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<TITLE>History of bread - Wikipedia</TITLE>

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<H1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">History of bread</H1>			<DIV id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content">
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:292px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Slab_stele_from_tomb_of_Itjer_at_Giza_4th_Dynasty_c_2500_BC.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Slab_stele_from_tomb_of_Itjer_at_Giza_4th_Dynasty_c_2500_BC.jpg/290px-Slab_stele_from_tomb_of_Itjer_at_Giza_4th_Dynasty_c_2500_BC.jpg" width="290" height="293" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Slab_stele_from_tomb_of_Itjer_at_Giza_4th_Dynasty_c_2500_BC.jpg/435px-Slab_stele_from_tomb_of_Itjer_at_Giza_4th_Dynasty_c_2500_BC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Slab_stele_from_tomb_of_Itjer_at_Giza_4th_Dynasty_c_2500_BC.jpg/580px-Slab_stele_from_tomb_of_Itjer_at_Giza_4th_Dynasty_c_2500_BC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3105" data-file-height="3139" /></A>
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Slab <A href="/wiki/Stele" title="Stele">stele</A> from <A href="/wiki/Mastaba" title="Mastaba">mastaba</A> tomb of Itjer at <A href="/wiki/Giza" title="Giza">Giza</A>. <A href="/wiki/4th_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="4th Dynasty">4th Dynasty</A>, 2543-2435 BC. Itjer is seated at a table with slices of bread, shown vertical by convention. <A href="/wiki/Museo_Egizio" title="Museo Egizio">Egyptian Museum, Turin</A></DIV>
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<P><A href="/wiki/Bread" title="Bread">Bread</A> was central to the formation of early human societies. From the western half of Asia, where <A href="/wiki/Wheat" title="Wheat">wheat</A> was <A href="/wiki/Domestication" title="Domestication">domesticated</A>, <A href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">cultivation</A> spread north and west, to Europe and North Africa. This in turn led to the formation of towns, as opposed to the <A href="/wiki/Nomad" title="Nomad">nomadic</A> lifestyle, and gave rise to more and more sophisticated forms of societal organization. Similar developments occurred in eastern Asia, centered on rice, and in the Americas with maize.</P>
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<H2>Contents</H2>
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<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><A href="#Antiquity"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Antiquity</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><A href="#Middle_Ages"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Middle Ages</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><A href="#To_the_19th_century"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">To the 19th century</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><A href="#Industrialization"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Industrialization</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><A href="#See_also"><SPAN class="tocnumber">5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">See also</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><A href="#Notes"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Notes</SPAN></A></LI>
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<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Antiquity">Antiquity</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_bread&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Antiquity">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Conical_loaves_of_bread,_Gebelein,_5th_Dynasty_c_2400_BC.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Conical_loaves_of_bread%2C_Gebelein%2C_5th_Dynasty_c_2400_BC.jpg/220px-Conical_loaves_of_bread%2C_Gebelein%2C_5th_Dynasty_c_2400_BC.jpg" width="220" height="164" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Conical_loaves_of_bread%2C_Gebelein%2C_5th_Dynasty_c_2400_BC.jpg/330px-Conical_loaves_of_bread%2C_Gebelein%2C_5th_Dynasty_c_2400_BC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Conical_loaves_of_bread%2C_Gebelein%2C_5th_Dynasty_c_2400_BC.jpg/440px-Conical_loaves_of_bread%2C_Gebelein%2C_5th_Dynasty_c_2400_BC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4753" data-file-height="3540" /></A>
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Conical loaves of bread as <A href="/wiki/Grave_goods" title="Grave goods">grave goods</A> exactly as laid out in the Great Tomb, North Necropolis, <A href="/wiki/Gebelein" title="Gebelein">Gebelein</A>, <A href="/wiki/5th_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="5th Dynasty">5th Dynasty</A> (Old Kingdom), 2435-2305 BC. Excavations by <A href="/wiki/Ernesto_Schiaparelli" title="Ernesto Schiaparelli">Ernesto Schiaparelli</A>, 1911. Egyptian Museum, Turin, S. 14051-14055</DIV>
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<P>There is extensive evidence of breadmaking in <A href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</A> in the form of artistic depictions, remains of structures and items used in bread making, and remains of the dough and bread itself.<SUP id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-1">[1]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-2">[2]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-3">[3]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-4">[4]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Samuel1996_5-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Samuel1996-5">[5]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Samuel2002_6-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Samuel2002-6">[6]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The most common source of leavening in antiquity was to retain a piece of dough (with sugar and water in) from the previous day to utilize as a form of <A href="/wiki/Sourdough" title="Sourdough">sourdough</A> <A href="/wiki/Pre-ferment" title="Pre-ferment">starter</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-7">[7]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</A> reported that the <A href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</A> and <A href="/wiki/Iberians" title="Iberians">Iberians</A> used the foam skimmed from beer to produce "a lighter kind of bread than other peoples." Parts of the ancient world that drank wine instead of beer used a paste composed of <A href="/wiki/Must" title="Must">grape must</A> and flour that was allowed to begin fermenting, or wheat bran steeped in wine, as a source for yeast.</P>
