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<TITLE>Civil Rights Act of 1866 - Wikipedia</TITLE>

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<H1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Civil Rights Act of 1866</H1>			<DIV id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content">
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<CAPTION style="font-size:150%;padding-bottom:0.25em">Civil Rights Act of 1866</CAPTION>
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<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center"><A href="/wiki/File:Great_Seal_of_the_United_States_(obverse).svg" class="image"><IMG alt="Great Seal of the United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Great_Seal_of_the_United_States_%28obverse%29.svg/140px-Great_Seal_of_the_United_States_%28obverse%29.svg.png" width="140" height="140" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Great_Seal_of_the_United_States_%28obverse%29.svg/210px-Great_Seal_of_the_United_States_%28obverse%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Great_Seal_of_the_United_States_%28obverse%29.svg/280px-Great_Seal_of_the_United_States_%28obverse%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></A></TD>
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<TH scope="row" style="padding-top:0.245em;line-height:1.15em;padding-right:0.65em">Long title</TH>
<TD style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em">An Act to protect all Persons in the United States in their Civil Rights and liberties, and furnish the Means of their Vindication.</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-top:0.245em;line-height:1.15em;padding-right:0.65em"><A href="/wiki/Acronym" title="Acronym">Acronyms</A> <SPAN style="font-weight:normal;">(colloquial)</SPAN></TH>
<TD style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em">CRA 1866</TD>
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<TH scope="row" style="padding-top:0.245em;line-height:1.15em;padding-right:0.65em">Enacted by</TH>
<TD style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em">the <A href="/wiki/39th_United_States_Congress" title="39th United States Congress">39th United States Congress</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-top:0.245em;line-height:1.15em;padding-right:0.65em">Effective</TH>
<TD style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em">April 9, 1866</TD>
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<TH colspan="2" style="text-align:center;background:#bbddff">Citations</TH>
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<TH scope="row" style="padding-top:0.245em;line-height:1.15em;padding-right:0.65em">Public law</TH>
<TD style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=014/llsl014.db&recNum=058">14 Stat. 27–30</A></TD>
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<TH colspan="2" style="text-align:center;background:#bbddff">Legislative history</TH>
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<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center;text-align:left;line-height:1.3em">
<DIV>
<UL style="line-height:1.3em;text-align:left">
<LI><B>Introduced in the Senate</B> <B>as</B> S. 61 <B>by</B> Sen. <A href="/wiki/Lyman_Trumbull" title="Lyman Trumbull">Lyman Trumbull</A> (R-IL) <B>on</B> January 5, 1866</LI>
<LI><B>Committee consideration by</B> <A href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Committee_on_the_Judiciary" title="United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary">Judiciary</A></LI>
<LI><B>Passed the Senate on</B> February 2, 1866 (33–12)</LI>
<LI><B>Passed the House on</B> March 13, 1866 (34 "not voting") (111–38)</LI>
<LI><B>Vetoed by President</B> <A href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson</A> <B>on</B> March 27, 1866</LI>
<LI><B>Overridden by the Senate on</B> April 6, 1866 (33–15)</LI>
<LI><B>Overridden by the House and became law on</B> April 9, 1866 (21 "not voting") (122–41)</LI>
</UL>
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</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH colspan="2" style="text-align:center;background:#bbddff">Major amendments</TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center;text-align:left;line-height:1.3em"><A href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1991" title="Civil Rights Act of 1991">Civil Rights Act of 1991 (Section 1981)</A> P.L. 102–166</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH colspan="2" style="text-align:center;background:#bbddff"><A href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court">United States Supreme Court</A> cases</TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center;text-align:left;line-height:1.3em"><I><A href="/wiki/Jones_v._Alfred_H._Mayer_Co." title="Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.">Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co. (1968)</A></I><BR />
<I><A href="/wiki/Saint_Francis_College_v._al-Khazraji" title="Saint Francis College v. al-Khazraji">Saint Francis College v. al-Khazraji (1987)</A></I><BR />
<I><A href="/wiki/Domino%27s_Pizza,_Inc._v._McDonald" title="Domino's Pizza, Inc. v. McDonald">Domino's Pizza, Inc. v. McDonald (2006)</A></I></TD>
</TR>
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<P>The <B>Civil Rights Act of 1866</B>, 14 <A href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://legislink.org/us/stat-14-27–30">27–30</A>, enacted April 9, 1866, was the first <A href="/wiki/United_States_federal_law" class="mw-redirect" title="United States federal law">United States federal law</A> to define citizenship and affirm that all citizens are equally protected by the law.<SUP id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-1">[1]</A></SUP> It was mainly intended to protect the <A href="/wiki/Civil_and_political_rights" title="Civil and political rights">civil rights</A> of persons of African descent born in or brought to the <A href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</A>, in the wake of the <A href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-2">[2]</A></SUP> This legislation was enacted by <A href="/wiki/39th_United_States_Congress" title="39th United States Congress">Congress</A> in 1865 but vetoed by <A href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</A> <A href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson</A>. In April 1866 Congress again passed the bill to support the <A href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Thirteenth Amendment</A>. Although Johnson again vetoed it, a two-thirds majority in each chamber overcame the veto and the bill therefore became law.</P>
<P><A href="/wiki/John_Bingham" title="John Bingham">John Bingham</A> and some other congressmen argued that Congress did not yet have sufficient constitutional power to enact this law. Following passage of the <A href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</A> in 1868, Congress reenacted the 1866 Act in 1871.</P>
<P></P>
<DIV id="toc" class="toc">
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<H2>Contents</H2>
