg/440px-BLW_Tea_and_coffee_service%2C_Staffordshire.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3906" data-file-height="2580" /></A>
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<A href="/wiki/Wedgwood" title="Wedgwood">Wedgwood</A> tea and coffee service</DIV>
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<P>Consumers benefited from falling prices for clothing and household articles such as cast iron cooking utensils, and in the following decades, stoves for cooking and space heating. Coffee, tea, sugar, tobacco and chocolate became affordable to many in Europe. Watches and household clocks became popular consumer items.</P>
<P>Meeting the demands of the consumer revolution and growth in wealth of the middle classes in Britain, potter and entrepreneur <A href="/wiki/Josiah_Wedgwood" title="Josiah Wedgwood">Josiah Wedgwood</A>, founder of <A href="/wiki/Wedgwood" title="Wedgwood">Wedgwood</A> fine china and porcelain, created goods such as <A href="/wiki/Tableware" title="Tableware">tableware</A>, which was starting to become a common feature on dining tables.<SUP id="cite_ref-Black_105-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Black-105">[105]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Population_increase">Population increase</SPAN></H3>
<P>The Industrial Revolution was the first period in history during which there was a simultaneous increase in both population and per capita income.<SUP id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-106">[106]</A></SUP></P>
<P>According to Robert Hughes in <I>The Fatal Shore</I>, the <A href="/wiki/Demography_of_England" title="Demography of England">population of England</A> and Wales, which had remained steady at six million from 1700 to 1740, rose dramatically after 1740. The population of England had more than doubled from 8.3 million in 1801 to 16.8 million in 1850 and, by 1901, had nearly doubled again to 30.5 million.<SUP id="cite_ref-statistics_107-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-statistics-107">[107]</A></SUP> Improved conditions led to the population of Britain increasing from 10 million to 40 million in the 1800s.<SUP id="cite_ref-independent_108-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-independent-108">[108]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-bbc_109-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-bbc-109">[109]</A></SUP> Europe's population increased from about 100 million in 1700 to 400 million by 1900.<SUP id="cite_ref-britannica_110-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-britannica-110">[110]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Urbanization">Urbanization</SPAN></H3>
<P>The growth of modern industry since the late 18th century led to massive <A href="/wiki/Urbanisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Urbanisation">urbanisation</A> and the rise of new great cities, first in Europe and then in other regions, as new opportunities brought huge numbers of migrants from rural communities into urban areas. In 1800, only 3% of the world's population lived in cities,<SUP id="cite_ref-prb_111-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-prb-111">[111]</A></SUP> compared to nearly 50% today (the beginning of the 21st century).<SUP id="cite_ref-prb6_112-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-prb6-112">[112]</A></SUP> Manchester had a population of 10,000 in 1717, but by 1911 it had burgeoned to 2.3 million.<SUP id="cite_ref-britannica7_113-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-britannica7-113">[113]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Impact_on_women_and_family_life">Impact on women and family life</SPAN></H3>
<P>Women's historians have debated the effect of the Industrial Revolution and capitalism generally on the status of women.<SUP id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-114">[114]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-115">[115]</A></SUP> Taking a pessimistic side, <A href="/wiki/Alice_Clark" title="Alice Clark">Alice Clark</A> argued that when capitalism arrived in 17th century England, it lowered the status of women as they lost much of their economic importance. Clark argues that in 16th-century England, women were engaged in many aspects of industry and agriculture. The home was a central unit of production and women played a vital role in running farms, and in some trades and landed estates. Their useful economic roles gave them a sort of equality with their husbands. However, Clark argues, as capitalism expanded in the 17th century, there was more and more division of labour with the husband taking paid labour jobs outside the home, and the wife reduced to unpaid household work. Middle- and upper-class women were confined to an idle domestic existence, supervising servants; lower-class women were forced to take poorly paid jobs. Capitalism, therefore, had a negative effect on powerful women.<SUP id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-116">[116]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In a more positive interpretation, <A href="/wiki/Ivy_Pinchbeck" title="Ivy Pinchbeck">Ivy Pinchbeck</A> argues that capitalism created the conditions for women's emancipation.<SUP id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-117">[117]</A></SUP> Tilly and Scott have emphasised the continuity in the status of women, finding three stages in English history. In the pre-industrial era, production was mostly for home use and women produce much of the needs of the households. The second stage was the "family wage economy" of early industrialisation; the entire family depended on the collective wages of its members, including husband, wife and older children. The third or modern stage is the "family consumer economy," in which the family is the site of consumption, and women are employed in large numbers in retail and clerical jobs to support rising standards of consumption.<SUP id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-118">[118]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Labour_conditions">Labour conditions</SPAN></H3>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Social_structure_and_working_conditions">Social structure and working conditions</SPAN></H4>
<P>In terms of social structure, the Industrial Revolution witnessed the triumph of a <A href="/wiki/Middle_class" title="Middle class">middle class</A> of industrialists and businessmen over a landed class of nobility and gentry. Ordinary working people found increased opportunities for employment in the new mills and factories, but these were often under strict working conditions with long hours of labour dominated by a pace set by machines. As late as the year 1900, most industrial workers in the United States still worked a 10-hour day (12 hours in the steel industry), yet earned from 20% to 40% less than the minimum deemed necessary for a decent life;<SUP id="cite_ref-countrystudies_119-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-countrystudies-119">[119]</A></SUP> however, most workers in textiles, which was by far the leading industry in terms of employment, were women and children.<SUP id="cite_ref-Beckert_2014_30-8" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Beckert_2014-30">[30]</A></SUP> Also, harsh working conditions were prevalent long before the Industrial Revolution took place. <A href="/wiki/Pre-industrial_society" title="Pre-industrial society">Pre-industrial society</A> was very static and often cruel – <A href="/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">child labour</A>, dirty living conditions, and long working hours were just as prevalent before the Industrial Revolution.<SUP id="cite_ref-industrial4_120-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-industrial4-120">[120]</A></SUP></P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Factories_and_urbanisation">Factories and urbanisation</SPAN></H4>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Factory_system" title="Factory system">Factory system</A></DIV>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Cottonopolis1.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Cottonopolis1.jpg/220px-Cottonopolis1.jpg" width="220" height="149" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Cottonopolis1.jpg/330px-Cottonopolis1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Cottonopolis1.jpg/440px-Cottonopolis1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="746" data-file-height="506" /></A>
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Manchester, England ("<A href="/wiki/Cottonopolis" title="Cottonopolis">Cottonopolis</A>"), pictured in 1840, showing the mass of factory chimneys</DIV>
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<P>Industrialisation led to the creation of the <A href="/wiki/Factory" title="Factory">factory</A>. The factory system contributed to the growth of urban areas, as large numbers of workers migrated into the cities in search of work in the factories. Nowhere was this better illustrated than the mills and associated industries of Manchester, nicknamed "<A href="/wiki/Cottonopolis" title="Cottonopolis">Cottonopolis</A>", and the world's first industrial city.<SUP id="cite_ref-Industrial_city_121-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Industrial_city-121">[121]</A></SUP> Manchester experienced a six-times increase in its population between 1771 and 1831. Bradford grew by 50% every ten years between 1811 and 1851 and by 1851 only 50% of the population of Bradford was actually born there.<SUP id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-122">[122]</A></SUP></P>
<P>For much of the 19th century, production was done in small mills, which were typically <A href="/wiki/List_of_watermills_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of watermills in the United Kingdom">water-powered</A> and built to serve local needs. Later, each factory would have its own steam engine and a chimney to give an efficient draft through its boiler.</P>
<P>In other industries, the transition to factory production was not so divisive. Some industrialists themselves tried to improve factory and living conditions for their workers. One of the earliest such reformers was <A href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Robert Owen</A>, known for his pioneering efforts in improving conditions for workers at the <A href="/wiki/Robert_Owen#Philanthropy_in_New_Lanark_(1800)" title="Robert Owen">New Lanark mills</A>, and often regarded as one of the key thinkers of the <A href="/wiki/Utopian_socialism" title="Utopian socialism">early socialist movement</A>.</P>
<P>By 1746 an integrated <A href="/wiki/Brass_mill" title="Brass mill">brass mill</A> was working at <A href="/wiki/Warmley" title="Warmley">Warmley</A> near <A href="/wiki/Bristol" title="Bristol">Bristol</A>. Raw material went in at one end, was smelted into brass and was turned into pans, pins, wire, and other goods. Housing was provided for workers on site. <A href="/wiki/Josiah_Wedgwood" title="Josiah Wedgwood">Josiah Wedgwood</A> and <A href="/wiki/Matthew_Boulton" title="Matthew Boulton">Matthew Boulton</A> (whose <A href="/wiki/Soho_Manufactory" title="Soho Manufactory">Soho Manufactory</A> was completed in 1766) were other prominent early industrialists, who employed the factory system.</P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Child_labour">Child labour</SPAN></H4>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <A href="/wiki/Child_labour#The_Industrial_Revolution" title="Child labour">Child labour § The Industrial Revolution</A></DIV>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:284px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Coaltub.png" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Coaltub.png" width="282" height="171" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="282" data-file-height="171" /></A>
<DIV class="thumbcaption">A young "drawer" pulling a coal tub along a mine gallery.<SUP id="cite_ref-From_Coal_Mine_Upwards:_or_Seventy_Years_of_an_Eventful_Life_123-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-From_Coal_Mine_Upwards:_or_Seventy_Years_of_an_Eventful_Life-123">[123]</A></SUP> In Britain laws passed in 1842 and 1844 improved mine working conditions.</DIV>
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<P>The Industrial Revolution led to a population increase but the chances of surviving childhood did not improve throughout the Industrial Revolution, although <I>infant</I> mortality rates were reduced markedly.<SUP id="cite_ref-Buer_88-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Buer-88">[88]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Demographic_Transition_and_Industrial_Revolution:_A_Macroeconomic_Investigation_124-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Demographic_Transition_and_Industrial_Revolution:_A_Macroeconomic_Investigation-124">[124]</A></SUP> There was still limited opportunity for education and children were expected to work. Employers could pay a child less than an adult even though their productivity was comparable; there was no need for strength to operate an industrial machine, and since the industrial system was completely new, there were no experienced adult labourers. This made child labour the labour of choice for manufacturing in the early phases of the Industrial Revolution between the 18th and 19th centuries. In England and Scotland in 1788, two-thirds of the workers in 143 water-powered <A href="/wiki/Cotton_mill" title="Cotton mill">cotton mills</A> were described as children.<SUP id="cite_ref-galbithink_125-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-galbithink-125">[125]</A></SUP></P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">Child labour</A> existed before the Industrial Revolution but with the increase in population and education it became more visible. Many children were forced to work in relatively bad conditions for much lower pay than their elders,<SUP id="cite_ref-victorianweb_126-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-victorianweb-126">[126]</A></SUP> 10–20% of an adult male's wage.<SUP id="cite_ref-childslaves_127-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-childslaves-127">[127]</A></SUP> Children as young as four were employed.<SUP id="cite_ref-childslaves_127-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-childslaves-127">[127]</A></SUP> Beatings and long hours were common, with some child <A href="/wiki/Coal_mine" class="mw-redirect" title="Coal mine">coal miners</A> and <A href="/wiki/Hurrying" title="Hurrying">hurriers</A> working from 4 am until 5 pm.<SUP id="cite_ref-childslaves_127-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-childslaves-127">[127]</A></SUP> Conditions were dangerous, with some children killed when they dozed off and fell into the path of the carts, while others died from gas explosions.<SUP id="cite_ref-childslaves_127-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-childslaves-127">[127]</A></SUP> Many children developed <A href="/wiki/Lung_cancer" title="Lung cancer">lung cancer</A> and other diseases and died before the age of 25.<SUP id="cite_ref-childslaves_127-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-childslaves-127">[127]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Workhouses" class="mw-redirect" title="Workhouses">Workhouses</A> would sell orphans and abandoned children as "pauper apprentices", working without wages for board and lodging.<SUP id="cite_ref-childslaves_127-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-childslaves-127">[127]</A></SUP> Those who ran away would be whipped and returned to their masters, with some masters <A href="/wiki/Shackle" title="Shackle">shackling</A> them to prevent escape.<SUP id="cite_ref-childslaves_127-6" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-childslaves-127">[127]</A></SUP> Children employed as <A href="/wiki/Mule_scavenger" title="Mule scavenger">mule scavengers</A> by <A href="/wiki/Cotton_mill" title="Cotton mill">cotton mills</A> would crawl under machinery to pick up cotton, working 14 hours a day, six days a week. Some lost hands or limbs, others were crushed under the machines, and some were decapitated.<SUP id="cite_ref-childslaves_127-7" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-childslaves-127">[127]</A></SUP> Young girls worked at match factories, where phosphorus fumes would cause many to develop <A href="/wiki/Phossy_jaw" title="Phossy jaw">phossy jaw</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-childslaves_127-8" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-childslaves-127">[127]</A></SUP> Children employed at <A href="/wiki/Glassblowing" title="Glassblowing">glassworks</A> were regularly burned and blinded, and those working at <A href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">potteries</A> were vulnerable to poisonous clay dust.<SUP id="cite_ref-childslaves_127-9" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-childslaves-127">[127]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Reports were written detailing some of the abuses, particularly in the coal mines<SUP id="cite_ref-Testimony_Gathered_by_Ashley's_Mines_Commission_128-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Testimony_Gathered_by_Ashley's_Mines_Commission-128">[128]</A></SUP> and textile factories,<SUP id="cite_ref-The_Life_of_the_Industrial_Worker_in_Nineteenth-Century_England_129-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-The_Life_of_the_Industrial_Worker_in_Nineteenth-Century_England-129">[129]</A></SUP> and these helped to popularise the children's plight. The public outcry, especially among the upper and middle classes, helped stir change in the young workers' welfare.</P>
<P>Politicians and the government tried to limit child labour by law but factory owners resisted; some felt that they were aiding the poor by giving their children money to buy food to avoid <A href="/wiki/Starvation" title="Starvation">starvation</A>, and others simply welcomed the cheap labour. In 1833 and 1844, the first general laws against child labour, the <A href="/wiki/Factory_Acts" title="Factory Acts">Factory Acts</A>, were passed in Britain: Children younger than nine were not allowed to work, children were not permitted to work at night, and the work day of youth under the age of 18 was limited to twelve hours. Factory inspectors supervised the execution of the law, however, their scarcity made enforcement difficult.<SUP id="cite_ref-childslaves_127-10" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-childslaves-127">[127]</A></SUP> About ten years later, the employment of children and women in mining was forbidden. Although laws such as these decreased the number of child labourers, child labour remained significantly present in Europe and the United States until the 20th century.<SUP id="cite_ref-archives_130-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-archives-130">[130]</A></SUP></P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Organisation_of_labour">Organisation of labour</SPAN></H4>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <A href="/wiki/Trade_union#History" title="Trade union">Trade union § History</A></DIV>
<P>The Industrial Revolution concentrated labour into mills, factories and mines, thus facilitating the organisation of <I>combinations</I> or <A href="/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union">trade unions</A> to help advance the interests of working people. The power of a union could demand better terms by withdrawing all labour and causing a consequent cessation of production. Employers had to decide between giving in to the union demands at a cost to themselves or suffering the cost of the lost production. Skilled workers were hard to replace, and these were the first groups to successfully advance their conditions through this kind of bargaining.</P>
<P>The main method the unions used to effect change was <A href="/wiki/Strike_action" title="Strike action">strike action</A>. Many strikes were painful events for both sides, the unions and the management. In Britain, the <A href="/wiki/Combination_Act_1799" title="Combination Act 1799">Combination Act 1799</A> forbade workers to form any kind of trade union until its repeal in 1824. Even after this, unions were still severely restricted.</P>
<P>In 1832, the <A href="/wiki/Reform_Act_1832" title="Reform Act 1832">Reform Act</A> extended the vote in Britain but did not grant universal suffrage. That year six men from <A href="/wiki/Tolpuddle" title="Tolpuddle">Tolpuddle</A> in Dorset founded the Friendly Society of Agricultural Labourers to protest against the gradual lowering of wages in the 1830s. They refused to work for less than ten shillings a week, although by this time wages had been reduced to seven shillings a week and were due to be further reduced to six. In 1834 James Frampton, a local landowner, wrote to the Prime Minister, <A href="/wiki/Viscount_Melbourne" title="Viscount Melbourne">Lord Melbourne</A>, to complain about the union, invoking an obscure law from 1797 prohibiting people from swearing oaths to each other, which the members of the Friendly Society had done. James Brine, James Hammett, George Loveless, George's brother James Loveless, George's brother in-law Thomas Standfield, and Thomas's son John Standfield were arrested, found guilty, and transported to Australia. They became known as the <A href="/wiki/Tolpuddle_Martyrs" title="Tolpuddle Martyrs">Tolpuddle Martyrs</A>. In the 1830s and 1840s, the <A href="/wiki/Chartism" title="Chartism">Chartist</A> movement was the first large-scale organised working class political movement which campaigned for political equality and social justice. Its <I>Charter</I> of reforms received over three million signatures but was rejected by Parliament without consideration.</P>
<P>Working people also formed <A href="/wiki/Friendly_society" title="Friendly society">friendly societies</A> and <A href="/wiki/Cooperative" title="Cooperative">co-operative societies</A> as mutual support groups against times of economic hardship. Enlightened industrialists, such as <A href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Robert Owen</A> also supported these organisations to improve the conditions of the working class.</P>
<P>Unions slowly overcame the legal restrictions on the right to strike. In 1842, a <A href="/wiki/General_strike" title="General strike">general strike</A> involving cotton workers and colliers was organised through the Chartist movement which stopped production across Great Britain.<SUP id="cite_ref-archive5_131-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-archive5-131">[131]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Eventually, effective political organisation for working people was achieved through the trades unions who, after the extensions of the franchise in 1867 and 1885, began to support socialist political parties that later merged to become the British <A href="/wiki/Labour_Party_(UK)" title="Labour Party (UK)">Labour Party</A>.</P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Luddites">Luddites</SPAN></H4>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Luddite" title="Luddite">Luddite</A></DIV>
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Luddites smashing a power loom in 1812</DIV>
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<P>The rapid industrialisation of the English economy cost many craft workers their jobs. The movement started first with <A href="/wiki/Lace" title="Lace">lace</A> and <A href="/wiki/Hosiery" title="Hosiery">hosiery</A> workers near <A href="/wiki/Nottingham" title="Nottingham">Nottingham</A> and spread to other areas of the textile industry owing to early industrialisation. Many weavers also found themselves suddenly unemployed since they could no longer compete with machines which only required relatively limited (and unskilled) labour to produce more cloth than a single weaver. Many such unemployed workers, weavers, and others, turned their animosity towards the machines that had taken their jobs and began destroying factories and machinery. These attackers became known as Luddites, supposedly followers of <A href="/wiki/Ned_Ludd" title="Ned Ludd">Ned Ludd</A>, a folklore figure. The first attacks of the Luddite movement began in 1811. The Luddites rapidly gained popularity, and the British government took drastic measures, using the <A href="/wiki/Militia" title="Militia">militia</A> or <A href="/wiki/Army" title="Army">army</A> to protect industry. Those rioters who were caught were tried and hanged, or <A href="/wiki/Penal_transportation" title="Penal transportation">transported</A> for life.</P>
<P>Unrest continued in other sectors as they industrialised, such as with agricultural labourers in the 1830s when large parts of southern Britain were affected by the <A href="/wiki/Captain_Swing" title="Captain Swing">Captain Swing</A> disturbances. Threshing machines were a particular target, and <A href="/wiki/Hay" title="Hay">hayrick</A> burning was a popular activity. However, the riots led to the first formation of <A href="/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union">trade unions</A>, and further pressure for reform.</P>
<H4><SPAN id="Destruction_of_hand_textile_production_in_India.2C_China.2C_etc."></SPAN><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Destruction_of_hand_textile_production_in_India,_China,_etc.">Destruction of hand textile production in India, China, etc.</SPAN></H4>
<P>The traditional centers of hand textile production such as India, parts of the Middle East and later China could not withstand the competition from machine-made textiles, which over a period of decades destroyed the hand made textile industries and left millions of people without work, many of whom starved.<SUP id="cite_ref-Beckert_2014_30-9" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Beckert_2014-30">[30]</A></SUP></P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Effect_on_cotton_production_and_expansion_of_slavery">Effect on cotton production and expansion of slavery</SPAN></H4>
<P>Cheap cotton textiles increased the demand for raw cotton; previously, it had primarily been consumed in subtropical regions where it was grown, with little raw cotton available for export. Consequently, prices of raw cotton rose. Some cotton had been grown in the West Indies, particularly in <A href="/wiki/Hispaniola" title="Hispaniola">Hispaniola</A>, but Haitian cotton production was halted by the <A href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haitian Revolution</A> in 1791. The invention of the cotton gin in 1793 allowed Georgia green seeded cotton to be profitable, leading to the widespread growth of cotton <A href="/wiki/Plantation" title="Plantation">plantations</A> in the United States and Brazil. The Americas, particularly the U.S., had labor shortages and high priced labor, which made <A href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</A> attractive. America's cotton plantations were highly efficient and profitable, and able to keep up with demand.<SUP id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-132">[132]</A></SUP> The U.S. Civil war created a "cotton famine" that lead to increased production in other areas of the world, including new colonies in Africa.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Impact_on_environment">Impact on environment</SPAN></H3>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:StRolloxChemical_1831.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/55/StRolloxChemical_1831.jpg/220px-StRolloxChemical_1831.jpg" width="220" height="144" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/55/StRolloxChemical_1831.jpg/330px-StRolloxChemical_1831.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/55/StRolloxChemical_1831.jpg/440px-StRolloxChemical_1831.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="653" /></A>
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Levels of air pollution rose during the Industrial Revolution, sparking the first modern environmental laws to be passed in the mid-19th century.</DIV>
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<P>The origins of the <A href="/wiki/Environmental_movement" title="Environmental movement">environmental movement</A> lay in the response to increasing levels of <A href="/wiki/Smoke" title="Smoke">smoke</A> <A href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">pollution</A> in the atmosphere during the Industrial Revolution. The emergence of great factories and the concomitant immense growth in <A href="/wiki/History_of_coal_mining" title="History of coal mining">coal consumption</A> gave rise to an unprecedented level of <A href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">air pollution</A> in industrial centers; after 1900 the large volume of industrial <A href="/wiki/Chemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical">chemical</A> discharges added to the growing load of untreated human waste.<SUP id="cite_ref-Donora_133-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Donora-133">[133]</A></SUP> The first large-scale, modern environmental laws came in the form of Britain's <A href="/wiki/Alkali_Acts" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkali Acts">Alkali Acts</A>, passed in 1863, to regulate the deleterious air pollution (<A href="/wiki/Gaseous" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaseous">gaseous</A> <A href="/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid" title="Hydrochloric acid">hydrochloric acid</A>) given off by the <A href="/wiki/Leblanc_process" title="Leblanc process">Leblanc process</A>, used to produce <A href="/wiki/Soda_ash" class="mw-redirect" title="Soda ash">soda ash</A>. An Alkali inspector and four sub-inspectors were appointed to curb this pollution. The responsibilities of the inspectorate were gradually expanded, culminating in the Alkali Order 1958 which placed all major heavy industries that emitted <A href="/wiki/Smoke" title="Smoke">smoke</A>, grit, dust and fumes under supervision.</P>
<P>The manufactured gas industry began in British cities in 1812–1820. The technique used produced highly toxic effluent that was dumped into sewers and rivers. The gas companies were repeatedly sued in nuisance lawsuits. They usually lost and modified the worst practices. The City of London repeatedly indicted gas companies in the 1820s for polluting the Thames and poisoning its fish. Finally, Parliament wrote company charters to regulate toxicity.<SUP id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-134">[134]</A></SUP> The industry reached the US around 1850 causing pollution and lawsuits.<SUP id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-135">[135]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In industrial cities local experts and reformers, especially after 1890, took the lead in identifying environmental degradation and pollution, and initiating grass-roots movements to demand and achieve reforms.<SUP id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-136">[136]</A></SUP> Typically the highest priority went to water and air pollution. The <A href="/wiki/Environmental_Protection_UK" title="Environmental Protection UK">Coal Smoke Abatement Society</A> was formed in Britain in 1898 making it one of the oldest environmental NGOs. It was founded by artist Sir <A href="/wiki/William_Blake_Richmond" title="William Blake Richmond">William Blake Richmond</A>, frustrated with the pall cast by coal smoke. Although there were earlier pieces of legislation, the <A href="/wiki/Public_Health_Act_1875" title="Public Health Act 1875">Public Health Act 1875</A> required all furnaces and fireplaces to consume their own smoke. It also provided for sanctions against factories that emitted large amounts of black smoke. The provisions of this law were extended in 1926 with the Smoke Abatement Act to include other emissions, such as soot, ash, and gritty particles and to empower local authorities to impose their own regulations.<SUP id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-137">[137]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Industrialisation_beyond_the_United_Kingdom">Industrialisation beyond the United Kingdom</SPAN></H2>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Continental_Europe">Continental Europe</SPAN></H3>
<P>The Industrial Revolution on <A href="/wiki/Continental_Europe" title="Continental Europe">Continental Europe</A> came a little later than in Great Britain. In many industries, this involved the application of technology developed in Britain in new places. Often the technology was purchased from Britain or British engineers and entrepreneurs moved abroad in search of new opportunities. By 1809, part of the <A href="/wiki/Ruhr" title="Ruhr">Ruhr Valley</A> in Westphalia was called 'Miniature England' because of its similarities to the industrial areas of England. The German, Russian and Belgian governments all provided state funding to the new industries. In some cases (such as <A href="/wiki/Iron_and_steel_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron and steel industry">iron</A>), the different availability of resources locally meant that only some aspects of the British technology were adopted.</P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Belgium">Belgium</SPAN></H4>
<P><A href="/wiki/History_of_Belgium" title="History of Belgium">Belgium</A> was the second country, after Britain, in which the Industrial Revolution took place and the first in continental Europe: <A href="/wiki/Wallonia" title="Wallonia">Wallonia</A> (French speaking southern Belgium) was the first region to follow the British model successfully. Starting in the middle of the 1820s, and especially after Belgium became an independent nation in 1830, numerous works comprising coke blast furnaces as well as puddling and rolling mills were built in the coal mining areas around <A href="/wiki/Li%C3%A8ge" title="Liège">Liège</A> and <A href="/wiki/Charleroi" title="Charleroi">Charleroi</A>. The leader was a transplanted Englishman <A href="/wiki/John_Cockerill_(industrialist)" title="John Cockerill (industrialist)">John Cockerill</A>. His factories at <A href="/wiki/Seraing" title="Seraing">Seraing</A> integrated all stages of production, from engineering to the supply of raw materials, as early as 1825.<SUP id="cite_ref-publishing_138-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-publishing-138">[138]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Wallonia exemplified the radical evolution of industrial expansion. Thanks to coal (the French word "houille" was coined in Wallonia),<SUP id="cite_ref-language_139-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-language-139">[139]</A></SUP> the region geared up to become the 2nd industrial power in the world after Britain. But it is also pointed out by many researchers, with its <I><A href="/wiki/Sillon_industriel" title="Sillon industriel">Sillon industriel</A></I>, 'Especially in the <A href="/wiki/Haine" title="Haine">Haine</A>, <A href="/wiki/Sambre" title="Sambre">Sambre</A> and <A href="/wiki/Meuse_(river)" class="mw-redirect" title="Meuse (river)">Meuse</A> valleys, between the <A href="/wiki/Borinage" title="Borinage">Borinage</A> and <A href="/wiki/Li%C3%A8ge" title="Liège">Liège</A>, (...) there was a huge industrial development based on coal-mining and iron-making...'.<SUP id="cite_ref-ugent_140-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-ugent-140">[140]</A></SUP> Philippe Raxhon wrote about the period after 1830: "It was not propaganda but a reality the Walloon regions were becoming the second industrial power all over the world after Britain."<SUP id="cite_ref-philippe_141-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-philippe-141">[141]</A></SUP> "The sole industrial centre outside the collieries and blast furnaces of Walloon was the old cloth making town of <A href="/wiki/Ghent" title="Ghent">Ghent</A>."<SUP id="cite_ref-erih_142-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-erih-142">[142]</A></SUP> Michel De Coster, Professor at the <A href="/wiki/University_of_Li%C3%A8ge" title="University of Liège">Université de Liège</A> wrote also: "The historians and the economists say that Belgium was the second industrial power of the world, in proportion to its population and its territory (...) But this rank is the one of Wallonia where the coal-mines, the blast furnaces, the iron and zinc factories, the wool industry, the glass industry, the weapons industry... were concentrated." <SUP id="cite_ref-linguistiques_143-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-linguistiques-143">[143]</A></SUP></P>
<H5><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Demographic_effects">Demographic effects</SPAN></H5>
<P>Wallonia was also the birthplace of a strong Socialist party and strong trade-unions in a particular sociological landscape. At the left, the <I>Sillon industriel</I>, which runs from <A href="/wiki/Mons" title="Mons">Mons</A> in the west, to <A href="/wiki/Verviers" title="Verviers">Verviers</A> in the east (except part of North Flanders, in another period of the industrial revolution, after 1920). Even if Belgium is the second industrial country after Britain, the effect of the industrial revolution there was very different. In 'Breaking stereotypes', Muriel Neven and Isabelle Devious say:</P>
<BLOCKQUOTE>
<P>The industrial revolution changed a mainly rural society into an urban one, but with a strong contrast between northern and southern Belgium. During the <A href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</A> and the Early Modern Period, Flanders was characterised by the presence of large urban centres (...) at the beginning of the nineteenth century this region (Flanders), with an urbanisation degree of more than 30 per cent, remained one of the most urbanised in the world. By comparison, this proportion reached only 17 per cent in Wallonia, barely 10 per cent in most West European countries, 16 per cent in France and 25 per cent in Britain. Nineteenth century industrialisation did not affect the traditional urban infrastructure, except in <A href="/wiki/Ghent" title="Ghent">Ghent</A> (...) Also, in <A href="/wiki/Wallonia" title="Wallonia">Wallonia</A> the traditional urban network was largely unaffected by the industrialisation process, even though the proportion of city-dwellers rose from 17 to 45 per cent between 1831 and 1910. Especially in the <A href="/wiki/Haine" title="Haine">Haine</A>, <A href="/wiki/Sambre" title="Sambre">Sambre</A> and <A href="/wiki/Meuse_(river)" class="mw-redirect" title="Meuse (river)">Meuse</A> valleys, between the <A href="/wiki/Borinage" title="Borinage">Borinage</A> and <A href="/wiki/Li%C3%A8ge" title="Liège">Liège</A>, where there was a huge industrial development based on coal-mining and iron-making, urbanisation was fast. During these eighty years the number of municipalities with more than 5,000 inhabitants increased from only 21 to more than one hundred, concentrating nearly half of the Walloon population in this region. Nevertheless, industrialisation remained quite traditional in the sense that it did not lead to the growth of modern and large urban centres, but to a conurbation of industrial villages and towns developed around a coal-mine or a factory. Communication routes between these small centres only became populated later and created a much less dense urban morphology than, for instance, the area around Liège where the old town was there to direct migratory flows.<SUP id="cite_ref-stereotypes_144-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-stereotypes-144">[144]</A></SUP></P>
