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<H1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Hydrothermal vent</H1>			<DIV id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content">
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<TH style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em"><A href="/wiki/Marine_habitats" title="Marine habitats">Marine habitats</A></TH>
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<TD style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em"><A href="/wiki/File:Champagne_vent_white_smokers.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Champagne vent white smokers.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Champagne_vent_white_smokers.jpg/220px-Champagne_vent_white_smokers.jpg" width="220" height="165" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Champagne_vent_white_smokers.jpg/330px-Champagne_vent_white_smokers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Champagne_vent_white_smokers.jpg/440px-Champagne_vent_white_smokers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2250" /></A>
<DIV style="padding-top:0.2em;line-height:1.2em">White smokers emitting liquid rich in barium, calcium, silicon and carbon dioxide at the <I>Champagne</I> vent, Northwest Eifuku volcano, <A href="/wiki/Marianas_Trench_Marine_National_Monument" title="Marianas Trench Marine National Monument">Marianas Trench Marine National Monument</A></DIV>
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<P>A <B>hydrothermal vent</B> is a <A href="/wiki/Fissure_vent" title="Fissure vent">fissure</A> in a planet's surface from which <A href="/wiki/Geothermal_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Geothermal (geology)">geothermally</A> heated <A href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</A> issues. Hydrothermal vents were discovered years ago in 1977. Hydrothermal vents are commonly found near <A href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcanically</A> active places, areas where <A href="/wiki/Tectonic_plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tectonic plate">tectonic plates</A> are moving apart at <A href="/wiki/Spreading_center" class="mw-redirect" title="Spreading center">spreading centers</A>, ocean basins, and <A href="/wiki/Hotspot_(geology)" title="Hotspot (geology)">hotspots</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-:0-1">[1]</A></SUP> Hydrothermal vents exist because the earth is both geologically active and has large amounts of water on its surface and within its crust. Common land types include <A href="/wiki/Hot_spring" title="Hot spring">hot springs</A>, <A href="/wiki/Fumarole" title="Fumarole">fumaroles</A> and <A href="/wiki/Geyser" title="Geyser">geysers</A>. Under the sea, hydrothermal vents may form features called <B>black smokers</B>. Relative to the majority of the deep sea, the areas around submarine hydrothermal vents are biologically more productive, often hosting complex communities fueled by the chemicals dissolved in the vent fluids. <A href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">Chemosynthetic</A> bacteria and <A href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</A> form the base of the <A href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">food chain</A>, supporting diverse organisms, including <A href="/wiki/Giant_tube_worm" title="Giant tube worm">giant tube worms</A>, <A href="/wiki/Clam" title="Clam">clams</A>, <A href="/wiki/Limpet" title="Limpet">limpets</A> and <A href="/wiki/Shrimp" title="Shrimp">shrimp</A>. Active hydrothermal vents are believed to exist on <A href="/wiki/Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</A>'s moon <A href="/wiki/Europa_(moon)" title="Europa (moon)">Europa</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Saturn" title="Saturn">Saturn</A>'s moon <A href="/wiki/Enceladus_(moon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Enceladus (moon)">Enceladus</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-NYT-20170413_2-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-NYT-20170413-2">[2]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-3">[3]</A></SUP> and it is speculated that ancient hydrothermal vents once existed on <A href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-:0-1">[1]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-4">[4]</A></SUP></P>
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<H2>Contents</H2>
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<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><A href="#Physical_properties"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Physical properties</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><A href="#Black_smokers_and_white_smokers"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Black smokers and white smokers</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><A href="#Biological_communities"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Biological communities</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><A href="#Biological_theories"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Biological theories</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><A href="#The_Deep_Hot_Biosphere"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext"><I>The Deep Hot Biosphere</I></SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><A href="#Hydrothermal_origin_of_life"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Hydrothermal origin of life</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><A href="#Discovery_and_exploration"><SPAN class="tocnumber">5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Discovery and exploration</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><A href="#Distribution"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Distribution</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><A href="#Exploitation"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Exploitation</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><A href="#Conservation"><SPAN class="tocnumber">8</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Conservation</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><A href="#See_also"><SPAN class="tocnumber">9</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">See also</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><A href="#References"><SPAN class="tocnumber">10</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">References</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><A href="#Further_reading"><SPAN class="tocnumber">11</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Further reading</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><A href="#External_links"><SPAN class="tocnumber">12</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">External links</SPAN></A></LI>
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<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Physical_properties">Physical properties</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrothermal_vent&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Physical properties">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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In this <A href="/wiki/Phase_diagram" title="Phase diagram">phase diagram</A>, the green dotted line illustrates the <A href="/wiki/Water_(molecule)#Density_of_water_and_ice" class="mw-redirect" title="Water (molecule)">anomalous behavior of water</A>. The dotted green line marks the <A href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">melting point</A> and the blue line the <A href="/wiki/Boiling_point" title="Boiling point">boiling point</A>, showing how they vary with pressure; the solid green line shows the typical melting point behavior for other substances.</DIV>
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<P>Hydrothermal vents in the deep ocean typically form along the <A href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">mid-ocean ridges</A>, such as the <A href="/wiki/East_Pacific_Rise" title="East Pacific Rise">East Pacific Rise</A> and the <A href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_Ridge" title="Mid-Atlantic Ridge">Mid-Atlantic Ridge</A>. These are locations where two <A href="/wiki/Tectonic_plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tectonic plate">tectonic plates</A> are diverging and new crust is being formed.</P>
<P>The water that issues from seafloor hydrothermal vents consists mostly of <A href="/wiki/Sea_water" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea water">sea water</A> drawn into the hydrothermal system close to the volcanic edifice through faults and porous sediments or volcanic strata, plus some magmatic water released by the upwelling <A href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">magma</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-:0_1-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-:0-1">[1]</A></SUP> In terrestrial hydrothermal systems, the majority of water circulated within the <A href="/wiki/Fumarole" title="Fumarole">fumarole</A> and <A href="/wiki/Geyser" title="Geyser">geyser</A> systems is <A href="/wiki/Meteoric_water" title="Meteoric water">meteoric water</A> plus <A href="/wiki/Ground_water" class="mw-redirect" title="Ground water">ground water</A> that has percolated down into the thermal system from the surface, but it also commonly contains some portion of <A href="/wiki/Metamorphism#Hydrothermal_metamorphism" title="Metamorphism">metamorphic water</A>, <A href="/wiki/Magmatic_water" title="Magmatic water">magmatic water</A>, and sedimentary formational <A href="/wiki/Brine" title="Brine">brine</A> that is released by the magma. The proportion of each varies from location to location.</P>
<P>In contrast to the approximately 2 °C (36 °F) ambient water temperature at these depths, water emerges from these vents at temperatures ranging from 60 °C (140 °F)<SUP id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-5">[5]</A></SUP> up to as high as 464 °C (867 °F).<SUP id="cite_ref-Haas2007_6-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Haas2007-6">[6]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Karst2009_7-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Karst2009-7">[7]</A></SUP> Due to the high <A href="/wiki/Hydrostatic_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrostatic pressure">hydrostatic pressure</A> at these depths, water may exist in either its liquid form or as a <A href="/wiki/Supercritical_fluid" title="Supercritical fluid">supercritical fluid</A> at such temperatures. The <A href="/wiki/Critical_point_(thermodynamics)" title="Critical point (thermodynamics)">critical point</A> of (pure) water is 375 °C (707 °F) at a pressure of 218 <A href="/wiki/Atmosphere_(unit)" title="Atmosphere (unit)">atmospheres</A>. However, introducing salinity into the fluid raises the critical point to higher temperatures and pressures. The critical point of seawater (3.2 wt. % NaCl) is 407 °C (765 °F) and 298.5 bars,<SUP id="cite_ref-bischoff1988_8-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-bischoff1988-8">[8]</A></SUP> corresponding to a depth of ~2,960 m (9,710 ft) below sea level. Accordingly, if a hydrothermal fluid with a salinity of 3.2 wt. % NaCl vents above 407 °C (765 °F) and 298.5 bars, it is supercritical. Furthermore, the salinity of vent fluids have been shown to vary widely due to phase separation in the crust.<SUP id="cite_ref-VonDamm1991_9-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-VonDamm1991-9">[9]</A></SUP> The critical point for lower salinity fluids is at lower temperature and pressure conditions than that for seawater, but higher than that for pure water. For example, a vent fluid with a 2.24 wt. % NaCl salinity has the critical point at 400 °C (752 °F) and 280.5 bars. Thus, water emerging from the hottest parts of some hydrothermal vents can be a <A href="/wiki/Supercritical_fluid#Submarine_volcanoes" title="Supercritical fluid">supercritical fluid</A>, possessing physical properties between those of a <A href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">gas</A> and those of a <A href="/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">liquid</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Haas2007_6-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Haas2007-6">[6]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Karst2009_7-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Karst2009-7">[7]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Examples of supercritical venting are found at several sites. <I>Sister Peak</I> (Comfortless Cove Hydrothermal Field, <SPAN class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><A class="external text" href="//tools.wmflabs.org/geohack/geohack.php?pagename=Hydrothermal_vent&params=4_48_S_12_22_W_"><SPAN class="geo-default"><SPAN class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><SPAN class="latitude">4°48′S</SPAN> <SPAN class="longitude">12°22′W</SPAN></SPAN></SPAN><SPAN class="geo-multi-punct"> / </SPAN><SPAN class="geo-nondefault"><SPAN class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">4.800°S 12.367°W</SPAN><SPAN style="display:none"> / <SPAN class="geo">-4.800; -12.367</SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></A></SPAN>, depth 2,996 m or 9,829 ft) vents low salinity <A href="/wiki/Phase_transition" title="Phase transition">phase-separated</A>, vapor-type fluids. Sustained venting was not found to be supercritical but a brief injection of 464 °C (867 °F) was well above supercritical conditions. A nearby site, Turtle Pits, was found to vent low salinity fluid at 407 °C (765 °F), which is above the critical point of the fluid at that salinity. A vent site in the <A href="/wiki/Cayman_Trough" title="Cayman Trough">Cayman Trough</A> named <A href="/wiki/Beebe_Hydrothermal_Vent_Field" title="Beebe Hydrothermal Vent Field">Beebe</A>, which is the world's deepest known hydrothermal site at ~5,000 m (16,000 ft) below sea level, has shown sustained supercritical venting at 401 °C (754 °F) and 2.3 wt% NaCl.<SUP id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-10">[10]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Although supercritical conditions have been observed at several sites, it is not yet known what significance, if any, supercritical venting has in terms of hydrothermal circulation, mineral deposit formation, geochemical fluxes or biological activity.</P>
<P>The initial stages of a vent chimney begin with the deposition of the mineral <A href="/wiki/Anhydrite" title="Anhydrite">anhydrite</A>. <A href="/wiki/Sulfide_mineral" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulfide mineral">Sulfides</A> of <A href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</A>, <A href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</A> then precipitate in the chimney gaps, making it less <A href="/wiki/Porosity" title="Porosity">porous</A> over the course of time. Vent growths on the order of 30 cm (1 ft) per day have been recorded.<SUP id="cite_ref-black_smoker_11-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-black_smoker-11">[11]</A></SUP> An April 2007 exploration of the deep-sea vents off the coast of <A href="/wiki/Fiji" title="Fiji">Fiji</A> found those vents to be a significant source of dissolved iron.<SUP id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-12">[12]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Black_smokers_and_white_smokers">Black smokers and white smokers</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrothermal_vent&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Black smokers and white smokers">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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Deep-sea vent <A href="/wiki/Biogeochemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Biogeochemical">biogeochemical</A> cycle diagram</DIV>
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<P>Some hydrothermal vents form roughly cylindrical chimney structures. These form from minerals that are dissolved in the vent fluid. When the superheated water contacts the near-freezing sea water, the minerals precipitate out to form particles which add to the height of the stacks. Some of these chimney structures can reach heights of 60 m.<SUP id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-13">[13]</A></SUP> An example of such a towering vent was "Godzilla", a structure on the Pacific Ocean deep seafloor near <A href="/wiki/Oregon" title="Oregon">Oregon</A> that rose to 40 m before it fell over in 1996.<SUP id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-14">[14]</A></SUP></P>
<P>A <B>black smoker</B> or <B>deep</B> <B>sea vent</B> is a type of hydrothermal vent found on the <A href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">seabed</A>, typically in the <A href="/wiki/Bathyal_zone" title="Bathyal zone">bathyal zone</A> (with largest frequency in depths from 2500 m to 3000 m), but also in lesser depths as well as deeper in <A href="/wiki/Abyssal_zone" title="Abyssal zone">abyssal zone</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-:0_1-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-:0-1">[1]</A></SUP> They appear as black, chimney-like structures that emit a cloud of black material. Black smokers typically emit particles with high levels of sulfur-bearing minerals, or sulfides. Black smokers are formed in fields hundreds of meters wide when <A href="/wiki/Superheating" title="Superheating">superheated</A> water from below <A href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</A>'s <A href="/wiki/Crust_(geology)" title="Crust (geology)">crust</A> comes through the ocean floor (water may attain temperatures above 400 °C).<SUP id="cite_ref-:0_1-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-:0-1">[1]</A></SUP> This water is rich in dissolved <A href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">minerals</A> from the crust, most notably <A href="/wiki/Sulfide" title="Sulfide">sulfides</A>. When it comes in contact with cold ocean water, many minerals precipitate, forming a black, chimney-like structure around each vent. The deposited metal sulfides can become <A href="/wiki/Volcanogenic_massive_sulfide_ore_deposit" title="Volcanogenic massive sulfide ore deposit">massive sulfide ore deposits</A> in time.</P>
<P>Black smokers were first discovered in 1979 on the <A href="/wiki/East_Pacific_Rise" title="East Pacific Rise">East Pacific Rise</A> by scientists from <A href="/wiki/Scripps_Institution_of_Oceanography" title="Scripps Institution of Oceanography">Scripps Institution of Oceanography</A>. They were observed using the deep submergence vehicle <A href="/wiki/DSV_Alvin" title="DSV Alvin">ALVIN</A> from the <A href="/wiki/Woods_Hole_Oceanographic_Institution" title="Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution">Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution</A>. Now, black smokers are known to exist in the <A href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic</A> and <A href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific</A> Oceans, at an average depth of 2100 metres. The most northerly black smokers are a cluster of five named <A href="/wiki/Loki%27s_Castle_(hydrothermal_field)" class="mw-redirect" title="Loki's Castle (hydrothermal field)">Loki's Castle</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-15">[15]</A></SUP> discovered in 2008 by scientists from the <A href="/wiki/University_of_Bergen" title="University of Bergen">University of Bergen</A> at <A href="/wiki/73rd_parallel_north" title="73rd parallel north">73°N</A>, on the <A href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_Ridge" title="Mid-Atlantic Ridge">Mid-Atlantic Ridge</A> between <A href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</A> and <A href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</A>. These black smokers are of interest as they are in a more stable area of the Earth's crust, where tectonic forces are less and consequently fields of hydrothermal vents are less common.<SUP id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-16">[16]</A></SUP> The world's deepest known black smokers are located in the <A href="/wiki/Cayman_Trough" title="Cayman Trough">Cayman Trough</A>, 5,000 m (3.1 miles) below the ocean's surface.<SUP id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-17">[17]</A></SUP></P>
<P><B>White smoker</B> vents emit lighter-hued minerals, such as those containing barium, calcium and silicon. These vents also tend to have lower-temperature plumes probably because they are generally distant from their heat source.<SUP id="cite_ref-:0_1-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-:0-1">[1]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Black and white smokers may coexist in the same hydrothermal field, but they generally represent proximal and distal vents to the main upflow zone, respectively. However, white smokers correspond mostly to waning stages of such hydrothermal fields, as magmatic heat sources become progressively more distant from the source (due to magma crystallization) and hydrothermal fluids become dominated by seawater instead of magmatic water. Mineralizing fluids from this type of vents are rich in calcium and they form dominantly sulfate-rich (i.e., <A href="/wiki/Barite" class="mw-redirect" title="Barite">barite</A> and anhydrite) and carbonate deposits.<SUP id="cite_ref-:0_1-6" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-:0-1">[1]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Biological_communities">Biological communities</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrothermal_vent&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Biological communities">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <A href="/wiki/Deep_sea_communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep sea communities">Deep sea communities</A>, <A href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</A>, <A href="/wiki/Geyser#Biology_of_geysers" title="Geyser">Geyser § Biology of geysers</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Hot_spring#Biota_in_hot_springs" title="Hot spring">Hot spring § Biota in hot springs</A></DIV>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <A href="/wiki/Hyperthermophile" title="Hyperthermophile">Hyperthermophile</A> and <A href="/wiki/Thermophile" title="Thermophile">Thermophile</A></DIV>
<P>Life has traditionally been seen as driven by energy from the sun, but deep-sea organisms have no access to sunlight, so they must depend on nutrients found in the dusty chemical deposits and hydrothermal fluids in which they live. Previously, benthic oceanographers assumed that vent organisms were dependent on <A href="/wiki/Marine_snow" title="Marine snow">marine snow</A>, as deep-sea organisms are. This would leave them dependent on plant life and thus the sun. Some hydrothermal vent organisms do consume this "rain", but with only such a system, life forms would be very sparse. Compared to the surrounding sea floor, however, hydrothermal vent zones have a density of organisms 10,000 to 100,000 times greater.</P>
<P>Hydrothermal vent communities are able to sustain such vast amounts of life because vent organisms depend on chemosynthetic bacteria for food. The water from the hydrothermal vent is rich in dissolved minerals and supports a large population of chemoautotrophic bacteria. These bacteria use sulfur compounds, particularly <A href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">hydrogen sulfide</A>, a chemical highly toxic to most known organisms, to produce organic material through the process of <A href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">chemosynthesis</A>.</P>