<SPAN class="toctoggle"> [<A role="button" tabindex="0" class="togglelink">hide</A>] </SPAN></DIV>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><A href="#Introduction_and_amendment"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Introduction and amendment</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><A href="#Content"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Content</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><A href="#Enactment,_constitutionalization,_and_reenactment"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Enactment, constitutionalization, and reenactment</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><A href="#Aftermath_and_consequences"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Aftermath and consequences</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><A href="#See_also"><SPAN class="tocnumber">5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">See also</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><A href="#References"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">References</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><A href="#Further_reading"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Further reading</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><A href="#External_links"><SPAN class="tocnumber">8</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">External links</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<P></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Introduction_and_amendment">Introduction and amendment</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_Rights_Act_of_1866&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Introduction and amendment">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>The author of the Civil Rights Act of 1866 was Senator <A href="/wiki/Lyman_Trumbull" title="Lyman Trumbull">Lyman Trumbull</A>, who introduced the bill in the Senate.<SUP id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-3">[3]</A></SUP> Congressman <A href="/wiki/James_F._Wilson" title="James F. Wilson">James F. Wilson</A> summarized what he considered to be the purpose of the act as follows, when he introduced the bill in the House of Representatives:<SUP id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-4">[4]</A></SUP></P>
<BLOCKQUOTE class="templatequote">
<P>It provides for the equality of citizens of the United States in the enjoyment of "civil rights and immunities." What do these terms mean? Do they mean that in all things civil, social, political, all citizens, without distinction of race or color, shall be equal? By no means can they be so construed. Do they mean that all citizens shall vote in the several States? No; for suffrage is a political right which has been left under the control of the several States, subject to the action of Congress only when it becomes necessary to enforce the guarantee of a republican form of government (protection against a monarchy). Nor do they mean that all citizens shall sit on the juries, or that their children shall attend the same schools. The definition given to the term "civil rights" in Bouvier's Law Dictionary is very concise, and is supported by the best authority. It is this: "Civil rights are those which have no relation to the establishment, support, or management of government."</P>
</BLOCKQUOTE>
<P>During the subsequent legislative process, the following key provision was deleted: "there shall be no discrimination in civil rights or immunities among the inhabitants of any State or Territory of the United States on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude." <A href="/wiki/John_Bingham" title="John Bingham">John Bingham</A> was an influential supporter of this deletion, on the ground that courts might construe the term "civil rights" more broadly than people like Wilson intended.<SUP id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-5">[5]</A></SUP> Weeks later, Senator Trumbull described the bill's intended scope:<SUP id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-6">[6]</A></SUP></P>
<BLOCKQUOTE>
<P>This bill in no manner interferes with the municipal regulations of any State which protects all alike in their rights of person and property. It could have no operation in Massachusetts, New York, Illinois, or most of the States of the Union.</P>
</BLOCKQUOTE>
<P>The next day, on April 5, 1866, the Senate overrode President Johnson's veto. This marked the first time that the U.S. Congress ever overrode a president's veto for a major piece of legislation.<SUP id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-7">[7]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Content">Content</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_Rights_Act_of_1866&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Content">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>With an <A href="/wiki/Incipit" title="Incipit">incipit</A> of "An Act to protect all Persons in the United States in their Civil Rights, and furnish the Means of their vindication", the act declared that all people born in the United States who are not subject to any foreign power are entitled to be citizens, without regard to race, color, or previous condition of <A href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">slavery</A> or involuntary servitude.<SUP id="cite_ref-text_8-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-text-8">[8]</A></SUP> A similar provision (called the <A href="/wiki/Citizenship_Clause" title="Citizenship Clause">Citizenship Clause</A>) was written a few months later into the proposed <A href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution</A>.</P>
<P>The Civil Rights Act of 1866 also said that any citizen has the same right that a white citizen has to make and enforce contracts, sue and be sued, give evidence in court, and inherit, purchase, lease, sell, hold, and convey real and personal property. Additionally, the act guaranteed to all citizens the "full and equal benefit of all laws and proceedings for the security of person and property, as is enjoyed by white citizens, and ... like punishment, pains, and penalties..." Persons who denied these rights on account of race or previous enslavement were guilty of a misdemeanor and upon conviction faced a fine not exceeding $1,000, or imprisonment not exceeding one year, or both.</P>
<P>The act used language very similar to that of the <A href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</A> in the newly proposed Fourteenth Amendment. In particular, the act discussed the need to provide "reasonable protection to all persons in their constitutional rights of equality before the law, without distinction of race or color, or previous condition of slavery or involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted. ..."<SUP id="cite_ref-text_8-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-text-8">[8]</A></SUP></P>
<P>This statute was a major part of general federal policy during <A href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction</A>, and was closely related to the <A href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau_bills" title="Freedmen's Bureau bills">Second Freedmen's Bureau Act of 1866</A>. According to Congressman <A href="/wiki/John_Bingham" title="John Bingham">John Bingham</A>, "the seventh and eighth sections of the Freedmen's Bureau bill enumerate the same rights and all the rights and privileges that are enumerated in the first section of this [the Civil Rights] bill."<SUP id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-9">[9]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-10">[10]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Parts of the Civil Rights Act of 1866 are still in effect in the 21st century,<SUP id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-11">[11]</A></SUP> according to the <A href="/wiki/United_States_Code" title="United States Code">United States Code</A>:<SUP id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-12">[12]</A></SUP></P>
<BLOCKQUOTE>
<P>All persons within the jurisdiction of the United States shall have the same right in every State and Territory to make and enforce contracts, to sue, be parties, give evidence, and to the full and equal benefit of all laws and proceedings for the security of persons and property as is enjoyed by white citizens, and shall be subject to like punishment, pains, penalties, taxes, licenses, and exactions of every kind, and to no other.</P>
</BLOCKQUOTE>