<P>The idea of a free-standing oven that could be pre-heated, with a door for access, appears to have been Greek.<SUP id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-8">[8]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Even in antiquity there were a wide variety of breads. In ancient times the Greek bread was barley bread: <A href="/wiki/Solon" title="Solon">Solon</A> declared that wheaten bread might only be baked for feast days. By the 5th century BC bread could be purchased in Athens from a baker's shop, and in Rome, Greek bakers appeared in the 2nd century BC, as Hellenized Asia Minor was added to Roman dominion as the <A href="/wiki/Asia_(Roman_province)" title="Asia (Roman province)">province of Asia</A>;<SUP id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-9">[9]</A></SUP> the foreign bakers of bread were permitted to form a <I><A href="/wiki/Collegium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Collegium (ancient Rome)">collegium</A></I>. In the <I><A href="/wiki/Deipnosophistae" title="Deipnosophistae">Deipnosophistae</A></I>, the author <A href="/wiki/Athenaeus" title="Athenaeus">Athenaeus</A> (c.A.D.170 – c. 230) describes some of the bread, cakes, and pastries available in the Classical world.<SUP id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-10">[10]</A></SUP> Among the breads mentioned are griddle cakes, honey-and-oil bread, mushroom-shaped loaves covered in poppy seeds, and the military specialty of rolls baked on a spit. The type and quality of flours used to produce bread could also vary, as noted by <A href="/wiki/Diphilus" title="Diphilus">Diphilus</A> when he declared "bread made of wheat, as compared with that made of <A href="/wiki/Barley" title="Barley">barley</A>, is more nourishing, more digestible, and in every way superior." In order of merit, the bread made from refined [thoroughly sieved] flour comes first, after that bread from ordinary wheat, and then the unbolted, made of flour that has not been sifted."<SUP id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-11">[11]</A></SUP> The essentiality of bread in the diet was reflected in the name for the rest of the meal: <I>ópson</I>, "condiment", i.e. bread's accompaniment, whatever it might be.<SUP id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-12">[12]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_bread&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Middle Ages">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:262px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Peasants_breaking_bread.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Peasants_breaking_bread.jpg/260px-Peasants_breaking_bread.jpg" width="260" height="166" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Peasants_breaking_bread.jpg/390px-Peasants_breaking_bread.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Peasants_breaking_bread.jpg/520px-Peasants_breaking_bread.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="382" /></A>
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Peasants sharing bread, from the <I>Livre du roi Modus et de la reine Ratio</I>, France, 14th century. (<A href="/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_nationale_de_France" title="Bibliothèque nationale de France">Bibliothèque nationale</A>)</DIV>
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<P>In <A href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">medieval Europe</A>, bread served not only as a <A href="/wiki/Staple_food" title="Staple food">staple food</A> but also as part of the table service. In the standard table setting of the day the <A href="/wiki/Trencher_(tableware)" title="Trencher (tableware)">trencher</A>, a piece of <A href="/wiki/Staling" title="Staling">stale bread</A> roughly 6 inches by 4 inches (15 cm by 10 cm), was served as an absorbent plate. At the completion of a meal the trencher could then be eaten, given to the poor, or fed to the dogs. It was not until the 15th century that trenchers made of wood started to replace the bread variety.<SUP id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-13">[13]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="To_the_19th_century">To the 19th century</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_bread&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: To the 19th century">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>Up to the 19th century, bread in Europe was often adulterated with hazardous materials, including chalk, sawdust, alum, plaster, clay and ammonium carbonate. This gradually came to an end with government action, such as the 1860 and 1899 Food Adulteration Acts in Britain.<SUP id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-14">[14]</A></SUP> America had a more difficult time ending these processes of adulteration however, as various states had varying policies regarding bread making. <SUP id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-15">[15]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In the late 19th century, the British empire encouraged a noticeable increase in import of bread from the colonies. This was regarded as British bread despite its origins, and institutes such as the Imperial Economic Committee encouraged the consumption and trade of foods such as bread from across the empire as they viewed it as cementing Britain's position in its colonies further. Advancements in refrigeration technology and techniques also encouraged an increase in the import of bread, as it could be preserved a lot longer than before and could be transported over longer distances. Bread was transported and stored using refrigeration more than most other foods, particularly in North America, as it was a staple food in most diets, more so than other staple foods like meat. <SUP id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-16">[16]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Industrialization">Industrialization</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_bread&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Industrialization">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>The industrialization of bread-baking was a formative step in the creation of the modern world.