<P>The ecosystem so formed is reliant upon the continued existence of the hydrothermal vent field as the primary source of energy, which differs from most surface life on Earth, which is based on <A href="/wiki/Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">solar energy</A>. However, although it is often said that these communities exist independently of the sun, some of the organisms are actually dependent upon oxygen produced by photosynthetic organisms, while others are <A href="/wiki/Anaerobic_organism" title="Anaerobic organism">anaerobic</A>.</P>
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A dense fauna (<I><A href="/wiki/Kiwaidae" title="Kiwaidae">Kiwa</A></I> anomurans and <I><A href="/wiki/Vulcanolepas_osheai" title="Vulcanolepas osheai">Vulcanolepas</A></I>-like stalked barnacles) near <A href="/wiki/East_Scotia_Ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="East Scotia Ridge">East Scotia Ridge</A> vents</DIV>
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<A href="/wiki/Giant_tube_worm" title="Giant tube worm">Giant tube worms</A> (<I>Riftia pachyptila</I>) cluster around vents in the <A href="/wiki/Galapagos_Rift" class="mw-redirect" title="Galapagos Rift">Galapagos Rift</A></DIV>
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<P>The chemosynthetic bacteria grow into a thick mat which attracts other organisms, such as <A href="/wiki/Amphipoda" title="Amphipoda">amphipods</A> and <A href="/wiki/Copepod" title="Copepod">copepods</A>, which graze upon the bacteria directly. Larger organisms, such as <A href="/wiki/Snail" title="Snail">snails</A>, <A href="/wiki/Shrimp" title="Shrimp">shrimp</A>, <A href="/wiki/Crab" title="Crab">crabs</A>, <A href="/wiki/Siboglinidae" title="Siboglinidae">tube worms</A>, <A href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</A> (especially <A href="/wiki/Eelpout" title="Eelpout">eelpout</A>, <A href="/wiki/Cutthroat_eel" title="Cutthroat eel">cutthroat eel</A>, <A href="/wiki/Ophidiiformes" title="Ophidiiformes">ophidiiforms</A> and <I><A href="/wiki/Symphurus_thermophilus" title="Symphurus thermophilus">Symphurus thermophilus</A></I>), and <A href="/wiki/Octopuses" class="mw-redirect" title="Octopuses">octopuses</A> (notably <I><A href="/wiki/Vulcanoctopus_hydrothermalis" title="Vulcanoctopus hydrothermalis">Vulcanoctopus hydrothermalis</A></I>), form a <A href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">food chain</A> of predator and prey relationships above the primary consumers. The main families of organisms found around seafloor vents are <A href="/wiki/Annelid" title="Annelid">annelids</A>, <A href="/wiki/Siboglinidae" title="Siboglinidae">pogonophorans</A>, <A href="/wiki/Gastropod" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastropod">gastropods</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</A>, with large <A href="/wiki/Bivalves" class="mw-redirect" title="Bivalves">bivalves</A>, vestimentiferan worms, and "eyeless" shrimp making up the bulk of nonmicrobial organisms.</P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Siboglinidae" title="Siboglinidae">Siboglinid tube worms</A>, which may grow to over 2 m (6.6 ft) tall in the largest species, often form an important part of the community around a hydrothermal vent. They have no mouth or digestive tract, and like parasitic worms, absorb nutrients produced by the bacteria in their tissues. About 285 billion bacteria are found per ounce of tubeworm tissue. Tubeworms have red plumes which contain <A href="/wiki/Hemoglobin" title="Hemoglobin">hemoglobin</A>. <A href="/wiki/Hemoglobin" title="Hemoglobin">Hemoglobin</A> combines with hydrogen sulfide and transfers it to the bacteria living inside the worm. In return, the bacteria nourish the worm with carbon compounds. Two of the species that inhabit a hydrothermal vent are <I><A href="/w/index.php?title=Tevnia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tevnia (page does not exist)">Tevnia</A> jerichonana</I>, and <I><A href="/wiki/Riftia_pachyptila" class="mw-redirect" title="Riftia pachyptila">Riftia pachyptila</A></I>. One discovered community, dubbed "<A href="/wiki/Eel_City" title="Eel City">Eel City</A>", consists predominantly of the eel <I><A href="/wiki/Dysommina_rugosa" title="Dysommina rugosa">Dysommina rugosa</A></I>. Though eels are not uncommon, invertebrates typically dominate hydrothermal vents. Eel City is located near <A href="/wiki/Vailulu%27u" title="Vailulu'u">Nafanua volcanic cone</A>, <A href="/wiki/American_Samoa" title="American Samoa">American Samoa</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-18">[18]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In 1993, already more than 100 gastropod species were known to occur in hydrothermal vents.<SUP id="cite_ref-Sysoev_1995_19-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Sysoev_1995-19">[19]</A></SUP> Over 300 new species have been discovered at hydrothermal vents,<SUP id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-20">[20]</A></SUP> many of them "sister species" to others found in geographically separated vent areas. It has been proposed that before the <A href="/wiki/North_American_plate" class="mw-redirect" title="North American plate">North American plate</A> overrode the <A href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">mid-ocean ridge</A>, there was a single biogeographic vent region found in the eastern Pacific.<SUP id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-21">[21]</A></SUP> The subsequent barrier to travel began the evolutionary divergence of species in different locations. The examples of convergent evolution seen between distinct hydrothermal vents is seen as major support for the theory of natural selection and of evolution as a whole.</P>
<P>Although life is very sparse at these depths, black smokers are the centers of entire <A href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</A>. Sunlight is nonexistent, so many organisms – such as <A href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</A> and <A href="/wiki/Extremophile" title="Extremophile">extremophiles</A> – convert the heat, <A href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</A> compounds provided by black smokers into energy through a process called <A href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">chemosynthesis</A>. More complex life forms, such as <A href="/wiki/Clam" title="Clam">clams</A> and <A href="/wiki/Giant_tube_worm" title="Giant tube worm">tubeworms</A>, feed on these organisms. The organisms at the base of the <A href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">food chain</A> also deposit minerals into the base of the black smoker, therefore completing the <A href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">life cycle</A>.</P>
<P>A species of phototrophic bacterium has been found living near a black smoker off the coast of <A href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</A> at a depth of 2,500 m (8,200 ft). No sunlight penetrates that far into the waters. Instead, the bacteria, part of the <A href="/wiki/Green_sulfur_bacteria" title="Green sulfur bacteria">Chlorobiaceae</A> family, use the faint glow from the black smoker for <A href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</A>. This is the first organism discovered in nature to exclusively use a light other than sunlight for photosynthesis.<SUP id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-22">[22]</A></SUP></P>
<P>New and unusual species are constantly being discovered in the neighborhood of black smokers. The <A href="/wiki/Pompeii_worm" class="mw-redirect" title="Pompeii worm">Pompeii worm</A> <I>Alvinella pompejana</I>, which is capable of withstanding temperatures up to 80 °C (176 °F), was found in the 1980s, and a <A href="/wiki/Scaly-foot_gastropod" title="Scaly-foot gastropod">scaly-foot gastropod</A> <I>Chrysomallon squamiferum</I> in 2001 during an expedition to the <A href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</A>'s Kairei hydrothermal vent field. The latter uses iron sulfides (<A href="/wiki/Pyrite" title="Pyrite">pyrite</A> and greigite) for the structure of its dermal <A href="/wiki/Sclerites" class="mw-redirect" title="Sclerites">sclerites</A> (hardened body parts), instead of <A href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</A>. The extreme pressure of 2500 m of water (approximately 25 <A href="/wiki/Megapascal" class="mw-redirect" title="Megapascal">megapascals</A> or 250 <A href="/wiki/Atmosphere_(unit)" title="Atmosphere (unit)">atmospheres</A>) is thought to play a role in stabilizing iron sulfide for biological purposes. This armor plating probably serves as a defense against the venomous <A href="/wiki/Radula" title="Radula">radula</A> (teeth) of <A href="/wiki/Predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Predator">predatory</A> <A href="/wiki/Snail" title="Snail">snails</A> in that community.</P>
<P>In March 2017, researchers reported evidence of possibly the <A href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">oldest forms of life</A> on <A href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</A>. Putative fossilized <A href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</A> were discovered in hydrothermal vent precipitates in the <A href="/wiki/Nuvvuagittuq_Greenstone_Belt" title="Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt">Nuvvuagittuq Belt</A> of <A href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec, Canada</A>, that may have lived as <A href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">early as 4.280 billion years ago</A>, not long after the <A href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">oceans</A> <A href="/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth#Water_in_the_development_of_Earth" title="Origin of water on Earth">formed 4.4 billion years ago</A>, and not long after the <A href="/wiki/Age_of_the_Earth" title="Age of the Earth">formation of the Earth</A> 4.54 billion years ago.<SUP id="cite_ref-NAT-20170301_23-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-NAT-20170301-23">[23]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-NYT-20170301_24-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-NYT-20170301-24">[24]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-BBC-20170301_25-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-BBC-20170301-25">[25]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Biological_theories">Biological theories</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrothermal_vent&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Biological theories">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>Although the discovery of hydrothermal vents is a relatively recent event in the history of science, the importance of this discovery has given rise to, and supported, new biological and bio-atmospheric theories.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="The_Deep_Hot_Biosphere"><I>The Deep Hot Biosphere</I></SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrothermal_vent&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: The Deep Hot Biosphere">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>At the beginning of his 1992 paper <I>The Deep Hot Biosphere</I>, <A href="/wiki/Thomas_Gold" title="Thomas Gold">Thomas Gold</A> referred to <I>ocean vents</I> in support of his theory that the lower levels of the earth are rich in living biological material that finds its way to the surface.<SUP id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-26">[26]</A></SUP> He further expanded his ideas in the book <I><A href="/wiki/The_Deep_Hot_Biosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="The Deep Hot Biosphere">The Deep Hot Biosphere</A></I>.<SUP id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-27">[27]</A></SUP></P>
<P>An article on <I>abiogenic hydrocarbon production</I> in the February 2008 issue of <A href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</A> journal used data from experiments at the <A href="/wiki/Lost_City_(hydrothermal_field)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lost City (hydrothermal field)">Lost City hydrothermal field</A> to report how the abiotic synthesis of low molecular mass hydrocarbons from mantle derived carbon dioxide may occur in the presence of ultramafic rocks, water, and moderate amounts of heat.<SUP id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-28">[28]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Hydrothermal_origin_of_life">Hydrothermal origin of life</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrothermal_vent&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Hydrothermal origin of life">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Abiogenesis#Deep_sea_vent_hypothesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis § Deep sea vent hypothesis</A></DIV>
<P>The chemical and thermal dynamics in hydrothermal vents makes such environments highly suitable thermodynamically for chemical evolution processes to take place. Therefore, thermal energy flux is a permanent agent and contributed to the evolution of the planet, including prebiotic chemistry.<SUP id="cite_ref-:0_1-7" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-:0-1">[1]</A></SUP></P>
<P><A href="/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_W%C3%A4chtersh%C3%A4user" title="Günter Wächtershäuser">Günter Wächtershäuser</A> proposed the <A href="/wiki/Iron-sulfur_world_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron-sulfur world theory">iron-sulfur world theory</A> and suggested that life might have <A href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">originated</A> at hydrothermal vents. Wächtershäuser proposed that an early form of metabolism predated genetics. By metabolism he meant a cycle of chemical reactions that release energy in a form that can be harnessed by other processes.<SUP id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-29">[29]</A></SUP></P>
<P>It has been proposed that <A href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acid</A> synthesis could have occurred deep in the Earth's crust and that these amino acids were subsequently shot up along with hydrothermal fluids into cooler waters, where lower temperatures and the presence of clay minerals would have fostered the formation of peptides and <A href="/wiki/Protocell" title="Protocell">protocells</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-30">[30]</A></SUP> This is an attractive hypothesis because of the abundance of CH<SUB>4</SUB> (<A href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</A>) and NH<SUB>3</SUB> (<A href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</A>) present in hydrothermal vent regions, a condition that was not provided by the Earth's primitive atmosphere. A major limitation to this hypothesis is the lack of stability of organic molecules at high temperatures, but some have suggested that life would have originated outside of the zones of highest temperature.<SUP id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-31">[31]</A></SUP> There are numerous species of <A href="/wiki/Extremophiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Extremophiles">extremophiles</A> and other organisms currently living immediately around deep-sea vents, suggesting that this is indeed a possible scenario.</P>
<P>Experimental research and computing modeling indicate that the surfaces of mineral particles inside hydrothermal vents have similar catalytic properties to enzymes and are able to create simple organic molecules, such as <A href="/wiki/Methanol" title="Methanol">methanol</A> (CH<SUB>3</SUB>OH) and <A href="/wiki/Formic_acid" title="Formic acid">formic acid</A> (HCO<SUB>2</SUB>H), out of the dissolved CO<SUB>2</SUB> in the water.<SUP id="cite_ref-organics_32-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-organics-32">[32]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-33">[33]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-34">[34]</A></SUP></P>
<P>It is thought that alkaline hydrothermal vents (white smokers) might be more suitable for emerging life than black smokers due to their pH conditions.<SUP id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-35">[35]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-NLane_Funke_36-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-NLane_Funke-36">[36]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Discovery_and_exploration">Discovery and exploration</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrothermal_vent&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Discovery and exploration">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>In 1949, a deep water survey reported anomalously hot brines in the central portion of the <A href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</A>. Later work in the 1960s confirmed the presence of hot, 60 °C (140 °F), saline brines and associated metalliferous muds. The hot solutions were emanating from an active subseafloor <A href="/wiki/Rift_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rift (geology)">rift</A>. The highly saline character of the waters was not hospitable to living organisms.<SUP id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-37">[37]</A></SUP> The brines and associated muds are currently under investigation as a source of mineable precious and base metals.</P>
<P>In June 1976, scientists from <A href="/wiki/Scripps_Institution_of_Oceanography" title="Scripps Institution of Oceanography">Scripps Institution of Oceanography</A> obtained the first evidence for submarine hydrothermal vents along the Galápagos Rift, a spur of the <A href="/wiki/East_Pacific_Rise" title="East Pacific Rise">East Pacific Rise</A>, on the <I>Pleiades II</I> expedition, using the Deep-Tow seafloor imaging system.<SUP id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-38">[38]</A></SUP> In 1977, the first scientific papers on hydrothermal vents were published by scientists from <A href="/wiki/Scripps_Institution_of_Oceanography" title="Scripps Institution of Oceanography">Scripps Institution of Oceanography</A>; research scientist Peter Lonsdale published photographs taken from deep-towed cameras,<SUP id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-39">[39]</A></SUP> and PhD student <A href="/wiki/Kathleen_Crane" title="Kathleen Crane">Kathleen Crane</A> published maps and temperature anomaly data.<SUP id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-40">[40]</A></SUP> Transponders were deployed at the site, which was nick-named "Clam-bake", to enable an expedition to return the following year for direct observations with the <A href="/wiki/DSV_Alvin" title="DSV Alvin">DSV ALVIN</A>.</P>
<P>Chemosynthetic ecosystems surrounding the Galápagos Rift submarine hydrothermal vents were first directly observed in 1977, when a group of marine geologists funded by the <A href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</A> returned to the Clambake sites. The principal investigator for the submersible study was <A href="/wiki/Jack_Corliss" title="Jack Corliss">Jack Corliss</A> of <A href="/wiki/Oregon_State_University" title="Oregon State University">Oregon State University</A>. Corliss and Tjeerd van Andel from <A href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</A> observed and sampled the vents and their ecosystem on February 17, 1977, while diving in the <A href="/wiki/DSV_Alvin" title="DSV Alvin">DSV ALVIN</A>, a research submersible operated by <A href="/wiki/Woods_Hole_Oceanographic_Institution" title="Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution">Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution</A> (WHOI).<SUP id="cite_ref-divediscover.whoi.edu_41-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-divediscover.whoi.edu-41">[41]</A></SUP> Other scientists on the research cruise included <A href="/wiki/Richard_P._Von_Herzen" title="Richard P. Von Herzen">Richard (Dick) Von Herzen</A> and <A href="/wiki/Robert_Ballard" title="Robert Ballard">Robert Ballard</A> of WHOI, Jack Dymond and Louis Gordon of Oregon State University, John Edmond and <A href="/wiki/Tanya_Atwater" title="Tanya Atwater">Tanya Atwater</A> of the <A href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</A>, Dave Williams of the <A href="/wiki/U.S._Geological_Survey" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Geological Survey">U.S. Geological Survey</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Kathleen_Crane" title="Kathleen Crane">Kathleen Crane</A> of <A href="/wiki/Scripps_Institution_of_Oceanography" title="Scripps Institution of Oceanography">Scripps Institution of Oceanography</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-divediscover.whoi.edu_41-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-divediscover.whoi.edu-41">[41]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-42">[42]</A></SUP> This team published their observations of the vents, organisms, and the composition of the vent fluids in the journal Science.<SUP id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-43">[43]</A></SUP> In 1979, a team of biologists led by J. Frederick Grassle, at the time at <A href="/wiki/Woods_Hole_Oceanographic_Institution" title="Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution">WHOI</A>, returned to the same location to investigate the biological communities discovered two year earlier.</P>
<P>High temperature hydrothermal vents, the “black smokers”, were discovered in spring 1979 by a team from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography using the submersible ALVIN. The RISE expedition explored the East Pacific Rise at 21° N with the goals of testing geophysical mapping of the sea floor with the ALVIN and finding another hydrothermal field beyond the Galápagos Rift vents. The expedition was led by <A href="/wiki/Fred_Spiess" title="Fred Spiess">Fred Spiess</A> and <A href="/wiki/Kenneth_C._Macdonald" title="Kenneth C. Macdonald">Ken Macdonald</A> and included participants from the U.S., Mexico and France.<SUP id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-44">[44]</A></SUP> The dive region was selected based on the discovery of sea floor mounds of sulfide minerals by the French CYAMEX expedition in 1978.<SUP id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-45">[45]</A></SUP> Prior to dive operations, expedition member Robert Ballard located near-bottom water temperature anomalies using a deeply towed instrument package. The first dive was targeted at one of those anomalies. On Easter Sunday April 15, 1979 during a dive of ALVIN to 2600 meters, Roger Larson and <A href="/wiki/Bruce_P._Luyendyk" title="Bruce P. Luyendyk">Bruce Luyendyk</A> found a hydrothermal vent field with a biological community similar to the Galápagos vents. On a subsequent dive, William Normark and Thierry Juteau discovered the high temperature vents emitting black mineral particle jets from chimneys; the black smokers. Following this Macdonald and Jim Aiken rigged a temperature probe to ALVIN to measure the water temperature at the black smoker vents. This observed the highest temperatures then recorded at deep sea hydrothermal vents (380±30 °C).<SUP id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-46">[46]</A></SUP> Analysis of black smoker material and the chimneys that fed them revealed that iron sulfide precipitates are the common minerals in the “smoke” and walls of the chimneys. </P>