<P>This section of the United States Code (42 U.S.C. §1981), is §1 of the Civil Rights Act of 1866 as revised and amended by subsequent Acts of Congress.<SUP id="cite_ref-text_8-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-text-8">[8]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN id="Enactment.2C_constitutionalization.2C_and_reenactment"></SPAN><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Enactment,_constitutionalization,_and_reenactment">Enactment, constitutionalization, and reenactment</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_Rights_Act_of_1866&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Enactment, constitutionalization, and reenactment">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Flickr_-_USCapitol_-_Civil_Rights_Bill_Passes,_1866.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flickr_-_USCapitol_-_Civil_Rights_Bill_Passes%2C_1866.jpg/220px-Flickr_-_USCapitol_-_Civil_Rights_Bill_Passes%2C_1866.jpg" width="220" height="173" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flickr_-_USCapitol_-_Civil_Rights_Bill_Passes%2C_1866.jpg/330px-Flickr_-_USCapitol_-_Civil_Rights_Bill_Passes%2C_1866.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flickr_-_USCapitol_-_Civil_Rights_Bill_Passes%2C_1866.jpg/440px-Flickr_-_USCapitol_-_Civil_Rights_Bill_Passes%2C_1866.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1442" data-file-height="1135" /></A>
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Illustration of the passage of the act</DIV>
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</DIV>
<P>Senator <A href="/wiki/Lyman_Trumbull" title="Lyman Trumbull">Lyman Trumbull</A> was the <A href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</A> sponsor of the Civil Rights Act of 1866, and he argued that Congress had power to enact it in order to eliminate a discriminatory "badge of servitude" prohibited by the <A href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Thirteenth Amendment</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Salzman_13-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Salzman-13">[13]</A></SUP> Representative <A href="/wiki/John_Bingham" title="John Bingham">John Bingham</A>, principal author of the first section of the <A href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</A>, was one of several Republicans who believed (prior to that Amendment) that Congress lacked power to pass the 1866 Act.<SUP id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-14">[14]</A></SUP> In the 20th century, the U.S. Supreme Court ultimately adopted Trumbull's Thirteenth Amendment rationale for congressional power to ban racial discrimination by states and by private parties, in view of the fact that the Thirteenth Amendment does not require a <A href="/wiki/State_actor" title="State actor">state actor</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Salzman_13-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Salzman-13">[13]</A></SUP></P>
<P>To the extent that the Civil Rights Act of 1866 may have been intended to go beyond preventing discrimination, by conferring particular rights on all citizens, the constitutional power of Congress to do that was more questionable. For example, Representative <A href="/wiki/William_Lawrence_(Ohio_Republican)" title="William Lawrence (Ohio Republican)">William Lawrence</A> argued that Congress had power to enact the statute because of the <A href="/wiki/Privileges_and_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges and Immunities Clause">Privileges and Immunities Clause</A> in Article IV of the original unamended Constitution, even though courts had suggested otherwise.<SUP id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-15">[15]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In any event, there is currently no consensus that the language of the Civil Rights Act of 1866 actually purports to confer any legal benefits upon white citizens.<SUP id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-16">[16]</A></SUP> Representative <A href="/wiki/Samuel_Shellabarger_(congressman)" title="Samuel Shellabarger (congressman)">Samuel Shellabarger</A> said that it did not.<SUP id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-17">[17]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-18">[18]</A></SUP></P>
<P>After the Civil Rights Act of 1866 had been enacted into law over President Andrew Johnson's veto,<SUP id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-19">[19]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-20">[20]</A></SUP> some members of Congress voted for the <A href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</A> in order to eliminate doubts about the constitutionality of the Civil Rights Act of 1866,<SUP id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-21">[21]</A></SUP> or to ensure that no subsequent Congress could later repeal or alter the main provisions of that Act.<SUP id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-22">[22]</A></SUP> Thus, the <A href="/wiki/Citizenship_Clause" title="Citizenship Clause">Citizenship Clause</A> in the Fourteenth Amendment parallels citizenship language in the Civil Rights Act of 1866, and likewise the <A href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</A> parallels nondiscrimination language in the 1866 Act; the extent to which other clauses in the Fourteenth Amendment may have incorporated elements of the Civil Rights Act of 1866 is a matter of continuing debate.<SUP id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-23">[23]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment was completed in 1868. Two years later, the 1866 Act was reenacted, as Section 18 of the <A href="/wiki/Enforcement_Act_of_1870" title="Enforcement Act of 1870">Enforcement Act of 1870</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-24">[24]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Aftermath_and_consequences">Aftermath and consequences</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_Rights_Act_of_1866&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Aftermath and consequences">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>The activities of terrorist groups such as the <A href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</A> (KKK) undermined the act; and it failed to immediately secure the civil rights of African Americans. Since 1866 it has been illegal in the U.S. to discriminate in jobs and housing on the basis of race. However, federal penalties were not provided for, so that remedies were left to the individuals involved. Because those being discriminated against had limited access to legal help, this left many victims of discrimination without recourse. Since the latter half of the 20th century and passage of related civil rights legislation, there have been an increasing number of remedies provided under this act, including the landmark <I><A href="/wiki/Jones_v._Mayer" class="mw-redirect" title="Jones v. Mayer">Jones v. Mayer</A></I> and <I>Sullivan v. Little Hunting Park, Inc.</I> decisions in 1968.<SUP id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-25">[25]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_Rights_Act_of_1866&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: See also">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/US_labor_law" class="mw-redirect" title="US labor law">US labor law</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act" title="Slave Trade Act">Slave Trade Acts</A></LI>
</UL>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="References">References</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_Rights_Act_of_1866&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: References">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<OL class="references">