<SUP id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-17">[17]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Otto_Frederick_Rohwedder" title="Otto Frederick Rohwedder">Otto Frederick Rohwedder</A> is considered to be the father of <A href="/wiki/Sliced_bread" title="Sliced bread">sliced bread</A>. In 1912 Rohwedder started work on inventing a machine that sliced bread, but bakeries were reluctant to use it since they were concerned the sliced bread would go stale. It was not until 1928, when Rohwedder invented a machine that both sliced and wrapped the bread, that sliced bread caught on. A bakery in Chillicothe, Missouri was the first to use this machine to produce sliced bread.</P>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Factory_Automation_Robotics_Palettizing_Bread.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Factory_Automation_Robotics_Palettizing_Bread.jpg/220px-Factory_Automation_Robotics_Palettizing_Bread.jpg" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Factory_Automation_Robotics_Palettizing_Bread.jpg/330px-Factory_Automation_Robotics_Palettizing_Bread.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Factory_Automation_Robotics_Palettizing_Bread.jpg/440px-Factory_Automation_Robotics_Palettizing_Bread.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></A>
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An automated bakery with industrial robots palletizing bread, Germany</DIV>
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<P>For generations, white bread was the preferred bread of the rich while the poor ate dark (whole grain) bread. However, in most western societies, the connotations reversed in the late 20th century, with whole grain bread becoming preferred as having superior nutritional value while white bread became associated with lower-class ignorance of nutrition.<SUP id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-18">[18]</A></SUP></P>
<P>A major change was the development in 1961 of the <A href="/wiki/Chorleywood_bread_process" title="Chorleywood bread process">Chorleywood Bread Process</A>. This used the intense mechanical working of dough, and control of gases touching dough, to dramatically reduce the <A href="/wiki/Fermentation_in_food_processing" title="Fermentation in food processing">fermentation</A> period and the time taken to produce a loaf at the expense of taste and nutrition.<SUP id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-19">[19]</A></SUP> The process, whose high-energy mixing allows for the use of inferior grain, is now widely used around the world in large factories. In total contrast, traditional breadmaking is extremely time-consuming, as the dough is mixed with yeast and requires several cycles of kneading and resting in order to become ready for baking, and to produce the desired flavor and texture.</P>
<P>More recently, and especially in smaller retail bakeries, <A href="/wiki/Flour_treatment_agent" title="Flour treatment agent">chemical additives</A> are used that both speed up mixing time and reduce necessary fermentation time, so that a batch of bread may be mixed, made up, risen, and baked in fewer than three hours. Dough that does not require fermentation because of chemical additives is called "quick bread" by commercial bakers. Common additives include reducing agents such as <A href="/wiki/Cysteine" title="Cysteine">L-cysteine</A> or <A href="/wiki/Sodium_metabisulfite" title="Sodium metabisulfite">sodium metabisulfite</A>, and oxidants such as <A href="/wiki/Potassium_bromate" title="Potassium bromate">potassium bromate</A> or <A href="/wiki/Ascorbic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Ascorbic acid">ascorbic acid</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-20">[20]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-21">[21]</A></SUP> Often these chemicals are added to dough in the form of a prepackaged base, which also contains most or all of the dough's non-flour ingredients. Using such bases and sophisticated chemistry, it has been possible for commercial bakers to make imitations of artisan and sourdough breads, traditionally made by semi-skilled laborers working in smaller shops. Since 1986,<SUP id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-22">[22]</A></SUP> domestic <A href="/wiki/Bread_machine" title="Bread machine">breadmakers</A> that automate the process of making bread have become popular in the home.</P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_bread&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: See also">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_bread&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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<OL class="references">
<LI id="cite_note-1"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-1"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Samuel, Delwen (1989). "Chapter 12: Their staff of life: Initial investigations on ancient Egyptian bread baking". In KEMP, B. J. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ancientgrains.org/samuel1989bread.pdf"><I>Amarna Reports</I></A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <B>5</B>. London: Egypt Exploration Society. pp. 1253–1290. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85698-109-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85698-109-8">978-0-85698-109-8</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+12%3A+Their+staff+of+life%3A+Initial+investigations+on+ancient+Egyptian+bread+baking&rft.btitle=Amarna+Reports&rft.place=London&rft.pages=1253-1290&rft.pub=Egypt+Exploration+Society&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-85698-109-8&rft.aulast=Samuel&rft.aufirst=Delwen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fancientgrains.org%2Fsamuel1989bread.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+bread" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-2"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-2"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Gonzalez Carretero, Lara (9 February 2017). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blogs.ucl.ac.uk/researchers-in-museums/2017/02/09/3500-year-old-bread-and-beer-from-the-new-kingdom-egypt/">"3,500-year-old bread and beer from the New Kingdom, Egypt"</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">17 April</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=3%2C500-year-old+bread+and+beer+from+the+New+Kingdom%2C+Egypt&rft.date=2017-02-09&rft.aulast=Gonzalez+Carretero&rft.aufirst=Lara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblogs.ucl.ac.uk%2Fresearchers-in-museums%2F2017%2F02%2F09%2F3500-year-old-bread-and-beer-from-the-new-kingdom-egypt%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+bread" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-3"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-3"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Samuel, D. (1994). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/245007">"An archaeological study of baking and bread in New Kingdom Egypt (doctoral thesis)"</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=An+archaeological+study+of+baking+and+bread+in+New+Kingdom+Egypt+%28doctoral+thesis%29&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Samuel&rft.aufirst=D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.repository.cam.ac.uk%2Fhandle%2F1810%2F245007&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+bread" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-4"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-4"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Samuel, Delwen (2000). "Chapter 22: Brewing and baking". In Nicholson, P. T.; Shaw, I. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ancientgrains.org/samuel2000aemt.pdf"><I>Ancient Egyptian materials and technology</I></A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 537–576. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521452571" title="Special:BookSources/9780521452571">9780521452571</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+22%3A+Brewing+and+baking&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egyptian+materials+and+technology&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=537-576&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780521452571&rft.aulast=Samuel&rft.aufirst=Delwen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fancientgrains.org%2Fsamuel2000aemt.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+bread" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Samuel1996-5"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Samuel1996_5-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Samuel, D. (1996). "Investigation of Ancient Egyptian Baking and Brewing Methods by Correlative Microscopy". <I>Science</I>. <B>273</B> (5274): 488–490. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.273.5274.488">10.1126/science.273.5274.488</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Investigation+of+Ancient+Egyptian+Baking+and+Brewing+Methods+by+Correlative+Microscopy&rft.volume=273&rft.issue=5274&rft.pages=488-490&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.273.5274.488&rft.aulast=Samuel&rft.aufirst=D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+bread" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Samuel2002-6"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Samuel2002_6-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Samuel, Delwen (2002). "Bread in archaeology". <I>Civilisations</I> (49): 27–36. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.4000%2Fcivilisations.1353">10.4000/civilisations.1353</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Civilisations&rft.atitle=Bread+in+archaeology&rft.issue=49&rft.pages=27-36&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4000%2Fcivilisations.1353&rft.aulast=Samuel&rft.aufirst=Delwen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+bread" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-7"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-7"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Tannahill p. 68f.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-8"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-8"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Toussaint-Samat 2009, p.202</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-9"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-9"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Toussaint-Samat 2009, p.204 gives a date of 168 for "a considerable influx of craftsmen bakers (<I>pistores</I>) of Greek origin into Rome".</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-10"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-10"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="/w/index.php?title=Chrysippus_of_Tyana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chrysippus of Tyana (page does not exist)">Chrysippus of Tyana</A> gives a list of thirty kinds, without commentary (Toussaint-Samat 2009, p. 202).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-11"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-11"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Tannahill p. 91</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-12"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-12"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Changes in diet are reflected in the modern significance of <I>opson</I> as fish (Toussaint-Samat 2009, p. 202); in Italy the <I><A href="/wiki/Contorni" class="mw-redirect" title="Contorni">contorni</A></I> are now the accompaniment to meat rather than bread.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-13"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-13"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Tannahill p. 227</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-14"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-14"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rsc.org/education/eic/issues/2005mar/thefightagainstfoodadulteration.asp">"The fight against food adulteration"</A>. Rsc.org<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">9 February</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+fight+against+food+adulteration&rft.pub=Rsc.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rsc.org%2Feducation%2Feic%2Fissues%2F2005mar%2Fthefightagainstfoodadulteration.