<P>In 2005, Neptune Resources NL, a mineral exploration company, applied for and was granted 35,000 km² of exploration rights over the Kermadec Arc in <A href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</A>'s <A href="/wiki/Exclusive_Economic_Zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Exclusive Economic Zone">Exclusive Economic Zone</A> to explore for <A href="/wiki/Seafloor_massive_sulfide_deposits" title="Seafloor massive sulfide deposits">seafloor massive sulfide deposits</A>, a potential new source of <A href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</A>-<A href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</A>-<A href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</A> sulfides formed from modern hydrothermal vent fields. The discovery of a vent in the Pacific Ocean offshore of <A href="/wiki/Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica">Costa Rica</A>, named the Medusa hydrothermal vent field (after the serpent-haired <A href="/wiki/Medusa" title="Medusa">Medusa</A> of <A href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Greek mythology</A>), was announced in April 2007.<SUP id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-47">[47]</A></SUP> The Ashadze hydrothermal field (13°N on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, elevation -4200 m) was the deepest known high-temperature hydrothermal field until 2010, when a hydrothermal plume emanating from the Beebe<SUP id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-48">[48]</A></SUP> site (<SPAN class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><A class="external text" href="//tools.wmflabs.org/geohack/geohack.php?pagename=Hydrothermal_vent&params=18_33_N_81_43_W_"><SPAN class="geo-default"><SPAN class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><SPAN class="latitude">18°33′N</SPAN> <SPAN class="longitude">81°43′W</SPAN></SPAN></SPAN><SPAN class="geo-multi-punct"> / </SPAN><SPAN class="geo-nondefault"><SPAN class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">18.550°N 81.717°W</SPAN><SPAN style="display:none"> / <SPAN class="geo">18.550; -81.717</SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></A></SPAN>, elevation -5000 m) was detected by a group of scientists from NASA <A href="/wiki/Jet_Propulsion_Laboratory" title="Jet Propulsion Laboratory">Jet Propulsion Laboratory</A> and <A href="/wiki/Woods_Hole_Oceanographic_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute">Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution</A>. This site is located on the 110 km long, ultraslow spreading Mid-Cayman Rise within the <A href="/wiki/Cayman_Trough" title="Cayman Trough">Cayman Trough</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-49">[49]</A></SUP> In early 2013, the deepest known hydrothermal vents were discovered in the <A href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</A> at a depth of almost 5,000 metres (16,000 ft).<SUP id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-50">[50]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Oceanographers are studying the volcanoes and hydrothermal vents of the <A href="/wiki/Juan_de_Fuca_Plate" title="Juan de Fuca Plate">Juan de Fuca</A> mid ocean ridge where <A href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">tectonic plates</A> are moving away from each other.<SUP id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-51">[51]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Hydrothermal vents and other geothermal manifestations are currently being explored in the Bahía de Concepción, Baja California Sur, Mexico.<SUP id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-52">[52]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Distribution">Distribution</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrothermal_vent&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Distribution">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>Hydrothermal vents tend to be distributed along the Earth's plate boundaries, although they may also be found at intra-plate locations such as hotspot volcanoes. As of 2009 there were approximately 500 known active submarine hydrothermal vent fields, with about half visually observed at the seafloor and the other half suspected from water column indicators and/or seafloor deposits.<SUP id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-53">[53]</A></SUP> The InterRidge program office hosts a <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vents-data.interridge.org">global database for the locations of known active submarine hydrothermal vent fields</A>.</P>
<DIV class="center">
<DIV class="thumb tnone">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:602px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Distribution_of_hydrothermal_vent_fields.png" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Distribution_of_hydrothermal_vent_fields.png/600px-Distribution_of_hydrothermal_vent_fields.png" width="600" height="356" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Distribution_of_hydrothermal_vent_fields.png/900px-Distribution_of_hydrothermal_vent_fields.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Distribution_of_hydrothermal_vent_fields.png/1200px-Distribution_of_hydrothermal_vent_fields.png 2x" data-file-width="7829" data-file-height="4651" /></A>
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<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:Distribution_of_hydrothermal_vent_fields.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
Distribution of hydrothermal vents. This map was created by making use of the <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vents-data.interridge.org">InterRidge ver.3.3 database.</A></DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<P>Rogers <I>et al.</I> (2012)<SUP id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-54">[54]</A></SUP> recognized at least 11 <A href="/wiki/Biogeographic_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Biogeographic province">biogeographic provinces</A> of hydrothermal vent systems:</P>
<OL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_Ridge" title="Mid-Atlantic Ridge">Mid-Atlantic Ridge</A> province,</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/East_Scotia_Ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="East Scotia Ridge">East Scotia Ridge</A> province,</LI>
<LI>northern <A href="/wiki/East_Pacific_Rise" title="East Pacific Rise">East Pacific Rise</A> province,</LI>
<LI>central East Pacific Rise province,</LI>
<LI>southern East Pacific Rise province,</LI>
<LI>south of the <A href="/wiki/Easter_Plate" title="Easter Plate">Easter Microplate</A>,</LI>
<LI>Indian Ocean province,</LI>
<LI>four provinces in the western Pacific.</LI>
</OL>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Exploitation">Exploitation</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrothermal_vent&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Exploitation">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>Hydrothermal vents, in some instances, have led to the formation of exploitable mineral resources via deposition of <A href="/wiki/Seafloor_massive_sulfide_deposits" title="Seafloor massive sulfide deposits">seafloor massive sulfide deposits</A>. The <A href="/wiki/Mount_Isa" title="Mount Isa">Mount Isa</A> orebody located in <A href="/wiki/Queensland,_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Queensland, Australia">Queensland, Australia</A>, is an excellent example.<SUP id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-55">[55]</A></SUP> Many hydrothermal vents are rich in <A href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">cobalt</A>, <A href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</A>, <A href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Rare_earth_element" class="mw-redirect" title="Rare earth element">rare earth metals</A> essential for electronic components.<SUP id="cite_ref-Mining_2015_56-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Mining_2015-56">[56]</A></SUP> Hydrothermal venting on the <A href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean">Archean</A> seafloor is considered to have formed <A href="/wiki/Algoma-type" class="mw-redirect" title="Algoma-type">Algoma-type</A> <A href="/wiki/Banded_iron_formation" title="Banded iron formation">banded iron formations</A> which have been a source of <A href="/wiki/Iron_ore" title="Iron ore">iron ore</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-57">[57]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Recently, mineral exploration companies, driven by the elevated price activity in the base metals sector during the mid-2000s, have turned their attention to extraction of mineral resources from hydrothermal fields on the seafloor. Significant cost reductions are, in theory, possible.<SUP id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-58">[58]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Two companies are currently engaged in the late stages of commencing to mine seafloor massive sulfides. <A href="/wiki/Nautilus_Minerals" title="Nautilus Minerals">Nautilus Minerals</A> is in the advanced stages of commencing extraction from its Solwarra deposit, in the <A href="/wiki/Bismarck_Archipelago" title="Bismarck Archipelago">Bismarck Archipelago</A>, and Neptune Minerals is at an earlier stage with its Rumble II West deposit, located on the <A href="/wiki/Kermadec_Arc" class="mw-redirect" title="Kermadec Arc">Kermadec Arc</A>, near the <A href="/wiki/Kermadec_Islands" title="Kermadec Islands">Kermadec Islands</A>. Both companies are proposing using modified existing technology. Nautilus Minerals, in partnership with <A href="/wiki/Placer_Dome" title="Placer Dome">Placer Dome</A> (now part of <A href="/wiki/Barrick_Gold" title="Barrick Gold">Barrick Gold</A>), succeeded in 2006 in returning over 10 metric tons of mined SMS to the surface using modified drum cutters mounted on an ROV, a world first.<SUP id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-59">[59]</A></SUP> Neptune Minerals in 2007 succeeded in recovering SMS sediment samples using a modified oil industry suction pump mounted on an ROV, also a world first.<SUP id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-60">[60]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Potential seafloor mining has environmental impacts including dust plumes from mining machinery affecting filter-feeding organisms,<SUP id="cite_ref-Mining_2015_56-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Mining_2015-56">[56]</A></SUP> collapsing or reopening vents, <A href="/wiki/Methane_clathrate" title="Methane clathrate">methane clathrate</A> release, or even sub-oceanic land slides.<SUP id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-61">[61]</A></SUP> A large amount of work is currently being engaged in by both the above-mentioned companies to ensure that potential environmental impacts of seafloor mining are well understood and control measures are implemented, before exploitation commences.<SUP id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-62">[62]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Attempts have been made in the past to exploit minerals from the seafloor. The 1960s and 70s saw a great deal of activity (and expenditure) in the recovery of <A href="/wiki/Manganese_nodule" title="Manganese nodule">manganese nodules</A> from the <A href="/wiki/Abyssal_plain" title="Abyssal plain">abyssal plains</A>, with varying degrees of success. This does demonstrate however that recovery of minerals from the seafloor is possible, and has been possible for some time. Interestingly, mining of manganese nodules served as a cover story for the elaborate attempt in 1974 by the CIA to raise the sunken <A href="/wiki/Soviet_submarine_K-129_(1960)" title="Soviet submarine K-129 (1960)">Soviet submarine <I>K-129</I></A>, using the <A href="/wiki/Glomar_Explorer" title="Glomar Explorer">Glomar Explorer</A>, a ship purpose built for the task by <A href="/wiki/Howard_Hughes" title="Howard Hughes">Howard Hughes</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-63">[63]</A></SUP> The operation was known as <A href="/wiki/Project_Azorian" title="Project Azorian">Project Azorian</A>, and the cover story of seafloor mining of manganese nodules may have served as the impetus to propel other companies to make the attempt.</P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Conservation">Conservation</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrothermal_vent&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Conservation">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>The conservation of hydrothermal vents has been the subject of sometimes heated discussion in the oceanographic community for the last 20 years.<SUP id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-64">[64]</A></SUP> It has been pointed out that it may be that those causing the most damage to these fairly rare habitats are scientists.<SUP id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-65">[65]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-66">[66]</A></SUP> There have been attempts to forge agreements over the behaviour of scientists investigating vent sites but although there is an agreed code of practice there is as yet no formal international and legally binding agreement.<SUP id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-67">[67]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrothermal_vent&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Brine_pool" title="Brine pool">Brine pool</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Endeavour_Hydrothermal_Vents" title="Endeavour Hydrothermal Vents">Endeavour Hydrothermal Vents</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Magic_Mountain_(hydrothermal_field)" class="mw-redirect" title="Magic Mountain (hydrothermal field)">Magic Mountain (hydrothermal field)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/9%C2%B0_North" class="mw-redirect" title="9° North">9° North</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Origin_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Origin of life">Origin of life</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Submarine_volcano" title="Submarine volcano">Submarine volcano</A></LI>
</UL>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="References">References</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrothermal_vent&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<OL class="references">
<LI id="cite_note-:0-1"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-:0_1-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-:0_1-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-:0_1-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-:0_1-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-:0_1-4"><SUP><I><B>e</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-:0_1-5"><SUP><I><B>f</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-:0_1-6"><SUP><I><B>g</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-:0_1-7"><SUP><I><B>h</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Colín-García; M. A. Heredia; G. Cordero; A. Camprubí; A. Negrón-Mendoza; F. Ortega-Gutiérrez; H. Beraldi; S. Ramos-Bernal (2016). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://boletinsgm.igeolcu.unam.mx/bsgm/index.php/component/content/article/309-sitio/articulos/cuarta-epoca/6803/1620-6803-13-colin">"Hydrothermal vents and prebiotic chemistry: a review"</A>. <I>Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana</I>. <B>68</B> (3): 599–620.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bolet%C3%ADn+de+la+Sociedad+Geol%C3%B3gica+Mexicana&rft.atitle=Hydrothermal+vents+and+prebiotic+chemistry%3A+a+review&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=599-620&rft.date=2016&rft.au=Col%C3%ADn-Garc%C3%ADa&rft.au=M.+A.+Heredia&rft.au=G.+Cordero&rft.au=A.+Camprub%C3%AD&rft.au=A.+Negr%C3%B3n-Mendoza&rft.au=F.+Ortega-Guti%C3%A9rrez&rft.au=H.+Beraldi&rft.au=S.+Ramos-Bernal&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fboletinsgm.igeolcu.unam.mx%2Fbsgm%2Findex.php%2Fcomponent%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F309-sitio%2Farticulos%2Fcuarta-epoca%2F6803%2F1620-6803-13-colin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-NYT-20170413-2"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-NYT-20170413_2-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Chang, Kenneth (13 April 2017). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/13/science/saturn-cassini-moon-enceladus.html">"Conditions for Life Detected on Saturn Moon Enceladus"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/New_York_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times">New York Times</A></I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">14 April</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Conditions+for+Life+Detected+on+Saturn+Moon+Enceladus&rft.date=2017-04-13&rft.aulast=Chang&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2017%2F04%2F13%2Fscience%2Fsaturn-cassini-moon-enceladus.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-3"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-3"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasa.gov/press/2015/march/spacecraft-data-suggest-saturn-moons-ocean-may-harbor-hydrothermal-activity/index.html">"Spacecraft Data Suggest Saturn Moon's Ocean May Harbor Hydrothermal Activity"</A>. <I>NASA</I>. 11 March 2015<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">12 March</SPAN> 2015</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NASA&rft.atitle=Spacecraft+Data+Suggest+Saturn+Moon%27s+Ocean+May+Harbor+Hydrothermal+Activity&rft.date=2015-03-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasa.gov%2Fpress%2F2015%2Fmarch%2Fspacecraft-data-suggest-saturn-moons-ocean-may-harbor-hydrothermal-activity%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-4"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-4"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Paine, M. (15 May 2001). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060221011414/http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/missions/mars_society_conference_010515-1.html">"Mars Explorers to Benefit from Australian Research"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/Space.com" title="Space.com">Space.com</A></I>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/missions/mars_society_conference_010515-1.html">the original</A> on 21 February 2006.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Space.com&rft.atitle=Mars+Explorers+to+Benefit+from+Australian+Research&rft.date=2001-05-15&rft.aulast=Paine&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.space.com%2Fmissionlaunches%2Fmissions%2Fmars_society_conference_010515-1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-5"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-5"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Garcia, Elena Guijarro; Ragnarsson, Stefán Akí; Steingrimsson, Sigmar Arnar; Nævestad, Dag; Haraldsson, Haukur; Fosså, Jan Helge; Tendal, Ole Secher; Eiríksson, Hrafnkell (2007). <I>Bottom trawling and scallop dredging in the Arctic: Impacts of fishing on non-target species, vulnerable habitats and cultural heritage</I>. Nordic Council of Ministers. p. 278. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/92-893-1332-3" title="Special:BookSources/92-893-1332-3">92-893-1332-3</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bottom+trawling+and+scallop+dredging+in+the+Arctic%3A+Impacts+of+fishing+on+non-target+species%2C+vulnerable+habitats+and+cultural+heritage&rft.pages=278&rft.pub=Nordic+Council+of+Ministers&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=92-893-1332-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN><SPAN class="citation-comment" style="display:none; color:#33aa33; margin-left:0.3em">CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (<A href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_Uses_authors_parameter" title="Category:CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter">link</A>)</SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Haas2007-6"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Haas2007_6-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Haas2007_6-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Haase, K. M.; et al. (2007). "Young volcanism and related hydrothermal activity at 5°S on the slow-spreading southern Mid-Atlantic Ridge". <I><A href="/w/index.php?title=Geochemistry_Geophysics_Geosystems&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems (page does not exist)">Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems</A></I>. <B>8</B> (11): Q11002. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007GGG.....811002H">2007GGG.....811002H</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1029%2F2006GC001509">10.1029/2006GC001509</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geochemistry+Geophysics+Geosystems&rft.atitle=Young+volcanism+and+related+hydrothermal+activity+at+5%C2%B0S+on+the+slow-spreading+southern+Mid-Atlantic+Ridge&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=Q11002&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2006GC001509&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007GGG.....811002H&rft.aulast=Haase&rft.aufirst=K.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Karst2009-7"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Karst2009_7-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Karst2009_7-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Haase, K. M.; et al. (2009). "Fluid compositions and mineralogy of precipitates from Mid Atlantic Ridge hydrothermal vents at 4°48'S". <I>PANGAEA</I>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1594%2FPANGAEA.727454">10.1594/PANGAEA.727454</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PANGAEA&rft.atitle=Fluid+compositions+and+mineralogy+of+precipitates+from+Mid+Atlantic+Ridge+hydrothermal+vents+at+4%C2%B048%27S&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1594%2FPANGAEA.727454&rft.aulast=Haase&rft.aufirst=K.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-bischoff1988-8"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-bischoff1988_8-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Bischoff, James L; Rosenbauer, Robert J (1988). "Liquid-vapor relations in the critical region of the system NaCl-H2O from 380 to 415°C: A refined determination of the critical point and two-phase boundary of seawater". <I>Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta</I>. <B>52</B> (8): 2121–2126. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2F0016-7037%2888%2990192-5">10.1016/0016-7037(88)90192-5</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geochimica+et+Cosmochimica+Acta&rft.atitle=Liquid-vapor+relations+in+the+critical+region+of+the+system+NaCl-H2O+from+380+to+415%C2%B0C%3A+A+refined+determination+of+the+critical+point+and+two-phase+boundary+of+seawater&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=2121-2126&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0016-7037%2888%2990192-5&rft.aulast=Bischoff&rft.aufirst=James+L&rft.au=Rosenbauer%2C+Robert+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-VonDamm1991-9"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-VonDamm1991_9-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Von Damm, K L (1990). "Seafloor Hydrothermal Activity: Black Smoker Chemistry and Chimneys". <I>Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences</I>. <B>18</B> (1): 173–204. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.ea.18.050190.001133">10.1146/annurev.ea.18.050190.001133</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Earth+and+Planetary+Sciences&rft.atitle=Seafloor+Hydrothermal+Activity%3A+Black+Smoker+Chemistry+and+Chimneys&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=173-204&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.ea.18.050190.001133&rft.aulast=Von+Damm&rft.aufirst=K+L&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-10"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-10"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Webber, A.P.; Murton, B.; Roberts, S.; Hodgkinson, M. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://goldschmidt.info/2014/abstracts/abstractView?abstractId=2504">"Supercritical Venting and VMS Formation at the Beebe Hydrothermal Field, Cayman Spreading Centre"</A>. <I>Goldschmidt Conference Abstracts 2014</I>. Geochemical Society<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">29 July</SPAN> 2014</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Goldschmidt+Conference+Abstracts+2014&rft.atitle=Supercritical+Venting+and+VMS+Formation+at+the+Beebe+Hydrothermal+Field%2C+Cayman+Spreading+Centre&rft.aulast=Webber&rft.aufirst=A.P.