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<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="France">France</SPAN></H4>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_France" title="Economic history of France">Economic history of France</A></DIV>
<P>The industrial revolution in France followed a particular course as it did not correspond to the main model followed by other countries. Notably, most French historians argue France did not go through a clear <I>take-off</I>.<SUP id="cite_ref-marczewski_145-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-marczewski-145">[145]</A></SUP> Instead, France's economic growth and industrialisation process was slow and steady through the 18th and 19th centuries. However, some stages were identified by Maurice Lévy-Leboyer:</P>
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<LI>French Revolution and Napoleonic wars (1789–1815),</LI>
<LI>industrialisation, along with Britain (1815–1860),</LI>
<LI>economic slowdown (1860–1905),</LI>
<LI>renewal of the growth after 1905.</LI>
</UL>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Germany">Germany</SPAN></H4>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Germany" title="Economic history of Germany">Economic history of Germany</A></DIV>
<P>Based on its leadership in chemical research in the universities and industrial laboratories, Germany, which was unified in 1871, became dominant in the world's chemical industry in the late 19th century. At first the production of dyes based on <A href="/wiki/Aniline" title="Aniline">aniline</A> was critical.<SUP id="cite_ref-Haber_146-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Haber-146">[146]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Germany's political disunity – with three dozen states – and a pervasive conservatism made it difficult to build railways in the 1830s. However, by the 1840s, trunk lines linked the major cities; each German state was responsible for the lines within its own borders. Lacking a technological base at first, the Germans imported their engineering and hardware from Britain, but quickly learned the skills needed to operate and expand the railways. In many cities, the new railway shops were the centres of technological awareness and training, so that by 1850, Germany was self-sufficient in meeting the demands of railroad construction, and the railways were a major impetus for the growth of the new steel industry. Observers found that even as late as 1890, their engineering was inferior to Britain's. However, German unification in 1870 stimulated consolidation, nationalisation into state-owned companies, and further rapid growth. Unlike the situation in France, the goal was support of industrialisation, and so heavy lines crisscrossed the Ruhr and other industrial districts, and provided good connections to the major ports of Hamburg and Bremen. By 1880, Germany had 9,400 locomotives pulling 43,000 passengers and 30,000 tons of freight, and pulled ahead of France<SUP id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-147">[147]</A></SUP></P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Sweden">Sweden</SPAN></H4>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Sweden" title="Economic history of Sweden">Economic history of Sweden</A></DIV>
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<P>During the period 1790–1815 Sweden experienced two parallel economic movements: an <I>agricultural revolution</I> with larger agricultural estates, new crops and farming tools and a commercialisation of farming, and a <I>protoindustrialisation</I>, with small industries being established in the countryside and with workers switching between agricultural work in summer and industrial production in winter. This led to economic growth benefiting large sections of the population and leading up to a <I>consumption revolution</I> starting in the 1820s.</P>
<P>During 1815–1850 the protoindustries developed into more specialised and larger industries. This period witnessed increasing regional specialisation with mining in <A href="/wiki/Bergslagen" title="Bergslagen">Bergslagen</A>, textile mills in Sjuhäradsbygden and forestry in <A href="/wiki/Norrland" title="Norrland">Norrland</A>. Several important institutional changes took place in this period, such as free and mandatory schooling introduced 1842 (as first country in the world), the abolition of the national monopoly on trade in handicrafts in 1846, and a stock company law in 1848.</P>
<P>During 1850–1890, Sweden experienced a veritable explosion in export, dominated by crops, wood and steel. Sweden abolished most tariffs and other barriers to free trade in the 1850s and joined the gold standard in 1873.</P>
<P>During 1890–1930, Sweden experienced the second industrial revolution. New industries developed with their focus on the domestic market: mechanical engineering, power utilities, <A href="/wiki/Papermaking" title="Papermaking">papermaking</A> and textile.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Japan">Japan</SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <A href="/wiki/Meiji_Restoration" title="Meiji Restoration">Meiji Restoration</A> and <A href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Japan" title="Economic history of Japan">Economic history of Japan</A></DIV>
<P>The industrial revolution began about 1870 as <A href="/wiki/Meiji_period" title="Meiji period">Meiji period</A> leaders decided to catch up with the West. The government built railroads, improved roads, and inaugurated a land reform programme to prepare the country for further development. It inaugurated a new Western-based education system for all young people, sent thousands of students to the United States and Europe, and hired more than 3,000 Westerners to teach modern science, mathematics, technology, and foreign languages in Japan (<A href="/wiki/Foreign_government_advisors_in_Meiji_Japan" title="Foreign government advisors in Meiji Japan">Foreign government advisors in Meiji Japan</A>).</P>
<P>In 1871, a group of Japanese politicians known as the <A href="/wiki/Iwakura_Mission" title="Iwakura Mission">Iwakura Mission</A> toured Europe and the United States to learn western ways. The result was a deliberate state-led industrialisation policy to enable Japan to quickly catch up. The <A href="/wiki/Bank_of_Japan" title="Bank of Japan">Bank of Japan</A>, founded in 1882,<SUP id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-148">[148]</A></SUP> used taxes to fund model steel and textile factories. Education was expanded and Japanese students were sent to study in the west.</P>
<P>Modern industry first appeared in textiles, including cotton and especially silk, which was based in home workshops in rural areas.<SUP id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-149">[149]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="United_States">United States</SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <A href="/wiki/American_system_of_manufacturing" title="American system of manufacturing">American system of manufacturing</A>, <A href="/wiki/Interchangeable_parts" title="Interchangeable parts">Interchangeable parts</A>, <A href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States">Economic history of the United States</A>, <A href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Technological and industrial history of the United States">Technological and industrial history of the United States</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution_in_the_United_States" title="Industrial Revolution in the United States">Industrial Revolution in the United States</A></DIV>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <A href="/wiki/History_of_Lowell,_Massachusetts" title="History of Lowell, Massachusetts">History of Lowell, Massachusetts</A></DIV>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:SlaterMill.JPG" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/SlaterMill.JPG/220px-SlaterMill.JPG" width="220" height="175" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/SlaterMill.JPG/330px-SlaterMill.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/SlaterMill.JPG/440px-SlaterMill.JPG 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="610" /></A>
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Slater's Mill in <A href="/wiki/Pawtucket,_Rhode_Island" title="Pawtucket, Rhode Island">Pawtucket, Rhode Island</A>.</DIV>
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<P>During the late 18th an early 19th centuries when the UK and parts of Western Europe began to industrialise, the US was primarily an agricultural and natural resource producing and processing economy.<SUP id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-150">[150]</A></SUP> The building of roads and canals, the introduction of steamboats and the building of railroads were important for handling agricultural and natural resource products in the large and sparsely populated country of the period.<SUP id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-151">[151]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-152">[152]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Important American technological contributions during the period of the Industrial Revolution were the <A href="/wiki/Cotton_gin" title="Cotton gin">cotton gin</A> and the development of a system for making <A href="/wiki/Interchangeable_parts" title="Interchangeable parts">interchangeable parts</A>, the latter aided by the development of the <A href="/wiki/Milling_(machining)" title="Milling (machining)">milling machine</A> in the US. The development of machine tools and the system of interchangeable parts were the basis for the rise of the US as the world's leading industrial nation in the late 19th century.</P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Oliver_Evans" title="Oliver Evans">Oliver Evans</A> invented an automated flour mill in the mid-1780s that used <A href="/wiki/Process_control" title="Process control">control mechanisms</A> and conveyors so that no labour was needed from the time grain was loaded into the elevator buckets until flour was discharged into a wagon. This is considered to be the first modern <A href="/wiki/Bulk_material_handling" title="Bulk material handling">materials handling system</A> an important advance in the progress toward <A href="/wiki/Mass_production" title="Mass production">mass production</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Hounshell-1984_29-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Hounshell-1984-29">[29]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The United States originally used horse-powered machinery for small scale applications such as grain milling, but eventually switched to water power after textile factories began being built in the 1790s. As a result, industrialisation was concentrated in <A href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</A> and the <A href="/wiki/Northeastern_United_States" title="Northeastern United States">Northeastern United States</A>, which has fast-moving rivers. The newer water-powered production lines proved more economical than horse-drawn production. In the late 19th century steam-powered manufacturing overtook water-powered manufacturing, allowing the industry to spread to the Midwest.</P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Thomas_Somers" title="Thomas Somers">Thomas Somers</A> and the <A href="/wiki/Cabot_Brothers" class="mw-redirect" title="Cabot Brothers">Cabot Brothers</A> founded the <A href="/wiki/Beverly_Cotton_Manufactory" title="Beverly Cotton Manufactory">Beverly Cotton Manufactory</A> in 1787, the first cotton mill in America, the largest cotton mill of its era,<SUP id="cite_ref-manufacturers_153-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-manufacturers-153">[153]</A></SUP> and a significant milestone in the research and development of cotton mills in the future. This mill was designed to use horse power, but the operators quickly learned that the horse-drawn platform was economically unstable, and had economic losses for years. Despite the losses, the Manufactory served as a playground of innovation, both in turning a large amount of cotton, but also developing the water-powered milling structure used in Slater's Mill.<SUP id="cite_ref-publication_154-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-publication-154">[154]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In 1793, <A href="/wiki/Samuel_Slater" title="Samuel Slater">Samuel Slater</A> (1768–1835) founded the <A href="/wiki/Slater_Mill" class="mw-redirect" title="Slater Mill">Slater Mill</A> at <A href="/wiki/Pawtucket,_Rhode_Island" title="Pawtucket, Rhode Island">Pawtucket, Rhode Island</A>. He had learned of the new textile technologies as a boy apprentice in <A href="/wiki/Derbyshire" title="Derbyshire">Derbyshire</A>, England, and defied laws against the emigration of skilled workers by leaving for New York in 1789, hoping to make money with his knowledge. After founding Slater's Mill, he went on to own 13 textile mills.<SUP id="cite_ref-britannica8_155-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-britannica8-155">[155]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Daniel_Day_(manufacturer)" title="Daniel Day (manufacturer)">Daniel Day</A> established a wool carding mill in the <A href="/wiki/Blackstone_Valley" title="Blackstone Valley">Blackstone Valley</A> at <A href="/wiki/Uxbridge,_Massachusetts" title="Uxbridge, Massachusetts">Uxbridge, Massachusetts</A> in 1809, the third woollen mill established in the US (The first was in <A href="/wiki/Hartford,_Connecticut" title="Hartford, Connecticut">Hartford, Connecticut</A>, and the second at <A href="/wiki/Watertown,_Massachusetts" title="Watertown, Massachusetts">Watertown, Massachusetts</A>.) The <A href="/wiki/John_Chafee" title="John Chafee">John H. Chafee</A> <A href="/wiki/Blackstone_Valley" title="Blackstone Valley">Blackstone River Valley National Heritage Corridor</A> retraces the history of "America's Hardest-Working River', the Blackstone. The <A href="/wiki/Blackstone_River" title="Blackstone River">Blackstone River</A> and its tributaries, which cover more than 45 miles (72 km) from <A href="/wiki/Worcester,_Massachusetts" title="Worcester, Massachusetts">Worcester, Massachusetts</A> to <A href="/wiki/Providence,_Rhode_Island" title="Providence, Rhode Island">Providence, Rhode Island</A>, was the birthplace of America's Industrial Revolution. At its peak over 1100 mills operated in this valley, including Slater's mill, and with it the earliest beginnings of America's Industrial and Technological Development.</P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Francis_Cabot_Lowell_(businessman)" class="mw-redirect" title="Francis Cabot Lowell (businessman)">Merchant Francis Cabot Lowell</A> from <A href="/wiki/Newburyport,_Massachusetts" title="Newburyport, Massachusetts">Newburyport, Massachusetts</A> memorised the design of textile machines on his tour of British factories in 1810. Realising that the <A href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</A> had ruined his import business but that a demand for domestic finished cloth was emerging in America, on his return to the United States, he set up the <A href="/wiki/Boston_Manufacturing_Company" title="Boston Manufacturing Company">Boston Manufacturing Company</A>. Lowell and his partners built America's second cotton-to-cloth textile mill at <A href="/wiki/Waltham,_Massachusetts" title="Waltham, Massachusetts">Waltham, Massachusetts</A>, second to the <A href="/wiki/Beverly_Cotton_Manufactory" title="Beverly Cotton Manufactory">Beverly Cotton Manufactory</A>. After his death in 1817, his associates built America's first planned factory town, which they named after him. This enterprise was capitalised in a <A href="/wiki/Initial_public_offering" title="Initial public offering">public stock offering</A>, one of the first uses of it in the United States. <A href="/wiki/Lowell,_Massachusetts" title="Lowell, Massachusetts">Lowell, Massachusetts</A>, using 5.6 miles (9.0 km) of canals and 10,000 horsepower delivered by the <A href="/wiki/Merrimack_River" title="Merrimack River">Merrimack River</A>, is considered by some as a major contributor to the success of the American Industrial Revolution. The short-lived utopia-like <A href="/wiki/Waltham-Lowell_system" title="Waltham-Lowell system">Waltham-Lowell system</A> was formed, as a direct response to the poor working conditions in Britain. However, by 1850, especially following the <A href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">Irish Potato Famine</A>, the system had been replaced by poor immigrant labour.</P>
<P>A major U.S. contribution to industrialization was the development of techniques to make <A href="/wiki/Interchangeable_parts" title="Interchangeable parts">interchangeable parts</A> from metal. Precision metal machining techniques were developed by the U.S. Department of War to make interchangeable parts for small firearms. The development work took place at the Federal Arsenals at Springfield Armory and Harpers Ferry Armory. Techniques for precision machining using machine tools included using fixtures to hold the parts in proper position, jigs to guide the cutting tools and precision blocks and gauges to measure the accuracy. The <A href="/wiki/Milling_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Milling machine">milling machine</A>, a fundamental machine tool, is believed to have been invented by <A href="/wiki/Eli_Whitney" title="Eli Whitney">Eli Whitney</A>, who was a government contractor who built firearms as part of this program. Another important invention was the Blanchard lathe, invented by <A href="/wiki/Thomas_Blanchard_(inventor)" title="Thomas Blanchard (inventor)">Thomas Blanchard</A>. The Blanchard lathe, or pattern tracing lathe, was actually a shaper that could produce copies of wooden gun stocks. The use of machinery and the techniques for producing standardized and interchangeable parts became known as the <A href="/wiki/American_system_of_manufacturing" title="American system of manufacturing">American system of manufacturing</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Hounshell-1984_29-6" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Hounshell-1984-29">[29]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Precision manufacturing techniques made it possible to build machines that mechanized the shoe industry.<SUP id="cite_ref-Thomson_1989_156-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Thomson_1989-156">[156]</A></SUP> and the watch industry. The industrialisation of the watch industry started 1854 also in Waltham, Massachusetts, at the <A href="/wiki/Waltham_Watch_Company" title="Waltham Watch Company">Waltham Watch Company</A>, with the development of machine tools, gauges and assembling methods adapted to the micro precision required for watches.</P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Second_Industrial_Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</A></DIV>
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<A href="/wiki/S%C3%A4chsische_Maschinenfabrik" title="Sächsische Maschinenfabrik">Sächsische Maschinenfabrik</A> in <A href="/wiki/Chemnitz" title="Chemnitz">Chemnitz</A>, Germany, 1868</DIV>
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<P><A href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">Steel</A> is often cited as the first of several new areas for industrial mass-production, which are said to characterise a "Second Industrial Revolution", beginning around 1850, although a method for mass manufacture of <A href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</A> was not invented until the 1860s, when <A href="/wiki/Henry_Bessemer" title="Henry Bessemer">Sir Henry Bessemer</A> invented a new furnace which could convert molten <A href="/wiki/Pig_iron" title="Pig iron">pig iron</A> into steel in large quantities. However, it only became widely available in the 1870s after the process was modified to produce more uniform quality.<SUP id="cite_ref-McNeil1990_33-9" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-McNeil1990-33">[33]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Men,_Machines_and_Modern_Times_157-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Men,_Machines_and_Modern_Times-157">[157]</A></SUP> Bessemer steel was being displaced by the <A href="/wiki/Open_hearth_furnace" title="Open hearth furnace">open hearth furnace</A> near the end of the 19th century.</P>
<P>This Second Industrial Revolution gradually grew to include chemicals, mainly the <A href="/wiki/Chemical_industry" title="Chemical industry">chemical industries</A>, <A href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">petroleum</A> (refining and distribution), and, in the 20th century, the <A href="/wiki/Automotive_industry" title="Automotive industry">automotive industry</A>, and was marked by a transition of technological leadership from Britain to the United States and Germany.</P>
<P>The increasing availability of economical petroleum products also reduced the importance of coal and further widened the potential for industrialisation.</P>
<P>A new revolution began with electricity and <A href="/wiki/Electrification" title="Electrification">electrification</A> in the <A href="/wiki/Electrical_power_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical power industry">electrical industries</A>. The introduction of <A href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">hydroelectric power</A> generation in the <A href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</A> enabled the rapid industrialisation of coal-deprived northern Italy, beginning in the 1890s.</P>
<P>By the 1890s, industrialisation in these areas had created the first giant industrial corporations with burgeoning global interests, as companies like <A href="/wiki/U.S._Steel" title="U.S. Steel">U.S. Steel</A>, <A href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">General Electric</A>, <A href="/wiki/Standard_Oil" title="Standard Oil">Standard Oil</A> and <A href="/wiki/Bayer" title="Bayer">Bayer AG</A> joined the railroad and ship companies on the world's <A href="/wiki/Stock_market" title="Stock market">stock markets</A>.</P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Causes">Causes</SPAN></H2>
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Regional <A href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">GDP</A> per capita changed very little for most of human history before the Industrial Revolution.</DIV>
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<P>The causes of the Industrial Revolution were complicated and remain a topic for debate, with some historians believing the Revolution was an outgrowth of social and institutional changes brought by the end of <A href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</A> in <A href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Britain</A> after the <A href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</A> in the 17th century. The <A href="/wiki/Enclosure" title="Enclosure">Enclosure</A> movement and the <A href="/wiki/British_Agricultural_Revolution" title="British Agricultural Revolution">British Agricultural Revolution</A> made food production more efficient and less labour-intensive, forcing the farmers who could no longer be self-sufficient in agriculture into <A href="/wiki/Cottage_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Cottage industry">cottage industry</A>, for example <A href="/wiki/Weaving" title="Weaving">weaving</A>, and in the longer term into the cities and the newly developed <A href="/wiki/Factory" title="Factory">factories</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-The_Origins_of_the_Industrial_Revolution_in_England_158-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-The_Origins_of_the_Industrial_Revolution_in_England-158">[158]</A></SUP> The <A href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonial expansion</A> of the 17th century with the accompanying development of international trade, creation of <A href="/wiki/Financial_market" title="Financial market">financial markets</A> and accumulation of <A href="/wiki/Capital_(economics)" title="Capital (economics)">capital</A> are also cited as factors, as is the <A href="/wiki/Scientific_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific revolution">scientific revolution</A> of the 17th century.<SUP id="cite_ref-msn_159-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-msn-159">[159]</A></SUP> A change in marrying patterns to getting married later made people able to accumulate more human capital during their youth, thereby encouraging economic development.<SUP id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-160">[160]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Until the 1980s, it was universally believed by academic historians that technological innovation was the heart of the Industrial Revolution and the key enabling technology was the invention and improvement of the steam engine.<SUP id="cite_ref-industrial10_161-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-industrial10-161">[161]</A></SUP> However, recent research into the Marketing Era has challenged the traditional, supply-oriented interpretation of the Industrial Revolution.<SUP id="cite_ref-association_162-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-association-162">[162]</A></SUP></P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Lewis_Mumford" title="Lewis Mumford">Lewis Mumford</A> has proposed that the Industrial Revolution had its origins in the <A href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</A>, much earlier than most estimates.<SUP id="cite_ref-Technics_&_Civilization_163-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Technics_&_Civilization-163">[163]</A></SUP> He explains that the model for standardised <A href="/wiki/Mass_production" title="Mass production">mass production</A> was the <A href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</A> and that "the archetypal model for the industrial era was the clock". He also cites the <A href="/wiki/Monasticism" title="Monasticism">monastic</A> emphasis on order and time-keeping, as well as the fact that <A href="/wiki/Medieval" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval">medieval</A> cities had at their centre a church with bell ringing at regular intervals as being necessary precursors to a greater synchronisation necessary for later, more physical, manifestations such as the steam engine.</P>
<P>The presence of a large domestic market should also be considered an important driver of the Industrial Revolution, particularly explaining why it occurred in Britain. In other nations, such as France, markets were split up by local regions, which often imposed tolls and <A href="/wiki/Tariff" title="Tariff">tariffs</A> on goods traded among them.<SUP id="cite_ref-google11_164-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-google11-164">[164]</A></SUP> Internal tariffs were abolished by <A href="/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII of England</A>, they survived in Russia till 1753, 1789 in France and 1839 in Spain.</P>
<P>Governments' grant of limited <A href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">monopolies</A> to inventors under a developing <A href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patent</A> system (the <A href="/wiki/Statute_of_Monopolies" title="Statute of Monopolies">Statute of Monopolies</A> in 1623) is considered an influential factor. The effects of patents, both good and ill, on the development of industrialisation are clearly illustrated in the history of the steam engine, the key enabling technology. In return for publicly revealing the workings of an invention the patent system rewarded inventors such as James Watt by allowing them to monopolise the production of the first steam engines, thereby rewarding inventors and increasing the pace of technological development. However, monopolies bring with them their own inefficiencies which may counterbalance, or even overbalance, the beneficial effects of publicising ingenuity and rewarding inventors.<SUP id="cite_ref-industrialisation_165-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-industrialisation-165">[165]</A></SUP> Watt's monopoly prevented other inventors, such as <A href="/wiki/Richard_Trevithick" title="Richard Trevithick">Richard Trevithick</A>, <A href="/wiki/William_Murdoch" title="William Murdoch">William Murdoch</A>, or <A href="/wiki/Jonathan_Hornblower" title="Jonathan Hornblower">Jonathan Hornblower</A>, whom Boulton and Watt sued, from introducing improved steam engines, thereby retarding the spread of steam power.<SUP id="cite_ref-dklevine_166-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-dklevine-166">[166]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-mott-smith_167-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-mott-smith-167">[167]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Causes_in_Europe">Causes in Europe</SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</A></DIV>
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Interior of the <A href="/wiki/Coal_Exchange_(London)" title="Coal Exchange (London)">London Coal Exchange</A>, c. 1808.<BR />
European 17th century colonial expansion, international trade, and creation of financial markets produced a new legal and financial environment, one which supported and enabled 18th century industrial growth.</DIV>
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<P>One question of active interest to historians is why the Industrial Revolution occurred in Europe and not in other parts of the world in the 18th century, particularly China, <A href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">India</A>, and the Middle East, or at other times like in <A href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical Antiquity</A><SUP id="cite_ref-j-bradford-delong_168-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-j-bradford-delong-168">[168]</A></SUP> or the <A href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-historyguide_169-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-historyguide-169">[169]</A></SUP> Numerous factors have been suggested, including education, technological changes<SUP id="cite_ref-google12_170-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-google12-170">[170]</A></SUP> (see <A href="/wiki/Scientific_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific revolution">Scientific Revolution</A> in Europe), "modern" government, "modern" work attitudes, ecology, and culture.<SUP id="cite_ref-The_Industrial_Revolution_–_Causes_171-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-The_Industrial_Revolution_–_Causes-171">[171]</A></SUP></P>
<P>China was the world's most technological advanced country for many centuries; however, China stagnated economically and technologically and was surpassed by Western Europe before the Age of Exploration, by which time China banned imports and denied entry to foreigners. China was also a totalitarian society.<SUP id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-172">[172]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-173">[173]</A></SUP> Modern estimates of per capita income on Western Europe in the late 18th century are of roughly 1,500 dollars in <A href="/wiki/Purchasing_power_parity" title="Purchasing power parity">purchasing power parity</A> (and Britain had a <A href="/wiki/Per_capita_income" title="Per capita income">per capita income</A> of nearly 2,000 dollars<SUP id="cite_ref-iisg_174-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-iisg-174">[174]</A></SUP>) whereas China, by comparison, had only 450 dollars. India was essentially feudal, politically fragmented and not as economically advanced as Western Europe.<SUP id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-175">[175]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Historians such as <A href="/wiki/David_Landes" title="David Landes">David Landes</A> and <A href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</A> credit the different belief systems in Asia and Europe with dictating where the revolution occurred.<SUP id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-176">[176]</A></SUP> The religion and beliefs of Europe were largely products of <A href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian" title="Judeo-Christian">Judaeo-Christianity</A> and <A href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</A> thought. Conversely, Chinese society was founded on men like <A href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</A>, <A href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</A>, <A href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Feizi</A> (<A href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</A>), <A href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Lao Tzu</A> (<A href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</A>), and <A href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" title="Gautama Buddha">Buddha</A> (<A href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</A>), resulting in very different worldviews.<SUP id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-177">[177]</A></SUP> Other factors include the considerable distance of China's coal deposits, though large, from its cities as well as the then unnavigable <A href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</A> that connects these deposits to the sea.<SUP id="cite_ref-professor_178-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-professor-178">[178]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Regarding India, the Marxist historian <A href="/wiki/Rajani_Palme_Dutt" title="Rajani Palme Dutt">Rajani Palme Dutt</A> said: "The capital to finance the Industrial Revolution in India instead went into financing the Industrial Revolution in Britain."<SUP id="cite_ref-india_resource_179-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-india_resource-179">[179]</A></SUP> In contrast to China, India was split up into many competing kingdoms after the decline of the <A href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</A>, with the major ones in its aftermath including the <A href="/wiki/Maratha" title="Maratha">Marathas</A>, <A href="/wiki/Sikh" title="Sikh">Sikhs</A>, <A href="/wiki/Bengal_Subah" title="Bengal Subah">Bengal Subah</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mysore" title="Kingdom of Mysore">Kingdom of Mysore</A>. In addition, the economy was highly dependent on two sectors – agriculture of subsistence and cotton, and there appears to have been little technical innovation. It is believed that the vast amounts of wealth were largely stored away in palace treasuries by totalitarian monarchs prior to the British take over.<SUP class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><SPAN title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2017)">citation needed</SPAN></A></I>]</SUP></P>
<P>Economic historian <A href="/wiki/Joel_Mokyr" title="Joel Mokyr">Joel Mokyr</A> has argued that political fragmentation (the presence of a large number of European states) made it possible for heterodox ideas to thrive, as entrepreneurs, innovators, ideologues and heretics could easily flee to a neighboring state in the event that the one state would try to suppress their ideas and activities. This is what set Europe apart from the technologically advanced, large unitary empires such as China and India. China had both a printing press and movable type, and India had similar levels scientific and technological achievement as Europe in 1700, yet the industrial revolution would occur in Europe, not China or India. In Europe, political fragmentation was coupled with an "integrated market for ideas" where Europe's intellectuals used the lingua franca of Latin, had a shared intellectual basis in Europe's classical heritage and the pan-European institution of the <A href="/wiki/Republic_of_Letters" title="Republic of Letters">Republic of Letters</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-180">[180]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Causes_in_Britain">Causes in Britain</SPAN></H3>
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As the Industrial Revolution developed British manufactured output surged ahead of other economies.</DIV>
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<P>Great Britain provided the legal and cultural foundations that enabled <A href="/wiki/Entrepreneur" class="mw-redirect" title="Entrepreneur">entrepreneurs</A> to pioneer the industrial revolution.<SUP id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-181">[181]</A></SUP> Key factors fostering this environment were: (1) The period of peace and stability which followed the unification of England and Scotland; (2) no trade barriers between England and Scotland; (3) the rule of law (enforcing property rights and respecting the sanctity of contracts); (4) a straightforward legal system that allowed the formation of joint-stock companies (corporations); (5) absence of tolls, which had largely disappeared from Britain by the 15th century, but were an extreme burden on goods elsewhere in the world, and (6) a free market (capitalism).<SUP id="cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_1-16" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-1">[1]</A></SUP></P>
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<DIV>"An unprecedented explosion of new ideas, and new technological inventions, transformed our use of energy, creating an increasingly industrial and urbanised country. Roads, railways and canals were built. Great cities appeared. Scores of factories and mills sprang up. Our landscape would never be the same again. It was a revolution that transformed not only the country, but the world itself."</DIV>
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<P><CITE style="display: block; text-align: left;">– British historian <A href="/wiki/Jeremy_Black_(historian)" title="Jeremy Black (historian)">Jeremy Black</A> on the BBC's <I>Why the Industrial Revolution Happened Here</I>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Black_105-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Black-105">[105]</A></SUP></CITE></P>
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<P>Geographical and natural resource advantages of Great Britain were the fact that it had extensive coastlines and many navigable rivers in an age where water was the easiest means of transportation and having the highest quality coal in Europe.<SUP id="cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_1-17" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-1">[1]</A></SUP><SUP class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<SPAN>332</SPAN></SUP></P>