<LI id="cite_note-1"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-1"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">White, Deborah (2012). <I>Freedom On My Mind</I>. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's. p. 391. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-64884-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-64884-8">978-0-312-64884-8</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Freedom+On+My+Mind&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=391&rft.pub=Bedford%2FSt.+Martin%27s&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-312-64884-8&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Deborah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+Rights+Act+of+1866" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-2"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-2"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/document/the-civil-rights-act-of-1866">"Text of Civil Rights Act of 1866"</A>. <I>TeachingAmericanHistory.org</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">April 8,</SPAN> 2018</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TeachingAmericanHistory.org&rft.atitle=Text+of+Civil+Rights+Act+of+1866&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fteachingamericanhistory.org%2Flibrary%2Fdocument%2Fthe-civil-rights-act-of-1866&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+Rights+Act+of+1866" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-3"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-3"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Lash, Kurt. "<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://georgetownlawjournal.org/files/pdf/99-2/Lash.pdf">The Origins of the Privileges or Immunities Clause, Part II: John Bingham and the Second Draft of the Fourteenth Amendment</A>", <I>Georgetown Law Journal</I>, Volume 99, p. 361 (2011).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-4"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-4"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://memory.loc.gov/ll/llcg/071/0100/01591117.tif">Congressional Globe, House of Representatives, 39th Congress, 1st Session</A>, p. 1117 (March 1, 1866).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-5"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-5"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Kull, Andrew. <I><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LtKbbEWlaDQC&pg=PA75">The Color-Blind Constitution</A></I>, pp. 75–78 (Harvard University Press, 1994).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-6"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-6"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Lash, Kurt. "<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://georgetownlawjournal.org/files/pdf/99-2/Lash.pdf">The Origins of the Privileges or Immunities Clause, Part II: John Bingham and the Second Draft of the Fourteenth Amendment</A>", <I>Georgetown Law Journal</I>, Volume 99, p. 394 (2011). This statement by Senator Trumbull was discussed by both the majority as well as by dissenting Justice Harlan in the Supreme Court case of <I>Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.</I>, <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/392/409/case.html">392 U.S. 409</A> (1968). <I>See</I> the <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://memory.loc.gov/ll/llcg/071/0800/08031761.tif">transcript from April 4, 1866</A>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-7"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-7"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Zak, Michael (March 13, 2016). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://grandoldpartisan.typepad.com/blog/2016/03/1866-civil-rights-act.html">"Republicans passed 'An Act to protect all Persons in the United States in their Civil Rights, and to furnish the means for their Vindication<SPAN style="padding-right:0.2em;">'</SPAN>"</A>. <I>Grand Old Partisan</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">March 17,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>. <Q>[T]his was the first time Congress had overridden a veto for major legislation. Even so, President Johnson refused to enforce this law.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Grand+Old+Partisan&rft.atitle=Republicans+passed+%27An+Act+to+protect+all+Persons+in+the+United+States+in+their+Civil+Rights%2C+and+to+furnish+the+means+for+their+Vindication%27&rft.date=2016-03-13&rft.aulast=Zak&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgrandoldpartisan.typepad.com%2Fblog%2F2016%2F03%2F1866-civil-rights-act.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+Rights+Act+of+1866" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN><SUP class="noprint Inline-Template"><SPAN style="white-space: nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><SPAN title=" Dead link since December 2017">permanent dead link</SPAN></A></I>]</SPAN></SUP></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-text-8"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-text_8-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-text_8-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-text_8-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">See <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oll.libertyfund.org/title/2282/216253">Civil Rights Act of 1866 (full text)</A> via the Online Library of Liberty.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-9"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-9"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Halbrook, Stephen. <I>Freedmen, the Fourteenth Amendment, and the Right to Bear Arms</I>, 1866-1876, <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0Pt2rd3w32IC&pg=PA29&lpg=PA29&dq=%22The+same+rights+and+all+the+rights+and+privileges%22&source=bl&ots=qpZpJ5ggtU&sig=16ity6KHIaF_Mt667bm5rxqP9D0&hl=en&ei=EMF6TY_nM4jUgQfPwcHkCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&sqi=2&ved=0CB8Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22The%20same%20rights%20and%20all%20the%20rights%20and%20privileges%22&f=false">page 29</A> (Greenwood Publishing Group 1998).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-10"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-10"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oll.libertyfund.org/?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=2282&chapter=216251&layout=html&Itemid=27">Full text of Second Freedmen's Bureau Bill</A> (December 4, 1865) from the Online Library of Liberty.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-11"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-11"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A href="/wiki/Eric_Foner" title="Eric Foner">Foner, Eric</A> (December 9, 2015). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.c-span.org/video/?401420-1/politics-reconstruction">"Politics of Reconstruction"</A>. <I>C-SPAN</I>. Washington, D.C<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">March 17,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=C-SPAN&rft.atitle=Politics+of+Reconstruction&rft.date=2015-12-09&rft.aulast=Foner&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.c-span.org%2Fvideo%2F%3F401420-1%2Fpolitics-reconstruction&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+Rights+Act+of+1866" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-12"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-12"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="/wiki/Title_42_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 42 of the United States Code">42 U.S.C.</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/42/1981">§ 1981</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Salzman-13"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Salzman_13-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Salzman_13-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Salzman, Lawrence. "Civil Rights Act of 1866" in <I>Encyclopedia of American Civil Liberties</I>, by Paul Finkelman, Volume 1, <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YoI14vYA8r0C&pg=PA300">pp. 299–300</A> (CRC Press, 2006).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-14"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-14"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Curtis, Michael Kent. <I>No State Shall Abridge: The Fourteenth Amendment and the Bill of Rights</I>, p. 80 (Duke University Press 1986).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-15"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-15"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Bogen, David. <I>Privileges and Immunities: Reference Guide to the United States Constitution</I>, <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AIA6Ya8oKB8C&pg=PA43">page 43</A> (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-16"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-16"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Lund, Nelson. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1658198">"Two Faces of Judicial Restraint (Or Are There More?) in McDonald v. Chicago"</A>, <I>Florida Law Review</I> (forthcoming).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-17"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-17"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Harrison, John. "Reconstructing the Privileges or Immunities Clause", 10 <I>Yale Law Journal</I> 1385 (1992).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-18"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-18"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llcg&fileName=071/llcg071.db&recNum=334"><I>Congressional Globe</I>, House of Representatives, 39th Congress, 1st Session, page 1293 (1866)</A>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-19"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-19"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Johnson, Andrew. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?document=1944">"Veto of the Civil Rights Bill"</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">April 8,</SPAN> 2018</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Veto+of+the+Civil+Rights+Bill&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fteachingamericanhistory.org%2Flibrary%2Findex.asp%3Fdocument%3D1944&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+Rights+Act+of+1866" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-20"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-20"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Belz (2000)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-21"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-21"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><I><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://laws.findlaw.com/us/392/409.html">Jones v. Mayer</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.is/20120712121855/http://laws.findlaw.com/us/392/409.html">Archived</A> 2012-07-12 at <A href="/wiki/Archive.is" title="Archive.is">Archive.is</A></I>, 392 U.S. 409 (1968).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-22"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-22"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Yen, Chin-Yung. <I>Rights of citizens and persons under the Fourteenth amendment</I>, <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=znpDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA7">page 7</A> (New Era Printing Company 1905).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-23"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-23"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">See <I><A href="/wiki/McDonald_v._Chicago" class="mw-redirect" title="McDonald v. Chicago">McDonald v. Chicago</A></I>, 561 U.S. (2010).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-24"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-24"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">See <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oll.libertyfund.org/title/2282/216281">Enforcement Act of 1870 (full text)</A> via the Online Library of Liberty.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-25"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-25"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Player (2004).</SPAN></LI>
</OL>
</DIV>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_Rights_Act_of_1866&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<UL>
<LI>Belz, Herman. <I>A New Birth of Freedom: The Republican Party and Freedom Rights, 1861 to 1866</I> (2000)</LI>
<LI>Dew, Lee Allen. "The Reluctant Radicals of 1866," <I>Midwest Quarterly</I> (Spring 1967) pp 261–276.</LI>
<LI>Foner, Eric. <I>Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877</I> (1988)</LI>
<LI>Hyman, Harold M. <I>A More Perfect Union</I> (1975)</LI>
<LI>Player, Mack A. <I>Federal Law of Employment Discrimination in a Nutshell</I> (2004)</LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation book">Rutherglen, George (2013). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uoLkgJMpuFQC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false"><I>Civil Rights in the Shadow of Slavery: The Constitution, Common Law, and the Civil Rights Act of 1866</I></A>. Oxford University Press USA. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199739707" title="Special:BookSources/9780199739707">9780199739707</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Civil+Rights+in+the+Shadow+of+Slavery%3A+The+Constitution%2C+Common+Law%2C+and+the+Civil+Rights+Act+of+1866&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press+USA&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780199739707&rft.aulast=Rutherglen&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuoLkgJMpuFQC%26printsec%3Dfrontcover%23v%3Donepage%26q%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+Rights+Act+of+1866" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI>Tsesis, Alexander. <I>The Thirteenth Amendment and American Freedom: A Legal History</I> (2004)</LI>
</UL>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_Rights_Act_of_1866&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: External links">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/15px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" width="15" height="16" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/23px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/30px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></A> Texts on Wikisource:
<UL>
<LI><A href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1866" class="extiw" title="s:Civil Rights Act of 1866">Civil Rights Act of 1866</A></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation encyclopaedia">"<A href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_International_Encyclop%C3%A6dia/Civil_Rights_Bill" class="extiw" title="s:The New International Encyclopædia/Civil Rights Bill">Civil Rights Bill</A>". <I><A href="/wiki/New_International_Encyclopedia" title="New International Encyclopedia">New International Encyclopedia</A></I>. 1905.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Civil+Rights+Bill&rft.btitle=New+International+Encyclopedia&rft.date=1905&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+Rights+Act+of+1866" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation encyclopaedia">"<A href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Encyclopedia_Americana_(1920)/Civil_Rights_Bills" class="extiw" title="s:The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Civil Rights Bills">Civil Rights Bills</A>". <I><A href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_Americana" title="Encyclopedia Americana">Encyclopedia Americana</A></I>. 1920.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Civil+Rights+Bills&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Americana&rft.date=1920&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+Rights+Act+of+1866" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
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<DIV style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">Relevant colonial era,<BR />
United States and<BR />
international laws</DIV>
</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Colonial era</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Nationality_law_in_the_American_Colonies" title="Nationality law in the American Colonies">Nationality law in the American Colonies</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Plantation_Act_1740" title="Plantation Act 1740">Plantation Act 1740</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">18th century</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Naturalization_Act_of_1790" title="Naturalization Act of 1790">Naturalization Act 1790</A> / <A href="/wiki/Naturalization_Act_of_1795" title="Naturalization Act of 1795">1795</A> / <A href="/wiki/Naturalization_Act_of_1798" title="Naturalization Act of 1798">1798</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">19th century</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Naturalization_Law_of_1802" title="Naturalization Law of 1802">Naturalization Law 1802</A></LI>