&rft.au=Murton%2C+B.&rft.au=Roberts%2C+S.&rft.au=Hodgkinson%2C+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgoldschmidt.info%2F2014%2Fabstracts%2FabstractView%3FabstractId%3D2504&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-black_smoker-11"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-black_smoker_11-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Tivey, M. K. (1 December 1998). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.whoi.edu/oceanus/viewArticle.do?id=2400">"How to Build a Black Smoker Chimney: The Formation of Mineral Deposits At Mid-Ocean Ridges"</A>. <A href="/wiki/Woods_Hole_Oceanographic_Institution" title="Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution">Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2006-07-07</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+to+Build+a+Black+Smoker+Chimney%3A+The+Formation+of+Mineral+Deposits+At+Mid-Ocean+Ridges&rft.pub=Woods+Hole+Oceanographic+Institution&rft.date=1998-12-01&rft.aulast=Tivey&rft.aufirst=M.+K.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.whoi.edu%2Foceanus%2FviewArticle.do%3Fid%3D2400&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-12"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-12"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">"Tracking Ocean Iron". <I><A href="/wiki/Chemical_%26_Engineering_News" title="Chemical & Engineering News">Chemical & Engineering News</A></I>. <B>86</B> (35): 62. 2008. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1021%2Fcen-v086n003.p062">10.1021/cen-v086n003.p062</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chemical+%26+Engineering+News&rft.atitle=Tracking+Ocean+Iron&rft.volume=86&rft.issue=35&rft.pages=62&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fcen-v086n003.p062&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-13"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-13"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Perkins, S. (2001). "New type of hydrothermal vent looms large". <I><A href="/wiki/Science_News" title="Science News">Science News</A></I>. <B>160</B> (2): 21. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.2307%2F4012715">10.2307/4012715</A>. <A href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/4012715">4012715</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+News&rft.atitle=New+type+of+hydrothermal+vent+looms+large&rft.volume=160&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=21&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F4012715&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4012715&rft.aulast=Perkins&rft.aufirst=S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-14"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-14"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Kelley, Deborah S. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amnh.org/learn/pd/earth/pdf/black_smokers_incubators.pdf">"Black Smokers: Incubators on the Seafloor"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. p. 2.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Black+Smokers%3A+Incubators+on+the+Seafloor&rft.pages=2&rft.aulast=Kelley&rft.aufirst=Deborah+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.amnh.org%2Flearn%2Fpd%2Fearth%2Fpdf%2Fblack_smokers_incubators.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-15"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-15"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.livescience.com/environment/080724-black-smokers.html">"Boiling Hot Water Found in Frigid Arctic Sea"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/LiveScience" class="mw-redirect" title="LiveScience">LiveScience</A></I>. 24 July 2008<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2008-07-25</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LiveScience&rft.atitle=Boiling+Hot+Water+Found+in+Frigid+Arctic+Sea&rft.date=2008-07-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.livescience.com%2Fenvironment%2F080724-black-smokers.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-16"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-16"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/07/080724153941.htm">"Scientists Break Record By Finding Northernmost Hydrothermal Vent Field"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/Science_Daily" title="Science Daily">Science Daily</A></I>. 24 July 2008<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2008-07-25</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Science+Daily&rft.atitle=Scientists+Break+Record+By+Finding+Northernmost+Hydrothermal+Vent+Field&rft.date=2008-07-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedaily.com%2Freleases%2F2008%2F07%2F080724153941.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-17"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-17"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Cross, A. (12 April 2010). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8611771.stm">"World's deepest undersea vents discovered in Caribbean"</A>. <A href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2010-04-13</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=World%27s+deepest+undersea+vents+discovered+in+Caribbean&rft.pub=BBC+News&rft.date=2010-04-12&rft.aulast=Cross&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fscience%2Fnature%2F8611771.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-18"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-18"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.astrobio.net/pressrelease/1577/extremes-of-eel-city">"Extremes of Eel City"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/Astrobiology_Magazine" title="Astrobiology Magazine">Astrobiology Magazine</A></I>. 28 May 2008<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2007-08-30</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Astrobiology+Magazine&rft.atitle=Extremes+of+Eel+City&rft.date=2008-05-28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.astrobio.net%2Fpressrelease%2F1577%2Fextremes-of-eel-city&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Sysoev_1995-19"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Sysoev_1995_19-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Sysoev, A. V.; Kantor, Yu. I. (1995). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ruthenica.com/documents/Vol5_Sysoev_Kantor_17-26_abstract.pdf">"Two new species of <I>Phymorhynchus</I> (Gastropoda, Conoidea, Conidae) from the hydrothermal vents"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I><A href="/wiki/Ruthenica" title="Ruthenica">Ruthenica</A></I>. <B>5</B>: 17–26.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ruthenica&rft.atitle=Two+new+species+of+Phymorhynchus+%28Gastropoda%2C+Conoidea%2C+Conidae%29+from+the+hydrothermal+vents&rft.volume=5&rft.pages=17-26&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Sysoev&rft.aufirst=A.+V.&rft.au=Kantor%2C+Yu.+I.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ruthenica.com%2Fdocuments%2FVol5_Sysoev_Kantor_17-26_abstract.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-20"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-20"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Botos, S. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.botos.com/marine/vents01.html#body_4">"Life on a hydrothermal vent"</A>. <I>Hydrothermal Vent Communities</I>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Hydrothermal+Vent+Communities&rft.atitle=Life+on+a+hydrothermal+vent&rft.aulast=Botos&rft.aufirst=S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.botos.com%2Fmarine%2Fvents01.html%23body_4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-21"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-21"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Van Dover, C. L. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.divediscover.whoi.edu/hottopics/biogeo.html">"Hot Topics: Biogeography of deep-sea hydrothermal vent faunas"</A>. <A href="/wiki/Woods_Hole_Oceanographic_Institution" title="Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution">Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hot+Topics%3A+Biogeography+of+deep-sea+hydrothermal+vent+faunas&rft.pub=Woods+Hole+Oceanographic+Institution&rft.aulast=Van+Dover&rft.aufirst=C.+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.divediscover.whoi.edu%2Fhottopics%2Fbiogeo.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-22"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-22"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Beatty, J.T.; et al. (2005). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1166624">"An obligately photosynthetic bacterial anaerobe from a deep-sea hydrothermal vent"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</A></I>. <B>102</B> (26): 9306–10. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005PNAS..102.9306B">2005PNAS..102.9306B</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0503674102">10.1073/pnas.0503674102</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1166624">1166624</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15967984">15967984</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=An+obligately+photosynthetic+bacterial+anaerobe+from+a+deep-sea+hydrothermal+vent&rft.volume=102&rft.issue=26&rft.pages=9306-10&rft.date=2005&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1166624&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15967984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0503674102&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005PNAS..102.9306B&rft.aulast=Beatty&rft.aufirst=J.T.&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1166624&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-NAT-20170301-23"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-NAT-20170301_23-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Dodd, Matthew S.; Papineau, Dominic; Grenne, Tor; slack, John F.; Rittner, Martin; Pirajno, Franco; O'Neil, Jonathan; Little, Crispin T. S. (2 March 2017). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/112179/">"Evidence for early life in Earth's oldest hydrothermal vent precipitates"</A>. <I>Nature</I>. <B>543</B>: 60–64. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017Natur.543...60D">2017Natur.543...60D</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature21377">10.1038/nature21377</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature21377">the original</A> on 10 February 2017<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2 March</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Evidence+for+early+life+in+Earth%27s+oldest+hydrothermal+vent+precipitates&rft.volume=543&rft.pages=60-64&rft.date=2017-03-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature21377&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017Natur.543...60D&rft.au=Dodd%2C+Matthew+S.&rft.au=Papineau%2C+Dominic&rft.au=Grenne%2C+Tor&rft.au=slack%2C+John+F.&rft.au=Rittner%2C+Martin&rft.au=Pirajno%2C+Franco&rft.au=O%27Neil%2C+Jonathan&rft.au=Little%2C+Crispin+T.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fnature21377&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-NYT-20170301-24"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-NYT-20170301_24-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A href="/wiki/Carl_Zimmer" title="Carl Zimmer">Zimmer, Carl</A> (1 March 2017). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/01/science/earths-oldest-bacteria-fossils.html">"Scientists Say Canadian Bacteria Fossils May Be Earth's Oldest"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/New_York_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times">New York Times</A></I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2 March</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Scientists+Say+Canadian+Bacteria+Fossils+May+Be+Earth%E2%80%99s+Oldest&rft.date=2017-03-01&rft.aulast=Zimmer&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2017%2F03%2F01%2Fscience%2Fearths-oldest-bacteria-fossils.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-BBC-20170301-25"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-BBC-20170301_25-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Ghosh, Pallab (1 March 2017). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-39117523">"Earliest evidence of life on Earth 'found<SPAN style="padding-right:0.2em;">'</SPAN>"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</A></I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2 March</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Earliest+evidence+of+life+on+Earth+%27found%27&rft.date=2017-03-01&rft.aulast=Ghosh&rft.aufirst=Pallab&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fscience-environment-39117523&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-26"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-26"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Gold, T. (1992). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/89/13/6045">"The Deep Hot Biosphere"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</A></I>. <B>89</B> (13): 6045–9. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992PNAS...89.6045G">1992PNAS...89.6045G</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.89.13.6045">10.1073/pnas.89.13.6045</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC49434">49434</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1631089">1631089</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+Deep+Hot+Biosphere&rft.volume=89&rft.issue=13&rft.pages=6045-9&rft.date=1992&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC49434&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F1631089&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.89.13.6045&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1992PNAS...89.6045G&rft.aulast=Gold&rft.aufirst=T.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pnas.org%2Fcgi%2Freprint%2F89%2F13%2F6045&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-27"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-27"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Gold, T. (1999). <I><A href="/wiki/The_Deep_Hot_Biosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="The Deep Hot Biosphere">The Deep Hot Biosphere</A></I>. <A href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer</A>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-387-95253-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-387-95253-5">0-387-95253-5</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Deep+Hot+Biosphere&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-387-95253-5&rft.aulast=Gold&rft.aufirst=T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-28"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-28"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Proskurowski, G.; et al. (2008). "Abiogenic Hydrocarbon Production at Lost City Hydrothermal Field". <I><A href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</A></I>. <B>319</B> (5863): 604–7. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1151194">10.1126/science.1151194</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18239121">18239121</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Abiogenic+Hydrocarbon+Production+at+Lost+City+Hydrothermal+Field&rft.volume=319&rft.issue=5863&rft.pages=604-7&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1151194&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18239121&rft.aulast=Proskurowski&rft.aufirst=G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-29"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-29"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Wächtershäuser, G. (1990). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/87/1/200.pdf">"Evolution of the First Metabolic Cycles"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I><A href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</A></I>. <B>87</B> (1): 200–4. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1990PNAS...87..200W">1990PNAS...87..200W</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.87.1.200">10.1073/pnas.87.1.200</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC53229">53229</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2296579">2296579</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Evolution+of+the+First+Metabolic+Cycles&rft.volume=87&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=200-4&rft.date=1990&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC53229&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F2296579&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.87.1.200&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1990PNAS...87..200W&rft.aulast=W%C3%A4chtersh%C3%A4user&rft.aufirst=G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pnas.org%2Fcgi%2Freprint%2F87%2F1%2F200.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-30"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-30"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Tunnicliffe, V. (1991). "The Biology of Hydrothermal Vents: Ecology and Evolution". <I><A href="/w/index.php?title=Oceanography_and_Marine_Biology:_An_Annual_Review&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Oceanography and Marine Biology: An Annual Review (page does not exist)">Oceanography and Marine Biology: An Annual Review</A></I>. <B>29</B>: 319–408.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oceanography+and+Marine+Biology%3A+An+Annual+Review&rft.atitle=The+Biology+of+Hydrothermal+Vents%3A+Ecology+and+Evolution&rft.volume=29&rft.pages=319-408&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Tunnicliffe&rft.aufirst=V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-31"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-31"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Chandru, Kuhan; Imai, EiIchi; Kaneko, Takeo; Obayashi, Yumiko; Kobayashi, Kensei (2013). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11084-013-9330-9">"Survivability and Abiotic Reactions of Selected Amino Acids in Different Hydrothermal System Simulators"</A>. <I>Origins of Life and Biosphere</I>. <B>43</B>: 99–108. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11084-013-9330-9">10.1007/s11084-013-9330-9</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Origins+of+Life+and+Biosphere&rft.atitle=Survivability+and+Abiotic+Reactions+of+Selected+Amino+Acids+in+Different+Hydrothermal+System+Simulators&rft.volume=43&rft.pages=99-108&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11084-013-9330-9&rft.aulast=Chandru&rft.aufirst=Kuhan&rft.au=Imai%2C+EiIchi&rft.au=Kaneko%2C+Takeo&rft.au=Obayashi%2C+Yumiko&rft.au=Kobayashi%2C+Kensei&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Farticle%2F10.1007%2Fs11084-013-9330-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-organics-32"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-organics_32-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150905234013/http://www.astrobio.net/topic/origins/origin-and-evolution-of-life/chemistry-of-seabeds-hot-vents-could-explain-emergence-of-life/">Chemistry of seabed’s hot vents could explain emergence of life</A>. <I>Astrobiology Magazine</I> 27 April 2015.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-33"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-33"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Roldan, A.; Hollingsworth, N.; Roffey, A.; Islam, H.-U.; Goodall, J. B. M.; Catlow, C. R. A.; Darr, J. A.; Bras, W.; Sankar, G.; Holt, K. B.; Hogartha, G.; de Leeuw, N. H. (24 March 2015). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlepdf/2015/cc/c5cc02078f">"Bio-inspired CO<SUB>2</SUB> conversion by iron sulfide catalysts under sustainable conditions"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>Chemical Communications</I>. <B>51</B> (35): 7501–7504. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1039%2FC5CC02078F">10.1039/C5CC02078F</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25835242">25835242</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chemical+Communications&rft.atitle=Bio-inspired+CO%3Csub%3E2%3C%2Fsub%3E+conversion+by+iron+sulfide+catalysts+under+sustainable+conditions&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=35&rft.pages=7501-7504&rft.date=2015-03-24&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1039%2FC5CC02078F&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25835242&rft.aulast=Roldan&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Hollingsworth%2C+N.&rft.au=Roffey%2C+A.&rft.au=Islam%2C+H.-U.&rft.au=Goodall%2C+J.+B.+M.&rft.au=Catlow%2C+C.+R.+A.&rft.au=Darr%2C+J.+A.&rft.au=Bras%2C+W.&rft.au=Sankar%2C+G.&rft.au=Holt%2C+K.+B.&rft.au=Hogartha%2C+G.&rft.au=de+Leeuw%2C+N.+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpubs.rsc.org%2Fen%2Fcontent%2Farticlepdf%2F2015%2Fcc%2Fc5cc02078f&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-34"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-34"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Aubrey, A. D.; Cleaves, H.J; Bada, J.L (2008). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11084-008-9153-2">"The Role of Submarine Hydrothermal Systems in the Synthesis of Amino Acids"</A>. <I>Origins of Life and Biosphere</I>. <B>39</B>: 91–108. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11084-008-9153-2">10.1007/s11084-008-9153-2</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Origins+of+Life+and+Biosphere&rft.atitle=The+Role+of+Submarine+Hydrothermal+Systems+in+the+Synthesis+of+Amino+Acids&rft.volume=39&rft.pages=91-108&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11084-008-9153-2&rft.aulast=Aubrey&rft.aufirst=A.+D.&rft.au=Cleaves%2C+H.J&rft.au=Bada%2C+J.L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Farticle%2F10.1007%252Fs11084-008-9153-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-35"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-35"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Joseph F. Sutherland: <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://prehistoricict.blogspot.de/2014/08/on-origin-of-bacteria-and-archaea.html">on The Origin Of Tha Bacteria And The Archaea</A>, auf B.C vom 16. August 2014</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-NLane_Funke-36"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-NLane_Funke_36-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Nick Lane: <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.de/books?id=IfJYBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT77&lpg=PT77&dq=nick+lane+the+vital+question&source=bl&ots=wZ1vmiXh7z&sig=DAn9E_5fw8XGQ8nmsGOm1_R4VlI&hl=de&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjKnLWhtuPVAhWLPxQKHXK3B1sQ6AEIIDAA#v=onepage&q=alkaline%20hydrothermal%20vents">The Vital Question - Energy, Evolution, and the Origins of Complex Life</A>, Ww Norton, 2015-07-20, <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-08881-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-08881-6">978-0-393-08881-6</A>, <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://armscoop.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/Lane_Nick-The_vital_question_why_is_life_the_way_it_is_-Profile_Books_2015.pdf">PDF</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-37"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-37"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Degens, E. T. (1969). <I>Hot Brines and Recent Heavy Metal Deposits in the Red Sea</I>. <A href="/wiki/Springer-Verlag" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer-Verlag">Springer-Verlag</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hot+Brines+and+Recent+Heavy+Metal+Deposits+in+the+Red+Sea&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=Degens&rft.aufirst=E.+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-38"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-38"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Kathleen., Crane, (2003). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/51553643"><I>Sea legs : tales of a woman oceanographer</I></A>. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780813342856" title="Special:BookSources/9780813342856">9780813342856</A>. <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/51553643">51553643</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sea+legs+%3A+tales+of+a+woman+oceanographer&rft.place=Boulder%2C+Colo.&rft.pub=Westview+Press&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F51553643&rft.isbn=9780813342856&rft.aulast=Kathleen.&rft.aufirst=Crane%2C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F51553643&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-39"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-39"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Lonsdale, P. (1977). "Clustering of suspension-feeding macrobenthos near abyssal hydrothermal vents at oceanic spreading centers". <I><A href="/w/index.php?title=Deep-Sea_Research&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Deep-Sea Research (page does not exist)">Deep-Sea Research</A></I>. <B>24</B> (9): 857–863. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1977DSR....24..857L">1977DSR....24..857L</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2F0146-6291%2877%2990478-7">10.1016/0146-6291(77)90478-7</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Deep-Sea+Research&rft.atitle=Clustering+of+suspension-feeding+macrobenthos+near+abyssal+hydrothermal+vents+at+oceanic+spreading+centers&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=857-863&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0146-6291%2877%2990478-7&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1977DSR....24..857L&rft.aulast=Lonsdale&rft.aufirst=P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-40"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-40"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Crane, Kathleen; Normark, William R. (1977-11-10). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/JB082i033p05336">"Hydrothermal activity and crestal structure of the East Pacific Rise at 21°N"</A>. <I>Journal of Geophysical Research</I>. <B>82</B> (33): 5336–5348. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1029%2Fjb082i033p05336">10.1029/jb082i033p05336</A>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/2156-2202">2156-2202</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Geophysical+Research&rft.atitle=Hydrothermal+activity+and+crestal+structure+of+the+East+Pacific+Rise+at+21%C2%B0N&rft.volume=82&rft.issue=33&rft.pages=5336-5348&rft.date=1977-11-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2Fjb082i033p05336&rft.issn=2156-2202&rft.aulast=Crane&rft.aufirst=Kathleen&rft.au=Normark%2C+William+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fagupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fpdf%2F10.1029%2FJB082i033p05336&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-divediscover.whoi.edu-41"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-divediscover.whoi.edu_41-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-divediscover.whoi.edu_41-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.divediscover.whoi.edu/ventcd/vent_discovery/thediscovery/timeline_p.html">"Dive and Discover: Expeditions to the Seafloor"</A>. <I>www.divediscover.whoi.edu</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2016-01-04</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.divediscover.whoi.edu&rft.atitle=Dive+and+Discover%3A+Expeditions+to+the+Seafloor&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.divediscover.whoi.edu%2Fventcd%2Fvent_discovery%2Fthediscovery%2Ftimeline_p.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-42"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-42"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Davis, Rebecca; Joyce, Christopher (December 5, 2011). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/2011/12/05/142678239/the-deep-sea-find-that-changed-biology">"The Deep-Sea Find That Changed Biology"</A>. <I>NPR.org</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2018-04-09</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NPR.org&rft.atitle=The+Deep-Sea+Find+That+Changed+Biology&rft.date=2011-12-05&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Rebecca&rft.au=Joyce%2C+Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2F2011%2F12%2F05%2F142678239%2Fthe-deep-sea-find-that-changed-biology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-43"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-43"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Corliss, Jack B.; Dymond, J.; Gordon, L.I.; Edmond, J.M.; von Herzen, R.P.; Ballard, R.D.; Green, K.; Williams, D.; Bainbridge, A.; Crane, K.; van Andel, T.H. (16 March 1979). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Robert_Ballard2/publication/6064595_Submarine_thermal_sprirngs_on_the_galapagos_rift/links/54da70be0cf2ba88a68d34ab.pdf">"Submarine thermal springs on the Galápagos Rift"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>Science</I>. <B>203</B> (4385): 1073–1083. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.203.4385.1073">10.1126/science.203.4385.1073</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">May 8,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Submarine+thermal+springs+on+the+Gal%C3%A1pagos+Rift&rft.volume=203&rft.issue=4385&rft.pages=1073-1083&rft.date=1979-03-16&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.203.4385.1073&rft.aulast=Corliss&rft.aufirst=Jack+B.&rft.au=Dymond%2C+J.&rft.au=Gordon%2C+L.I.&rft.au=Edmond%2C+J.M.&rft.au=von+Herzen%2C+R.P.&rft.au=Ballard%2C+R.D.&rft.au=Green%2C+K.&rft.au=Williams%2C+D.&rft.au=Bainbridge%2C+A.&rft.au=Crane%2C+K.&rft.au=van+Andel%2C+T.H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fprofile%2FRobert_Ballard2%2Fpublication%2F6064595_Submarine_thermal_sprirngs_on_the_galapagos_rift%2Flinks%2F54da70be0cf2ba88a68d34ab.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-44"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-44"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Spiess, F. N.; Macdonald, Ken C.; Atwater, T.; Ballard, R.; Carranza, A.; Cordoba, D.; Cox, C.; Garcia, V. M. Diaz; Francheteau, J.; Guerrero, J.; Hawkins, J.; Hessler, R. Haymon R.; Juteau, T.; Kastner, M.; Larson, R.; Luyendyk, B.; Macdougall, J.D.; Miller, S.; Normark, W.; Orcutt, J.; Rangin, C. (1980). "Hot Springs and geophysical experiments on the East Pacific Rise". <I>Science</I>. <B>207</B>: 1421–1444. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.207.4438.1421">10.1126/science.207.4438.1421</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Hot+Springs+and+geophysical+experiments+on+the+East+Pacific+Rise&rft.volume=207&rft.pages=1421-1444&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.207.4438.1421&rft.aulast=Spiess&rft.aufirst=F.+N.&rft.au=Macdonald%2C+Ken+C.&rft.au=Atwater%2C+T.&rft.au=Ballard%2C+R.&rft.au=Carranza%2C+A.&rft.au=Cordoba%2C+D.&rft.au=Cox%2C+C.&rft.au=Garcia%2C+V.+M.+Diaz&rft.au=Francheteau%2C+J.&rft.au=Guerrero%2C+J.&rft.au=Hawkins%2C+J.&rft.au=Hessler%2C+R.+Haymon+R.&rft.au=Juteau%2C+T.&rft.au=Kastner%2C+M.&rft.au=Larson%2C+R.&rft.au=Luyendyk%2C+B.&rft.au=Macdougall%2C+J.D.&rft.au=Miller%2C+S.&rft.au=Normark%2C+W.&rft.au=Orcutt%2C+J.&rft.au=Rangin%2C+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-45"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-45"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Francheteau, J (1979). "Massive deep-sea sulphide ore deposits discovered on the East Pacific Rise". <I>Nature</I>. <B>277</B>: 523. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2F277523a0">10.1038/277523a0</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Massive+deep-sea+sulphide+ore+deposits+discovered+on+the+East+Pacific+Rise&rft.volume=277&rft.pages=523&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F277523a0&rft.aulast=Francheteau&rft.aufirst=J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-46"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-46"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Macdonald, K. C.; Becker, Keir; Spiess, F. N.; Ballard, R. D. (1980). "Hydrothermal heat flux of the "black smoker" vents on the East Pacific Rise". <I>Earth and Planetary Science Letters</I>. <B>48</B>: 1–7. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1980E&PSL..48....1M">1980E&PSL..48....1M</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2F0012-821X%2880%2990163-6">10.1016/0012-821X(80)90163-6</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Earth+and+Planetary+Science+Letters&rft.atitle=Hydrothermal+heat+flux+of+the+%22black+smoker%22+vents+on+the+East+Pacific+Rise&rft.volume=48&rft.pages=1-7&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0012-821X%2880%2990163-6&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1980E%26PSL..48....1M&rft.aulast=Macdonald&rft.aufirst=K.+C.&rft.au=Becker%2C+Keir&rft.au=Spiess%2C+F.+N.&rft.au=Ballard%2C+R.+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-47"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-47"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation pressrelease"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2007-04/du-nuv041707.php">"New undersea vent suggests snake-headed mythology"</A> (Press release). <A href="/wiki/EurekAlert!" class="mw-redirect" title="EurekAlert!">EurekAlert!</A>. 18 April 2007<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2007-04-18</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=New+undersea+vent+suggests+snake-headed+mythology&rft.pub=EurekAlert%21&rft.date=2007-04-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eurekalert.org%2Fpub_releases%2F2007-04%2Fdu-nuv041707.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-48"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-48"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vents-data.interridge.org/ventfield/beebe">"Beebe"</A>. Interridge Vents Database.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Beebe&rft.pub=Interridge+Vents+Database&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvents-data.interridge.org%2Fventfield%2Fbeebe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-49"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-49"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">German, C. R.; et al. (2010). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geology.wisc.edu/astrobiology/docs/German_et_al_2010_PNAS.pdf">"Diverse styles of submarine venting on the ultraslow spreading Mid-Cayman Rise"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I><A href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</A></I>. <B>107</B> (32): 14020–5. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PNAS..10714020G">2010PNAS..10714020G</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1009205107">10.1073/pnas.1009205107</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2922602">2922602</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20660317">20660317</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2010-12-31</SPAN></SPAN>. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciguru.com/newsitem/4532/Exploring-Oceanfloor-Hydrothermal-Vents-Geysers-that-Entice-Astrobiologists">Lay summary</A> – <I><A href="/w/index.php?title=SciGuru&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SciGuru (page does not exist)">SciGuru</A></I> (11 October 2010).</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Diverse+styles+of+submarine+venting+on+the+ultraslow+spreading+Mid-Cayman+Rise&rft.volume=107&rft.issue=32&rft.pages=14020-5&rft.date=2010&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2922602&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20660317&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1009205107&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010PNAS..10714020G&rft.aulast=German&rft.aufirst=C.+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.geology.wisc.edu%2Fastrobiology%2Fdocs%2FGerman_et_al_2010_PNAS.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-50"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-50"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-21520404">"Deepest undersea vents discovered by UK team"</A>. BBC. 21 February 2013<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">21 February</SPAN> 2013</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Deepest+undersea+vents+discovered+by+UK+team&rft.pub=BBC&rft.date=2013-02-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fscience-environment-21520404&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-51"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-51"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Broad, William J. (2016-01-12). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/12/science/midocean-ridges-volcano-underwater.html">"The 40,000-Mile Volcano"</A>. <I>The New York Times</I>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2016-01-17</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+40%2C000-Mile+Volcano&rft.date=2016-01-12&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Broad&rft.aufirst=William+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2016%2F01%2F12%2Fscience%2Fmidocean-ridges-volcano-underwater.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-52"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-52"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">M.L. Leal-Acosta; R.M. Prol-Ledesma (2016). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://boletinsgm.igeolcu.unam.mx/bsgm/vols/epoca04/6803/%282%29Leal.pdf">"Caracterización geoquímica de las manifestaciones termales intermareales de Bahía Concepción en la Península de Baja California"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana</I> (in Spanish). <B>68</B> (3): 395–407. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.18268%2Fbsgm2016v68n3a2">10.18268/bsgm2016v68n3a2</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bolet%C3%ADn+de+la+Sociedad+Geol%C3%B3gica+Mexicana&rft.atitle=Caracterizaci%C3%B3n+geoqu%C3%ADmica+de+las+manifestaciones+termales+intermareales+de+Bah%C3%ADa+Concepci%C3%B3n+en+la+Pen%C3%ADnsula+de+Baja+California&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=395-407&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.18268%2Fbsgm2016v68n3a2&rft.au=M.L.+Leal-Acosta&rft.au=R.M.+Prol-Ledesma&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fboletinsgm.igeolcu.unam.mx%2Fbsgm%2Fvols%2Fepoca04%2F6803%2F%25282%2529Leal.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-53"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-53"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Beaulieu, S. E.; Baker, E. T.; German, C. R.; Maffei, A. R. (2013). "An authoritative global database for active submarine hydrothermal vent fields". <I><A href="/w/index.php?title=Geochemistry_Geophysics_Geosystems&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems (page does not exist)">Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems</A></I>. <B>14</B>: 4892–4905. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1002%2F2013GC004998">10.1002/2013GC004998</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geochemistry+Geophysics+Geosystems&rft.atitle=An+authoritative+global+database+for+active+submarine+hydrothermal+vent+fields&rft.volume=14&rft.pages=4892-4905&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F2013GC004998&rft.aulast=Beaulieu&rft.aufirst=S.+E.&rft.au=Baker%2C+E.+T.&rft.au=German%2C+C.+R.&rft.au=Maffei%2C+A.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-54"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-54"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Rogers, Alex D.; Tyler, Paul A.; Connelly, Douglas P.; Copley, Jon T.; James, Rachael; Larter, Robert D.; Linse, Katrin; Mills, Rachel A.; Garabato, Alfredo Naveira; Pancost, Richard D.; Pearce, David A.; Polunin, Nicholas V. C.; German, Christopher R.; Shank, Timothy; Boersch-Supan, Philipp H.; Alker, Belinda J.; Aquilina, Alfred; Bennett, Sarah A.; Clarke, Andrew; Dinley, Robert J. J.; Graham, Alastair G. C.; Green, Darryl R. H.; Hawkes, Jeffrey A.; Hepburn, Laura; Hilario, Ana; Huvenne, Veerle A. I.; Marsh, Leigh; Ramirez-Llodra, Eva; Reid, William D. K.; Roterman, Christopher N.; Sweeting, Christopher J.; Thatje, Sven; Zwirglmaier, Katrin (2012). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001234">"The Discovery of New Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vent Communities in the Southern Ocean and Implications for Biogeography"</A>. <I>PLOS Biology</I>. <B>10</B> (1): –1001234. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.1001234">10.1371/journal.pbio.1001234</A>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1545-7885">1545-7885</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Biology&rft.atitle=The+Discovery+of+New+Deep-Sea+Hydrothermal+Vent+Communities+in+the+Southern+Ocean+and+Implications+for+Biogeography&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=-1001234&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.1001234&rft.issn=1545-7885&rft.aulast=Rogers&rft.aufirst=Alex+D.&rft.au=Tyler%2C+Paul+A.&rft.au=Connelly%2C+Douglas+P.&rft.au=Copley%2C+Jon+T.&rft.au=James%2C+Rachael&rft.au=Larter%2C+Robert+D.&rft.au=Linse%2C+Katrin&rft.au=Mills%2C+Rachel+A.&rft.au=Garabato%2C+Alfredo+Naveira&rft.au=Pancost%2C+Richard+D.&rft.au=Pearce%2C+David+A.&rft.au=Polunin%2C+Nicholas+V.+C.&rft.au=German%2C+Christopher+R.&rft.au=Shank%2C+Timothy&rft.au=Boersch-Supan%2C+Philipp+H.&rft.au=Alker%2C+Belinda+J.&rft.au=Aquilina%2C+Alfred&rft.au=Bennett%2C+Sarah+A.&rft.au=Clarke%2C+Andrew&rft.au=Dinley%2C+Robert+J.+J.&rft.au=Graham%2C+Alastair+G.+C.&rft.au=Green%2C+Darryl+R.+H.&rft.au=Hawkes%2C+Jeffrey+A.&rft.au=Hepburn%2C+Laura&rft.au=Hilario%2C+Ana&rft.au=Huvenne%2C+Veerle+A.+I.&rft.au=Marsh%2C+Leigh&rft.au=Ramirez-Llodra%2C+Eva&rft.au=Reid%2C+William+D.+K.&rft.au=Roterman%2C+Christopher+N.&rft.au=Sweeting%2C+Christopher+J.&rft.au=Thatje%2C+Sven&rft.au=Zwirglmaier%2C+Katrin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.plos.org%2Fplosbiology%2Farticle%3Fid%3D10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.1001234&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-55"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-55"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Perkins, W. G. (1984). "Mount Isa silica dolomite and copper orebodies; the result of a syntectonic hydrothermal alteration system". <I><A href="/wiki/Economic_Geology_(journal)" title="Economic Geology (journal)">Economic Geology</A></I>. <B>79</B> (4): 601–637. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.2113%2Fgsecongeo.79.4.601">10.2113/gsecongeo.79.4.601</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Economic+Geology&rft.atitle=Mount+Isa+silica+dolomite+and+copper+orebodies%3B+the+result+of+a+syntectonic+hydrothermal+alteration+system&rft.volume=79&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=601-637&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2113%2Fgsecongeo.79.4.601&rft.aulast=Perkins&rft.aufirst=W.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Mining_2015-56"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Mining_2015_56-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Mining_2015_56-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nautil.us/blog/we-are-about-to-start-mining-hydrothermal-vents-on-the-ocean-floor">We Are About to Start Mining Hydrothermal Vents on the Ocean Floor</A>. <I>Nautilus</I>; Brandon Keim. 12 September 2015.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-57"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-57"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Ginley, S.; Diekrup, D.; Hannington, M. (2014). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://goldschmidtabstracts.info/2014/807.pdf">"Categorizing mineralogy and geochemistry of Algoma type banded iron formation, Temagami, ON"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2017-11-14</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Categorizing+mineralogy+and+geochemistry+of+Algoma+type+banded+iron+formation%2C+Temagami%2C+ON&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Ginley&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Diekrup%2C+D.&rft.au=Hannington%2C+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgoldschmidtabstracts.info%2F2014%2F807.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-58"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-58"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theallineed.com/ecology/06030301.htm">"The dawn of deep ocean mining"</A>. <I>The All I Need</I>. 2006.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+All+I+Need&rft.atitle=The+dawn+of+deep+ocean+mining&rft.date=2006&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theallineed.com%2Fecology%2F06030301.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-59"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-59"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation pressrelease"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090129204714/http://www.nautilusminerals.com/s/Media-NewsReleases.asp?ReportID=138787&_Type=News-Releases&_Title=Nautilus-Outlines-High-Grade-Au-Cu-Seabed-Sulphide-Zone">"Nautilus Outlines High Grade Au - Cu Seabed Sulphide Zone"</A> (Press release). <A href="/wiki/Nautilus_Minerals" title="Nautilus Minerals">Nautilus Minerals</A>. 25 May 2006. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nautilusminerals.com/s/Media-NewsReleases.asp?ReportID=138787&_Type=News-Releases&_Title=Nautilus-Outlines-High-Grade-Au-Cu-Seabed-Sulphide-Zone">the original</A> on 29 January 2009.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nautilus+Outlines+High+Grade+Au+-+Cu+Seabed+Sulphide+Zone&rft.pub=Nautilus+Minerals&rft.date=2006-05-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nautilusminerals.com%2Fs%2FMedia-NewsReleases.asp%3FReportID%3D138787%26_Type%3DNews-Releases%26_Title%3DNautilus-Outlines-High-Grade-Au-Cu-Seabed-Sulphide-Zone&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-60"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-60"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.neptuneminerals.com">"Neptune Minerals"</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">August 2,</SPAN> 2012</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Neptune+Minerals&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.neptuneminerals.com&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-61"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-61"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Birney, K.; et al. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bren.ucsb.edu/research/documents/VentsThesis.pdf">"Potential Deep-Sea Mining of Seafloor Massive Sulfides: A case study in Papua New Guinea"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Santa_Barbara" title="University of California, Santa Barbara">University of California, Santa Barbara</A>, B.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Potential+Deep-Sea+Mining+of+Seafloor+Massive+Sulfides%3A+A+case+study+in+Papua+New+Guinea&rft.pub=University+of+California%2C+Santa+Barbara%2C+B&rft.aulast=Birney&rft.aufirst=K.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bren.ucsb.edu%2Fresearch%2Fdocuments%2FVentsThesis.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-62"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-62"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/issues/2007/january/treasuresdeep.asp">"Treasures from the deep"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/Chemistry_World" title="Chemistry World">Chemistry World</A></I>. <A href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Chemistry" title="Royal Society of Chemistry">Royal Society of Chemistry</A>. January 2007.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chemistry+World&rft.atitle=Treasures+from+the+deep&rft.date=2007-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rsc.org%2Fchemistryworld%2Fissues%2F2007%2Fjanuary%2Ftreasuresdeep.