<P>There were two main values that really drove the Industrial Revolution in Britain. These values were self-interest and an <A href="/wiki/Entrepreneurial" class="mw-redirect" title="Entrepreneurial">entrepreneurial</A> spirit. Because of these interests, many industrial advances were made that resulted in a huge increase in personal wealth and a <A href="/wiki/Consumer" title="Consumer">consumer</A> revolution.<SUP id="cite_ref-Black_105-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Black-105">[105]</A></SUP> These advancements also greatly benefitted the British society as a whole. Countries around the world started to recognise the changes and advancements in Britain and use them as an example to begin their own Industrial Revolutions.<SUP id="cite_ref-Kiely_182-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Kiely-182">[182]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The debate about the start of the Industrial Revolution also concerns the massive lead that Great Britain had over other countries. Some have stressed the importance of natural or financial resources that Britain received from its many overseas <A href="/wiki/British_Empire#Colonization" title="British Empire">colonies</A> or that profits from the British <A href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">slave trade</A> between Africa and the Caribbean helped fuel industrial investment. However, it has been pointed out that slave trade and West Indian plantations provided only 5% of the British national income during the years of the Industrial Revolution.<SUP id="cite_ref-Was_slavery_the_engine_of_economic_growth?_Digital_History_183-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Was_slavery_the_engine_of_economic_growth?_Digital_History-183">[183]</A></SUP> Even though slavery accounted for so little, Caribbean-based demand accounted for 12% of Britain's industrial output.<SUP id="cite_ref-The_Industrial_Revolution_by_Pat_Hudson,_pg._198_184-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-The_Industrial_Revolution_by_Pat_Hudson,_pg._198-184">[184]</A></SUP></P>
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<A href="/wiki/William_Bell_Scott" title="William Bell Scott">William Bell Scott</A> <I>Iron and Coal</I>, 1855–60</DIV>
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<P>Instead, the greater <A href="/wiki/Liberalisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberalisation">liberalisation</A> of trade from a large merchant base may have allowed Britain to produce and use emerging scientific and technological developments more effectively than countries with stronger monarchies, particularly China and Russia. Britain emerged from the <A href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</A> as the only European nation not ravaged by financial plunder and economic collapse, and having the only merchant fleet of any useful size (European merchant fleets were destroyed during the war by the <A href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</A><SUP id="cite_ref-manufacturing_185-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-manufacturing-185">[185]</A></SUP>). Britain's extensive exporting cottage industries also ensured markets were already available for many early forms of manufactured goods. The conflict resulted in most British warfare being conducted overseas, reducing the devastating effects of territorial conquest that affected much of Europe. This was further aided by Britain's geographical position – an island separated from the rest of mainland Europe.</P>
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<I>William and Mary Presenting the Cap of Liberty to Europe</I>, 1716, Sir <A href="/wiki/James_Thornhill" title="James Thornhill">James Thornhill</A>. Enthroned in heaven with the Virtues behind them are the royals <A href="/wiki/William_III_of_England" title="William III of England">William III</A> and <A href="/wiki/Mary_II_of_England" title="Mary II of England">Mary II</A> who had taken the throne after the <A href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</A> and signed the <A href="/wiki/English_Bill_of_Rights" class="mw-redirect" title="English Bill of Rights">English Bill of Rights</A> of 1689. William tramples on arbitrary power and hands the red cap of liberty to Europe where, unlike Britain, <A href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolute monarchy</A> stayed the normal form of power execution. Below William is the French king <A href="/wiki/Louis_XIV" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-186" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-186">[186]</A></SUP></DIV>
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<P>Another theory is that Britain was able to succeed in the Industrial Revolution due to the availability of key resources it possessed. It had a dense population for its small geographical size. <A href="/wiki/Enclosure" title="Enclosure">Enclosure</A> of common land and the related agricultural revolution made a supply of this labour readily available. There was also a local coincidence of natural resources in the <A href="/wiki/Northern_England" title="Northern England">North of England</A>, the <A href="/wiki/English_Midlands" class="mw-redirect" title="English Midlands">English Midlands</A>, <A href="/wiki/South_Wales" title="South Wales">South Wales</A> and the <A href="/wiki/Scottish_Lowlands" title="Scottish Lowlands">Scottish Lowlands</A>. Local supplies of coal, iron, lead, copper, tin, limestone and water power, resulted in excellent conditions for the development and expansion of industry. Also, the damp, mild weather conditions of the North West of England provided ideal conditions for the spinning of cotton, providing a natural starting point for the birth of the textiles industry.</P>
<P>The stable political situation in Britain from around 1688 following the <A href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</A>, and British society's greater receptiveness to change (compared with other European countries) can also be said to be factors favouring the Industrial Revolution. Peasant resistance to industrialisation was largely eliminated by the Enclosure movement, and the landed upper classes developed commercial interests that made them pioneers in removing obstacles to the growth of capitalism.<SUP id="cite_ref-dictatorship_187-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-dictatorship-187">[187]</A></SUP> (This point is also made in <A href="/wiki/Hilaire_Belloc" title="Hilaire Belloc">Hilaire Belloc</A>'s <I><A href="/wiki/The_Servile_State" title="The Servile State">The Servile State</A></I>.)</P>
<P>The French philosopher <A href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</A> wrote about capitalism and religious tolerance in his book on English society, <I><A href="/wiki/Letters_on_the_English" title="Letters on the English">Letters on the English</A></I> (1733), noting why England at that time was more prosperous in comparison to the country's less religiously tolerant European neighbours. "Take a view of the <A href="/wiki/Royal_Exchange,_London" title="Royal Exchange, London">Royal Exchange in London</A>, a place more venerable than many courts of justice, where the representatives of all nations meet for the benefit of mankind. There the Jew, the Mahometan [Muslim], and the Christian transact together, as though they all professed the same religion, and give the name of infidel to none but bankrupts. There the Presbyterian confides in the Anabaptist, and the Churchman depends on the Quaker’s word. If one religion only were allowed in England, the Government would very possibly become arbitrary; if there were but two, the people would cut one another’s throats; but as there are such a multitude, they all live happy and in peace."<SUP id="cite_ref-188" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-188">[188]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Britain's population grew 280% 1550–1820, while the rest of Western Europe grew 50–80%. Seventy percent of European urbanisation happened in Britain 1750–1800. By 1800, only the Netherlands was more urbanised than Britain. This was only possible because coal, coke, imported cotton, brick and slate had replaced wood, charcoal, flax, peat and thatch. The latter compete with land grown to feed people while mined materials do not. Yet more land would be freed when chemical fertilisers replaced manure and horse's work was mechanised. A workhorse needs 3 to 5 acres (1.21 to 2.02 <A href="/wiki/Hectare" title="Hectare">ha</A>) for fodder while even early steam engines produced four times more mechanical energy.</P>
<P>In 1700, 5/6 of coal mined worldwide was in Britain, while the Netherlands had none; so despite having Europe's best transport, most urbanised, well paid, literate people and lowest taxes, it failed to industrialise. In the 18th century, it was the only European country whose cities and population shrank. Without coal, Britain would have run out of suitable river sites for mills by the 1830s.<SUP id="cite_ref-continuity_189-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-continuity-189">[189]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Economic historian Robert Allen has argued that high wages, cheap capital and very cheap energy in Britain made it the ideal place for the industrial revolution to occur.<SUP id="cite_ref-:0_190-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-:0-190">[190]</A></SUP> These factors made it vastly more profitable to invest in research and development, and to put technology to use in Britain than other societies.<SUP id="cite_ref-:0_190-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-:0-190">[190]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Transfer_of_knowledge">Transfer of knowledge</SPAN></H3>
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<A href="/wiki/A_Philosopher_Lecturing_on_the_Orrery" title="A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery">A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery</A> (ca. 1766). Informal philosophical societies spread scientific advances</DIV>
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<P>Knowledge of innovation was spread by several means. Workers who were trained in the technique might move to another employer or might be poached. A common method was for someone to make a study tour, gathering information where he could. During the whole of the Industrial Revolution and for the century before, all European countries and America engaged in study-touring; some nations, like Sweden and France, even trained civil servants or technicians to undertake it as a matter of state policy. In other countries, notably Britain and America, this practice was carried out by individual manufacturers eager to improve their own methods. Study tours were common then, as now, as was the keeping of travel diaries. Records made by industrialists and technicians of the period are an incomparable source of information about their methods.</P>
<P>Another means for the spread of innovation was by the network of informal philosophical societies, like the <A href="/wiki/Lunar_Society_of_Birmingham" title="Lunar Society of Birmingham">Lunar Society of Birmingham</A>, in which members met to discuss 'natural philosophy' (<I>i.e.</I> science) and often its application to manufacturing. The Lunar Society flourished from 1765 to 1809, and it has been said of them, "They were, if you like, the revolutionary committee of that most far reaching of all the eighteenth century revolutions, the Industrial Revolution".<SUP id="cite_ref-archive_191-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-archive-191">[191]</A></SUP> Other such societies published volumes of proceedings and transactions. For example, the London-based <A href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Arts" title="Royal Society of Arts">Royal Society of Arts</A> published an illustrated volume of new inventions, as well as papers about them in its annual <I>Transactions</I>.</P>
<P>There were publications describing technology. <A href="/wiki/Encyclopedia" title="Encyclopedia">Encyclopaedias</A> such as <A href="/wiki/John_Harris_(writer)" title="John Harris (writer)">Harris</A>'s <I><A href="/wiki/Lexicon_Technicum" title="Lexicon Technicum">Lexicon Technicum</A></I> (1704) and <A href="/wiki/Abraham_Rees" title="Abraham Rees">Abraham Rees</A>'s <I><A href="/wiki/Cyclopaedia,_or_an_Universal_Dictionary_of_Arts_and_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyclopaedia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences">Cyclopaedia</A></I> (1802–1819) contain much of value. <I>Cyclopaedia</I> contains an enormous amount of information about the science and technology of the first half of the Industrial Revolution, very well illustrated by fine engravings. Foreign printed sources such as the <I><A href="/wiki/Descriptions_des_Arts_et_M%C3%A9tiers" title="Descriptions des Arts et Métiers">Descriptions des Arts et Métiers</A></I> and Diderot's <I><A href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die" title="Encyclopédie">Encyclopédie</A></I> explained foreign methods with fine engraved plates.</P>
<P>Periodical publications about manufacturing and technology began to appear in the last decade of the 18th century, and many regularly included notice of the latest patents. Foreign periodicals, such as the <I>Annales des Mines</I>, published accounts of travels made by French engineers who observed British methods on study tours.</P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Protestant_work_ethic">Protestant work ethic</SPAN></H4>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant work ethic</A></DIV>
<P>Another theory is that the British advance was due to the presence of an <A href="/wiki/Entrepreneur" class="mw-redirect" title="Entrepreneur">entrepreneurial</A> class which believed in progress, technology and hard work.<SUP id="cite_ref-Capital_and_Innovation:_How_Britain_Became_the_First_Industrial_Nation_192-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Capital_and_Innovation:_How_Britain_Became_the_First_Industrial_Nation-192">[192]</A></SUP> The existence of this class is often linked to the <A href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant work ethic</A> (see <A href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</A>) and the particular status of the <A href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</A> and the dissenting Protestant sects, such as the <A href="/wiki/Religious_Society_of_Friends" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious Society of Friends">Quakers</A> and <A href="/wiki/Presbyterianism" title="Presbyterianism">Presbyterians</A> that had flourished with the <A href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</A>. Reinforcement of confidence in the rule of law, which followed establishment of the prototype of constitutional monarchy in Britain in the <A href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</A> of 1688, and the emergence of a stable financial market there based on the management of the <A href="/wiki/Government_debt" title="Government debt">national debt</A> by the <A href="/wiki/Bank_of_England" title="Bank of England">Bank of England</A>, contributed to the capacity for, and interest in, private financial investment in industrial ventures.</P>
<P><A href="/wiki/English_Dissenters" title="English Dissenters">Dissenters</A> found themselves barred or discouraged from almost all public offices, as well as education at England's <A href="/wiki/Oxbridge" title="Oxbridge">only two universities</A> at the time (although dissenters were still free to study at Scotland's <A href="/wiki/Ancient_universities_of_Scotland" title="Ancient universities of Scotland">four universities</A>). When the restoration of the monarchy took place and membership in the official <A href="/wiki/Anglican_Communion" title="Anglican Communion">Anglican Church</A> became mandatory due to the <A href="/wiki/Test_Act" title="Test Act">Test Act</A>, they thereupon became active in banking, manufacturing and education. The <A href="/wiki/Unitarianism" title="Unitarianism">Unitarians</A>, in particular, were very involved in education, by running Dissenting Academies, where, in contrast to the universities of Oxford and Cambridge and schools such as Eton and Harrow, much attention was given to mathematics and the sciences – areas of scholarship vital to the development of manufacturing technologies.</P>
<P>Historians sometimes consider this social factor to be extremely important, along with the nature of the national economies involved. While members of these sects were excluded from certain circles of the government, they were considered fellow Protestants, to a limited extent, by many in the <A href="/wiki/Middle_class" title="Middle class">middle class</A>, such as traditional financiers or other businessmen. Given this relative tolerance and the supply of capital, the natural outlet for the more enterprising members of these sects would be to seek new opportunities in the technologies created in the wake of the scientific revolution of the 17th century.</P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Opposition_from_Romanticism">Opposition from Romanticism</SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</A></DIV>
<P>During the Industrial Revolution an intellectual and artistic hostility towards the new industrialisation developed, associated with the Romantic movement. Romanticism revered the traditionalism of rural life and recoiled against the upheavals caused by industrialization, urbanization and the wretchedness of the working classes.<SUP id="cite_ref-193" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-193">[193]</A></SUP> Its major exponents in English included the artist and poet <A href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">William Blake</A> and poets <A href="/wiki/William_Wordsworth" title="William Wordsworth">William Wordsworth</A>, <A href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Samuel Taylor Coleridge</A>, <A href="/wiki/John_Keats" title="John Keats">John Keats</A>, <A href="/wiki/George_Gordon_Byron,_6th_Baron_Byron" class="mw-redirect" title="George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron">Lord Byron</A> and <A href="/wiki/Percy_Bysshe_Shelley" title="Percy Bysshe Shelley">Percy Bysshe Shelley</A>. The movement stressed the importance of "nature" in art and language, in contrast to "monstrous" machines and factories; the "Dark satanic mills" of Blake's poem "<A href="/wiki/And_did_those_feet_in_ancient_time" title="And did those feet in ancient time">And did those feet in ancient time</A>". <A href="/wiki/Mary_Shelley" title="Mary Shelley">Mary Shelley</A>'s novel <I><A href="/wiki/Frankenstein" title="Frankenstein">Frankenstein</A></I> reflected concerns that scientific progress might be two-edged. French Romanticism likewise was highly critical of industry.<SUP id="cite_ref-194" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-194">[194]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</SPAN></H2>
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<DT>General</DT>
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<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Automation" title="Automation">Automation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_capitalism#Nineteenth_century" title="History of capitalism">Capitalism in the nineteenth century</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Capitalist_mode_of_production_(Marxist_theory)" title="Capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)">Capitalist mode of production</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Carboniferous_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Carboniferous period">Carboniferous period</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">Coal</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Deindustrialization" title="Deindustrialization">Deindustrialization</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Digital_Revolution" title="Digital Revolution">Digital Revolution</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Division_of_labour" title="Division of labour">Division of labour</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Dual_revolution" title="Dual revolution">Dual revolution</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Economic history of the United Kingdom">Economic history of the United Kingdom</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hydraulics" title="Hydraulics">Hydraulics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Template:Human_timeline" title="Template:Human timeline">Human timeline</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Industrial_Age" title="Industrial Age">Industrial Age</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Industrial_society" title="Industrial society">Industrial society</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Information_revolution" title="Information revolution">Information revolution</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">Laissez-faire</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Law_of_the_handicap_of_a_head_start" title="Law of the handicap of a head start">Law of the handicap of a head start</A> – Dialectics of progress</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Machine_Age" title="Machine Age">Machine Age</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Steam" title="Steam">Steam</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/The_Protestant_Ethic_and_the_Spirit_of_Capitalism" title="The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism">The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism</A></LI>
</UL>
<DL>
<DT>Other</DT>
</DL>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Chinese_industrialization" title="Chinese industrialization">Chinese industrialization</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Petroleum_Revolution" title="Petroleum Revolution">Petroleum Revolution</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Science_and_invention_in_Birmingham" title="Science and invention in Birmingham">Science and invention in Birmingham</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="References">References</SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 25em; -webkit-column-width: 25em; column-width: 25em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<OL class="references">
<LI id="cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969-1"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_1-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_1-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_1-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_1-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_1-4"><SUP><I><B>e</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_1-5"><SUP><I><B>f</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_1-6"><SUP><I><B>g</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_1-7"><SUP><I><B>h</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_1-8"><SUP><I><B>i</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_1-9"><SUP><I><B>j</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_1-10"><SUP><I><B>k</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_1-11"><SUP><I><B>l</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_1-12"><SUP><I><B>m</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_1-13"><SUP><I><B>n</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_1-14"><SUP><I><B>o</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_1-15"><SUP><I><B>p</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_1-16"><SUP><I><B>q</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_1-17"><SUP><I><B>r</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">David S. Landes (1969). <I>The Unbound Prometheus</I>. Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-09418-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-09418-6">0-521-09418-6</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Unbound+Prometheus&rft.pub=Press+Syndicate+of+the+University+of+Cambridge&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=0-521-09418-6&rft.au=David+S.+Landes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-2"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-2"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Horn, Jeff; Rosenband, Leonard; Smith, Merritt (2010). <I>Reconceptualizing the Industrial Revolution</I>. Cambridge MA, USA, London: MIT Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0262515627" title="Special:BookSources/978-0262515627">978-0262515627</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reconceptualizing+the+Industrial+Revolution&rft.place=Cambridge+MA%2C+USA%2C+London&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0262515627&rft.aulast=Horn&rft.aufirst=Jeff&rft.au=Rosenband%2C+Leonard&rft.au=Smith%2C+Merritt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-3"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-3"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Reisman, George (1998). <I>Capitalism: A complete understanding of the nature and value of human economic life</I>. Jameson Books. p. 127. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-915463-_73-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-915463- 73-3">0-915463- 73-3</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Capitalism%3A+A+complete+understanding+of+the+nature+and+value+of+human+economic+life&rft.pages=127&rft.pub=Jameson+Books&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-915463-73-3&rft.aulast=Reisman&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-David_Landes_1999-4"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-David_Landes_1999_4-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-David_Landes_1999_4-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Landes, David (1999). <I>The Wealth and Poverty of Nations</I>. W. W. Norton & Company. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0393318883" title="Special:BookSources/978-0393318883">978-0393318883</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wealth+and+Poverty+of+Nations&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0393318883&rft.aulast=Landes&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Lectures_on_Economic_Growth-5"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Lectures_on_Economic_Growth_5-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Lectures_on_Economic_Growth_5-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Lucas, Robert E., Jr. (2002). <I>Lectures on Economic Growth</I>. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. 109–10. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01601-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01601-9">978-0-674-01601-9</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lectures+on+Economic+Growth&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=109-10&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-674-01601-9&rft.aulast=Lucas&rft.aufirst=Robert+E.%2C+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Feinstein2014-6"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Feinstein2014_6-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Feinstein2014_6-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Feinstein, Charles (September 1998). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=4123540">"Pessimism Perpetuated: Real Wages and the Standard of Living in Britain during and after the Industrial Revolution"</A>. <I>Journal of Economic History</I>. <B>58</B> (3): 625–58. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0022050700021100">10.1017/s0022050700021100</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">6 May</SPAN> 2014</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=Pessimism+Perpetuated%3A+Real+Wages+and+the+Standard+of+Living+in+Britain+during+and+after+the+Industrial+Revolution&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=625-58&rft.date=1998-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0022050700021100&rft.aulast=Feinstein&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.cambridge.org%2Faction%2FdisplayAbstract%3FfromPage%3Donline%26aid%3D4123540&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-SzreterMooney2014-7"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-SzreterMooney2014_7-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-SzreterMooney2014_7-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Szreter & Mooney; Mooney (February 1998). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1468-0289.00084/abstract">"Urbanization, Mortality, and the Standard of Living Debate: New Estimates of the Expectation of Life at Birth in Nineteenth-Century British Cities"</A>. <I>The Economic History Review</I>. <B>51</B> (1): 104. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1111%2F1468-0289.00084">10.1111/1468-0289.00084</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">6 May</SPAN> 2014</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economic+History+Review&rft.atitle=Urbanization%2C+Mortality%2C+and+the+Standard+of+Living+Debate%3A+New+Estimates+of+the+Expectation+of+Life+at+Birth+in+Nineteenth-Century+British+Cities&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=104&rft.date=1998-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1468-0289.00084&rft.au=Szreter+%26+Mooney&rft.au=Mooney&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1111%2F1468-0289.00084%2Fabstract&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-The_Industrial_Revolution-8"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-The_Industrial_Revolution_8-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A href="/wiki/Robert_Lucas,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Lucas, Jr.">Robert Lucas, Jr.</A> (2003). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071127032512/http://minneapolisfed.org/pubs/region/04-05/essay.cfm">"The Industrial Revolution"</A>. Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.minneapolisfed.org/pubs/region/04-05/essay.cfm">the original</A> on 27 November 2007<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">14 November</SPAN> 2007</SPAN>. <Q>it is fairly clear that up to 1800 or maybe 1750, no society had experienced sustained growth in per capita income. (Eighteenth century population growth also averaged one-third of 1 percent, the same as production growth.) That is, up to about two centuries ago, per capita <A href="/wiki/Real_income" title="Real income">incomes</A> in all societies were stagnated at around $400 to $800 per year.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Industrial+Revolution&rft.pub=Federal+Reserve+Bank+of+Minneapolis&rft.date=2003&rft.au=Robert+Lucas%2C+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.minneapolisfed.org%2Fpubs%2Fregion%2F04-05%2Fessay.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-The_Industrial_Revolution_''Past_and_Future''-9"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-The_Industrial_Revolution_''Past_and_Future''_9-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Lucas, Robert (2003). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071127032512/http://minneapolisfed.org/pubs/region/04-05/essay.cfm">"The Industrial Revolution <I>Past and Future</I>"</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.minneapolisfed.org/pubs/region/04-05/essay.cfm">the original</A> on 27 November 2007. <Q>[consider] annual growth rates of 2.4 percent for the first 60 years of the 20th century, of 1 percent for the entire 19th century, of one-third of 1 percent for the 18th century</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Industrial+Revolution+Past+and+Future&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Lucas&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.minneapolisfed.org%2Fpubs%2Fregion%2F04-05%2Fessay.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-ReviewOfCambridge-10"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-ReviewOfCambridge_10-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">McCloskey, Deidre (2004). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://deirdremccloskey.org/articles/floud.php">"Review of The Cambridge Economic History of Modern Britain (edited by Roderick Floud and Paul Johnson), Times Higher Education Supplement, 15 January 2004"</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Review+of+The+Cambridge+Economic+History+of+Modern+Britain+%28edited+by+Roderick+Floud+and+Paul+Johnson%29%2C+Times+Higher+Education+Supplement%2C+15+January+2004&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=McCloskey&rft.aufirst=Deidre&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdeirdremccloskey.org%2Farticles%2Ffloud.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-revolution-11"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-revolution_11-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-revolution_11-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Eric Hobsbawm, <I>The Age of Revolution: Europe 1789–1848</I>, Weidenfeld & Nicolson Ltd., p. 27 <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-349-10484-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-349-10484-0">0-349-10484-0</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-google1-12"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-google1_12-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-google1_12-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Joseph E Inikori. <I>Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England</I>, Cambridge University Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-01079-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-01079-9">0-521-01079-9</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN0521010799&id=y7rhKYWhCyIC&pg=PA102&lpg=PA102&sig=zOPr9UkQv258KyhCkuFM0abERnI">Read it</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Rehabilitating_the_Industrial_Revolution-13"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Rehabilitating_the_Industrial_Revolution_13-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Berg, Maxine; <A href="/wiki/Pat_Hudson" title="Pat Hudson">Hudson, Pat</A> (1992). "Rehabilitating the Industrial Revolution". <I>The Economic History Review</I>. The Economic History Review, Vol. 45, No. 1. <B>45</B> (1): 24–50. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.2307%2F2598327">10.2307/2598327</A>. <A href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/2598327">2598327</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economic+History+Review&rft.atitle=Rehabilitating+the+Industrial+Revolution&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=24-50&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2598327&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2598327&rft.au=Berg%2C+Maxine&rft.au=Hudson%2C+Pat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-lorenzen-14"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-lorenzen_14-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.julielorenzen.net/berg.html">Rehabilitating the Industrial Revolution</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061109022755/http://www.julielorenzen.net/berg.html">Archived</A> 9 November 2006 at the <A href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</A>. by Julie Lorenzen, Central Michigan University. Retrieved November 2006.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-15"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-15"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Gupta, Bishnupriya. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iisg.nl/hpw/papers/broadberry-gupta.pdf">"Cotton Textiles and the Great Divergence: Lancashire, India and Shifting Competitive Advantage, 1600-1850"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>International Institute of Social History</I>. Department of Economics, University of Warwick<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">5 December</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=International+Institute+of+Social+History&rft.atitle=Cotton+Textiles+and+the++Great+Divergence%3A+Lancashire%2C+India+and+Shifting+Competitive++Advantage%2C+1600-1850&rft.aulast=Gupta&rft.aufirst=Bishnupriya&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iisg.nl%2Fhpw%2Fpapers%2Fbroadberry-gupta.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-16"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-16"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Taylor, George Rogers. <I>The Transportation Revolution, 1815–1860</I>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87332-101-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87332-101-3">978-0-87332-101-3</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Transportation+Revolution%2C+1815%E2%80%931860&rft.isbn=978-0-87332-101-3&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=George+Rogers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Roe1916-17"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Roe1916_17-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Roe1916_17-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Roe1916_17-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Roe1916_17-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Roe1916_17-4"><SUP><I><B>e</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Roe1916_17-5"><SUP><I><B>f</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Roe1916_17-6"><SUP><I><B>g</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Roe1916_17-7"><SUP><I><B>h</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Roe1916_17-8"><SUP><I><B>i</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Roe1916_17-9"><SUP><I><B>j</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Roe1916_17-10"><SUP><I><B>k</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE id="CITEREFRoe1916" class="citation">Roe, Joseph Wickham (1916), <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X-EJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage"><I>English and American Tool Builders</I></A>, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, <A href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/16011753">16011753</A></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=English+and+American+Tool+Builders&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+Connecticut&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1916&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F16011753&rft.aulast=Roe&rft.aufirst=Joseph+Wickham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX-EJAAAAIAAJ%26printsec%3Dtitlepage&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN>. Reprinted by McGraw-Hill, New York and London, 1926 (<A href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/27024075">27-24075</A>); and by Lindsay Publications, Inc., Bradley, Illinois, (<A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-917914-73-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-917914-73-7">978-0-917914-73-7</A>).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-18"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-18"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFHunter1985">Hunter 1985</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-The_industrial_revolution_in_national_context:_Europe_and_the_USA-19"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-The_industrial_revolution_in_national_context:_Europe_and_the_USA_19-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Crouzet, François (1996). "France". In Teich, Mikuláš; <A href="/wiki/Roy_Porter" title="Roy Porter">Porter, Roy</A>. <I>The industrial revolution in national context: Europe and the USA</I>. Cambridge University Press. p. 45. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-40940-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-40940-7">978-0-521-40940-7</A>. <A href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/95025377">95025377</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=France&rft.btitle=The+industrial+revolution+in+national+context%3A+Europe+and+the+USA&rft.pages=45&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F95025377&rft.isbn=978-0-521-40940-7&rft.aulast=Crouzet&rft.aufirst=Fran%C3%A7ois&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-20"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-20"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">BLANQUI Jérôme-Adolphe, <I>Histoire de l'économie politique en Europe depuis les anciens jusqu'à nos jours</I>, 1837, <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-543-94762-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-543-94762-8">978-0-543-94762-8</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-The_Industrial_Revolution13-21"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-The_Industrial_Revolution13_21-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Hudson, Pat (1992). <I>The Industrial Revolution</I>. London: Edward Arnold. p. 11. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7131-6531-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7131-6531-9">978-0-7131-6531-9</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Industrial+Revolution&rft.place=London&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Edward+Arnold&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-7131-6531-9&rft.aulast=Hudson&rft.aufirst=Pat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-The_Industrial_Revolution_–_Innovations-22"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-The_Industrial_Revolution_–_Innovations_22-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Eric Bond; Sheena Gingerich; Oliver Archer-Antonsen; Liam Purcell; Elizabeth Macklem (17 February 2003). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://industrialrevolution.sea.ca/innovations.html">"The Industrial Revolution – Innovations"</A>. Industrialrevolution.sea.ca<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">30 January</SPAN> 2011</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Industrial+Revolution+%E2%80%93+Innovations&rft.pub=Industrialrevolution.sea.ca&rft.date=2003-02-17&rft.au=Eric+Bond&rft.au=Sheena+Gingerich&rft.au=Oliver+Archer-Antonsen&rft.au=Liam+Purcell&rft.au=Elizabeth+Macklem&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Findustrialrevolution.sea.ca%2Finnovations.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-23"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-23"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFAyres1989">Ayres 1989</A>, p. 17</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-24"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-24"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFHunteryear-1985">Hunter & year-1985</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-25"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-25"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">David S. Landes (1969). <I>The Unbound Prometheus</I>. Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. p. 218. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-09418-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-09418-6">0-521-09418-6</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Unbound+Prometheus&rft.pages=218&rft.pub=Press+Syndicate+of+the+University+of+Cambridge&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=0-521-09418-6&rft.au=David+S.+Landes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-26"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-26"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Rosen, William (2012). <I>The Most Powerful Idea in the World: A Story of Steam, Industry and Invention</I>. University Of Chicago Pres. p. 149. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-72634-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-72634-2">978-0-226-72634-2</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Most+Powerful+Idea+in+the+World%3A+A+Story+of+Steam%2C+Industry+and+Invention&rft.pages=149&rft.pub=University+Of+Chicago+Pres&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-226-72634-2&rft.aulast=Rosen&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Tylecote_1992-27"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Tylecote_1992_27-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Tylecote_1992_27-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Tylecote_1992_27-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Tylecote_1992_27-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Tylecote_1992_27-4"><SUP><I><B>e</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Tylecote_1992_27-5"><SUP><I><B>f</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Tylecote_1992_27-6"><SUP><I><B>g</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Tylecote_1992_27-7"><SUP><I><B>h</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Tylecote_1992_27-8"><SUP><I><B>i</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Tylecote_1992_27-9"><SUP><I><B>j</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Tylecote_1992_27-10"><SUP><I><B>k</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Tylecote, R. F. (1992). <I>A History of Metallurgy, Second Edition</I>. London: Maney Publishing, for the Institute of Materials. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0901462886" title="Special:BookSources/978-0901462886">978-0901462886</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Metallurgy%2C+Second+Edition&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Maney+Publishing%2C+for+the+Institute+of+Materials&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0901462886&rft.aulast=Tylecote&rft.aufirst=R.+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-David_S._Landes_1969_91-28"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-David_S._Landes_1969_91_28-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">David S. Landes (1969). <I>The Unbound Prometheus</I>. Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. p. 91. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-09418-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-09418-6">0-521-09418-6</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Unbound+Prometheus&rft.pages=91&rft.pub=Press+Syndicate+of+the+University+of+Cambridge&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=0-521-09418-6&rft.au=David+S.+Landes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Hounshell-1984-29"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Hounshell-1984_29-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Hounshell-1984_29-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Hounshell-1984_29-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Hounshell-1984_29-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Hounshell-1984_29-4"><SUP><I><B>e</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Hounshell-1984_29-5"><SUP><I><B>f</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Hounshell-1984_29-6"><SUP><I><B>g</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE id="CITEREFHounshell1984" class="citation"><A href="/wiki/David_A._Hounshell" title="David A. Hounshell">Hounshell, David A.</A> (1984), <I>From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States</I>, Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-2975-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-2975-8">978-0-8018-2975-8</A>, <A href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/83016269">83016269</A></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+the+American+System+to+Mass+Production%2C+1800-1932%3A+The+Development+of+Manufacturing+Technology+in+the+United+States&rft.place=Baltimore%2C+Maryland&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F83016269&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-2975-8&rft.aulast=Hounshell&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Beckert_2014-30"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Beckert_2014_30-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Beckert_2014_30-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Beckert_2014_30-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Beckert_2014_30-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Beckert_2014_30-4"><SUP><I><B>e</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Beckert_2014_30-5"><SUP><I><B>f</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Beckert_2014_30-6"><SUP><I><B>g</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Beckert_2014_30-7"><SUP><I><B>h</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Beckert_2014_30-8"><SUP><I><B>i</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Beckert_2014_30-9"><SUP><I><B>j</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Beckert, Sven (2014). <I>Empire of Cotton: A Global History</I>. US: Vintage Books Division Penguin Random House. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-375-71396-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-375-71396-5">978-0-375-71396-5</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empire+of+Cotton%3A+A+Global+History&rft.place=US&rft.pub=Vintage+Books+Division+Penguin+Random+House&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-375-71396-5&rft.aulast=Beckert&rft.aufirst=Sven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-31"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-31"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Gupta, Bishnupriya. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iisg.nl/hpw/papers/broadberry-gupta.pdf">"Cotton Textiles and the Great Divergence: Lancashire, India and Shifting Competitive Advantage, 1600-1850"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>International Institute of Social History</I>. Department of Economics, University of Warwick<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">5 December</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=International+Institute+of+Social+History&rft.atitle=Cotton+Textiles+and+the++Great+Divergence%3A+Lancashire%2C+India+and+Shifting+Competitive++Advantage%2C+1600-1850&rft.aulast=Gupta&rft.aufirst=Bishnupriya&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iisg.nl%2Fhpw%2Fpapers%2Fbroadberry-gupta.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Ayers1989-32"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Ayers1989_32-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Ayers1989_32-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Ayers1989_32-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE id="CITEREFAyres1989" class="citation journal"><A href="/wiki/Robert_Ayres_(scientist)" title="Robert Ayres (scientist)">Ayres, Robert</A> (1989). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iiasa.ac.at/Admin/PUB/Documents/RR-89-001.pdf">"Technological Transformations and Long Waves"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>: 16–17.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Technological+Transformations+and+Long+Waves&rft.pages=16-17&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Ayres&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iiasa.ac.at%2FAdmin%2FPUB%2FDocuments%2FRR-89-001.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-McNeil1990-33"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-McNeil1990_33-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-McNeil1990_33-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-McNeil1990_33-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-McNeil1990_33-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-McNeil1990_33-4"><SUP><I><B>e</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-McNeil1990_33-5"><SUP><I><B>f</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-McNeil1990_33-6"><SUP><I><B>g</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-McNeil1990_33-7"><SUP><I><B>h</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-McNeil1990_33-8"><SUP><I><B>i</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-McNeil1990_33-9"><SUP><I><B>j</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFMcNeil1990">McNeil 1990</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-34"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-34"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">R. Ray Gehani (1998). "Management of Technology and Operations". p. 63. John Wiley and Sons, 1998</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-35"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-35"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFAyres1989">Ayres 1989</A>, p. 1</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-36"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-36"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">David S. Landes (1969). <I>The Unbound Prometheus</I>. Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. p. 63. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-09418-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-09418-6">0-521-09418-6</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Unbound+Prometheus&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=Press+Syndicate+of+the+University+of+Cambridge&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=0-521-09418-6&rft.au=David+S.+Landes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-37"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-37"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFAyres1989">Ayres 1989</A>, p. 18</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-38"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-38"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">G. E. Mingay (1986). "The Transformation of Britain, 1830–1939". p. 25. Routledge, 1986</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-39"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-39"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE id="CITEREFHills" class="citation encyclopaedia">Hills, Richard L. "Cotchett, Thomas". <I><A href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</A></I> (online ed.). Oxford University Press. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F75296">10.1093/ref:odnb/75296</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cotchett%2C+Thomas&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.edition=online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F75296&rft.aulast=Hills&rft.aufirst=Richard+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN> <SPAN style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:90%; color:#555">(Subscription or <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</A> required.)</SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-40"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-40"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE id="CITEREFFairclough" class="citation encyclopaedia">Fairclough, K. R. "Sorocold, George". <I><A href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</A></I> (online ed.). Oxford University Press. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F47971">10.1093/ref:odnb/47971</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sorocold%2C+George&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.edition=online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F47971&rft.aulast=Fairclough&rft.aufirst=K.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN> <SPAN style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:90%; color:#555">(Subscription or <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</A> required.)</SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Iron_bridge-41"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Iron_bridge_41-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Iron_bridge_41-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/371">"Ironbridge Gorge"</A>. <I>UNESCO World Heritage Centre</I>. UNESCO<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">December 20,</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UNESCO+World+Heritage+Centre&rft.atitle=Ironbridge+Gorge&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwhc.unesco.org%2Fen%2Flist%2F371&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-42"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-42"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Gordon, Robert B (1996). <I>American Iron 1607–1900</I>. Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 156. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8018-6816-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8018-6816-5">0-8018-6816-5</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Iron+1607%E2%80%931900&rft.place=Baltimore+and+London&rft.pages=156&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-8018-6816-5&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=Robert+B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-43"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-43"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Adams, Ryan (July 27, 2012). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.awardsdaily.com/blog/2012/07/27/danny-boyles-intro-on-olympics-programme/">"Danny Boyle's intro on Olympics programme"</A>. Awards Daily<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">December 20,</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Danny+Boyle%27s+intro+on+Olympics+programme&rft.date=2012-07-27&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=Ryan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.awardsdaily.com%2Fblog%2F2012%2F07%2F27%2Fdanny-boyles-intro-on-olympics-programme%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-44"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-44"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Temple, Robert; Joseph Needham (1986). <I>The Genius of China: 3000 years of science, discovery and invention</I>. New York: Simon and Schuster. p. 65.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Genius+of+China%3A+3000+years+of+science%2C+discovery+and+invention&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=65&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Temple&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Joseph+Needham&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN> Based on the works of Joseph Needham</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-45"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-45"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Landes, David. S. (1969). <I>The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present</I>. Cambridge, New York: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-09418-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-09418-6">0-521-09418-6</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Unbound+Prometheus%3A+Technological+Change+and+Industrial+Development+in+Western+Europe+from+1750+to+the+Present&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Press+Syndicate+of+the+University+of+Cambridge&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=0-521-09418-6&rft.aulast=Landes&rft.aufirst=David.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-46"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-46"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFLandesyear-1969">Landes & year-1969</A>, p. 218</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-47"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-47"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_tijGo0WWHMC&pg=PA20&lpg=PA20&dq=rogers+puddling&source=bl&ots=KHZPqBlKQE&sig=8E1k_nJVIXX3HExaQzWiQ5L07qU&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiYqaWl5fXYAhXRtVMKHYqwD9kQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=rogers%20puddling&f=false">[1]</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-48"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-48"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">David S. Landes (1969). <I>The Unbound Prometheus</I>. Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. p. 92. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-09418-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-09418-6">0-521-09418-6</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Unbound+Prometheus&rft.pages=92&rft.pub=Press+Syndicate+of+the+University+of+Cambridge&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=0-521-09418-6&rft.au=David+S.+Landes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-49"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-49"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFAyres1989">Ayres 1989</A>, p. 21</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-50"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-50"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Rosenberg, Nathan (1982). <I>Inside the Black Box: Technology and Economics</I>. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 90. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-27367-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-27367-6">0-521-27367-6</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inside+the+Black+Box%3A+Technology+and+Economics&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+New+York&rft.pages=90&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0-521-27367-6&rft.aulast=Rosenberg&rft.aufirst=Nathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-51"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-51"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">David S. Landes (1969). <I>The Unbound Prometheus</I>. Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. p. 104. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-09418-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-09418-6">0-521-09418-6</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Unbound+Prometheus&rft.pages=104&rft.pub=Press+Syndicate+of+the+University+of+Cambridge&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=0-521-09418-6&rft.au=David+S.+Landes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-allen-52"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-allen_52-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Rolt and Allen, 145</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-53"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-53"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFHunter&Bryant1991">Hunter&Bryant 1991</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-faculty.wcas.northwestern.edu-54"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-faculty.wcas.northwestern.edu_54-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Economics 323–2: Economic History of the United States Since 1865 <A rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://faculty.wcas.northwestern.edu/~jmokyr/Graphs-and-Tables.PDF">http://faculty.wcas.northwestern.edu/~jmokyr/Graphs-and-Tables.PDF</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Clow52-55"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Clow52_55-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Clow, Archibald; Clow, Nan L. (June 1952). "Chemical Revolution". Ayer Co: 65–90. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8369-1909-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8369-1909-2">0-8369-1909-2</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Chemical+Revolution&rft.pages=65-90&rft.date=1952-06&rft.isbn=0-8369-1909-2&rft.aulast=Clow&rft.aufirst=Archibald&rft.au=Clow%2C+Nan+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-56"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-56"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Lion Hirth, <I>State, Cartels and Growth: The German Chemical Industry</I> (2007) p 20</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-57"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-57"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Johann P. Murmann, <I>Knowledge and competitive advantage:</I> the co-evolution of firms, technology, and national institutions <I>(2003) pp 53–54</I></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-memphis-58"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-memphis_58-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ce.memphis.edu/1101/notes/concrete/concrete_properties_slides.pdf"><I>Properties of Concrete</I></A> Published lecture notes from University of Memphis Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 17 October 2007.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-59"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-59"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Misa, Thomas J. (1995). <I>A Nation of Steel: The Making of Modern America 1965–1925</I>. Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 243. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-6502-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-6502-2">978-0-8018-6502-2</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Nation+of+Steel%3A+The+Making+of+Modern+America+1965%E2%80%931925&rft.place=Baltimore+and+London&rft.pages=243&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-6502-2&rft.aulast=Misa&rft.aufirst=Thomas+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-60"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-60"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Overton, Mark (1996). <I>Agricultural Revolution in England: The transformation if the agrarian economy 1500–1850</I>. Cambridge University Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56859-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56859-3">978-0-521-56859-3</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Agricultural+Revolution+in+England%3A+The+transformation+if+the+agrarian+economy+1500%E2%80%931850&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-521-56859-3&rft.aulast=Overton&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Pomeranz_2000-61"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Pomeranz_2000_61-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Pomeranz_2000_61-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE id="CITEREFPomeranz2000" class="citation"><A href="/wiki/Kenneth_Pomeranz" title="Kenneth Pomeranz">Pomeranz, Kenneth</A> (2000), <I>The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy</I>, <A href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</A>, <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-09010-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-09010-8">978-0-691-09010-8</A></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Divergence%3A+China%2C+Europe%2C+and+the+Making+of+the+Modern+World+Economy&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-691-09010-8&rft.aulast=Pomeranz&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-62"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-62"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFTemple1986">Temple 1986</A>, p. 26</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-63"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-63"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFOverton1996">Overton 1996</A>, p. 122</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-64"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-64"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140814194740/http://www.rotherhamunofficial.co.uk/history/18th/plough.html">"The Rotherham Plow"</A>. Rotherham: The Unofficial Website. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rotherhamunofficial.co.uk/history/18th/plough.html">the original</A> on 14 August 2014.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Rotherham+Plow&rft.pub=Rotherham%3A+The+Unofficial+Website&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rotherhamunofficial.co.uk%2Fhistory%2F18th%2Fplough.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-65"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-65"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFTemple1986">Temple 1986</A>, pp. 18, 20</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-66"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-66"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924092217/http://www.rotherhamweb.co.uk/h/plough.htm">"The Rotherham Plow"</A>. Rotherham.co.uk. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rotherhamweb.co.uk/h/plough.htm">the original</A> on 24 September 2015.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Rotherham+Plow&rft.pub=Rotherham.co.uk&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rotherhamweb.co.uk%2Fh%2Fplough.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Clark2007-67"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Clark2007_67-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Clark2007_67-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Clark2007_67-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFClark2007">Clark 2007</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-68"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-68"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Atack, Jeremy; Passell, Peter (1994). <I>A New Economic View of American History</I>. New York: W.W. Norton and Co. p. 282. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-96315-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-96315-2">0-393-96315-2</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+New+Economic+View+of+American+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=282&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+and+Co.&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-393-96315-2&rft.aulast=Atack&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rft.au=Passell%2C+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-69"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-69"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Coren, Michael J. (31 January 2018). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://qz.com/1193455/the-speed-of-europes-18th-century-sailing-ships-is-revamping-historians-view-of-the-industrial-revolution/">"The speed of Europe's 18th-century sailing ships is revamping history's view of the Industrial Revolution"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/Quartz_(publication)" title="Quartz (publication)">Quartz</A></I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">31 January</SPAN> 2018</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Quartz&rft.atitle=The+speed+of+Europe%E2%80%99s+18th-century+sailing+ships+is+revamping+history%E2%80%99s+view+of+the+Industrial+Revolution&rft.date=2018-01-31&rft.aulast=Coren&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fqz.com%2F1193455%2Fthe-speed-of-europes-18th-century-sailing-ships-is-revamping-historians-view-of-the-industrial-revolution%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Grübler-70"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Grübler_70-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Grübler_70-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Grübler, Arnulf (1990). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iiasa.ac.at/Admin/PUB/Documents/XB-90-704.pdf"><I>The Rise and Fall of Infrastructures: Dynamics of Evolution and Technological Change in Transport</I></A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. Heidelberg and New York: Physica-Verlag.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+Infrastructures%3A+Dynamics+of+Evolution+and+Technological+Change+in+Transport&rft.place=Heidelberg+and+New+York&rft.pub=Physica-Verlag&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Gr%C3%BCbler&rft.aufirst=Arnulf&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iiasa.ac.at%2FAdmin%2FPUB%2FDocuments%2FXB-90-704.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Langmead-71"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Langmead_71-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Donald Langmead. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T5J6GKvGbmMC&pg=PA37"><I>Encyclopedia of Architectural and Engineering Feats</I></A>. ABC-CLIO. p. 37. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-112-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-112-0">978-1-57607-112-0</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">15 February</SPAN> 2013</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Architectural+and+Engineering+Feats&rft.pages=37&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.isbn=978-1-57607-112-0&rft.au=Donald+Langmead&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DT5J6GKvGbmMC%26pg%3DPA37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-inflation-UK-72"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-inflation-UK_72-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">UK <A href="/wiki/Retail_Price_Index" class="mw-redirect" title="Retail Price Index">Retail Price Index</A> inflation figures are based on data from <CITE class="citation web">Clark, Gregory (2017). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://measuringworth.com/ukearncpi/">"The Annual RPI and Average Earnings for Britain, 1209 to Present (New Series)"</A>. <I>MeasuringWorth</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">6 November</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MeasuringWorth&rft.atitle=The+Annual+RPI+and+Average+Earnings+for+Britain%2C+1209+to+Present+%28New+Series%29&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Gregory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmeasuringworth.com%2Fukearncpi%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-73"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-73"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFTimbs1860">Timbs 1860</A>, p. 363</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Bridgewatercollieries-74"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Bridgewatercollieries_74-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.timesonline.co.uk/tol/viewArticle.arc?toDate=1985-12-31&fromDate=1785-01-01&currentPageNumber=1&resultsPerPage=10&sortBy=default&offset=0&viewName=&addFilters=&removeFilters=&addCat=&queryKeywords=bridgewater+canal&sectionId=1040&currPgSmartSet=1&pageId=ARCHIVE-The_Times-1913-12-01-08&articleId=ARCHIVE-The_Times-1913-12-01-08-001&xmlpath=&pubId=17&totalResults=1638&addRefineFilters=&removeRefineFilters=&addRefineCat=&next_Page=false&prev_Page=false&date_dd_From=1&date_mm_From=01&date_yyyy_From=1785&date_dd_to_range=31&date_mm_to_range=12&date_yyyy_to_range=1985&date_dd_from_precise=1&date_mm_from_precise=01&date_yyyy_from_precise=1785&isDateSearch=false&dateSearchType=range&refineQuerykeywordText="><I>The Times newspaper: Bridgewater Collieries</I></A>, London, 1 December 1913<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">19 July</SPAN> 2008</SPAN></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Times+newspaper%3A+Bridgewater+Collieries&rft.place=London&rft.date=1913-12-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.timesonline.co.uk%2Ftol%2FviewArticle.arc%3FtoDate%3D1985-12-31%26fromDate%3D1785-01-01%26currentPageNumber%3D1%26resultsPerPage%3D10%26sortBy%3Ddefault%26offset%3D0%26viewName%3D%26addFilters%3D%26removeFilters%3D%26addCat%3D%26queryKeywords%3Dbridgewater%2Bcanal%26sectionId%3D1040%26currPgSmartSet%3D1%26pageId%3DARCHIVE-The_Times-1913-12-01-08%26articleId%3DARCHIVE-The_Times-1913-12-01-08-001%26xmlpath%3D%26pubId%3D17%26totalResults%3D1638%26addRefineFilters%3D%26removeRefineFilters%3D%26addRefineCat%3D%26next_Page%3Dfalse%26prev_Page%3Dfalse%26date_dd_From%3D1%26date_mm_From%3D01%26date_yyyy_From%3D1785%26date_dd_to_range%3D31%26date_mm_to_range%3D12%26date_yyyy_to_range%3D1985%26date_dd_from_precise%3D1%26date_mm_from_precise%3D01%26date_yyyy_from_precise%3D1785%26isDateSearch%3Dfalse%26dateSearchType%3Drange%26refineQuerykeywordText%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-75"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-75"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFKindleberger1993">Kindleberger 1993</A>, pp. 192–93</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-76"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-76"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/from-the-archive-blog/2011/may/17/guardian190-manchester-ship-canal-opens">"1 January 1894: Opening of the Manchester ship canal"</A>. <I>The Guardian</I>. 1 January 1894<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">28 July</SPAN> 2012</SPAN>. <Q>Six years in the making, the world's largest navigation canal gives the city direct access to the sea</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=1+January+1894%3A+Opening+of+the+Manchester+ship+canal&rft.date=1894-01-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ftheguardian%2Ffrom-the-archive-blog%2F2011%2Fmay%2F17%2Fguardian190-manchester-ship-canal-opens&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-rakemanPainting-77"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-rakemanPainting_77-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/rakeman/1823.htm">"1823 – First American Macadam Road"</A> <I>(Painting – <A href="/wiki/Carl_Rakeman" title="Carl Rakeman">Carl Rakeman</A>)</I> US Department of Transportation – Federal Highway Administration (Accessed 10 October 2008)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Hunter_1985-78"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Hunter_1985_78-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Hunter_1985_78-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE id="CITEREFHunter1985" class="citation book">Hunter, Louis C. (1985). <I>A History of Industrial Power in the United States, 1730–1930, Vol. 2: Steam Power</I>. Charolttesville: University Press of Virginia. p. 18.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Industrial+Power+in+the+United+States%2C+1730%E2%80%931930%2C+Vol.+2%3A+Steam++Power&rft.place=Charolttesville&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Virginia&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Hunter&rft.aufirst=Louis+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN><I>“There exist everywhere roads suitable for hauling”.</I><A href="/wiki/Robert_Fulton" title="Robert Fulton">Robert Fulton</A> on roads in France</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-79"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-79"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Richard Brown (1991). "Society and Economy in Modern Britain 1700–1850" p. 136. Routledge, 1991</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-80"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-80"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Fling, Harry M. (1868). <I>Railroads of the United States, Their History and Statistics</I>. Philadelphia: John. E. Potter and Co. pp. 12, 13.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Railroads+of+the+United+States%2C+Their+History+and+Statistics&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pages=12%2C+13&rft.pub=John.+E.+Potter+and+Co.&rft.date=1868&rft.aulast=Fling&rft.aufirst=Harry+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-81"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-81"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Herbert L. Sussman (2009). "Victorian Technology: Invention, Innovation, and the Rise of the Machine". p. 2. ABC-CLIO, 2009</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-82"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-82"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Rosen, William (2012). <I>The Most Powerful Idea in the World: A Story of Steam, Industry and Invention</I>. University Of Chicago Press. p. 127. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-72634-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-72634-2">978-0-226-72634-2</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Most+Powerful+Idea+in+the+World%3A+A+Story+of+Steam%2C+Industry+and+Invention&rft.pages=127&rft.pub=University+Of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-226-72634-2&rft.aulast=Rosen&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-83"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-83"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Musson; Robinson (1969). <I>Science and Technology in the Industrial Revolution</I>. University of Toronto Press. p. 477.