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+bread" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-15"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-15"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">MS., City Clerk's Office, Record Book, 1814-1820, pp. 3, 5.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-16"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-16"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">The Trade Marks Journal.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-17"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-17"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">It occupies a section in <A href="/wiki/Sigfried_Giedion" title="Sigfried Giedion">Sigfried Giedion</A>, [1948] 1969. <I>Mechanization Takes Command</I> (New York Oxford University Press).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-18"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-18"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Christianne L.H. Hupkens, Ronald A. Knibbe and Maris J. Drop, for example analyzed social class variation in the intake of fat and fibre, including white bread consumption, in Maastricht, Liège and Aachen, <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WB2-45RFD9K-4&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=f44217b8c767b67f9dccd684cdec64e0">"Social Class Differences in Women's Fat and Fibre Consumption: A Cross-National Study" 1995</A>; the literature on class perceptions and diet is enormous.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-19"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-19"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.allotment.org.uk/recipes/bread-making/chorleywood-process">Criticisms of the Chorleywood bread process</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120522022319/http://www.allotment.org.uk/recipes/bread-making/chorleywood-process">Archived</A> 22 May 2012 at the <A href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</A>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-20"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-20"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Pyler, Ernst John (1958). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_EaPQAAACAAJ"><I>Our Daily Bread</I></A>. Siebel. p. 703.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Our+Daily+Bread&rft.pages=703&rft.pub=Siebel&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=Pyler&rft.aufirst=Ernst+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_EaPQAAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+bread" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-21"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-21"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Elkassabany, M.; Hoseney, R.C.; Seib, P.A. (1980). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aaccnet.org/publications/cc/backissues/1980/Documents/Chem57_85.pdf">"Ascorbic Acid as an Oxidant in Wheat Flour Dough. I. Conversion to Dehydroascorbic Acid"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>Cereal Chem</I>. <B>57</B> (2): 85–87.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cereal+Chem.&rft.atitle=Ascorbic+Acid+as+an+Oxidant+in+Wheat+Flour+Dough.+I.+Conversion+to+Dehydroascorbic+Acid&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=85-87&rft.date=1980&rft.aulast=Elkassabany&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Hoseney%2C+R.C.&rft.au=Seib%2C+P.A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aaccnet.org%2Fpublications%2Fcc%2Fbackissues%2F1980%2FDocuments%2FChem57_85.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+bread" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-22"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-22"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Nonaka, I. and Takeuchi, H. (1995), <I>The Knowledge-Creating Company</I>, Oxford University Press.</SPAN></LI>
</OL>
</DIV>
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<DIV id="Bread" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><A href="/wiki/Bread" title="Bread">Bread</A></DIV>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/List_of_breads" title="List of breads">Types</A></TH>
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<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Brown_bread" title="Brown bread">Brown bread</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Chapati" title="Chapati">Chapati</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Flatbread" title="Flatbread">Flatbread</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Injera" title="Injera">Injera</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Multigrain_bread" title="Multigrain bread">Multigrain bread</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Naan" title="Naan">Naan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Paratha" title="Paratha">Paratha</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pita" title="Pita">Pitta</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Quick_bread" title="Quick bread">Quick</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Rye_bread" title="Rye bread">Rye bread</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Salt-rising_bread" title="Salt-rising bread">Salt-rising</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sandwich_bread" title="Sandwich bread">Sandwich bread</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Soda_bread" title="Soda bread">Soda bread</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sourdough" title="Sourdough">Sourdough</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Texas_toast" title="Texas toast">Texas toast</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Unleavened_bread" title="Unleavened bread">Unleavened</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/White_bread" title="White bread">White bread</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Whole_wheat_bread" title="Whole wheat bread">Whole wheat</A></LI>
</UL>
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<DIV><A href="/wiki/File:Wei%C3%9Fbrot-1.jpg" class="image" title="White bread"><IMG alt="White bread" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Wei%C3%9Fbrot-1.jpg/146px-Wei%C3%9Fbrot-1.jpg" width="146" height="110" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Wei%C3%9Fbrot-1.jpg/219px-Wei%C3%9Fbrot-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Wei%C3%9Fbrot-1.jpg/292px-Wei%C3%9Fbrot-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></A></DIV>