<LI><A class="mw-selflink selflink">Civil Rights Act of 1866</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">14th Amendment <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(1868)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Naturalization_Act_of_1870" title="Naturalization Act of 1870">Naturalization Act 1870</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Page_Act_of_1875" title="Page Act of 1875">Page Act <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(1875)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1882" title="Immigration Act of 1882">Immigration Act of 1882</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act" title="Chinese Exclusion Act">Chinese Exclusion <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(1882)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Scott_Act_(1888)" title="Scott Act (1888)">Scott Act <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(1888)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1891" title="Immigration Act of 1891">Immigration Act of 1891</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Geary_Act" title="Geary Act">Geary Act <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(1892)</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">1900–1949</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Naturalization_Act_of_1906" title="Naturalization Act of 1906">Naturalization Act 1906</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Gentlemen%27s_Agreement_of_1907" title="Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907">Gentlemen's Agreement <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(1907)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1907" title="Immigration Act of 1907">Immigration Act of 1907</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1917" title="Immigration Act of 1917">Immigration Act 1917 <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(Asian Barred Zone)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Emergency_Quota_Act" title="Emergency Quota Act">Emergency Quota Act <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(1921)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cable_Act" title="Cable Act">Cable Act <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(1922)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1924" title="Immigration Act of 1924">Immigration Act 1924</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tydings%E2%80%93McDuffie_Act" title="Tydings–McDuffie Act">Tydings–McDuffie Act <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(1934)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Filipino_Repatriation_Act_of_1935" title="Filipino Repatriation Act of 1935">Filipino Repatriation Act <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(1935)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Nationality_Act_of_1940" title="Nationality Act of 1940">Nationality Act of 1940</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bracero_program" title="Bracero program">Bracero Program <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(1942–1964)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Magnuson_Act" title="Magnuson Act">Magnuson Act <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(1943)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/War_Brides_Act" title="War Brides Act">War Brides Act <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(1945)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Luce%E2%80%93Celler_Act_of_1946" title="Luce–Celler Act of 1946">Luce–Celler Act <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(1946)</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">1950–1999</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Convention_relating_to_the_Status_of_Refugees" class="mw-redirect" title="Convention relating to the Status of Refugees">UN Refugee Convention <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(1951)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Immigration_and_Nationality_Act_of_1952" title="Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952">Immigration and Nationality Act 1952</A> / <A href="/wiki/Immigration_and_Nationality_Act_of_1965" title="Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965">1965</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Refugee_Act" title="Refugee Act">Refugee Act <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(1980)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Immigration_Reform_and_Control_Act_of_1986" title="Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986">Immigration Reform and Control Act <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(1986)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/American_Homecoming_Act" title="American Homecoming Act">American Homecoming Act <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(1989)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1990" title="Immigration Act of 1990">Immigration Act 1990</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Illegal_Immigration_Reform_and_Immigrant_Responsibility_Act_of_1996" title="Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996">Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act (IIRIRA) <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(1996)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Nicaraguan_Adjustment_and_Central_American_Relief_Act" title="Nicaraguan Adjustment and Central American Relief Act">Nicaraguan Adjustment and Central American Relief Act (NACARA) <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(1997)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/American_Competitiveness_and_Workforce_Improvement_Act" title="American Competitiveness and Workforce Improvement Act">American Competitiveness and Workforce Improvement Act (ACWIA) <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(1998)</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">21st century</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/American_Competitiveness_in_the_21st_Century_Act" title="American Competitiveness in the 21st Century Act">American Competitiveness in the 21st Century Act (AC21) <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(2000)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Legal_Immigration_Family_Equity_Act" title="Legal Immigration Family Equity Act">Legal Immigration Family Equity Act (LIFE Act) <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(2000)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/H-1B_Visa_Reform_Act_of_2004" title="H-1B Visa Reform Act of 2004">H-1B Visa Reform Act <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(2004)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/REAL_ID_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="REAL ID Act">REAL ID Act <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(2005)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Secure_Fence_Act_of_2006" title="Secure Fence Act of 2006">Secure Fence Act <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(2006)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Deferred_Action_for_Childhood_Arrivals" title="Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals">DACA <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(2012)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Executive_Order_13769" title="Executive Order 13769">Executive Order 13769 <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(2017)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Executive_Order_13780" title="Executive Order 13780">Executive Order 13780 <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(2017)</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Visas and policies</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Visa_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Visa policy of the United States">Visa policy</A>
<UL>