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Technology+in+the+Industrial+Revolution&rft.pages=477&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.au=Musson&rft.au=Robinson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-reintroduction-84"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-reintroduction_84-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><I>Encyclopædia Britannica</I> (2008) "Building construction: the reintroduction of modern concrete"</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-85"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-85"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFLandesyear-1969">Landes & year-1969</A>, pp. 57–59</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-86"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-86"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFLandesyear-1969">Landes & year-1969</A>, p. 59</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-87"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-87"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Hunt, E. K.; Lautzenheiser, Mark (2014). <I>History of Economic Thought: A Critical Perspective</I>. PHI Learning. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0765625991" title="Special:BookSources/978-0765625991">978-0765625991</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Economic+Thought%3A+A+Critical+Perspective&rft.pub=PHI+Learning&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0765625991&rft.aulast=Hunt&rft.aufirst=E.+K.&rft.au=Lautzenheiser%2C+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Buer-88"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Buer_88-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Buer_88-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Mabel C. Buer, <I>Health, Wealth and Population in the Early Days of the Industrial Revolution</I>, London: George Routledge & Sons, 1926, p. 30 <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-38218-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-38218-1">0-415-38218-1</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Woodward81-89"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Woodward81_89-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Woodward81_89-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Woodward, D. (1981) <I><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://past.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pdf_extract/91/1/28">Wage rates and living standards in pre-industrial England</A></I> Past & Present 1981 91(1):28–46</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Trends_in_Real_Wages_in_Britain,_1750-1913-90"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Trends_in_Real_Wages_in_Britain,_1750-1913_90-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Crafts, N; Mills, Terence C. (1994). "Trends in Real Wages in Britain, 1750–1913". <I>Explorations in Economic History</I>. <B>31</B> (2): 176. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1006%2Fexeh.1994.1007">10.1006/exeh.1994.1007</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Explorations+in+Economic+History&rft.atitle=Trends+in+Real+Wages+in+Britain%2C+1750%E2%80%931913&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=176&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1006%2Fexeh.1994.1007&rft.au=Crafts%2C+N&rft.au=Mills%2C+Terence+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-econlib-91"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-econlib_91-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Nardinelli, Clark (2008). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/IndustrialRevolutionandtheStandardofLiving.html">"Industrial Revolution and the Standard of Living"</A> <I>The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics</I>. <A href="/wiki/Liberty_Fund" title="Liberty Fund">Liberty Fund</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-hartwell-92"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-hartwell_92-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">R.M. Hartwell, <I>The Rising Standard of Living in England, 1800–1850</I>, Economic History Review, 1963, p. 398 <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-18071-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-18071-0">0-631-18071-0</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-The_Escape_from_Hunger_and_Premature_Death,_1700-2100-93"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-The_Escape_from_Hunger_and_Premature_Death,_1700-2100_93-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book"><A href="/wiki/Robert_Fogel" title="Robert Fogel">Fogel, Robert W.</A> (2004). <I>The Escape from Hunger and Premature Death, 1700–2100</I>. London: Cambridge University Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-80878-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-80878-2">0-521-80878-2</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Escape+from+Hunger+and+Premature+Death%2C+1700%E2%80%932100&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-521-80878-2&rft.aulast=Fogel&rft.aufirst=Robert+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-94"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-94"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Malthus, Thomas (1798). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.esp.org/books/malthus/population/malthus.pdf"><I>An Essay on the Principle of Population</I></A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. London<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">12 February</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Essay+on+the+Principle+of+Population&rft.place=London&rft.date=1798&rft.aulast=Malthus&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.esp.org%2Fbooks%2Fmalthus%2Fpopulation%2Fmalthus.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-95"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-95"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE id="CITEREFTemple1986" class="citation book">Temple, Robert; Needham, Joseph (1986). <I>The Genius of China: 3000 years of science, discovery and invention</I>. New York: Simon and Schuster<Based on the works of Joseph Needham></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Genius+of+China%3A+3000+years+of+science%2C+discovery+and+invention&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Temple&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Needham%2C+Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-96"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-96"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Wells, David A. (1891). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2V3qF4MWh_wC&printsec=frontcover&dq=RECENT+ECONOMIC+CHANGES+AND+THEIR+EFFECT+ON+DISTRIBUTION+OF+WEALTH+AND+WELL+BEING+OF+SOCIETY+WELLS&source=bl&ots=ncSpCE9hHa&sig=iPvAvory04aF3HjrUJENkSwFtCw&hl=en&ei=95bDTJC0CoKVnAf-utnpCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false"><I>Recent Economic Changes and Their Effect on Production and Distribution of Wealth and Well-Being of Society</I></A>. New York: D. Appleton and Co. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-543-72474-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-543-72474-3">0-543-72474-3</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Recent+Economic+Changes+and+Their+Effect+on+Production+and+Distribution+of+Wealth+and+Well-Being+of+Society&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=D.+Appleton+and+Co.&rft.date=1891&rft.isbn=0-543-72474-3&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2V3qF4MWh_wC%26printsec%3Dfrontcover%26dq%3DRECENT%2BECONOMIC%2BCHANGES%2BAND%2BTHEIR%2BEFFECT%2BON%2BDISTRIBUTION%2BOF%2BWEALTH%2BAND%2BWELL%2BBEING%2BOF%2BSOCIETY%2BWELLS%26source%3Dbl%26ots%3DncSpCE9hHa%26sig%3DiPvAvory04aF3HjrUJENkSwFtCw%26hl%3Den%26ei%3D95bDTJC0CoKVnAf-utnpCQ%26sa%3DX%26oi%3Dbook_result%26ct%3Dresult%26resnum%3D1%26ved%3D0CBMQ6AEwAA%23v%3Donepage%26q%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-97"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-97"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Gregory Clark, "Shelter from the storm: housing and the industrial revolution, 1550–1909." <I>Journal of Economic History</I> 62#2 (2002): 489–511.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-98"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-98"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">H.J. Dyos, "The speculative builders and developers of Victorian London." <I>Victorian Studies</I> 11 (1968): 641–90. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3825462">in JSTOR</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-99"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-99"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Christopher Powell, <I>The British building industry since 1800: An economic history</I> (Taylor & Francis, 1996).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-100"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-100"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">P. Kemp, "Housing landlordism in late nineteenth-century Britain." <I>Environment and Planning A</I> 14.11 (1982): 1437–47.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-101"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-101"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">H.J. Dyos, "The Slums of Victorian London." <I>Victorian Studies</I> 11.1 (1967): 5–40. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3825891">in JSTOR</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-102"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-102"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Anthony S. Wohl, <I>The eternal slum: housing and social policy in Victorian London</I> (1977).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-103"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-103"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Martin J. Daunton, <I>House and home in the Victorian city: working-class housing, 1850–1914</I> (1983).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-104"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-104"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Enid Gauldie, <I>Cruel habitations: a history of working-class housing 1780-1918</I> (Allen & Unwin, 1974).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Black-105"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Black_105-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Black_105-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Black_105-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01pz9d6">"Why the Industrial Revolution Happened Here"</A>. BBC. 11 January 2017.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Why+the+Industrial+Revolution+Happened+Here&rft.date=2017-01-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fprogrammes%2Fb01pz9d6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-106"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-106"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Hudson, Pat (1992). <I>The Industrial Revolution</I>. New York: Routledge, Chapman and Hall, Inc. p. 3. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7131-6531-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7131-6531-6">0-7131-6531-6</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Industrial+Revolution&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Routledge%2C+Chapman+and+Hall%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-7131-6531-6&rft.aulast=Hudson&rft.aufirst=Pat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-statistics-107"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-statistics_107-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">"<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/fertility-analysis/focus-on-people-and-migration/december-2005/focus-on-people-and-migration---focus-on-people-and-migration---chapter-1.pdf">The UK population: past, present and future – Chapter 1</A>" (PDF). Statistics.gov.uk</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-independent-108"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-independent_108-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">"<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/a-portrait-of-britain-in-2031-395231.html">A portrait of Britain in 2031</A>". The Independent. 24 October 2007.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-bbc-109"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-bbc_109-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/victorian_medicine_01.shtml">BBC – History – Victorian Medicine – From Fluke to Theory</A>. Published: 1 February 2002.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-britannica-110"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-britannica_110-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">"<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/387301/modernization/12022/Population-change">Modernization – Population Change</A>". Encyclopædia Britannica.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-prb-111"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-prb_111-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">"<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.prb.org/Educators/TeachersGuides/HumanPopulation/Urbanization.aspx">Human Population: Urbanization</A>". Population Reference Bureau. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091026040409/http://www.prb.org/Educators/TeachersGuides/HumanPopulation/Urbanization.aspx">Archived</A> 26 October 2009 at the <A href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</A>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-prb6-112"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-prb6_112-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">"<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.prb.org/Educators/TeachersGuides/HumanPopulation/PopulationGrowth/QuestionAnswer.aspx">Human Population: Population Growth: Question and Answer</A>". Population Reference Bureau. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091008122200/http://www.prb.org/Educators/TeachersGuides/HumanPopulation/PopulationGrowth/QuestionAnswer.aspx">Archived</A> 8 October 2009 at the <A href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</A>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-britannica7-113"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-britannica7_113-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/361363/Manchester">Manchester (England, United Kingdom)</A>. Encyclopædia Britannica.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-114"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-114"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Eleanor Amico, ed. <I>Reader's guide to women's studies</I> (1998) pp 102–4, 306–8.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-115"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-115"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Janet Thomas, "Women and capitalism: oppression or emancipation? A review article." <I>Comparative studies in society and history</I> 30#3 (1988): 534–49. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/178999">in JSTOR</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-116"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-116"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Alice Clark, <I>Working life of women in the seventeenth century</I> (1919).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-117"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-117"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Ivy Pinchbeck, <I>Women Workers in the Industrial Revolution</I> (1930).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-118"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-118"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Louise Tilly and Joan Wallach Scott, <I>Women, work, and family</I> (1987).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-countrystudies-119"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-countrystudies_119-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">"<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://countrystudies.us/united-states/history-82.htm">United States History – The Struggles of Labor</A>". <A href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Country_Studies" title="Library of Congress Country Studies">Library of Congress Country Studies</A>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-industrial4-120"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-industrial4_120-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">R.M. Hartwell, <I>The Industrial Revolution and Economic Growth</I>, Methuen and Co., 1971, pp. 339–41 <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-416-19500-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-416-19500-8">0-416-19500-8</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Industrial_city-121"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Industrial_city_121-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120309184810/http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/on-line/energyhall/page84.asp">"Manchester – the first industrial city"</A>. Entry on Sciencemuseum website. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/on-line/energyhall/page84.asp">the original</A> on 9 March 2012<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">17 March</SPAN> 2012</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Manchester+%E2%80%93+the+first+industrial+city&rft.pub=Entry+on+Sciencemuseum+website&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencemuseum.org.uk%2Fon-line%2Fenergyhall%2Fpage84.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-122"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-122"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/industrial_revolution_towns.htm">"Life in Industrial Towns"</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Life+in+Industrial+Towns&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historylearningsite.co.uk%2Findustrial_revolution_towns.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-From_Coal_Mine_Upwards:_or_Seventy_Years_of_an_Eventful_Life-123"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-From_Coal_Mine_Upwards:_or_Seventy_Years_of_an_Eventful_Life_123-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Dunn, James (1905). <I>From Coal Mine Upwards: or Seventy Years of an Eventful Life</I>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4344-6870-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-4344-6870-4">1-4344-6870-4</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Coal+Mine+Upwards%3A+or+Seventy+Years+of+an+Eventful+Life&rft.date=1905&rft.isbn=1-4344-6870-4&rft.aulast=Dunn&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Demographic_Transition_and_Industrial_Revolution:_A_Macroeconomic_Investigation-124"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Demographic_Transition_and_Industrial_Revolution:_A_Macroeconomic_Investigation_124-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Bar, Michael; Leukhina, Oksana (2007). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071127160733/http://www.unc.edu/~oksana/Paper1.pdf">"Demographic Transition and Industrial Revolution: A Macroeconomic Investigation"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unc.edu/~oksana/Paper1.pdf">the original</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN> on 27 November 2007<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">5 November</SPAN> 2007</SPAN>. <Q>The decrease [in mortality] beginning in the second half of the 18th century was due mainly to declining adult mortality. Sustained decline of the mortality rates for the age groups 5–10, 10–15, and 15–25 began in the mid-19th century, while that for the age group 0–5 began three decades later</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Demographic+Transition+and+Industrial+Revolution%3A+A+Macroeconomic+Investigation&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Bar&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Leukhina%2C+Oksana&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unc.edu%2F~oksana%2FPaper1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN>. Although the survival rates for infants and children were static over this period, the birth rate & overall life expectancy increased. Thus the population grew, but the <A href="/wiki/Demographics" class="mw-redirect" title="Demographics">average Briton was about as old</A> in 1850 as in 1750 (see figures 5 & 6, p. 28). Population size statistics from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mortality.org/">mortality.org</A> put the mean age at about 26.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-galbithink-125"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-galbithink_125-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">"<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.galbithink.org/child.htm">Child Labour and the Division of Labour in the Early English Cotton Mills</A>". Douglas A. Galbi. Centre for History and Economics, King's College, Cambridge CB2 1ST.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-victorianweb-126"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-victorianweb_126-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.victorianweb.org/history/workers1.html">The Life of the Industrial Worker in Nineteenth-Century England</A>, Laura Del Col, West Virginia University.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-childslaves-127"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-childslaves_127-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-childslaves_127-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-childslaves_127-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-childslaves_127-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-childslaves_127-4"><SUP><I><B>e</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-childslaves_127-5"><SUP><I><B>f</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-childslaves_127-6"><SUP><I><B>g</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-childslaves_127-7"><SUP><I><B>h</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-childslaves_127-8"><SUP><I><B>i</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-childslaves_127-9"><SUP><I><B>j</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-childslaves_127-10"><SUP><I><B>k</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Venning, Annabel (17 September 2010). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1312764/Britains-child-slaves-New-book-says-misery-helped-forge-Britain.html">"Britain's child slaves: They started at 4am, lived off acorns and had nails put through their ears for shoddy work. Yet, says a new book, their misery helped forge Britain"</A>. <I>dailymail.co.uk</I>. London<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">19 September</SPAN> 2010</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=dailymail.co.uk&rft.atitle=Britain%27s+child+slaves%3A+They+started+at+4am%2C+lived+off+acorns+and+had+nails+put+through+their+ears+for+shoddy+work.+Yet%2C+says+a+new+book%2C+their+misery+helped+forge+Britain&rft.date=2010-09-17&rft.aulast=Venning&rft.aufirst=Annabel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dailymail.co.uk%2Fnews%2Farticle-1312764%2FBritains-child-slaves-New-book-says-misery-helped-forge-Britain.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Testimony_Gathered_by_Ashley's_Mines_Commission-128"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Testimony_Gathered_by_Ashley's_Mines_Commission_128-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.victorianweb.org/history/ashley.html">"Testimony Gathered by Ashley's Mines Commission"</A>. 2008<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">22 March</SPAN> 2008</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Testimony+Gathered+by+Ashley%27s+Mines+Commission&rft.date=2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.victorianweb.org%2Fhistory%2Fashley.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-The_Life_of_the_Industrial_Worker_in_Nineteenth-Century_England-129"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-The_Life_of_the_Industrial_Worker_in_Nineteenth-Century_England_129-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.victorianweb.org/history/workers1.html">"The Life of the Industrial Worker in Nineteenth-Century England"</A>. 2008<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">22 March</SPAN> 2008</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Life+of+the+Industrial+Worker+in+Nineteenth-Century+England&rft.date=2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.victorianweb.org%2Fhistory%2Fworkers1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-archives-130"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-archives_130-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">"<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/hine-photos/">Photographs of Lewis Hine: Documentation of Child Labor</A>". The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-archive5-131"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-archive5_131-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070609204531/http://www.chartists.net/General-Strike-1842">"General Strike 1842"</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chartists.net/General-Strike-1842">the original</A> on 9 June 2007<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">9 June</SPAN> 2007</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=General+Strike+1842&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chartists.net%2FGeneral-Strike-1842&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN> From chartists.net. Retrieved 13 November 2006.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-132"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-132"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Beckert, Sven (2014). <I>Empire of Cotton: A Global History</I>. US: Vintage Books Division Penguin Random House. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0375-71396-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0375-71396-5">978-0375-71396-5</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empire+of+Cotton%3A+A+Global+History&rft.place=US&rft.pub=Vintage+Books+Division+Penguin+Random+House&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0375-71396-5&rft.aulast=Beckert&rft.aufirst=Sven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Donora-133"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Donora_133-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Fleming, James R.; Bethany R. Knorr. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ametsoc.org/sloan/cleanair/">"History of the Clean Air Act"</A>. American Meteorological Society<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">14 February</SPAN> 2006</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Clean+Air+Act&rft.pub=American+Meteorological+Society&rft.aulast=Fleming&rft.aufirst=James+R.&rft.au=Bethany+R.+Knorr&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ametsoc.org%2Fsloan%2Fcleanair%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-134"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-134"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Leslie Tomory, "The Environmental History of the Early British Gas Industry, 1812–1830." <I>Environmental history</I> 17#1 (2012): 29–54.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-135"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-135"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Joel A. Tarr, "Toxic Legacy: The Environmental Impact of the Manufactured Gas Industry in the United States." <I>Technology and culture</I> 55#1 (2014): 107–47. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://repository.cmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1020&context=history">online</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-136"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-136"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Harold L. Platt, <I>Shock cities: the environmental transformation and reform of Manchester and Chicago</I> (2005) <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Shock-Cities-Environmental-Transformation-Manchester/dp/0226670767/">excerpt</A>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-137"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-137"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Brian William Clapp, <I>An environmental history of Britain since the industrial revolution</I> (Routledge, 2014).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-publishing-138"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-publishing_138-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Chris Evans, Göran Rydén, <I>The Industrial Revolution in Iron; The impact of British Coal Technology in Nineteenth-Century Europe</I> Published by Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., Farnham2005, pp. 37–38 <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7546-3390-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-7546-3390-X">0-7546-3390-X</A>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-language-139"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-language_139-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">a word from <A href="/wiki/Walloon_language" title="Walloon language">Walloon</A> origin</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-ugent-140"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-ugent_140-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Muriel Neven and Isabelle Devos, 'Breaking stereotypes', in M. Neven and I. Devos (editors), 'Recent work in Belgian Historical Demography', in <I>Revue belge d'histoire contemporaine</I>, XXXI, 2001, 3–4, pp. 347–59 <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.flwi.ugent.be/btng-rbhc/pdf/BTNG-RBHC,%2031,%202001,%203-4,%20inhoud.pdf">FLWI.ugent.be</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081029174929/http://www.flwi.ugent.be/btng-rbhc/pdf/BTNG-RBHC%2C%2031%2C%202001%2C%203-4%2C%20inhoud.pdf">Archived</A> 29 October 2008 at the <A href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</A>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-philippe-141"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-philippe_141-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Philippe Raxhon, <I>Le siècle des forges ou la Wallonie dans le creuset belge (1794–1914)</I>, in B. Demoulin and JL Kupper (editors), <I>Histoire de la Wallonie</I>, Privat, Toulouse, 2004, pp. 233–76, p. 246 <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-7089-4779-6" title="Special:BookSources/2-7089-4779-6">2-7089-4779-6</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-erih-142"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-erih_142-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130731024244/http://en.erih.net/index.php?pageId=114">"European Route of Industrial Heritage"</A>. En.erih.net. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://en.erih.net/index.php?pageId=114">the original</A> on 31 July 2013<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">19 August</SPAN> 2013</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=European+Route+of+Industrial+Heritage&rft.pub=En.erih.net&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fen.erih.net%2Findex.php%3FpageId%3D114&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-linguistiques-143"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-linguistiques_143-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Michel De Coster, <I>Les enjeux des conflits linguistiques</I>, L'Harmattan, Paris, 2007, <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-296-03394-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-296-03394-8">978-2-296-03394-8</A>, pp. 122–23</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-stereotypes-144"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-stereotypes_144-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Muriel Neven and Isabelle Devos, <I>Breaking stereotypes</I>, art. cit., pp. 315–16</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-marczewski-145"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-marczewski_145-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Jean Marczewski, « Y a-t-il eu un "<I>take-off</I>" en France ? », 1961, dans les <I>Cahiers de l'ISEA</I></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Haber-146"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Haber_146-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFHaber1958">Haber 1958</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-147"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-147"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Allan Mitchell, <I>Great Train Race: Railways and the Franco-German Rivalry, 1815–1914</I> (2000)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-148"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-148"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.boj.or.jp/en/about/outline/history/index.htm/">"History"</A>. <I>Bank of Japan</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">5 May</SPAN> 2015</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bank+of+Japan&rft.atitle=History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.boj.or.jp%2Fen%2Fabout%2Foutline%2Fhistory%2Findex.htm%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-149"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-149"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">G.C. Allen, <I>Short Economic History of Modern Japan</I> (1972)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-150"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-150"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Atack, Jeremy; Passell, Peter (1994). <I>A New Economic View of American History</I>. New York: W.W. Norton and Co. p. 469. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-96315-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-96315-2">0-393-96315-2</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+New+Economic+View+of+American+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=469&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+and+Co.&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-393-96315-2&rft.aulast=Atack&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rft.au=Passell%2C+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-151"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-151"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Chandler Jr., Alfred D. (1993). <I>The Visible Hand: The Management Revolution in American Business</I>. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674940529" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674940529">978-0674940529</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Visible+Hand%3A+The+Management+Revolution+in+American+Business&rft.pub=Belknap+Press+of+Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0674940529&rft.aulast=Chandler+Jr.&rft.aufirst=Alfred+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-152"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-152"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Taylor, George Rogers (1969). <I>The Transportation Revolution, 1815–1860</I>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0873321013" title="Special:BookSources/978-0873321013">978-0873321013</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Transportation+Revolution%2C+1815%E2%80%931860&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0873321013&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=George+Rogers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-manufacturers-153"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-manufacturers_153-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Bagnall, William R. The Textile Industries of the United States: Including Sketches and Notices of Cotton, Woolen, Silk, and Linen Manufacturers in the Colonial Period. Vol. I. The Riverside Press, 1893.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-publication-154"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-publication_154-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">"Made In Beverly – A History of Beverly Industry", by Daniel J. Hoisington. A publication of the Beverly Historic District Commission. 1989.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-britannica8-155"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-britannica8_155-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Encyclopædia Britannica (1998): <I>Samuel Slater</I></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Thomson_1989-156"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Thomson_1989_156-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Thomson, Ross (1989). <I>The Path to Mechanized Shoe Production in the United States</I>. Chapel Hill and London: The University of North Carolina Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0807818671" title="Special:BookSources/978-0807818671">978-0807818671</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Path+to+Mechanized+Shoe+Production+in+the+United+States&rft.place=Chapel+Hill+and+London&rft.pub=The+University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0807818671&rft.aulast=Thomson&rft.aufirst=Ross&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Men,_Machines_and_Modern_Times-157"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Men,_Machines_and_Modern_Times_157-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Morison, Elting E. (1966). <I>Men, Machines and Modern Times</I>. Cambridga, Ma and London, UK: The M.I.T Press.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Men%2C+Machines+and+Modern+Times&rft.place=Cambridga%2C+Ma+and+London%2C+UK&rft.pub=The+M.I.T+Press&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Morison&rft.aufirst=Elting+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-The_Origins_of_the_Industrial_Revolution_in_England-158"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-The_Origins_of_the_Industrial_Revolution_in_England_158-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Steven Kreis (11 October 2006). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/lecture17a.html">"The Origins of the Industrial Revolution in England"</A>. Historyguide.org<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">30 January</SPAN> 2011</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+the+Industrial+Revolution+in+England&rft.pub=Historyguide.org&rft.date=2006-10-11&rft.au=Steven+Kreis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historyguide.org%2Fintellect%2Flecture17a.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-msn-159"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-msn_159-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">"<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_701509067/Scientific_Revolution.html">Scientific Revolution</A>". Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2009. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091028110638/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_701509067/Scientific_Revolution.html">Archived</A> 28 October 2009 at the <A href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</A>. 31 October 2009.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-160"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-160"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Baten, Jörg (2016). <I>A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present</I>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 13–16. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107507180" title="Special:BookSources/9781107507180">9781107507180</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Global+Economy.+From+1500+to+the+Present.&rft.pages=13-16&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781107507180&rft.au=Baten%2C+J%C3%B6rg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-industrial10-161"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-industrial10_161-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Hudson, Pat. <I>The Industrial Revolution</I>, Oxford University Press US. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7131-6531-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7131-6531-6">0-7131-6531-6</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-association-162"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-association_162-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Fullerton, Ronald A. (January 1988). "How Modern Is Modern Marketing? Marketing's Evolution and the Myth of the "Production Era<SPAN style="padding-right:0.2em;">"</SPAN>". <I>The Journal of Marketing</I>. New York City, NY: <A href="/wiki/American_Marketing_Association" title="American Marketing Association">American Marketing Association</A>. <B>52</B> (1): 108–25. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.2307%2F1251689">10.2307/1251689</A>. <A href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/1251689">1251689</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Marketing&rft.atitle=How+Modern+Is+Modern+Marketing%3F+Marketing%27s+Evolution+and+the+Myth+of+the+%22Production+Era%22&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=108-25&rft.date=1988-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1251689&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1251689&rft.aulast=Fullerton&rft.aufirst=Ronald+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Technics_&_Civilization-163"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Technics_&_Civilization_163-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/015688254X?p=S00Q&checkSum=udoW5CVmUdy3Y45ns0wtGk7Wesh6yWx220dcukbd7VE%3D">"Technics & Civilization"</A>. Lewis Mumford<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">8 January</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Technics+%26+Civilization&rft.pub=Lewis+Mumford&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2Fgp%2Freader%2F015688254X%3Fp%3DS00Q%26checkSum%3DudoW5CVmUdy3Y45ns0wtGk7Wesh6yWx220dcukbd7VE%253D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-google11-164"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-google11_164-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Deane, Phyllis. <I>The First Industrial Revolution</I>, Cambridge University Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-29609-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-29609-9">0-521-29609-9</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN0521296099&id=eMBG_soDdNoC&pg=PA131&lpg=PA131&sig=xzXl17mm0GYiH80TH-V0lR7JVAk">Read it</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-industrialisation-165"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-industrialisation_165-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Eric Schiff, <I>Industrialisation without national patents: the Netherlands, 1869–1912; Switzerland, 1850–1907</I>, <A href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</A> Press, 1971.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-dklevine-166"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-dklevine_166-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Michele Boldrin and David K. Levine, <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dklevine.com/general/intellectual/againstfinal.htm">Against Intellectual Monopoly</A>, <CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dklevine.com/papers/imbookfinal01.pdf">"Chapter 1, final online version January 2, 2008"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chapter+1%2C+final+online+version+January+2%2C+2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dklevine.com%2Fpapers%2Fimbookfinal01.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(55 KB)</SPAN>, p. 15. Cambridge University Press, 2008. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-87928-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-87928-6">978-0-521-87928-6</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-mott-smith-167"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-mott-smith_167-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Mott-Smith, Morton (1964) [Unabridged and revised version of the book first published by D. Appleton-Century Company in 1934 under the former title: The Story of Energy]. <I>The Concept of Energy Simply Explained</I>. New York: Dover Publications, Inc. pp. 13–14. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-21071-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-21071-5">0-486-21071-5</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Concept+of+Energy+Simply+Explained&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=13-14&rft.pub=Dover+Publications%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1964&rft.isbn=0-486-21071-5&rft.aulast=Mott-Smith&rft.aufirst=Morton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-j-bradford-delong-168"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-j-bradford-delong_168-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.j-bradford-delong.net/movable_type/archives/000891.html">Why No Industrial Revolution in Ancient Greece?</A> J. Bradford DeLong, Professor of Economics, University of California at Berkeley, 20 September 2002. Retrieved January 2007.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-historyguide-169"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-historyguide_169-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/lecture17a.html">The Origins of the Industrial Revolution in England</A> |The History Guide, Steven Kreis, 11 October 2006 – Accessed January 2007</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-google12-170"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-google12_170-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Jackson J. Spielvogel (2009). "<I><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fwxLkRmd-4QC&printsec=frontcover&dq=&hl=en&cd=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false">Western Civilization: Since 1500</A></I>". p.607.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-The_Industrial_Revolution_–_Causes-171"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-The_Industrial_Revolution_–_Causes_171-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Eric Bond; Sheena Gingerich; Oliver Archer-Antonsen; Liam Purcell; Elizabeth Macklem (17 February 2003). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://industrialrevolution.sea.ca/causes.html">"The Industrial Revolution – Causes"</A>. Industrialrevolution.sea.ca<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">30 January</SPAN> 2011</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Industrial+Revolution+%E2%80%93+Causes&rft.pub=Industrialrevolution.sea.ca&rft.date=2003-02-17&rft.au=Eric+Bond&rft.au=Sheena+Gingerich&rft.au=Oliver+Archer-Antonsen&rft.au=Liam+Purcell&rft.au=Elizabeth+Macklem&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Findustrialrevolution.sea.ca%2Fcauses.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-172"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-172"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Temple, Robert (1986). <I>The Genius of China: 3000 years of science, discovery and invention</I>. New York: Simon and Schuster<Based on the works of Joseph Needham></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Genius+of+China%3A+3000+years+of+science%2C+discovery+and+invention&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Temple&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-173"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-173"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Merson, John (1990). <I>The Genius That Was China: East and West in the Making of the Modern World</I>. Woodstock, New York: The Overlook Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87951-397-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-87951-397-7">0-87951-397-7</A><A companion to the PBS Series “The Genius That Was China”></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Genius+That+Was+China%3A+East+and+West+in+the+Making+of+the+Modern+World&rft.place=Woodstock%2C+New+York&rft.pub=The+Overlook+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-87951-397-7&rft.aulast=Merson&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-iisg-174"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-iisg_174-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iisg.nl/research/jvz-cobbdouglas.pdf">"Cobb-Douglas in pre-modern Europe1 – Simulating early modern growth"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cobb-Douglas+in+pre-modern+Europe1+%E2%80%93+Simulating+early+modern+growth&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iisg.nl%2Fresearch%2Fjvz-cobbdouglas.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(254 KB)</SPAN> Jan Luiten van Zanden, International Institute of Social History/University of Utrecht. May 2005. Retrieved January 2007.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-175"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-175"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Landes, David (1999). <I>The Wealth and Poverty of Nations</I>. W. W. Norton & Company. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0393318883" title="Special:BookSources/978-0393318883">978-0393318883</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wealth+and+Poverty+of+Nations&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0393318883&rft.aulast=Landes&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-176"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-176"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">David S. Landes (1969). <I>The Unbound Prometheus</I>. Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. pp. 20–32. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-09418-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-09418-6">0-521-09418-6</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Unbound+Prometheus&rft.pages=20-32&rft.pub=Press+Syndicate+of+the+University+of+Cambridge&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=0-521-09418-6&rft.au=David+S.+Landes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-177"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-177"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFMerson1990">Merson 1990</A>, pp. 34–35</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-professor-178"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-professor_178-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">How Earth Made Us: Fire by Professor <A href="/wiki/Iain_Stewart_(geologist)" title="Iain Stewart (geologist)">Iain Stewart</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-india_resource-179"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-india_resource_179-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://india_resource.tripod.com/colonial.html">South Asian History</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070127194629/http://india_resource.tripod.com/colonial.html">Archived</A> 27 January 2007 at the <A href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</A>. – Pages from the history of the Indian subcontinent: British rule and the legacy of colonisation. Rajni-Palme Dutt <I>India Today</I> (Indian Edition published 1947). Retrieved January 2007.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-180"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-180"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press.princeton.edu/titles/10835.html">"Mokyr, J.: A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy. (eBook and Hardcover)"</A>. <I>press.princeton.edu</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">9 March</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=press.princeton.edu&rft.atitle=Mokyr%2C+J.%3A+A+Culture+of+Growth%3A+The+Origins+of+the+Modern+Economy.+%28eBook+and+Hardcover%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpress.princeton.edu%2Ftitles%2F10835.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-181"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-181"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Julian Hoppit, "The Nation, the State, and the First Industrial Revolution," <I>Journal of British Studies</I> (April 2011) 50#2 pp. 307–31</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Kiely-182"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Kiely_182-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Kiely, Ray (November 2011). "Industrialization and Development: A Comparative Analysis". UGL Press Limited: 25–26.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Was_slavery_the_engine_of_economic_growth?_Digital_History-183"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Was_slavery_the_engine_of_economic_growth?_Digital_History_183-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Digital History; Steven Mintz. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140219011905/http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/topic_display.cfm?tcid=104">"Was slavery the engine of economic growth? Digital History"</A>. Digitalhistory.uh.edu. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/topic_display.cfm?tcid=104">the original</A> on 19 February 2014<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">30 January</SPAN> 2011</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Was+slavery+the+engine+of+economic+growth%3F+Digital+History&rft.pub=Digitalhistory.uh.edu&rft.au=Digital+History&rft.au=Steven+Mintz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitalhistory.uh.edu%2Ftopic_display.cfm%3Ftcid%3D104&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-The_Industrial_Revolution_by_Pat_Hudson,_pg._198-184"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-The_Industrial_Revolution_by_Pat_Hudson,_pg._198_184-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=Bh7HVl92bVMC&pg=PA194&lpg=PA194&dq=Industrial+Revolution,+slavery#PPA198,M1"><I>The Industrial Revolution by Pat Hudson, pg. 198</I></A>. Books.google.com. 1992. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7131-6531-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7131-6531-9">978-0-7131-6531-9</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">30 January</SPAN> 2011</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Industrial+Revolution+by+Pat+Hudson%2C+pg.+198&rft.pub=Books.google.com&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-7131-6531-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DBh7HVl92bVMC%26pg%3DPA194%26lpg%3DPA194%26dq%3DIndustrial%2BRevolution%2C%2Bslavery%23PPA198%2CM1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-manufacturing-185"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-manufacturing_185-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">The Royal Navy itself may have contributed to Britain's industrial growth. Among the first complex industrial manufacturing processes to arise in Britain were those that produced material for British warships. For instance, the average warship of the period used roughly 1000 pulley fittings. With a fleet as large as the Royal Navy, and with these fittings needing to be replaced every 4 to 5 years, this created a great demand which encouraged industrial expansion. The industrial manufacture of rope can also be seen as a similar factor.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-186"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-186"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oldroyalnavalcollege.org/data/files/english-ph-june-06-offical-new-30.pdf">Old Naval College</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070626185300/http://www.oldroyalnavalcollege.org/data/files/english-ph-june-06-offical-new-30.pdf">Archived</A> 26 June 2007 at the <A href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</A>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-dictatorship-187"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-dictatorship_187-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="/wiki/Barrington_Moore,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Barrington Moore, Jr.">Barrington Moore, Jr.</A>, <I>Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World</I>, pp. 29–30, Boston, Beacon Press, 1966.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-188"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-188"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Voltaire, François Marie Arouet de. (1909–14) [1734]. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bartleby.com/34/2/6.html">"Letter VI – On the Presbyterians. Letters on the English"</A>. <I>www.bartleby.com</I>. The Harvard Classics<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">22 July</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.bartleby.com&rft.atitle=Letter+VI+%E2%80%93+On+the+Presbyterians.+Letters+on+the+English.&rft.date=1909%2F1914&rft.aulast=Voltaire&rft.aufirst=Fran%C3%A7ois+Marie+Arouet+de.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bartleby.com%2F34%2F2%2F6.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-continuity-189"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-continuity_189-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">E A Wrigley, <I>Continuity chance and change</I>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-:0-190"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-:0_190-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-:0_190-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Crafts, Nicholas (2011-04-01). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/ereh/article-abstract/15/1/153/512087/Explaining-the-first-Industrial-Revolution-two">"Explaining the first Industrial Revolution: two views"</A>. <I>European Review of Economic History</I>. <B>15</B> (1): 153–168. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1017%2FS1361491610000201">10.1017/S1361491610000201</A>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1361-4916">1361-4916</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Review+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=Explaining+the+first+Industrial+Revolution%3A+two+views&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=153-168&rft.date=2011-04-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1361491610000201&rft.issn=1361-4916&rft.aulast=Crafts&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fereh%2Farticle-abstract%2F15%2F1%2F153%2F512087%2FExplaining-the-first-Industrial-Revolution-two&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-archive-191"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-archive_191-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080207075746/http://jquarter.members.beeb.net/morelunar.htm">"The Lunar Society"</A>. Archived from the original on 7 February 2008<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">7 February</SPAN> 2008</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Lunar+Society&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjquarter.members.beeb.net%2Fmorelunar.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN><SPAN class="citation-comment" style="display:none; color:#33aa33; margin-left:0.3em">CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (<A href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_BOT:_original-url_status_unknown" title="Category:CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown">link</A>)</SPAN> at Moreabout, the website of the <I>Birmingham Jewellery Quarter</I> guide, Bob Miles.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Capital_and_Innovation:_How_Britain_Became_the_First_Industrial_Nation-192"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Capital_and_Innovation:_How_Britain_Became_the_First_Industrial_Nation_192-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Foster, Charles (2004). <I>Capital and Innovation: How Britain Became the First Industrial Nation</I>. Northwich: Arley Hall Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9518382-4-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-9518382-4-5">0-9518382-4-5</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Capital+and+Innovation%3A+How+Britain+Became+the+First+Industrial+Nation&rft.place=Northwich&rft.pub=Arley+Hall+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-9518382-4-5&rft.aulast=Foster&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN> Argues that capital accumulation and <A href="/wiki/Wealth_condensation" class="mw-redirect" title="Wealth condensation">wealth concentration</A> in an entrepreneurial culture following the <A href="/wiki/Commercial_Revolution" title="Commercial Revolution">commercial revolution</A> made the industrial revolution possible, for example.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-193"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-193"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Michael Löwy and Robert Sayre, eds., <I>Romanticism against the Tide of Modernity</I> (Duke University Press, 2001).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-194"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-194"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">AJ George, <I>The development of French romanticism: the impact of the industrial revolution on literature</I> (1955)</SPAN></LI>
</OL>
</DIV>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Sources">Sources</SPAN></H3>
<UL>
<LI><CITE class="citation journal"><A href="/wiki/T._S._Ashton" title="T. S. Ashton">Ashton, Thomas S.</A> (1948). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170312195459/http://www.dli.ernet.in/handle/2015/237785">"The Industrial Revolution (1760–1830)"</A>. Oxford University Press. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dli.ernet.in/handle/2015/237785">the original</A> on 12 March 2017.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Industrial+Revolution+%281760%E2%80%931830%29&rft.date=1948&rft.aulast=Ashton&rft.aufirst=Thomas+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dli.ernet.in%2Fhandle%2F2015%2F237785&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation book">Berlanstein, Lenard R., ed. (1992). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=107622068"><I>The Industrial Revolution and work in nineteenth-century Europe</I></A>. London and New York: Routledge.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Industrial+Revolution+and+work+in+nineteenth-century+Europe&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1992&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.questia.com%2FPM.qst%3Fa%3Do%26d%3D107622068&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation journal">Clapham, J. H. (1926). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=83597738">"An Economic History of Modern Britain: The Early Railway Age, 1820–1850"</A>. Cambridge University Press.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=An+Economic+History+of+Modern+Britain%3A+The+Early+Railway+Age%2C+1820%E2%80%931850&rft.date=1926&rft.aulast=Clapham&rft.aufirst=J.+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.questia.com%2FPM.qst%3Fa%3Do%26d%3D83597738&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI>Clapham, J. H. <I>The Economic Development of France and Germany: 1815-1914</I> (1921) <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924013709641">online</A>, a famous classic, filled with details.</LI>
<LI><CITE id="CITEREFClark2007" class="citation book">Clark, Gregory (2007). <I>A Farewell to Alms: A Brief Economic History of the World</I>. Princeton University Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-12135-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-12135-4">0-691-12135-4</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Farewell+to+Alms%3A+A+Brief+Economic+History+of+the+World&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=0-691-12135-4&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Gregory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation journal">Daunton, M. J. (1995). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=100599398">"Progress and Poverty: An Economic and Social History of Britain, 1700–1850"</A>. Oxford University Press.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Progress+and+Poverty%3A+An+Economic+and+Social+History+of+Britain%2C+1700%E2%80%931850&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Daunton&rft.aufirst=M.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.questia.com%2FPM.qst%3Fa%3Do%26d%3D100599398&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation journal">Dunham, Arthur Louis (1955). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=14880719">"The Industrial Revolution in France, 1815–1848"</A>. New York: Exposition Press.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Industrial+Revolution+in+France%2C+1815%E2%80%931848&rft.date=1955&rft.aulast=Dunham&rft.aufirst=Arthur+Louis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.questia.com%2FPM.qst%3Fa%3Do%26d%3D14880719&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation journal">Gatrell, Peter (2004). "Farm to factory: a reinterpretation of the Soviet industrial revolution". <I>The Economic History Review</I>. <B>57</B> (4): 794. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-0289.2004.00295_21.x">10.1111/j.1468-0289.2004.00295_21.x</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economic+History+Review&rft.atitle=Farm+to+factory%3A+a+reinterpretation+of+the+Soviet+industrial+revolution&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=794&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1468-0289.2004.00295_21.x&rft.au=Gatrell%2C+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation book">Griffin, Emma (2010). <I>Short History of the British Industrial Revolution</I>. Palgrave.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Short+History+of+the+British+Industrial+Revolution&rft.pub=Palgrave&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Griffin&rft.aufirst=Emma&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE id="CITEREFHaber1958" class="citation book">Haber, Ludwig Fritz (1958). <I>The Chemical Industry During the Nineteenth Century: A Study of the Economic Aspect of Applied Chemistry in Europe and North America</I>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chemical+Industry+During+the+Nineteenth+Century%3A+A+Study+of+the+Economic+Aspect+of+Applied+Chemistry+in+Europe+and+North+America&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=Haber&rft.aufirst=Ludwig+Fritz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation book">Haber, Ludwig Fritz (1971). <I>The Chemical Industry: 1900–1930: International Growth and Technological Change</I>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chemical+Industry%3A+1900%E2%80%931930%3A+International+Growth+and+Technological+Change&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Haber&rft.aufirst=Ludwig+Fritz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation journal">Jacob, Margaret C. (1997). "Scientific Culture and the Making of the Industrial West". Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Scientific+Culture+and+the+Making+of+the+Industrial+West&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Jacob&rft.aufirst=Margaret+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE id="CITEREFKindleberger1993" class="citation book">Kindleberger, Charles Poor (1993). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=PFgIE7_eYwwC"><I>A Financial History of Western Europe</I></A>. Oxford University Press US. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-507738-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-507738-5">0-19-507738-5</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Financial+History+of+Western+Europe&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press+US&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-19-507738-5&rft.aulast=Kindleberger&rft.aufirst=Charles+Poor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DPFgIE7_eYwwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation journal">Kisch, Herbert (1989). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=78932320">"From Domestic Manufacture to Industrial Revolution The Case of the Rhineland Textile Districts"</A>. Oxford University Press.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=From+Domestic+Manufacture+to+Industrial+Revolution+The+Case+of+the+Rhineland+Textile+Districts&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Kisch&rft.aufirst=Herbert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.questia.com%2FPM.qst%3Fa%3Do%26d%3D78932320&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI>Kornblith, Gary. <I>The Industrial Revolution in America</I> (1997)</LI>
<LI><CITE id="CITEREFLandes1969" class="citation book"><A href="/wiki/David_Landes" title="David Landes">Landes, David S.</A> (1969). <I>The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present</I>. Cambridge, New York: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-09418-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-09418-6">0-521-09418-6</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Unbound+Prometheus%3A+Technological+Change+and+Industrial+Development+in+Western+Europe+from+1750+to+the+Present&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Press+Syndicate+of+the+University+of+Cambridge&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=0-521-09418-6&rft.aulast=Landes&rft.aufirst=David+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE id="CITEREFMcNeil1990" class="citation book">McNeil, Ian, ed. (1990). <I>An Encyclopedia of the History of Technology</I>. London: Routledge. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-14792-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-14792-1">0-415-14792-1</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Encyclopedia+of+the+History+of+Technology&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-415-14792-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation journal"><A href="/wiki/Angus_Maddison" title="Angus Maddison">Maddison, Angus</A> (2003). "The World Economy: Historical Statistics". Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+World+Economy%3A+Historical+Statistics&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Maddison&rft.aufirst=Angus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation web"><A href="/wiki/Paul_Mantoux" title="Paul Mantoux">Mantoux, Paul</A> (1961) [1928]. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=22792856">"The Industrial Revolution in the Eighteenth Century"</A> (First English translation 1928 ed.).</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Industrial+Revolution+in+the+Eighteenth+Century&rft.edition=First+English+translation+1928&rft.date=1961&rft.aulast=Mantoux&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.questia.com%2FPM.qst%3Fa%3Do%26d%3D22792856&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation journal">McLaughlin Green, Constance (1939). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=8893044">"<I>Holyoke, Massachusetts: A Case History of the Industrial Revolution in America"</I></A>. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Holyoke%2C+Massachusetts%3A+A+Case+History+of+the+Industrial+Revolution+in+America&rft.date=1939&rft.aulast=McLaughlin+Green&rft.aufirst=Constance&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.questia.com%2FPM.qst%3Fa%3Do%26d%3D8893044&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI>Milward, Alan S. and S. B. Saul. <I>The Development of the Economies of Continental Europe: 1850–1914</I> (1977)</LI>
<LI>Milward, Alan S. and S. B. Saul. <I>The Economic Development of Continental Europe 1780–1870</I> (1973)</LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation web"><A href="/wiki/Joel_Mokyr" title="Joel Mokyr">Mokyr, Joel</A> (1999). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98674232">"The British Industrial Revolution: An Economic Perspective"</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+British+Industrial+Revolution%3A+An+Economic+Perspective&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Mokyr&rft.aufirst=Joel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.questia.com%2FPM.qst%3Fa%3Do%26d%3D98674232&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation journal">More, Charles (2000). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=102816164">"Understanding the Industrial Revolution"</A>. London: Routledge.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Understanding+the+Industrial+Revolution&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=More&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.questia.com%2FPM.qst%3Fa%3Do%26d%3D102816164&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI>Olson, James S. <I>Encyclopedia of the Industrial Revolution in America</I> (2001)</LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation journal">Pollard, Sidney (1981). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=23488627">"Peaceful Conquest: The Industrialization of Europe, 1760–1970"</A>. Oxford University Press.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Peaceful+Conquest%3A+The+Industrialization+of+Europe%2C+1760%E2%80%931970&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=Pollard&rft.aufirst=Sidney&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.questia.com%2FPM.qst%3Fa%3Do%26d%3D23488627&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI>Rider, Christine, ed. <I>Encyclopedia of the Age of the Industrial Revolution, 1700–1920</I> (2 vol. 2007)</LI>
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<LI><CITE class="citation journal"><A href="/wiki/Neil_Smelser" title="Neil Smelser">Smelser, Neil J.</A> (1959). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=55370383">"Social Change in the Industrial Revolution: An Application of Theory to the British Cotton Industry"</A>. University of Chicago Press.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Social+Change+in+the+Industrial+Revolution%3A+An+Application+of+Theory+to+the+British+Cotton+Industry&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Smelser&rft.aufirst=Neil+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.questia.com%2FPM.qst%3Fa%3Do%26d%3D55370383&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI>Staley, David J. ed. <I>Encyclopedia of the History of Invention and Technology</I> (3 vol 2011), 2000pp</LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation journal">Stearns, Peter N. (1998). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=6967400">"The Industrial Revolution in World History"</A>. Westview Press.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Industrial+Revolution+in+World+History&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Stearns&rft.aufirst=Peter+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.questia.com%2FPM.qst%3Fa%3Do%26d%3D6967400&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation journal">Smil, Vaclav (1994). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070718112416/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=94468450">"Energy in World History"</A>. Westview Press. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=94468450">the original</A> on 18 July 2007.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Energy+in+World+History&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Smil&rft.aufirst=Vaclav&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.questia.com%2FPM.qst%3Fa%3Do%26d%3D94468450&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation journal">Snooks, G.D. (2000). "Was the Industrial Revolution Necessary?". London: Routledge.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Was+the+Industrial+Revolution+Necessary%3F&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Snooks&rft.aufirst=G.D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation journal">Szostak, Rick (1991). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101607770">"The Role of Transportation in the Industrial Revolution: A Comparison of England and France"</A>. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Role+of+Transportation+in+the+Industrial+Revolution%3A+A+Comparison+of+England+and+France&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Szostak&rft.aufirst=Rick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.questia.com%2FPM.qst%3Fa%3Do%26d%3D101607770&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE id="CITEREFTimbs1860" class="citation book">Timbs, John (1860). <I>Stories of Inventors and Discoverers in Science and the Useful Arts: A Book for Old and Young</I>. Harper & Brothers.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stories+of+Inventors+and+Discoverers+in+Science+and+the+Useful+Arts%3A+A+Book+for+Old+and+Young&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Brothers&rft.date=1860&rft.aulast=Timbs&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation book"><A href="/wiki/Arnold_Toynbee" title="Arnold Toynbee">Toynbee, Arnold</A> (1884). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303182004/http://socserv2.socsci.mcmaster.ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/toynbee/indrev"><I>Lectures on the Industrial Revolution of the Eighteenth Century in England</I></A>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4191-2952-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-4191-2952-X">1-4191-2952-X</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://socserv2.socsci.mcmaster.ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/toynbee/indrev">the original</A> on 3 March 2016<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">12 February</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lectures+on+the+Industrial+Revolution+of+the+Eighteenth+Century+in+England&rft.date=1884&rft.isbn=1-4191-2952-X&rft.aulast=Toynbee&rft.aufirst=Arnold&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsocserv2.socsci.mcmaster.ca%2F~econ%2Fugcm%2F3ll3%2Ftoynbee%2Findrev&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndustrial+Revolution" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
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<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://curlie.org/Society/History/By_Time_Period/Eighteenth_Century/Industrial_Revolution/">Industrial Revolution</A> at Curlie (based on <A href="/wiki/DMOZ" title="DMOZ">DMOZ</A>)</LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/modsbook14.html">Internet Modern History Sourcebook: Industrial Revolution</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/scottishhistory/enlightenment/features_enlightenment_industry.shtml">BBC History Home Page: Industrial Revolution</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.makingthemodernworld.org.uk/">National Museum of Science and Industry website: machines and personalities</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.galbithink.org/fw.htm">Factory Workers in the Industrial Revolution</A>