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-63"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-63"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/resources/idt-sh/deep_sea_mining">The secret on the ocean floor</A>. David Shukman, <I>BBC News</I>. 19 February 2018.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-64"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-64"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Devey, C.W.; Fisher, C.R.; Scott, S. (2007). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110723054816/http://www.tos.org/oceanography/issues/issue_archive/issue_pdfs/20_1/20.1_devey_et_al.pdf">"Responsible Science at Hydrothermal Vents"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I><A href="/wiki/Oceanography_(journal)" title="Oceanography (journal)">Oceanography</A></I>. <B>20</B> (1): 162–72. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.5670%2Foceanog.2007.90">10.5670/oceanog.2007.90</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tos.org/oceanography/issues/issue_archive/issue_pdfs/20_1/20.1_devey_et_al.pdf">the original</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN> on 2011-07-23.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oceanography&rft.atitle=Responsible+Science+at+Hydrothermal+Vents&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=162-72&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5670%2Foceanog.2007.90&rft.aulast=Devey&rft.aufirst=C.W.&rft.au=Fisher%2C+C.R.&rft.au=Scott%2C+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tos.org%2Foceanography%2Fissues%2Fissue_archive%2Fissue_pdfs%2F20_1%2F20.1_devey_et_al.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-65"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-65"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Johnson, M. (2005). "Oceans need protection from scientists too". <I><A href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</A></I>. <B>433</B> (7022): 105. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005Natur.433..105J">2005Natur.433..105J</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2F433105a">10.1038/433105a</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15650716">15650716</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Oceans+need+protection+from+scientists+too&rft.volume=433&rft.issue=7022&rft.pages=105&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15650716&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F433105a&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005Natur.433..105J&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-66"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-66"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Johnson, M. (2005). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://depts.washington.edu/mpanews/MPA63.htm#vents">"Deepsea vents should be world heritage sites"</A>. <I><A href="/w/index.php?title=MPA_News&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MPA News (page does not exist)">MPA News</A></I>. <B>6</B>: 10.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=MPA+News&rft.atitle=Deepsea+vents+should+be+world+heritage+sites&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=10&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdepts.washington.edu%2Fmpanews%2FMPA63.htm%23vents&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-67"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-67"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Tyler, P.; German, C.; Tunnicliff, V. (2005). "Biologists do not pose a threat to deep-sea vents". <I><A href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</A></I>. <B>434</B> (7029): 18. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005Natur.434...18T">2005Natur.434...18T</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2F434018b">10.1038/434018b</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15744272">15744272</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Biologists+do+not+pose+a+threat+to+deep-sea+vents&rft.volume=434&rft.issue=7029&rft.pages=18&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15744272&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F434018b&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005Natur.434...18T&rft.aulast=Tyler&rft.aufirst=P.&rft.au=German%2C+C.&rft.au=Tunnicliff%2C+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
</OL>
</DIV>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrothermal_vent&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<UL>
<LI><CITE class="citation journal">Van Dover CL; Humphris SE; Fornari D; Cavanaugh CM; Collier R; Goffredi SK; Hashimoto J; Lilley MD; Reysenbach AL; Shank TM; Von Damm KL; Banta A; Gallant RM; Gotz D; Green D; Hall J; Harmer TL; Hurtado LA; Johnson P; McKiness ZP; Meredith C; Olson E; Pan IL; Turnipseed M; Won Y; Young CR 3rd; Vrijenhoek RC (2001). "Biogeography and ecological setting of Indian Ocean hydrothermal vents". <I>Science</I>. <B>294</B> (5543): 818–23. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001Sci...294..818V">2001Sci...294..818V</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1064574">10.1126/science.1064574</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11557843">11557843</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Biogeography+and+ecological+setting+of+Indian+Ocean+hydrothermal+vents&rft.volume=294&rft.issue=5543&rft.pages=818-23&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11557843&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1064574&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001Sci...294..818V&rft.au=Van+Dover+CL&rft.au=Humphris+SE&rft.au=Fornari+D&rft.au=Cavanaugh+CM&rft.au=Collier+R&rft.au=Goffredi+SK&rft.au=Hashimoto+J&rft.au=Lilley+MD&rft.au=Reysenbach+AL&rft.au=Shank+TM&rft.au=Von+Damm+KL&rft.au=Banta+A&rft.au=Gallant+RM&rft.au=Gotz+D&rft.au=Green+D&rft.au=Hall+J&rft.au=Harmer+TL&rft.au=Hurtado+LA&rft.au=Johnson+P&rft.au=McKiness+ZP&rft.au=Meredith+C&rft.au=Olson+E&rft.au=Pan+IL&rft.au=Turnipseed+M&rft.au=Won+Y&rft.au=Young+CR+3rd&rft.au=Vrijenhoek+RC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation book">Van Dover; Cindy Lee (2000). <I>The Ecology of Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vents</I>. Princeton University Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-04929-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-04929-7">0-691-04929-7</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ecology+of+Deep-Sea+Hydrothermal+Vents&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-691-04929-7&rft.au=Van+Dover&rft.au=Cindy+Lee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation journal">Beatty JT, Overmann J, Lince MT, Manske AK, Lang AS, Blankenship RE, Van Dover CL, Martinson TA, Plumley FG (2005). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1166624">"An obligately photosynthetic bacterial anaerobe from a deep-sea hydrothermal vent"</A>. <I>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</I>. <B>102</B> (26): 9306–10. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005PNAS..102.9306B">2005PNAS..102.9306B</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0503674102">10.1073/pnas.0503674102</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1166624">1166624</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15967984">15967984</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=An+obligately+photosynthetic+bacterial+anaerobe+from+a+deep-sea+hydrothermal+vent&rft.volume=102&rft.issue=26&rft.pages=9306-10&rft.date=2005&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1166624&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15967984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0503674102&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005PNAS..102.9306B&rft.aulast=Beatty&rft.aufirst=JT&rft.au=Overmann%2C+J&rft.au=Lince%2C+MT&rft.au=Manske%2C+AK&rft.au=Lang%2C+AS&rft.au=Blankenship%2C+RE&rft.au=Van+Dover%2C+CL&rft.au=Martinson%2C+TA&rft.au=Plumley%2C+FG&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1166624&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198205/silver.from.the.sea.htm">Glyn Ford and Jonathan Simnett, <I>Silver from the Sea</I>, September/October 1982, Volume 33, Number 5, Saudi Aramco World</A> Accessed 17 October 2005</LI>
<LI>Ballard, Robert D., 2000, <I>The Eternal Darkness</I>, <A href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</A>.</LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.botos.com/marine/vents01.html#body_4">http://www.botos.com/marine/vents01.html#body_4</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=17933915">Anaerobic respiration on tellurate and other metalloids in bacteria from hydrothermal vent fields in the eastern pacific ocean</A></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation journal">Andrea Koschinsky; Dieter Garbe-Schönberg; Sylvia Sander; Katja Schmidt; Hans-Hermann Gennerich; Harald Strauss (August 2008). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/36/8/615">"Hydrothermal venting at pressure-temperature conditions above the critical point of seawater, 5°S on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge"</A>. <I>Geology</I>. <B>36</B> (8): 615–618. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1130%2FG24726A.1">10.1130/G24726A.1</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">18 June</SPAN> 2010</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geology&rft.atitle=Hydrothermal+venting+at+pressure-temperature+conditions+above+the+critical+point+of+seawater%2C+5%C2%B0S+on+the+Mid-Atlantic+Ridge&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=615-618&rft.date=2008-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1130%2FG24726A.1&rft.au=Andrea+Koschinsky&rft.au=Dieter+Garbe-Sch%C3%B6nberg&rft.au=Sylvia+Sander&rft.au=Katja+Schmidt&rft.au=Hans-Hermann+Gennerich&rft.au=Harald+Strauss&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgeology.geoscienceworld.org%2Fcgi%2Fcontent%2Fabstract%2F36%2F8%2F615&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation web">Catherine Brahic (4 August 2008). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth.html">"Found: The hottest water on Earth"</A>. New Scientist<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">18 June</SPAN> 2010</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Found%3A+The+hottest+water+on+Earth&rft.pub=New+Scientist&rft.date=2008-08-04&rft.au=Catherine+Brahic&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newscientist.com%2Farticle%2Fdn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation web">Josh Hill (5 August 2008). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dailygalaxy.com/my_weblog/2008/08/extreme-water-f.html">"<SPAN style="padding-left:0.2em;">'</SPAN>Extreme Water' Found at Atlantic Ocean Abyss"</A>. The Daily Galaxy<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">18 June</SPAN> 2010</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%27Extreme+Water%27+Found+at+Atlantic+Ocean+Abyss&rft.pub=The+Daily+Galaxy&rft.date=2008-08-05&rft.au=Josh+Hill&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dailygalaxy.com%2Fmy_weblog%2F2008%2F08%2Fextreme-water-f.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
</UL>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrothermal_vent&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: External links">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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<TD class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <I><B><A href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Hydrothermal_vents" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Hydrothermal vents">Hydrothermal vents</A></B></I>.</TD>
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<UL>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov">Ocean Explorer (www.oceanexplorer.noaa.gov)</A> - Public outreach site for explorations sponsored by the Office of Ocean Exploration.</LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ocean.si.edu/ocean-videos/hydrothermal-vents">Hydrothermal Vents Video</A> - The Smithsonian Institution's Ocean Portal</LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/vents/chemistry/circulation.html">Vent geochemistry</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csa.com/discoveryguides/vent/review.pdf">a good overview of hydrothermal vent biology, published in 2006</A> (PDF)</LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nsf.gov/od/lpa/news/press/01/pr0136.htm">Images of Hydrothermal Vents in Indian Ocean- Released by National Science Foundation</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.whoi.edu/oceanus/viewArticle.do?id=2400&archives=true">How to Build a Hydrothermal Vent Chimney</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/oceanexplorergov">NOAA, Ocean Explorer YouTube Channel</A></LI>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em"><A href="/wiki/Aquatic_ecosystem" title="Aquatic ecosystem">General</A></TH>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Acoustic_ecology" title="Acoustic ecology">Acoustic ecology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Aquatic_adaptation" title="Aquatic adaptation">Adaptation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Agent-based_model_in_biology#Aquatic_population_dynamics" title="Agent-based model in biology">Agent-based models</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">Algal bloom</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Anoxic_waters" title="Anoxic waters">Anoxic waters</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Aquatic_animal" title="Aquatic animal">Aquatic animals</A> (<A href="/wiki/Aquatic_insect" title="Aquatic insect">Insects</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Aquatic_mammal" title="Aquatic mammal">Mammals</A>)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Aquatic_plant" title="Aquatic plant">Aquatic plants</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Aquatic_science" title="Aquatic science">Aquatic science</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Benthos" title="Benthos">Benthos</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Aquatic_biodiversity_research" title="Aquatic biodiversity research">Biodiversity research</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">Bioluminescence</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">Biomass</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Aquatic_biomonitoring" title="Aquatic biomonitoring">Biomonitoring</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Colored_dissolved_organic_matter" title="Colored dissolved organic matter">Colored dissolved organic matter</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Underwater_camouflage" title="Underwater camouflage">Camouflage and mimicry</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Dead_zone_(ecology)" title="Dead zone (ecology)">Dead zone</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecohydrology" title="Ecohydrology">Ecohydrology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Aquatic_ecosystem" title="Aquatic ecosystem">Ecosystems</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">Eutrophication</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fisheries_science" title="Fisheries science">Fisheries science</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">Food chain</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">Food web</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/GIS_and_aquatic_science" title="GIS and aquatic science">GIS and aquatic science</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hydrobiology" title="Hydrobiology">Hydrobiology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">Hypoxia</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Isotope_analysis#Stable_isotope_analysis_in_aquatic_ecosystems" title="Isotope analysis">Isotope analysis</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Microbial_food_web" title="Microbial food web">Microbial food web</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Nekton" title="Nekton">Nekton</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Neuston" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuston">Neuston</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Particle_(ecology)" title="Particle (ecology)">Particle</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic zone</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">Photic zone</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">Phytoplankton</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">Plankton</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pleuston" title="Pleuston">Pleuston</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Aquatic_predation" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquatic predation">Predation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Productivity_(ecology)" title="Productivity (ecology)">Productivity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ramsar_Convention" title="Ramsar Convention">Ramsar Convention</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Aquatic_respiration" title="Aquatic respiration">Respiration</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling" title="Shoaling and schooling">Schooling</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sediment_trap" title="Sediment trap">Sediment trap</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Siltation" title="Siltation">Siltation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Spawn_(biology)" title="Spawn (biology)">Spawning</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Substrate_(marine_biology)" title="Substrate (marine biology)">Substrate</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Thermal_pollution" title="Thermal pollution">Thermal pollution</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Aquatic_toxicology" title="Aquatic toxicology">Toxicology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Water_column" title="Water column">Water column</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Zooplankton" title="Zooplankton">Zooplankton</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Category:Aquatic_ecology" title="Category:Aquatic ecology">More...</A></LI>
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<DIV><A href="/wiki/File:Estuary-mouth.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Estuary-mouth.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Estuary-mouth.jpg/140px-Estuary-mouth.jpg" width="140" height="94" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Estuary-mouth.jpg/210px-Estuary-mouth.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Estuary-mouth.jpg/280px-Estuary-mouth.jpg 2x" data-file-width="307" data-file-height="206" /></A></DIV>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em"><A href="/wiki/Fresh_water" title="Fresh water">Freshwater</A></TH>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Biology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Freshwater_biome" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater biome">Biomes</A></LI>
<LI>Ecosystems
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Freshwater_ecosystem" title="Freshwater ecosystem">freshwater</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lake_ecosystem" title="Lake ecosystem">lake</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/River_ecosystem" title="River ecosystem">river</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Freshwater_fish" title="Freshwater fish">Fish</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hyporheic_zone" title="Hyporheic zone">Hyporheic zone</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">Limnology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lake_stratification" title="Lake stratification">Lake stratification</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Macrophyte" title="Macrophyte">Macrophyte</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pond" title="Pond">Pond</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fish_pond" title="Fish pond">Fish pond</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Rheotaxis" title="Rheotaxis">Rheotaxis</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Stream_bed" title="Stream bed">Stream bed</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Stream_pool" title="Stream pool">Stream pool</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Trophic_state_index" title="Trophic state index">Trophic state index</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Upland_and_lowland" title="Upland and lowland">Upland and lowland</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Water_garden" title="Water garden">Water garden</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">Wetland</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Brackish_marsh" title="Brackish marsh">brackish marsh</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Freshwater_marsh" title="Freshwater marsh">freshwater marsh</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Freshwater_swamp_forest" title="Freshwater swamp forest">swamp</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bog" title="Bog">bog</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fen" title="Fen">fen</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Freshwater_environmental_quality_parameters" title="Freshwater environmental quality parameters">Environmental quality</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Category:Freshwater_ecology" title="Category:Freshwater ecology">More...</A></LI>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em"><A href="/wiki/Ecoregion" title="Ecoregion">Ecoregions</A></TH>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecoregion#Freshwater" title="Ecoregion">Freshwater</A> (<A href="/wiki/List_of_freshwater_ecoregions_(WWF)" title="List of freshwater ecoregions (WWF)">List</A>)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecoregion#Marine" title="Ecoregion">Marine</A> (<A href="/wiki/List_of_marine_ecoregions" title="List of marine ecoregions">List</A>)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Geography_and_ecology_of_the_Everglades" title="Geography and ecology of the Everglades">The Everglades</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Freshwater_ecology_of_Maharashtra" title="Freshwater ecology of Maharashtra">Maharashtra</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecosystem_of_the_North_Pacific_Subtropical_Gyre" title="Ecosystem of the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre">The North Pacific Subtropical Gyre</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecology_of_the_San_Francisco_Estuary" title="Ecology of the San Francisco Estuary">The San Francisco Estuary</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ocean_chemistry" title="Ocean chemistry">Marine chemistry</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Deep_scattering_layer" title="Deep scattering layer">Deep scattering layer</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Diel_vertical_migration" title="Diel vertical migration">Diel vertical migration</A></LI>
<LI>Ecosystems
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Large_marine_ecosystem" title="Large marine ecosystem">large marine</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Marine_ecosystem" title="Marine ecosystem">marine</A>)</LI>
</UL>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/F-ratio" title="F-ratio"><I>f</I>-ratio</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Iron_fertilization" title="Iron fertilization">Iron fertilization</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Marine_snow" title="Marine snow">Marine snow</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ocean_fertilization" title="Ocean fertilization">Ocean nourishment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Oceanic_physical-biological_process" title="Oceanic physical-biological process">Oceanic physical-biological process</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ocean_turbidity" title="Ocean turbidity">Ocean turbidity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Photophore" title="Photophore">Photophore</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Thorson%27s_rule" title="Thorson's rule">Thorson's rule</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">Upwelling</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Whale_fall" title="Whale fall">Whale fall</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Category:Marine_biology" title="Category:Marine biology">More...</A></LI>