<LI><SPAN style="font-size:85%;"><A href="/wiki/Permanent_residence_(United_States)" title="Permanent residence (United States)">Permanent residence</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI><SPAN style="font-size:85%;"><A href="/wiki/Visa_Waiver_Program" title="Visa Waiver Program">Visa Waiver Program</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI><SPAN style="font-size:85%;"><A href="/wiki/Temporary_protected_status" title="Temporary protected status">Temporary protected status</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI><SPAN style="font-size:85%;"><A href="/wiki/Asylum_in_the_United_States" title="Asylum in the United States">Asylum</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI><SPAN style="font-size:85%;"><A href="/wiki/Diversity_Immigrant_Visa" title="Diversity Immigrant Visa">Green Card Lottery</A></SPAN></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/US-VISIT" class="mw-redirect" title="US-VISIT">US-VISIT</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Security_Advisory_Opinion" title="Security Advisory Opinion">Security Advisory Opinion</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/E-Verify" title="E-Verify">E-Verify</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Immigration_and_Nationality_Act_Section_287(g)" title="Immigration and Nationality Act Section 287(g)">Section 287(g)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/National_Origins_Formula" title="National Origins Formula">National Origins Formula</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">
<DIV style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">Government<BR />
organizations</DIV>
</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Homeland_Security" title="United States Department of Homeland Security">Department of Homeland Security</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/U.S._Immigration_and_Customs_Enforcement" title="U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement">Immigration and Customs Enforcement</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/U.S._Border_Patrol" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Border Patrol">U.S. Border Patrol</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/U.S._Customs_and_Border_Protection" title="U.S. Customs and Border Protection">U.S. Customs and Border Protection</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Immigration_and_Naturalization_Service" title="Immigration and Naturalization Service">Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Board_of_Immigration_Appeals" title="Board of Immigration Appeals">Board of Immigration Appeals</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Category:United_States_immigration_and_naturalization_case_law" title="Category:United States immigration and naturalization case law">Supreme Court cases</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_v._Wong_Kim_Ark" title="United States v. Wong Kim Ark"><I>United States v. Wong Kim Ark</I> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(1898)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_v._Bhagat_Singh_Thind" title="United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind"><I>United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind</I> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(1923)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_v._Brignoni-Ponce" title="United States v. Brignoni-Ponce"><I>United States v. Brignoni-Ponce</I> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(1975)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Chamber_of_Commerce_v._Whiting" title="Chamber of Commerce v. Whiting"><I>Chamber of Commerce v. Whiting</I> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(2011)</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">
<DIV style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">Related issues<BR />
and events</DIV>
</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_illegal_immigrants_in_the_United_States" title="Economic impact of illegal immigrants in the United States">Economic impact</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Eugenics_in_the_United_States" title="Eugenics in the United States">Eugenics in the United States</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Guest_worker_program" title="Guest worker program">Guest worker program</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_United_States" title="Human trafficking in the United States">Human trafficking</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/People_smuggling" title="People smuggling">Human smuggling</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Coyotaje" title="Coyotaje">Coyotaje</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Immigration_reform" title="Immigration reform">Immigration reform</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Immigration_reduction_in_the_United_States" title="Immigration reduction in the United States">Immigration reduction</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mexico%E2%80%93United_States_barrier" title="Mexico–United States barrier">Mexico–United States barrier</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Shortage#Labor_shortage" title="Shortage">Labor shortage</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/March_for_America" title="March for America">March for America</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Illegal_immigrant_population_of_the_United_States" title="Illegal immigrant population of the United States">Illegal immigrant population</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Reverse_immigration_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Reverse immigration in the United States">Reverse immigration</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/2006_United_States_immigration_reform_protests" title="2006 United States immigration reform protests">2006 protests</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/2014_American_immigration_crisis" title="2014 American immigration crisis">Unaccompanied minors from Central America</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_people_deported_or_removed_from_the_United_States" title="List of people deported or removed from the United States">List of people deported from the United States</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geography</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mexico%E2%80%93United_States_border" title="Mexico–United States border">Mexico–United States border</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Canada%E2%80%93United_States_border" title="Canada–United States border">Canada–United States border</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Border_Patrol_interior_checkpoints" title="United States Border Patrol interior checkpoints">United States Border Patrol interior checkpoints</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proposed legislation</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/DREAM_Act" title="DREAM Act">DREAM Act <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(2001–2010)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Border_Protection,_Anti-terrorism_and_Illegal_Immigration_Control_Act_of_2005" title="Border Protection, Anti-terrorism and Illegal Immigration Control Act of 2005">H.R. 4437 <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(2005)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Secure_America_and_Orderly_Immigration_Act" title="Secure America and Orderly Immigration Act">McCain–Kennedy <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(2005)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/SKIL_Bill" title="SKIL Bill">SKIL <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(2006)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Comprehensive_Immigration_Reform_Act_of_2006" title="Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2006">Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act 2006</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Security_Through_Regularized_Immigration_and_a_Vibrant_Economy_Act_of_2007" title="Security Through Regularized Immigration and a Vibrant Economy Act of 2007">STRIVE Act <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(2007)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Comprehensive_Immigration_Reform_Act_of_2007" title="Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007">Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act 2007</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Uniting_American_Families_Act" title="Uniting American Families Act">Uniting American Families Act <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(2000–2013)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Border_Security,_Economic_Opportunity,_and_Immigration_Modernization_Act_of_2013" title="Border Security, Economic Opportunity, and Immigration Modernization Act of 2013">Border Security, Economic Opportunity, and Immigration Modernization Act of 2013</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/American_SAFE_Act_of_2015" title="American SAFE Act of 2015">SAFE Act <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(2015)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/RAISE_Act" title="RAISE Act">RAISE Act <SMALL>(2017)</SMALL></A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Immigration stations<BR />