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<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dspace.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/270">"The Day the World Took Off" Six-part video series from the University of Cambridge tracing the question "Why did the Industrial Revolution begin when and where it did."</A></LI>
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<LI class="nv-view"><A href="/wiki/Template:Industrial_Revolution" title="Template:Industrial Revolution"><ABBR title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none;">v</ABBR></A></LI>
<LI class="nv-talk"><A href="/wiki/Template_talk:Industrial_Revolution" title="Template talk:Industrial Revolution"><ABBR title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none;">t</ABBR></A></LI>
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<DIV id="The_Industrial_Revolution" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">The <A class="mw-selflink selflink">Industrial Revolution</A></DIV>
</TH>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Themes</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">Coal</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Coal_mining" title="Coal mining">Coal mining</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Coke_(fuel)" title="Coke (fuel)">Coke</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">Cotton</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Industry" title="Industry">Industry</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Invention" title="Invention">Invention</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">Iron</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Machine" title="Machine">Machinery</A>, <A href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">Manufacturing</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">Steam power</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">Steel</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Technology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Textile" title="Textile">Textiles</A>, <A href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">Water power</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Workforce" title="Workforce">Workforce</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
<TD class="navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px">
<DIV><A href="/wiki/File:Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Maquina vapor Watt ETSIIM.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg/150px-Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg" width="150" height="111" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg/225px-Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg/300px-Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="760" /></A></DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People/<BR />
groups</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Richard_Arkwright" title="Richard Arkwright">Richard Arkwright</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Thomas_Boulsover" title="Thomas Boulsover">Thomas Boulsover</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Matthew_Boulton" title="Matthew Boulton">Matthew Boulton</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/James_Brindley" title="James Brindley">James Brindley</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Isambard_Kingdom_Brunel" title="Isambard Kingdom Brunel">Isambard Kingdom Brunel</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Edmund_Cartwright" title="Edmund Cartwright">Edmund Cartwright</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Henry_Cort_(Template)" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Cort (Template)">Henry Cort</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cranege_brothers" title="Cranege brothers">Thomas and George Cranege</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Samuel_Crompton" title="Samuel Crompton">Samuel Crompton</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Abraham_Darby_I" title="Abraham Darby I">Abraham Darby I</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Abraham_Darby_II" title="Abraham Darby II">Abraham Darby II</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Abraham_Darby_III" title="Abraham Darby III">Abraham Darby III</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Francis_Egerton,_3rd_Duke_of_Bridgewater" title="Francis Egerton, 3rd Duke of Bridgewater">Francis Egerton, 3rd Duke of Bridgewater</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/William_Fairbairn" title="William Fairbairn">William Fairbairn</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/James_Hargreaves" title="James Hargreaves">James Hargreaves</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hawks_family" title="Hawks family">Hawks family</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Thomas_Highs" title="Thomas Highs">Thomas Highs</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Eaton_Hodgkinson" title="Eaton Hodgkinson">Eaton Hodgkinson</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Benjamin_Huntsman" title="Benjamin Huntsman">Benjamin Huntsman</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Joseph_Marie_Jacquard" title="Joseph Marie Jacquard">Joseph Marie Jacquard</A>, <A href="/wiki/John_Kay_(flying_shuttle)" title="John Kay (flying shuttle)">John Kay (flying shuttle)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/John_Kay_(spinning_frame)" title="John Kay (spinning frame)">John Kay (spinning frame)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Francis_Cabot_Lowell_(businessman)" class="mw-redirect" title="Francis Cabot Lowell (businessman)">Francis Cabot Lowell</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lunar_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Lunar Society">Lunar Society</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Thomas_Newcomen" title="Thomas Newcomen">Thomas Newcomen</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Robert Owen</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lewis_Paul" title="Lewis Paul">Lewis Paul</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/William_Radcliffe" title="William Radcliffe">William Radcliffe</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Richard_Roberts_(engineer)" title="Richard Roberts (engineer)">Richard Roberts</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Thomas_Savery" title="Thomas Savery">Thomas Savery</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Samuel_Slater" title="Samuel Slater">Samuel Slater</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/John_Smeaton" title="John Smeaton">John Smeaton</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/George_Stephenson" title="George Stephenson">George Stephenson</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Robert_Stephenson" title="Robert Stephenson">Robert Stephenson</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Thomas_Telford" title="Thomas Telford">Thomas Telford</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Richard_Trevithick" title="Richard Trevithick">Richard Trevithick</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/James_Watt" title="James Watt">James Watt</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/John_Wilkinson_(industrialist)" title="John Wilkinson (industrialist)">John Wilkinson</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/John_Wyatt_(inventor)" title="John Wyatt (inventor)">John Wyatt</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Places</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Abbeydale_Industrial_Hamlet" title="Abbeydale Industrial Hamlet">Abbeydale Industrial Hamlet</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bridgewater_Canal" title="Bridgewater Canal">Bridgewater Canal</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Broseley" title="Broseley">Broseley</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Coalbrookdale" title="Coalbrookdale">Coalbrookdale</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cromford" title="Cromford">Cromford</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Derwent_Valley_Mills" title="Derwent Valley Mills">Derwent Valley Mills</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ironbridge" title="Ironbridge">Ironbridge</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/New_Lanark" title="New Lanark">New Lanark</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Portsmouth_Block_Mills" title="Portsmouth Block Mills">Portsmouth Block Mills</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Quarry_Bank_Mill" title="Quarry Bank Mill">Quarry Bank Mill</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Soho_Foundry" title="Soho Foundry">Soho Foundry</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Stockton_and_Darlington_Railway" title="Stockton and Darlington Railway">Stockton and Darlington Railway</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Invention/<BR />
technology</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">Blast furnace</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">Canal</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cotton_mill" title="Cotton mill">Cotton mill</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Crucible_steel" title="Crucible steel">Crucible steel</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Factory" title="Factory">Factory</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Flying_shuttle" title="Flying shuttle">Flying shuttle</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Newcomen_steam_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Newcomen steam engine">Newcomen steam engine</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Power_loom" title="Power loom">Power loom</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Rail_transport" title="Rail transport">Railway</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Reverberatory_furnace" title="Reverberatory furnace">Reverberatory furnace</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sheffield_plate" title="Sheffield plate">Sheffield plate</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Spinning_frame" title="Spinning frame">Spinning frame</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Spinning_jenny" title="Spinning jenny">Spinning jenny</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">Steam engine</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Stephenson%27s_Rocket" title="Stephenson's Rocket">Stephenson's Rocket</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Water_frame" title="Water frame">Water frame</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Watt_steam_engine" title="Watt steam engine">Watt steam engine</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social impact</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">Bourgeoisie</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">Child labour</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_the_Co-operative_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Co-operative Movement">History of the Co-operative Movement</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cottage_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Cottage industry">Cottage industry</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Factory_Acts" title="Factory Acts">Factory Acts</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Industrial_unrest" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial unrest">Industrial unrest</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Luddite" title="Luddite">Luddite</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Proletariat" title="Proletariat">Proletariat</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Rochdale_Pioneers" class="mw-redirect" title="Rochdale Pioneers">Rochdale Pioneers</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">Urbanization</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Industrial_warfare" title="Industrial warfare">Industrial warfare</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reference</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_canal_system" title="History of the British canal system">History of the British canal system</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Industrial_archaeology" title="Industrial archaeology">Industrial archaeology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_United_Kingdom-related_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United Kingdom-related topics">List of United Kingdom-related topics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Timeline_of_clothing_and_textiles_technology" title="Timeline of clothing and textiles technology">Timeline of clothing and textiles technology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Timeline_of_historic_inventions" title="Timeline of historic inventions">Timeline of invention</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Timeline_of_materials_technology" title="Timeline of materials technology">Timeline of materials technology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Timeline_of_steam_power" title="Timeline of steam power">Timeline of steam power</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
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<TR style="display: none;">
<TD class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3">
<DIV>
<UL>
<LI><IMG alt="Category" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/16px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png" title="Category" width="16" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/24px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/32px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="36" data-file-height="31" /> <B><A href="/wiki/Category:Industrial_Revolution" title="Category:Industrial Revolution">Category</A></B></LI>
<LI><IMG alt="Commons page" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" title="Commons page" width="12" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <A href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Industrial_revolution" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Industrial revolution"><B>Commons</B></A></LI>
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<DIV role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_technology" style="padding:3px">
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<DIV id="History_of_technology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><A href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</A></DIV>
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<TD colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><B>History of technology cultures</B></LI>
</UL>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Outline_of_prehistoric_technology" title="Outline of prehistoric technology">Prehistoric technology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technology" title="Ancient Egyptian technology">Ancient Egypt</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Mayan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_technology" title="Ancient Greek technology">Ancient Greek</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Roman_technology" title="Roman technology">Roman</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">Chinese</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent">Indian</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_inventions" title="List of Byzantine inventions">Byzantine</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Islamic_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic technology">Medieval Islam</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Medieval_technology" title="Medieval technology">Medieval Europe</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Renaissance_technology" title="Renaissance technology">Renaissance</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Science and technology in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</A></LI>
<LI><A class="mw-selflink selflink">Industrial Revolution</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Modern_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern technology">Modern</A></LI>
</UL>
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<TD colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><B>History of technology domains</B></LI>
</UL>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_biotechnology" title="History of biotechnology">History of biotechnology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_communication" title="History of communication">History of communication</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware" title="History of computing hardware">History of computing hardware</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering#History" title="Electrical engineering">History of electrical engineering</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_materials_science" title="History of materials science">History of materials science</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_measurement" title="History of measurement">History of measurement</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">History of medicine</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Nuclear_technology#History_and_scientific_background" title="Nuclear technology">History of nuclear technology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_transport" title="History of transport">History of transport</A></LI>
</UL>
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<DIV id="Economy_of_the_United_Kingdom" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><A href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Economy of the United Kingdom">Economy of the United Kingdom</A></DIV>
</TH>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center">Companies</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/British_co-operative_movement" title="British co-operative movement">Co-operatives</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Category:Employee-owned_companies_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Category:Employee-owned companies of the United Kingdom">Employee-owned companies</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/FTSE_100_Index" title="FTSE 100 Index">FTSE 100 Index</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/FTSE_250_Index" title="FTSE 250 Index">FTSE 250 Index</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/FTSE_Fledgling_Index" title="FTSE Fledgling Index">FTSE Fledgling Index</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/FTSE_SmallCap_Index" title="FTSE SmallCap Index">FTSE SmallCap Index</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Category:Government-owned_companies_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Category:Government-owned companies of the United Kingdom">Government-owned companies</A></LI>
</UL>
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<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center">Currency,<BR />
governance,<BR />
regulation</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Bank_of_England" title="Bank of England">Bank of England</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Governor_of_the_Bank_of_England" title="Governor of the Bank of England">Governor of the Bank of England</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_budget" class="mw-redirect" title="United Kingdom budget">Budget</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_company_law" title="United Kingdom company law">Company law</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Competition_and_Markets_Authority" title="Competition and Markets Authority">Competition and Markets Authority</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Department_for_Business,_Energy_and_Industrial_Strategy" title="Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy">Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Financial_Conduct_Authority" title="Financial Conduct Authority">Financial Conduct Authority</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Gilt-edged_securities" title="Gilt-edged securities">Gilts</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/HM_Revenue_and_Customs" title="HM Revenue and Customs">HM Revenue and Customs</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/HM_Treasury" title="HM Treasury">HM Treasury</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_Exchequer" title="Chancellor of the Exchequer">Chancellor of the Exchequer</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Debt_Management_Office" title="Debt Management Office">Debt Management Office</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Monetary_Policy_Committee" title="Monetary Policy Committee">Monetary Policy Committee</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Office_for_Budget_Responsibility" title="Office for Budget Responsibility">Office for Budget Responsibility</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pound_sterling" title="Pound sterling">Pound sterling</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Banknotes_of_the_pound_sterling" title="Banknotes of the pound sterling">Banknotes</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Coins_of_the_pound_sterling" title="Coins of the pound sterling">Coinage</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Taxation in the United Kingdom">Taxation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/UK_Statistics_Authority" title="UK Statistics Authority">UK Statistics Authority</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/UK_Trade_%26_Investment" title="UK Trade & Investment">UK Trade & Investment</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><A href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Economic history of the United Kingdom">History</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:8em;text-align:left;background-color:#eee">Chronological</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Navigation_Acts" title="Navigation Acts">1659–1849 Navigation Acts</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/British_Agricultural_Revolution" title="British Agricultural Revolution">Agricultural Revolution</A></LI>
<LI><A class="mw-selflink selflink">Industrial Revolution</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Financial_Revolution" title="Financial Revolution">Financial Revolution</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Panic_of_1796%E2%80%9397" title="Panic of 1796–97">Panic of 1796–97</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Corn_Laws" title="Corn Laws">1815–46 Corn Laws</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/New_Imperialism" title="New Imperialism">New Imperialism 1830s–1945</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution 1860s–1914</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Long_Depression" title="Long Depression">1873–79 Long Depression</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/1926_United_Kingdom_general_strike" title="1926 United Kingdom general strike">1926 general strike</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Great Depression in the United Kingdom">1929–39 Great Depression</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">1948–52 Marshall Plan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Three-Day_Week" title="Three-Day Week">1974 Three-Day Week</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Winter_of_Discontent" title="Winter of Discontent">1979 Winter of Discontent</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Big_Bang_(financial_markets)" title="Big Bang (financial markets)">1986 Big Bang</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Black_Wednesday" title="Black Wednesday">1992 Black Wednesday</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Europe#United_Kingdom" title="Great Recession in Europe">Late-2000s recession</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/2008_United_Kingdom_bank_rescue_package" title="2008 United Kingdom bank rescue package">2008 bank rescue package</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/2009_United_Kingdom_bank_rescue_package" title="2009 United Kingdom bank rescue package">2009 bank rescue package</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:8em;text-align:left;background-color:#eee">Recurrent</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Economic_geography_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Economic geography of the United Kingdom">Economic geography</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">Free trade</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Gold_standard" title="Gold standard">Gold standard</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_recessions_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of recessions in the United Kingdom">Recessions and recoveries</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/National_champions" title="National champions">National champions policy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">Economic liberalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">Privatisation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Nationalization#United_Kingdom" title="Nationalization">Nationalisation</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center">Nations,<BR />
regions,<BR />
cities</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:8em;text-align:left;background-color:#eee"><A href="/wiki/Economy_of_England" title="Economy of England">England</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Atlantic_Gateway_(North_West_England)" title="Atlantic Gateway (North West England)">Atlantic Gateway</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Economy_of_Birmingham" title="Economy of Birmingham">Birmingham</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Big_City_Plan" title="Big City Plan">Big City Plan</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Economy_of_Bristol" title="Economy of Bristol">Bristol</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Economy_of_Cornwall" title="Economy of Cornwall">Cornwall</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Economy_of_Croydon" class="mw-redirect" title="Economy of Croydon">Croydon</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Croydon_Vision_2020" title="Croydon Vision 2020">Croydon Vision 2020</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Economy_of_Devon" title="Economy of Devon">Devon</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Expansion_plans_for_Milton_Keynes" title="Expansion plans for Milton Keynes">Expansion plans for Milton Keynes</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_England" title="Fishing industry in England">Fishing</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Economy_of_Leeds" title="Economy of Leeds">Leeds</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_ceremonial_counties_in_England_by_gross_value_added" title="List of ceremonial counties in England by gross value added">List of counties by GVA</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Economy_of_Liverpool" title="Economy of Liverpool">Liverpool</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Economy_of_London" title="Economy of London">London</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/East_London_Tech_City" title="East London Tech City">East London Tech City</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/London_Plan" title="London Plan">London Plan</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/M4_corridor" title="M4 corridor">M4 corridor</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/M11_Corridor" title="M11 Corridor">M11 Corridor</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Economy_of_Manchester" title="Economy of Manchester">Manchester</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Economy_of_Reading,_Berkshire" title="Economy of Reading, Berkshire">Reading</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Economy_of_Sheffield" title="Economy of Sheffield">Sheffield</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Silicon_Fen" title="Silicon Fen">Silicon Fen</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Thames_Gateway" title="Thames Gateway">Thames Gateway</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tourism_in_England" title="Tourism in England">Tourism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Transport_in_England" title="Transport in England">Transport</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:8em;text-align:left;background-color:#eee"><A href="/wiki/Economy_of_Northern_Ireland" title="Economy of Northern Ireland">N. Ireland</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Economy_of_Belfast" title="Economy of Belfast">Belfast</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Transport_in_Ireland" title="Transport in Ireland">Transport</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:8em;text-align:left;background-color:#eee"><A href="/wiki/Economy_of_Scotland" title="Economy of Scotland">Scotland</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Economy_of_Aberdeen" title="Economy of Aberdeen">Aberdeen</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Scotland" title="Agriculture in Scotland">Agriculture</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Economy_of_Edinburgh" title="Economy of Edinburgh">Edinburgh</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution_in_Scotland" title="Industrial Revolution in Scotland">Industrialisation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_Scotland" title="Fishing industry in Scotland">Fishing</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Category:Oil_and_gas_industry_in_Scotland" title="Category:Oil and gas industry in Scotland">Oil and gas</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Scotland" title="Renewable energy in Scotland">Renewable energy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Silicon_Glen" title="Silicon Glen">Silicon Glen</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Scotland" title="Tourism in Scotland">Tourism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Transport_in_Scotland" title="Transport in Scotland">Transport</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Scotch_whisky" title="Scotch whisky">Whisky</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:8em;text-align:left;background-color:#eee"><A href="/wiki/Economy_of_Wales" title="Economy of Wales">Wales</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Economy_of_Cardiff" title="Economy of Cardiff">Cardiff</A> <SPAN style="font-size:90%;">(<A href="/wiki/Cardiff_Bay" title="Cardiff Bay">Cardiff Bay</A>)</SPAN></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Economy_of_Swansea" title="Economy of Swansea">Swansea</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Wales" title="Tourism in Wales">Tourism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Transport_in_Wales" title="Transport in Wales">Transport</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center">People<BR />
and labour</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Category:British_billionaires" title="Category:British billionaires">Billionaires</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Category:British_businesspeople" title="Category:British businesspeople">Businesspeople</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Demography_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Demography of the United Kingdom">Demography</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Income_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Income in the United Kingdom">Income</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Poverty in the United Kingdom">Poverty</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_labour_law" title="United Kingdom labour law">Labour law</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_employment_equality_law" title="United Kingdom employment equality law">Equal opportunities</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/National_Minimum_Wage_Act_1998" title="National Minimum Wage Act 1998">Minimum wage</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Working_Time_Directive" class="mw-redirect" title="Working Time Directive">Working Time Directive</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pensions_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Pensions in the United Kingdom">Pensions</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Trade_unions_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Trade unions in the United Kingdom">Trades unions</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Trades_Union_Congress" title="Trades Union Congress">Trades Union Congress</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Unemployment_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Unemployment in the United Kingdom">Unemployment</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center">Sectors</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:8em;text-align:left;background-color:#eee"><A href="/wiki/List_of_renewable_resources_produced_and_traded_by_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of renewable resources produced and traded by the United Kingdom">Resource and<BR />
production</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Energy_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Energy in the United Kingdom">Energy</A>/<A href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Renewable energy in the United Kingdom">Renewable energy</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Biodiesel_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Biodiesel in the United Kingdom">Biodiesel</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Coal_mining_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Coal mining in the United Kingdom">Coal</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Geothermal power in the United Kingdom">Geothermal</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hydraulic_fracturing_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Hydraulic fracturing in the United Kingdom">Fracking</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Hydroelectricity in the United Kingdom">Hydroelectricity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_United_Kingdom#Ocean_power" title="Renewable energy in the United Kingdom">Marine</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/North_Sea_oil" title="North Sea oil">North Sea oil</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Solar power in the United Kingdom">Solar</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wind_power_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Wind power in the United Kingdom">Wind</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/British_cuisine" title="British cuisine">Food</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Agriculture in the United Kingdom">Agriculture</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cider#United_Kingdom" title="Cider">Cider</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wine_from_the_United_Kingdom" title="Wine from the United Kingdom">Wine</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Beer_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Beer in the United Kingdom">Beer</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI>Fishing
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_England" title="Fishing industry in England">English</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_Scotland" title="Fishing industry in Scotland">Scottish</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI>Materials
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Forestry_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Forestry in the United Kingdom">Forestry</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mining_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Mining in the United Kingdom">Mining</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:8em;text-align:left;background-color:#eee"><A href="/wiki/Financial_services_industry_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Financial services industry of the United Kingdom">Financial<BR />
services</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Baltic_Exchange" title="Baltic Exchange">Baltic Exchange</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Banking_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Banking in the United Kingdom">Banking</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of banks in the United Kingdom">List of banks</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_building_societies#United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="List of building societies">List of UK building societies</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Canary_Wharf" title="Canary Wharf">Canary Wharf</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/City_of_London" title="City of London">The City</A></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Royal_Albert_Dock#Future_as_Asian_Business_Port" title="Royal Albert Dock">Royal Albert Dock (future)</A></I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Euronext#Euronext.liffe" title="Euronext">Euronext.liffe</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/International_Financial_Services_District" title="International Financial Services District">Glasgow International Financial Services District</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Insurance_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Insurance in the United Kingdom">Insurance</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lloyd%27s_of_London" title="Lloyd's of London">Lloyd's of London</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/LCH_(clearing_house)" title="LCH (clearing house)">LCH</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Libor" title="Libor">London Interbank Offered Rate</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/London_Metal_Exchange" title="London Metal Exchange">London Metal Exchange</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/London_Platinum_and_Palladium_Market" title="London Platinum and Palladium Market">London Platinum and Palladium Market</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/London_Stock_Exchange" title="London Stock Exchange">London Stock Exchange</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Alternative_Investment_Market" title="Alternative Investment Market">Alternative Investment Market</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:8em;text-align:left;background-color:#eee">Other</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Education in the United Kingdom">Education</A></LI>