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<DIV><A href="/wiki/File:Maldivesfish2.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Maldivesfish2.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maldivesfish2.jpg/140px-Maldivesfish2.jpg" width="140" height="95" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maldivesfish2.jpg/210px-Maldivesfish2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maldivesfish2.jpg/280px-Maldivesfish2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1818" data-file-height="1228" /></A></DIV>
</TD>
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<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em"><A href="/wiki/Marine_life" title="Marine life">Marine<BR />
life</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Marine_bacteriophage" title="Marine bacteriophage">Bacteriophages</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Census_of_Marine_Life" title="Census of Marine Life">Census</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">Fish</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Coastal_fish" title="Coastal fish">coastal</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Coral_reef_fish" title="Coral reef fish">coral reef</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Deep_sea_fish" title="Deep sea fish">deep sea</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Demersal_fish" title="Demersal fish">demersal</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pelagic_fish" title="Pelagic fish">pelagic</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Deep_sea_communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep sea communities">Deep sea communities</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Deep_sea_creature" title="Deep sea creature">Deep sea creature</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Deep-water_coral" title="Deep-water coral">Deep-water coral</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Marine_invertebrates" title="Marine invertebrates">Invertebrates</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Marine_larval_ecology" title="Marine larval ecology">Larvae</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Marine_mammal" title="Marine mammal">Mammals</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Marine_life" title="Marine life">Marine life</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Marine_microorganism" title="Marine microorganism">Microorganisms</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Marine_reptile" title="Marine reptile">Reptiles</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Seabird" title="Seabird">Seabirds</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Seashore_wildlife" title="Seashore wildlife">Seashore wildlife</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Marine_vertebrate" title="Marine vertebrate">Vertebrates</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wild_fisheries" title="Wild fisheries">Wild fisheries</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em"><A href="/wiki/Marine_habitats" title="Marine habitats">Marine<BR />
habitats</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bay_mud" title="Bay mud">Bay mud</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Coastal_biogeomorphology" title="Coastal biogeomorphology">Coastal biogeomorphology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seeps</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reefs</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Davidson_Seamount#Ecology" title="Davidson Seamount">Davidson Seamount</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">Estuaries</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Intertidal_ecology" title="Intertidal ecology">Intertidal ecology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Intertidal_wetland" title="Intertidal wetland">Intertidal wetlands</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kelp_forest" title="Kelp forest">Kelp forests</A></LI>
<LI><A class="mw-selflink selflink">Hydrothermal vents</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lagoon" title="Lagoon">Lagoons</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">Mangroves</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Marine_biomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine biomes">Marine biomes</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Marine_habitats" title="Marine habitats">Marine habitats</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mudflat" title="Mudflat">Mudflats</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Rocky_shore" title="Rocky shore">Rocky shores</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Salt_marsh" title="Salt marsh">Salt marshes</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Salt_pannes_and_pools" title="Salt pannes and pools">Salt pannes and pools</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Seagrass" title="Seagrass">Seagrass meadows</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sponge_ground" title="Sponge ground">Sponge grounds</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sponge_reef" title="Sponge reef">Sponge reefs</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">Tide pools</A></LI>
</UL>
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</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em">Issues</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecological_values_of_mangroves" title="Ecological values of mangroves">Ecological values of mangroves</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fisheries_and_climate_change" title="Fisheries and climate change">Fisheries and climate change</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hotspot_Ecosystem_Research_and_Man%27s_Impact_On_European_Seas" title="Hotspot Ecosystem Research and Man's Impact On European Seas">HERMIONE</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">Marine conservation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Marine_conservation_activism" title="Marine conservation activism">Marine conservation activism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine pollution</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Marine_protected_area" title="Marine protected area">Marine Protected Area</A></LI>
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<DIV id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Trophic_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><A href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</A>: <A href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</A>: <A href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic</A> components</DIV>
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<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">General</TH>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Abiotic_component" title="Abiotic component">Abiotic component</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Abiotic_stress" title="Abiotic stress">Abiotic stress</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Behavioral_ecology" title="Behavioral ecology">Behaviour</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycle</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">Biomass</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Biotic_component" title="Biotic component">Biotic component</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Biotic_stress" title="Biotic stress">Biotic stress</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">Carrying capacity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Competition_(biology)" title="Competition (biology)">Competition</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">Ecosystem ecology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Ecosystem model</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Keystone_species" title="Keystone species">Keystone species</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_feeding_behaviours" title="List of feeding behaviours">List of feeding behaviours</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Metabolic_theory_of_ecology" title="Metabolic theory of ecology">Metabolic theory of ecology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Productivity_(ecology)" title="Productivity (ecology)">Productivity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">Resource</A></LI>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><A href="/wiki/Primary_producers" title="Primary producers">Producers</A></TH>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Autotrophs</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">Chemosynthesis</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Chemotroph" title="Chemotroph">Chemotrophs</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Foundation_species" title="Foundation species">Foundation species</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mixotroph" title="Mixotroph">Mixotrophs</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Myco-heterotrophy" title="Myco-heterotrophy">Myco-heterotrophy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mycotroph" title="Mycotroph">Mycotroph</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Organotroph" title="Organotroph">Organotrophs</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Photoheterotroph" title="Photoheterotroph">Photoheterotrophs</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Photosynthetic_efficiency" title="Photosynthetic efficiency">Photosynthetic efficiency</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Phototroph" title="Phototroph">Phototrophs</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Primary_nutritional_groups" title="Primary nutritional groups">Primary nutritional groups</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">Primary production</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><A href="/wiki/Consumers_(food_chain)" class="mw-redirect" title="Consumers (food chain)">Consumers</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Apex_predator" title="Apex predator">Apex predator</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bacterivore" title="Bacterivore">Bacterivore</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">Carnivores</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Chemoorganotroph" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganotroph">Chemoorganotroph</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Foraging" title="Foraging">Foraging</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Generalist_and_specialist_species" title="Generalist and specialist species">Generalist and specialist species</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Intraguild_predation" title="Intraguild predation">Intraguild predation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">Herbivores</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">Heterotroph</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Heterotrophic_nutrition" title="Heterotrophic nutrition">Heterotrophic nutrition</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Insectivore" title="Insectivore">Insectivore</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mesopredator" title="Mesopredator">Mesopredators</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mesopredator_release_hypothesis" title="Mesopredator release hypothesis">Mesopredator release hypothesis</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Omnivore" title="Omnivore">Omnivores</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Optimal_foraging_theory" title="Optimal foraging theory">Optimal foraging theory</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">Predation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Prey_switching" title="Prey switching">Prey switching</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><A href="/wiki/Decomposer" title="Decomposer">Decomposers</A></TH>
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<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Chemoorganoheterotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganoheterotrophy">Chemoorganoheterotrophy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">Decomposition</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">Detritivores</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Detritus" title="Detritus">Detritus</A></LI>
</UL>
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<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><A href="/wiki/Microorganism#Habitats_and_ecology" title="Microorganism">Microorganisms</A></TH>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">Bacteriophage</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Environmental_microbiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental microbiology">Environmental microbiology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lithoautotroph" title="Lithoautotroph">Lithoautotroph</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lithotroph" title="Lithotroph">Lithotrophy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Microbial_cooperation" title="Microbial cooperation">Microbial cooperation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Microbial_food_web" title="Microbial food web">Microbial food web</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Microbial_intelligence" title="Microbial intelligence">Microbial intelligence</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">Microbial mat</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Microbial_metabolism" title="Microbial metabolism">Microbial metabolism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Phage_ecology" title="Phage ecology">Phage ecology</A></LI>
</UL>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><A href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">Food webs</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
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<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Biomagnification" title="Biomagnification">Biomagnification</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecological_efficiency" title="Ecological efficiency">Ecological efficiency</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecological_pyramid" title="Ecological pyramid">Ecological pyramid</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Energy flow</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">Food chain</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Example webs</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seeps</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent#Biological_communities" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vents</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Intertidal_ecology" title="Intertidal ecology">Intertidal</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kelp_forest#Trophic_ecology" title="Kelp forest">Kelp forests</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lake_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="Lake ecosystem">Lakes</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/North_Pacific_Subtropical_Gyre" class="mw-redirect" title="North Pacific Subtropical Gyre">North Pacific Subtropical Gyre</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/River_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="River ecosystem">Rivers</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecology_of_the_San_Francisco_Estuary#Food_web" title="Ecology of the San Francisco Estuary">San Francisco Estuary</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Soil_food_web" title="Soil food web">Soil</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">Tide pool</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Processes</TH>
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<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ascendency" title="Ascendency">Ascendency</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bioaccumulation" title="Bioaccumulation">Bioaccumulation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Climax_community" title="Climax community">Climax community</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Competitive_exclusion_principle" title="Competitive exclusion principle">Competitive exclusion principle</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Consumer-resource_systems" title="Consumer-resource systems">Consumer-resource systems</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Copiotroph" title="Copiotroph">Copiotrophs</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Dominance_(ecology)" title="Dominance (ecology)">Dominance</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecological_network" title="Ecological network">Ecological network</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecological_succession" title="Ecological succession">Ecological succession</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Energy_quality" title="Energy quality">Energy quality</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Energy_Systems_Language" title="Energy Systems Language">Energy Systems Language</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/F-ratio" title="F-ratio">f-ratio</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Feed_conversion_ratio" title="Feed conversion ratio">Feed conversion ratio</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Feeding_frenzy" title="Feeding frenzy">Feeding frenzy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mesotrophic_soil" title="Mesotrophic soil">Mesotrophic soil</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">Nutrient cycle</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Oligotroph" title="Oligotroph">Oligotroph</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Trophic_cascade" title="Trophic cascade">Trophic cascade</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Trophic_mutualism" title="Trophic mutualism">Trophic mutualism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Trophic_state_index" title="Trophic state index">Trophic state index</A></LI>
</UL>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Defense,<BR />
counter</TH>
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<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Animal_coloration" title="Animal coloration">Animal coloration</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Antipredator_adaptation" class="mw-redirect" title="Antipredator adaptation">Antipredator adaptations</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">Camouflage</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Deimatic_behaviour" title="Deimatic behaviour">Deimatic behaviour</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Herbivore_adaptations_to_plant_defense" title="Herbivore adaptations to plant defense">Herbivore adaptations to plant defense</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Plant_defense_against_herbivory" title="Plant defense against herbivory">Plant defense against herbivory</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling#Predator_avoidance" title="Shoaling and schooling">Predator avoidance in schooling fish</A></LI>
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<DIV id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><A href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</A>: <A href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</A>: Other components</DIV>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><A href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population<BR />
ecology</A></TH>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Abundance_(ecology)" title="Abundance (ecology)">Abundance</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Allee_effect" title="Allee effect">Allee effect</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Depensation" title="Depensation">Depensation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecological_yield" title="Ecological yield">Ecological yield</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Effective_population_size" title="Effective population size">Effective population size</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Intraspecific_competition" title="Intraspecific competition">Intraspecific competition</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Logistic_function" title="Logistic function">Logistic function</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Malthusian_growth_model" title="Malthusian growth model">Malthusian growth model</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Maximum_sustainable_yield" title="Maximum sustainable yield">Maximum sustainable yield</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Overpopulation_in_wild_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Overpopulation in wild animals">Overpopulation in wild animals</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Population_cycle" title="Population cycle">Population cycle</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">Population dynamics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Population_modeling" class="mw-redirect" title="Population modeling">Population modeling</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Population_size" title="Population size">Population size</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_equations" title="Lotka–Volterra equations">Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Recruitment_(biology)" title="Recruitment (biology)">Recruitment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Resilience_(ecology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Resilience (ecology)">Resilience</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Small_population_size" title="Small population size">Small population size</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecological_stability" title="Ecological stability">Stability</A></LI>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species</TH>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Density_dependence" title="Density dependence">Density-dependent inhibition</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecological_effects_of_biodiversity" title="Ecological effects of biodiversity">Ecological effects of biodiversity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecological_extinction" title="Ecological extinction">Ecological extinction</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Endemic_species" class="mw-redirect" title="Endemic species">Endemic species</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Flagship_species" title="Flagship species">Flagship species</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Gradient_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Gradient analysis">Gradient analysis</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Indicator_species" title="Indicator species">Indicator species</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Latitudinal_gradients_in_species_diversity" title="Latitudinal gradients in species diversity">Latitudinal gradients in species diversity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Minimum_viable_population" title="Minimum viable population">Minimum viable population</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Unified_neutral_theory_of_biodiversity" title="Unified neutral theory of biodiversity">Neutral theory</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Occupancy%E2%80%93abundance_relationship" title="Occupancy–abundance relationship">Occupancy–abundance relationship</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Population_viability_analysis" title="Population viability analysis">Population viability analysis</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Priority_effect" title="Priority effect">Priority effect</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Rapoport%27s_rule" title="Rapoport's rule">Rapoport's rule</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Relative_abundance_distribution" title="Relative abundance distribution">Relative abundance distribution</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Relative_species_abundance" title="Relative species abundance">Relative species abundance</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Species_diversity" title="Species diversity">Species diversity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Species_homogeneity" title="Species homogeneity">Species homogeneity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Species_richness" title="Species richness">Species richness</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Species_distribution" title="Species distribution">Species distribution</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Species-area_curve" class="mw-redirect" title="Species-area curve">Species-area curve</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Umbrella_species" title="Umbrella species">Umbrella species</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species<BR />