and points of entry</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Angel_Island_Immigration_Station" title="Angel Island Immigration Station">Angel Island</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Castle_Clinton" title="Castle Clinton">Castle Garden</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/East_Boston_Immigration_Station" title="East Boston Immigration Station">East Boston</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ellis_Island" title="Ellis Island">Ellis Island</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sullivan%27s_Island,_South_Carolina" title="Sullivan's Island, South Carolina">Sullivan's Island</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Washington_Avenue_Immigration_Station" title="Washington Avenue Immigration Station">Washington Avenue</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Operations</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Operation_Wetback" title="Operation Wetback">"Wetback" <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(1954)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Operation_Peter_Pan" title="Operation Peter Pan">"Peter Pan" <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(1960–1962)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Operation_Babylift" title="Operation Babylift">"Babylift" <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(1975)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Operation_Gatekeeper" title="Operation Gatekeeper">"Gatekeeper" <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(1994)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Operation_Endgame" title="Operation Endgame">"Endgame" <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(2003–2012)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Operation_Front_Line" title="Operation Front Line">"Front Line" <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(2004–2005)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Operation_Streamline" title="Operation Streamline">"Streamline" <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(2005–present)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Operation_Return_to_Sender" title="Operation Return to Sender">"Return to Sender" <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(2006–2007)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Operation_Jump_Start" title="Operation Jump Start">"Jump Start" <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(2006–2008)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Operation_Phalanx_(2010-2016)" title="Operation Phalanx (2010-2016)">"Phalanx" <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(2010–2016)</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">State legislation</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/California_DREAM_Act" title="California DREAM Act">California DREAM Act <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(2006–2010)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Arizona_SB_1070" title="Arizona SB 1070">Arizona SB 1070 <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(2010)</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Alabama_HB_56" title="Alabama HB 56">Alabama HB 56 <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(2011)</SPAN></A></LI>
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<DIV style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">Non-governmental<BR />
organizations</DIV>
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<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Arizona_Border_Recon" title="Arizona Border Recon">Arizona Border Recon</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Coalition_for_Humane_Immigrant_Rights_of_Los_Angeles" title="Coalition for Humane Immigrant Rights of Los Angeles">Coalition for Humane Immigrant Rights of Los Angeles</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Coalition_for_Comprehensive_Immigration_Reform" title="Coalition for Comprehensive Immigration Reform">Coalition for Comprehensive Immigration Reform</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/National_Immigration_Forum" title="National Immigration Forum">National Immigration Forum</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Center_for_Community_Change" title="Center for Community Change">Center for Community Change</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/We_Are_America_Alliance" title="We Are America Alliance">We Are America Alliance</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/CASA_of_Maryland" class="mw-redirect" title="CASA of Maryland">CASA of Maryland</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mexica_Movement" title="Mexica Movement">Mexica Movement</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mexicans_Without_Borders" title="Mexicans Without Borders">Mexicans Without Borders</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Federation_for_American_Immigration_Reform" title="Federation for American Immigration Reform">Federation for American Immigration Reform</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Minuteman_Project" title="Minuteman Project">Minuteman Project</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Minuteman_Civil_Defense_Corps" title="Minuteman Civil Defense Corps">Minuteman Civil Defense Corps</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/California_Coalition_for_Immigration_Reform" title="California Coalition for Immigration Reform">California Coalition for Immigration Reform</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Save_Our_State" title="Save Our State">Save Our State</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Center_for_Immigration_Studies" title="Center for Immigration Studies">Center for Immigration Studies</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/National_Korean_American_Service_%26_Education_Consortium" title="National Korean American Service & Education Consortium">National Korean American Service & Education Consortium (NAKASEC)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/NumbersUSA" title="NumbersUSA">NumbersUSA</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Negative_Population_Growth" title="Negative Population Growth">Negative Population Growth</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Migration_Policy_Institute" title="Migration Policy Institute">Migration Policy Institute</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Utah_Compact" title="Utah Compact">Utah Compact</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Center_for_Migration_Studies_of_New_York" title="Center for Migration Studies of New York">Center for Migration Studies of New York</A></LI>
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document_title: Civil Rights Act of 1866

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question_text: why was the civil rights act of 1866 made into an amendment to the constitution