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<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ingredients</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Baker%27s_yeast" title="Baker's yeast">Baker's yeast</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Barm" title="Barm">Barm</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Calcium_propanoate" title="Calcium propanoate">Calcium propanoate</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Egg_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egg (food)">Eggs</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fat" title="Fat">Fat</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Flour" title="Flour">Flour</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Flour_treatment_agent" title="Flour treatment agent">Flour treatment agent</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Leavening_agent" title="Leavening agent">Leavening agent</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Milk" title="Milk">Milk</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Salt" title="Salt">Salt</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">Sugar</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">Water</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equipment</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Oven" title="Oven">Oven</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bread_machine" title="Bread machine">Bread machine</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bread_pan" title="Bread pan">Bread pan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Dough_scraper" class="mw-redirect" title="Dough scraper">Dough scraper</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Farinograph" title="Farinograph">Farinograph</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lame_(kitchen_tool)" title="Lame (kitchen tool)">Lame</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Peel_(tool)" title="Peel (tool)">Peel</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mixer_(cooking)" title="Mixer (cooking)">Stand mixer</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Weighing_scale" title="Weighing scale">Weighing scales</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
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<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Processes</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Autolysis_(biology)" title="Autolysis (biology)">Autolysis</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Baking" title="Baking">Baking</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Biga_(bread_baking)" title="Biga (bread baking)">Biga</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Chorleywood_bread_process" title="Chorleywood bread process">Chorleywood bread process</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kneading" title="Kneading">Kneading</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Leavening_agent" title="Leavening agent">Leavening</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Maillard_reaction" title="Maillard reaction">Maillard reaction</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/No-knead_bread" title="No-knead bread">No-knead bread</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Proofing_(baking_technique)" title="Proofing (baking technique)">Proofing</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pre-ferment" title="Pre-ferment">Pre-ferment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sliced_bread" title="Sliced bread">Pre-slicing</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sponge_and_dough" title="Sponge and dough">Sponge and dough</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Steaming" title="Steaming">Steaming</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Straight_dough" title="Straight dough">Straight dough</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Vienna_bread" title="Vienna bread">Vienna process</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
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<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Uses</TH>
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<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Bread_crumbs" title="Bread crumbs">Bread crumbs</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Bread_pudding" title="Bread pudding">Bread pudding</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Crouton" title="Crouton">Croutons</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/French_toast" title="French toast">French toast</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Stuffing" title="Stuffing">Stuffing</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Toast" title="Toast">Toast</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Bread_in_Europe" title="Bread in Europe">Bread in Europe</A></LI>
<LI><A class="mw-selflink selflink">History of bread</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_American_breads" title="List of American breads">American breads</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_bread_dishes" title="List of bread dishes">Bread dishes</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_bread_rolls" title="List of bread rolls">Bread rolls</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_British_breads" title="List of British breads">British breads</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_buns" title="List of buns">Buns</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_breads" title="List of Indian breads">Indian breads</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_Pakistani_breads" title="List of Pakistani breads">Pakistani breads</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_quick_breads" title="List of quick breads">Quick breads</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_sweet_breads" title="List of sweet breads">Sweet breads</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_toast_dishes" title="List of toast dishes">Toast dishes</A></LI>
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question_text: when did they figure out that yeast made bread rise