interaction</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Antibiosis" title="Antibiosis">Antibiosis</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">Biological interaction</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Commensalism" title="Commensalism">Commensalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Community_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Community ecology">Community ecology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecological_facilitation" title="Ecological facilitation">Ecological facilitation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Interspecific_competition" title="Interspecific competition">Interspecific competition</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Storage_effect" title="Storage effect">Storage effect</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><A href="/wiki/Spatial_ecology" title="Spatial ecology">Spatial<BR />
ecology</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cross-boundary_subsidy" title="Cross-boundary subsidy">Cross-boundary subsidy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecocline" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecocline">Ecocline</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecotone" title="Ecotone">Ecotone</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecotype" title="Ecotype">Ecotype</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)" title="Disturbance (ecology)">Disturbance</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Edge_effects" title="Edge effects">Edge effects</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Foster%27s_rule" title="Foster's rule">Foster's rule</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">Habitat fragmentation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ideal_free_distribution" title="Ideal free distribution">Ideal free distribution</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Intermediate_Disturbance_Hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis">Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Island_biogeography" class="mw-redirect" title="Island biogeography">Island biogeography</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Landscape_epidemiology" title="Landscape epidemiology">Landscape epidemiology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Landscape_limnology" title="Landscape limnology">Landscape limnology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Metapopulation" title="Metapopulation">Metapopulation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Patch_dynamics" title="Patch dynamics">Patch dynamics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/R/K_selection_theory" title="R/K selection theory">r/K selection theory</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Resource_selection_function" title="Resource selection function">Resource selection function</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Source%E2%80%93sink_dynamics" title="Source–sink dynamics">Source–sink dynamics</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><A href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Niche</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Ecological niche</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecological_trap" title="Ecological trap">Ecological trap</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecosystem_engineer" title="Ecosystem engineer">Ecosystem engineer</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Environmental_niche_modelling" title="Environmental niche modelling">Environmental niche modelling</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Guild_(ecology)" title="Guild (ecology)">Guild</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Marine_habitats" title="Marine habitats">Marine habitats</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Limiting_similarity" title="Limiting similarity">Limiting similarity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Niche_apportionment_models" title="Niche apportionment models">Niche apportionment models</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Niche_construction" title="Niche construction">Niche construction</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Niche_differentiation" title="Niche differentiation">Niche differentiation</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><A href="/wiki/Non-trophic_networks" title="Non-trophic networks">Other<BR />
networks</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Assembly_rules" title="Assembly rules">Assembly rules</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bateman%27s_principle" title="Bateman's principle">Bateman's principle</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">Bioluminescence</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecological_collapse" title="Ecological collapse">Ecological collapse</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological debt</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecological_deficit" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological deficit">Ecological deficit</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecological_energetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological energetics">Ecological energetics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecological_indicator" title="Ecological indicator">Ecological indicator</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecological_threshold" title="Ecological threshold">Ecological threshold</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecosystem_diversity" title="Ecosystem diversity">Ecosystem diversity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">Emergence</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Extinction_debt" title="Extinction debt">Extinction debt</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kleiber%27s_law" title="Kleiber's law">Kleiber's law</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Liebig%27s_law_of_the_minimum" title="Liebig's law of the minimum">Liebig's law of the minimum</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Marginal_value_theorem" title="Marginal value theorem">Marginal value theorem</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Thorson%27s_rule" title="Thorson's rule">Thorson's rule</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Xerosere" title="Xerosere">Xerosere</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Other</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Allometry" title="Allometry">Allometry</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Alternative_stable_state" title="Alternative stable state">Alternative stable state</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Balance_of_nature" title="Balance of nature">Balance of nature</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Biological_data_visualization" title="Biological data visualization">Biological data visualization</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cline_(biology)" title="Cline (biology)">Ecocline</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological economics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecological_forecasting" title="Ecological forecasting">Ecological forecasting</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecological_humanities" title="Ecological humanities">Ecological humanities</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecological_stoichiometry" title="Ecological stoichiometry">Ecological stoichiometry</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecopath" title="Ecopath">Ecopath</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecosystem_based_fisheries" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem based fisheries">Ecosystem based fisheries</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Endolith" title="Endolith">Endolith</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ecology" title="Evolutionary ecology">Evolutionary ecology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Functional_ecology" title="Functional ecology">Functional ecology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Macroecology" title="Macroecology">Macroecology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Microecosystem" title="Microecosystem">Microecosystem</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Natural environment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Regime_shift" title="Regime shift">Regime shift</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Theoretical_ecology" title="Theoretical ecology">Theoretical ecology</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TD class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2">
<DIV><A href="/wiki/List_of_ecology_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of ecology topics">List of ecology topics</A></DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</DIV>
<DIV role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Physical_oceanography" style="padding:3px">
<TABLE class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit" id="collapsibleTable5">
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<LI class="nv-view"><A href="/wiki/Template:Physical_oceanography" title="Template:Physical oceanography"><ABBR title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none;">v</ABBR></A></LI>
<LI class="nv-talk"><A href="/wiki/Template_talk:Physical_oceanography" title="Template talk:Physical oceanography"><ABBR title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none;">t</ABBR></A></LI>
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</UL>
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<DIV id="Physical_oceanography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><A href="/wiki/Physical_oceanography" title="Physical oceanography">Physical oceanography</A></DIV>
</TH>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">Waves</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Airy_wave_theory" title="Airy wave theory">Airy wave theory</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ballantine_scale" title="Ballantine scale">Ballantine scale</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Modulational_instability" title="Modulational instability">Benjamin–Feir instability</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Boussinesq_approximation_(water_waves)" title="Boussinesq approximation (water waves)">Boussinesq approximation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Breaking_wave" title="Breaking wave">Breaking wave</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Clapotis" title="Clapotis">Clapotis</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cnoidal_wave" title="Cnoidal wave">Cnoidal wave</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cross_sea" title="Cross sea">Cross sea</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Dispersion_(water_waves)" title="Dispersion (water waves)">Dispersion</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Edge_wave" title="Edge wave">Edge wave</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Equatorial_wave" title="Equatorial wave">Equatorial waves</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fetch_(geography)" title="Fetch (geography)">Fetch</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Gravity_wave" title="Gravity wave">Gravity wave</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Green%27s_law" title="Green's law">Green's law</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Infragravity_wave" title="Infragravity wave">Infragravity wave</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Internal_wave" title="Internal wave">Internal wave</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Iribarren_number" title="Iribarren number">Iribarren number</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kelvin_wave" title="Kelvin wave">Kelvin wave</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kinematic_wave" title="Kinematic wave">Kinematic wave</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Luke%27s_variational_principle" title="Luke's variational principle">Luke's variational principle</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mild-slope_equation" title="Mild-slope equation">Mild-slope equation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Radiation_stress" title="Radiation stress">Radiation stress</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Rogue_wave" title="Rogue wave">Rogue wave</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Rossby_wave" title="Rossby wave">Rossby wave</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Rossby-gravity_waves" title="Rossby-gravity waves">Rossby-gravity waves</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sea_state" title="Sea state">Sea state</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Seiche" title="Seiche">Seiche</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Significant_wave_height" title="Significant wave height">Significant wave height</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Soliton" title="Soliton">Soliton</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Stokes_boundary_layer" title="Stokes boundary layer">Stokes boundary layer</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Stokes_drift" title="Stokes drift">Stokes drift</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Stokes_wave" title="Stokes wave">Stokes wave</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Swell_(ocean)" title="Swell (ocean)">Swell</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Trochoidal_wave" title="Trochoidal wave">Trochoidal wave</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">Tsunami</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Megatsunami" title="Megatsunami">megatsunami</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Undertow_(water_waves)" title="Undertow (water waves)">Undertow</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ursell_number" title="Ursell number">Ursell number</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wave_action_(continuum_mechanics)" title="Wave action (continuum mechanics)">Wave action</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wave_base" title="Wave base">Wave base</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wave_height" title="Wave height">Wave height</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wave_power" title="Wave power">Wave power</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wave_radar" title="Wave radar">Wave radar</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wave_setup" title="Wave setup">Wave setup</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wave_shoaling" title="Wave shoaling">Wave shoaling</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wave_turbulence" title="Wave turbulence">Wave turbulence</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93current_interaction" title="Wave–current interaction">Wave–current interaction</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Waves_and_shallow_water" title="Waves and shallow water">Waves and shallow water</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/One-dimensional_Saint-Venant_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="One-dimensional Saint-Venant equations">one-dimensional Saint-Venant equations</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Shallow_water_equations" title="Shallow water equations">shallow water equations</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">Wind wave</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wind_wave_model" title="Wind wave model">model</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
<TD class="navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px">
<DIV><A href="/wiki/File:Upwelling.svg" class="image" title="Upwelling"><IMG alt="Upwelling" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/140px-Upwelling.svg.png" width="140" height="93" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/210px-Upwelling.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/280px-Upwelling.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="365" data-file-height="242" /></A><BR />
<BR />
<BR />
<BR />
<BR />
<BR />
<A href="/wiki/File:Antarctic_bottom_water.svg" class="image" title="Antarctic bottom water"><IMG alt="Antarctic bottom water" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/140px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png" width="140" height="88" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/210px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/280px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="745" data-file-height="470" /></A></DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Circulation</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Atmospheric_circulation" title="Atmospheric circulation">Atmospheric circulation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Baroclinity" title="Baroclinity">Baroclinity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Boundary_current" title="Boundary current">Boundary current</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Coriolis_force" title="Coriolis force">Coriolis force</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Coriolis%E2%80%93Stokes_force" title="Coriolis–Stokes force">Coriolis–Stokes force</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Craik%E2%80%93Leibovich_vortex_force" title="Craik–Leibovich vortex force">Craik–Leibovich vortex force</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Downwelling" title="Downwelling">Downwelling</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Eddy_(fluid_dynamics)" title="Eddy (fluid dynamics)">Eddy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ekman_layer" title="Ekman layer">Ekman layer</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ekman_spiral" title="Ekman spiral">Ekman spiral</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ekman_transport" title="Ekman transport">Ekman transport</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation" title="El Niño–Southern Oscillation">El Niño–Southern Oscillation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/General_circulation_model" title="General circulation model">General circulation model</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Geostrophic_current" title="Geostrophic current">Geostrophic current</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Global_Ocean_Data_Analysis_Project" title="Global Ocean Data Analysis Project">Global Ocean Data Analysis Project</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Gulf_Stream" title="Gulf Stream">Gulf Stream</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Halothermal_circulation" title="Halothermal circulation">Halothermal circulation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Humboldt_Current" title="Humboldt Current">Humboldt Current</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_circulation" title="Hydrothermal circulation">Hydrothermal circulation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Langmuir_circulation" title="Langmuir circulation">Langmuir circulation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Loop_Current" title="Loop Current">Loop Current</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Modular_Ocean_Model" title="Modular Ocean Model">Modular Ocean Model</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamics" title="Ocean dynamics">Ocean dynamics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ocean_gyre" title="Ocean gyre">Ocean gyre</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Princeton_ocean_model" title="Princeton ocean model">Princeton ocean model</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Rip_current" title="Rip current">Rip current</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Subsurface_currents" title="Subsurface currents">Subsurface currents</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sverdrup_balance" title="Sverdrup balance">Sverdrup balance</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Thermohaline_circulation" title="Thermohaline circulation">Thermohaline circulation</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Shutdown_of_thermohaline_circulation" title="Shutdown of thermohaline circulation">shutdown</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">Upwelling</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Whirlpool" title="Whirlpool">Whirlpool</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/World_Ocean_Circulation_Experiment" title="World Ocean Circulation Experiment">World Ocean Circulation Experiment</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">Tides</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Amphidromic_point" title="Amphidromic point">Amphidromic point</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Earth_tide" title="Earth tide">Earth tide</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Head_of_tide" title="Head of tide">Head of tide</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Internal_tide" title="Internal tide">Internal tide</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lunitidal_interval" title="Lunitidal interval">Lunitidal interval</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Perigean_spring_tide" title="Perigean spring tide">Perigean spring tide</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Rip_tide" title="Rip tide">Rip tide</A></LI>
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document_title: Hydrothermal vent

token: Hydrothermal

token: vent

token: wikipedia

token: Jump

token: to

token: navigation

token: search

token: <Table>

token: <Tr>

token: <Th>

token: Marine

token: habitats

token: <Td>

token: White

token: smokers

token: emitting

token: liquid

token: rich

token: in

token: barium

token: calcium

token: silicon

token: and

token: carbon

token: dioxide

token: at

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token: Champagne

token: Northwest

token: Eifuku

token: volcano

token: Marianas

token: Trench

token: National

token: Monument

token: <Ul>

token: <Li>

token: Littoral

token: zone

token: Intertidal

token: Estuaries

token: Kelp

token: forests

token: Coral

token: reefs

token: Ocean

token: banks

token: Continental

token: shelf

token: Neritic

token: Straits

token: Pelagic

token: Oceanic

token: Seamounts

token: vents

token: Cold

token: seeps

token: Demersal

token: Benthic

token: </Table>

token: A

token: hydrothermal

token: is

token: српскохрватски

question_text: where were deep-sea hydrothermal vents first discovered 25 years ago