<LI>Entertainment & <A href="/wiki/Media_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Media of the United Kingdom">Media</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Cinema of the United Kingdom">Cinema</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Gambling_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Gambling in the United Kingdom">Gambling</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_newspapers_in_the_United_Kingdom_by_circulation" title="List of newspapers in the United Kingdom by circulation">Newspapers</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Radio_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Radio in the United Kingdom">Radio</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Television_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Television in the United Kingdom">Television</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Theatre_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Theatre of the United Kingdom">Theatre</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Healthcare in the United Kingdom">Healthcare</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Legal_services_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Legal services in the United Kingdom">Legal services</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Manufacturing_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Manufacturing in the United Kingdom">Manufacturing</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Aerospace_industry_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Aerospace industry in the United Kingdom">Aerospace</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Automotive industry in the United Kingdom">Automotive</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industry_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Pharmaceutical industry in the United Kingdom">Pharmaceuticals</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_exports_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of exports of the United Kingdom">Exports</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI>Property
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Architecture_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Architecture of the United Kingdom">Architecture</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Construction_industry_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Construction industry of the United Kingdom">Construction</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Affordability_of_housing_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Affordability of housing in the United Kingdom">Housing</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Real_estate_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Real estate in the United Kingdom">Real estate</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Science and technology in the United Kingdom">Science and technology</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Internet_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Internet in the United Kingdom">Internet</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Telecommunications in the United Kingdom">Telecommunications</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_supermarket_chains_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of supermarket chains in the United Kingdom">Supermarkets</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tourism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Tourism in the United Kingdom">Tourism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Transport in the United Kingdom">Transport</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Air_transport_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Air transport in the United Kingdom">Aviation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Structure_of_the_rail_industry_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Structure of the rail industry in the United Kingdom">Rail</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Inter-city_rail_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Inter-city rail in the United Kingdom">Inter-city</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/High-speed_rail_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="High-speed rail in the United Kingdom">High-speed</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center">Trade and<BR />
business<BR />
organisations</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Category:Business_organisations_based_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Category:Business organisations based in the United Kingdom">Business organisations</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/British_Bankers%27_Association" title="British Bankers' Association">British Bankers' Association</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/British_Chambers_of_Commerce" title="British Chambers of Commerce">British Chambers of Commerce</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Confederation_of_British_Industry" title="Confederation of British Industry">Confederation of British Industry</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Co-operatives_UK" title="Co-operatives UK">Co-operatives UK</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/EEF_(manufacturers%27_association)" title="EEF (manufacturers' association)">EEF</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Federation_of_Small_Businesses" title="Federation of Small Businesses">Federation of Small Businesses</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Category:Industry_trade_groups_based_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Category:Industry trade groups based in the United Kingdom">Industry trade groups</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Institute_of_Directors" title="Institute of Directors">Institute of Directors</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/UK_Payments_Administration" title="UK Payments Administration">UK Payments Administration</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TD class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold">
<DIV>
<UL>
<LI><IMG alt="Category" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/16px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png" title="Category" width="16" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/24px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/32px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="36" data-file-height="31" /> <A href="/wiki/Category:Economy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Category:Economy of the United Kingdom">Category</A></LI>
<LI><IMG alt="Commons page" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" title="Commons page" width="12" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <A href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Economy_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Economy of the United Kingdom">Commons</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
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</DIV>
<DIV role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Aspects_of_capitalism_(academic_views)" style="padding:3px">
<TABLE class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit" id="collapsibleTable3">
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<DIV id="Aspects_of_capitalism_(academic_views)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Aspects of <A href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</A> <SMALL>(<A href="/wiki/Academic_perspectives_on_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic perspectives on capitalism">academic views</A>)</SMALL></DIV>
</TH>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Business_cycle" title="Business cycle">Business cycle</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Competition_(economics)" title="Competition (economics)">Competition</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Economic_bubble" title="Economic bubble">Economic bubble</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">Economic development</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Entrepreneurship" title="Entrepreneurship">Entrepreneurship</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecoprenuership" title="Ecoprenuership">Ecoprenuership</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Externalities" class="mw-redirect" title="Externalities">Externalities</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Financial_Revolution" title="Financial Revolution">Financial Revolution</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_capitalist_theory" title="History of capitalist theory">History of capitalist theory</A></LI>
<LI><A class="mw-selflink selflink">Industrial Revolution</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Innovation" title="Innovation">Innovation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Invention" title="Invention">Invention</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Market_failure" title="Market failure">Market failure</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Merit</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Multinational_corporation" title="Multinational corporation">Multinational corporation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Oligopoly" title="Oligopoly">Oligopoly</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">Privatization</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Profit_(economics)" title="Profit (economics)">Profit</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Property_rights_(economics)" title="Property rights (economics)">Property rights</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wage_labour" title="Wage labour">Wage labour</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wealth" title="Wealth">Wealth</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideology</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/American_Dream" title="American Dream">American Dream</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bipartisanship" title="Bipartisanship">Bipartisanship</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Democratic_capitalism" title="Democratic capitalism">Democracy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Free_market" title="Free market">Free market</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">Laissez-faire</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">Neoliberalism</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cultural aspects</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Culture_of_capitalism" title="Culture of capitalism">Culture of capitalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Advertising" title="Advertising">Advertising</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Consumerism" title="Consumerism">Consumerism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Decentralization" title="Decentralization">Decentralization</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Economic_mobility" title="Economic mobility">Economic mobility</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mainstream" title="Mainstream">Mainstream</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philanthropy" title="Philanthropy">Philanthropy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Private_foundation" title="Private foundation">Private foundation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Rule_of_law#In_relation_to_economics" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Social_alienation" title="Social alienation">Social alienation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social aspects</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">Economic inequality</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Employment" title="Employment">Employment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Freedom_of_association" title="Freedom of association">Freedom of association</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Labour_market_flexibility" title="Labour market flexibility">Labour market flexibility</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Labour_supply" title="Labour supply">Labour supply</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Productivity" title="Productivity">Productivity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Prosperity" title="Prosperity">Prosperity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Social_venture_capital" title="Social venture capital">Social venture capital</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Unemployment" title="Unemployment">Unemployment</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Criticism</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Criticism_of_capitalism" title="Criticism of capitalism">Criticism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Anti-capitalism" title="Anti-capitalism">Anti-capitalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Market_fundamentalism" title="Market fundamentalism">Market fundamentalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">Wage slavery</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antithesis</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Anarcho-syndicalism" title="Anarcho-syndicalism">Anarcho-syndicalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Eco-socialism" title="Eco-socialism">Eco-socialism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Libertarian_socialism" title="Libertarian socialism">Libertarian socialism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">Mercantilism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Post-scarcity_economy" title="Post-scarcity economy">Post-scarcity economy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sharing_economy" title="Sharing economy">Sharing economy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Social_anarchism" title="Social anarchism">Social anarchism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Syndicalism" title="Syndicalism">Syndicalism</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</DIV>
<DIV role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Europe" style="padding:3px">
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<TBODY><TR>
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<LI class="nv-view"><A href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Template:History of Europe"><ABBR title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none;">v</ABBR></A></LI>
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</DIV>
<DIV id="History_of_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><A href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">History of Europe</A></DIV>
</TH>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Europe" title="Prehistoric Europe">Prehistory</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Paleolithic_Europe" title="Paleolithic Europe">Paleolithic Europe</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">Neolithic Europe</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">Bronze Age Europe</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Iron Age Europe</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" title="Early modern France">Early modern France</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish Empire</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Habsburg_Monarchy" title="Habsburg Monarchy">Habsburg Monarchy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</A></LI>
<LI><A class="mw-selflink selflink">Industrial Revolution</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_Europe" title="Rise of nationalism in Europe">Nationalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/European_integration" title="European integration">European integration</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art of Europe</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Genetic history of Europe</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">History of the Mediterranean region</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">History of the European Union</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History of Western civilization</A></LI>
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class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az" style="display: none;"><A href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C9%99naye_inqilab%C4%B1" title="Sənaye inqilabı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb" style="display: none;"><A href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%86%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B9_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%82%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="صنایع اینقیلابی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn" style="display: none;"><A href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%AC" title="শিল্প বিপ্লব – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan" style="display: none;"><A href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kang-gia%CC%8Dp_Kek-b%C4%93ng" title="Kang-gia̍p Kek-bēng – Chinese (Min Nan)" lang="zh-min-nan" hreflang="zh-min-nan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bân-lâm-gú</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D3%99%D0%BD%D3%99%D2%93%D3%99%D1%82_%D0%B8%D0%BD%D2%A1%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%8B" title="Сәнәғәт инҡилабы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be" style="display: none;"><A href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Індустрыяльная рэвалюцыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old" style="display: none;"><A href="https://be-x-old.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Індустрыяльная рэвалюцыя – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-x-old" hreflang="be-x-old" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg" style="display: none;"><A href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Индустриална революция – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs" style="display: none;"><A href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrijska_revolucija" title="Industrijska revolucija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br" style="display: none;"><A href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispac%27h_Greantel" title="Dispac'h Greantel – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr" style="display: none;"><A href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B6%D0%B0%D2%AF%D0%B9%D0%BB%D1%8D%D0%B4%D0%B1%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D1%85%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Ажаүйлэдбэриин хубисхал – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article"><A href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluci%C3%B3_Industrial" title="Revolució Industrial – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs" style="display: none;"><A href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C5%AFmyslov%C3%A1_revoluce" title="Průmyslová revoluce – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy" style="display: none;"><A href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y_Chwyldro_Diwydiannol" title="Y Chwyldro Diwydiannol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle" title="recommended article"><A href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_industrielle_revolution" title="Den industrielle revolution – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de" style="display: none;"><A href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrielle_Revolution" title="Industrielle Revolution – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et" style="display: none;"><A href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%B6%C3%B6stuslik_p%C3%B6%C3%B6re" title="Tööstuslik pööre – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el" style="display: none;"><A href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%B7%CF%87%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B5%CF%80%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%AC%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Βιομηχανική επανάσταση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es"><A href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluci%C3%B3n_Industrial" title="Revolución Industrial – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo" style="display: none;"><A href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industria_revolucio" title="Industria revolucio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluci%C3%B3n_Endustrial" title="Revolución Endustrial – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article"><A href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industria_Iraultza" title="Industria Iraultza – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa" style="display: none;"><A href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%B5%D9%86%D8%B9%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="انقلاب صنعتی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif" style="display: none;"><A href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo" style="display: none;"><A href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Ddna%C3%B0arkollveltingin" title="Ídnaðarkollveltingin – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr" style="display: none;"><A href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9volution_industrielle" title="Révolution industrielle – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy" style="display: none;"><A href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yndustri%C3%ABle_Revol%C3%BAsje" title="Yndustriële Revolúsje – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9abhl%C3%B3id_Thionscla%C3%ADoch" title="Réabhlóid Thionsclaíoch – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd" style="display: none;"><A href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tionndadh_Gn%C3%AComhachais" title="Tionndadh Gnìomhachais – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl" style="display: none;"><A href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluci%C3%B3n_Industrial" title="Revolución Industrial – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan" style="display: none;"><A href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B7%A5%E6%A5%AD%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" title="工業革命 – Gan Chinese" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu" style="display: none;"><A href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%94%E0%AA%A6%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%AF%E0%AB%8B%E0%AA%97%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%95_%E0%AA%95%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%82%E0%AA%A4%E0%AA%BF" title="ઔદ્યોગિક ક્રાંતિ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%B0%EC%97%85%ED%98%81%EB%AA%85" title="산업혁명 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy" style="display: none;"><A href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D6%80%D5%A4%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%B0%D5%A5%D5%B2%D5%A1%D6%83%D5%B8%D5%AD%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Արդյունաբերական հեղափոխություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi"><A href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%94%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="औद्योगिक क्रांति – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr" style="display: none;"><A href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrijska_revolucija" title="Industrijska revolucija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_a_Rebolusion" title="Industrial a Rebolusion – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id" style="display: none;"><A href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolusi_Industri" title="Revolusi Industri – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is" style="display: none;"><A href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C3%B0nbyltingin" title="Iðnbyltingin – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it" style="display: none;"><A href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivoluzione_industriale" title="Rivoluzione industriale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he" style="display: none;"><A href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%94%D7%A4%D7%9B%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%A2%D7%A9%D7%99%D7%99%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%AA" title="המהפכה התעשייתית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv" style="display: none;"><A href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9volusi_indhustri" title="Révolusi indhustri – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Jawa</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn" style="display: none;"><A href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%88%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%BE_%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%BF" title="ಕೈಗಾರಿಕಾ ಕ್ರಾಂತಿ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc" style="display: none;"><A href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BB_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Индустриял революция – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" class="interlanguage-link-target">Къарачай-малкъар</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%95%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ინდუსტრიული რევოლუცია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk" style="display: none;"><A href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%A8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BA%D3%99%D1%81%D1%96%D0%BF_%D1%82%D3%A9%D2%A3%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D1%81%D1%96" title="Өнеркәсіп төңкерісі – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article"><A href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mapinduzi_ya_Viwandani" title="Mapinduzi ya Viwandani – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Eore%C5%9Fa_p%C3%AE%C5%9Fesaziy%C3%AA" title="Şoreşa pîşesaziyê – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo" style="display: none;"><A href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%9B%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%95%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%AD%E0%BA%B8%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%AB%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%B3" title="ການປະຕິວັດອຸດສາຫະກຳ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la" style="display: none;"><A href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversio_industrialis" title="Conversio industrialis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv" style="display: none;"><A href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C5%ABpniecisk%C4%81_revol%C5%ABcija" title="Rūpnieciskā revolūcija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt" style="display: none;"><A href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pramon%C4%97s_perversmas" title="Pramonės perversmas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu" style="display: none;"><A href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ipari_forradalom" title="Ipari forradalom – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk" style="display: none;"><A href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Индустриска револуција – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%82" title="വ്യവസായവിപ്ലവം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt" style="display: none;"><A href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivoluzzjoni_Industrijali" title="Rivoluzzjoni Industrijali – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr" style="display: none;"><A href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%94%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80" title="औद्योगिक क्रांती – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolusi_Perindustrian" title="Revolusi Perindustrian – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl" style="display: none;"><A href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebolu%C3%A7on_Andustrial" title="Reboluçon Andustrial – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn" style="display: none;"><A href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B6_%D2%AF%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%B4%D0%B2%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%85%D1%83%D0%B2%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Аж үйлдвэрийн хувьсгал – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my" style="display: none;"><A href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%85%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%99%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AF%E1%80%90%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9C%E1%80%BE%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1%E1%80%B8" title="စက်မှုတော်လှန်ရေး – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl" style="display: none;"><A href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industri%C3%ABle_revolutie" title="Industriële revolutie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new" style="display: none;"><A href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%94%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="औद्योगिक क्रान्ति – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%A3%E6%A5%AD%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" title="産業革命 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no" style="display: none;"><A href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_industrielle_revolusjon" title="Den industrielle revolusjon – Norwegian" lang="no" hreflang="no" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn" style="display: none;"><A href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_industrielle_revolusjonen" title="Den industrielle revolusjonen – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc" style="display: none;"><A href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolucion_industriala" title="Revolucion industriala – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz" style="display: none;"><A href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanoat_to%CA%BBntarishi" title="Sanoat toʻntarishi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa" style="display: none;"><A href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%A4%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AC" title="ਸਨਅਤੀ ਇਨਕਲਾਬ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb" style="display: none;"><A href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%86%D8%B9%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="صنعتی انقلاب – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%B2_%D8%A7%D9%88%DA%9A%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86" title="رغاويز اوښتون – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam" style="display: none;"><A href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indoschrial_Revaluushan" title="Indoschrial Revaluushan – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds" style="display: none;"><A href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrielle_Revolutschoon" title="Industrielle Revolutschoon – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl" style="display: none;"><A href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rewolucja_przemys%C5%82owa" title="Rewolucja przemysłowa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt" style="display: none;"><A href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolu%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Industrial" title="Revolução Industrial – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa" style="display: none;"><A href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/O%27ndiris_revolyutsiyas%C4%B1" title="O'ndiris revolyutsiyası – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolu%C8%9Bia_industrial%C4%83" title="Revoluția industrială – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue" style="display: none;"><A href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%8B%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Промыслова револуція – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%8B%D1%88%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Промышленная революция – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco" style="display: none;"><A href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq" style="display: none;"><A href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolucioni_industrial" title="Revolucioni industrial – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn" style="display: none;"><A href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivuluzzioni_nnustriali" title="Rivuluzzioni nnustriali – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si" style="display: none;"><A href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%80%E0%B6%BA" title="කාර්මික විප්ලවය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple" style="display: none;"><A href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution – Simple English" lang="simple" hreflang="simple" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk" style="display: none;"><A href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priemyseln%C3%A1_revol%C3%BAcia" title="Priemyselná revolúcia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl" style="display: none;"><A href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrijska_revolucija" title="Industrijska revolucija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%DB%86%DA%95%D8%B4%DB%8C_%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B4%DB%95%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C" title="شۆڕشی پیشەسازی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr" style="display: none;"><A href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Индустријска револуција – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh" style="display: none;"><A href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrijska_revolucija" title="Industrijska revolucija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle" title="good article"><A href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teollinen_vallankumous" title="Teollinen vallankumous – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv" style="display: none;"><A href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industriella_revolutionen" title="Industriella revolutionen – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl" style="display: none;"><A href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebolusyong_Industriyal" title="Rebolusyong Industriyal – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF" title="தொழிற்புரட்சி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt" style="display: none;"><A href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A4n%C3%A4%C4%9Fi_inq%C4%B1ylab" title="Sänäği inqıylab – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча/tatarça</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te" style="display: none;"><A href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%B6%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95_%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%82" title="పారిశ్రామిక విప్లవం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th" style="display: none;"><A href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%8F%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1" title="การปฏิวัติอุตสาหกรรม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr" style="display: none;"><A href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanayi_Devrimi" title="Sanayi Devrimi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk" style="display: none;"><A href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Промислова революція – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur"><A href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%86%D8%B9%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="صنعتی انقلاب – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi" style="display: none;"><A href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A1ch_m%E1%BA%A1ng_c%C3%B4ng_nghi%E1%BB%87p" title="Cách mạng công nghiệp – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro" style="display: none;"><A href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%BC%C3%BCst%C3%BCsp%C3%B6%C3%B6req" title="Tüüstüspööreq – Võro" lang="fiu-vro" hreflang="fiu-vro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical" style="display: none;"><A href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B7%A5%E6%A5%AD%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" title="工業革命 – Classical Chinese" lang="zh-classical" hreflang="zh-classical" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war" style="display: none;"><A href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebolusyon_Industriyal" title="Rebolusyon Industriyal – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu" style="display: none;"><A href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%80%E6%AC%A1%E5%B7%A5%E4%B8%9A%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" title="第一次工业革命 – Wu Chinese" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi" style="display: none;"><A href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%93%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A2%D7%9C%D7%A2_%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%95%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%A2" title="אינדוסטריעלע רעוואלוציע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue" style="display: none;"><A href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B7%A5%E6%A5%AD%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" title="工業革命 – Cantonese" lang="zh-yue" hreflang="zh-yue" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg" style="display: none;"><A href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pramuon%C4%97s_perversmos" title="Pramuonės perversmos – Samogitian" lang="bat-smg" hreflang="bat-smg" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh"><A href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%80%E6%AC%A1%E5%B7%A5%E4%B8%9A%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" title="第一次工业革命 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp" style="display: none;"><A href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kp%C9%9Bl%C9%A9_l%C9%9B%C9%9Bz%CA%8A%CA%8A_t%CA%8Ama_s%C9%94s%C9%94na_(R%C3%A9volution_industrielle)" title="Kpɛlɩ lɛɛzʊʊ tʊma sɔsɔna (Révolution industrielle) – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</A></LI>				<BUTTON class="mw-interlanguage-selector mw-ui-button" title="All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)">107 more</BUTTON></UL>
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document_title: Industrial Revolution

token: Industrial

token: Revolution

token: wikipedia

token: Jump

token: navigation

token: search

token: A

token: Roberts

token: loom

token: in

token: a

token: weaving

token: shed

token: Textiles

token: the

token: leading

token: industry

token: of

token: and

token: mechanized

token: factories

token: powered

token: by

token: central

token: water

token: wheel

token: or

token: steam

token: engine

token: new

token: workplace

token: The

token: was

token: transition

token: manufacturing

token: processes

token: period

token: from

token: about

token: sometime

token: between

token: This

token: included

token: going

token: hand

token: production

token: methods

token: machines

token: chemical

token: iron

token: increasing

token: use

token: power

token: development

token: machine

token: tools

token: rise

token: factory

token: system

token: српскохрватски

question_text: who invented the use of electricity during the industrial revolution