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<TITLE>Evolution of fish - Wikipedia</TITLE>

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<H1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Evolution of fish</H1>			<DIV id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content">
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<TH style="text-align:center;background:rgb(235,235,210);">Fish<BR />
<SMALL>Fossil range: <SPAN style="display:inline-block;">Mid Cambrian–Recent</SPAN></SMALL>
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<DIV style="position:absolute; height:100%; left:0px; width:208.07692307692px; padding-left:5px; text-align:left; background-color:rgb(254,214,123); background-image: -moz-linear-gradient(left, rgba(255,255,255,1), rgba(254,217,106,1) 15%, rgba(254,217,106,1)); background-image: -o-linear-gradient(left, rgba(255,255,255,1), rgba(254,217,106,1) 15%, rgba(254,217,106,1)); background-image: -webkit-linear-gradient(left, rgba(255,255,255,1), rgba(254,217,106,1) 15%, rgba(254,217,106,1)); background-image: linear-gradient(to right, rgba(255,255,255,1), rgba(254,217,106,1) 15%, rgba(254,217,106,1));"><SMALL><A href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">PreЄ</A></SMALL></DIV>
<DIV style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(129,170,114); left:36.892307692308px; width:18.818461538462px;"><SMALL><A href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Є</A></SMALL></DIV>
<DIV style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(0,169,138); left:55.710769230769px; width:14.08px;"><SMALL><A href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">O</A></SMALL></DIV>
<DIV style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(166,223,197); left:69.790769230769px; width:8.3261538461539px;"><SMALL><A href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">S</A></SMALL></DIV>
<DIV style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(221,150,81); left:78.116923076923px; width:20.409230769231px;"><SMALL><A href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">D</A></SMALL></DIV>
<DIV style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(63,174,173); left:98.526153846154px; width:20.307692307692px;"><SMALL><A href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">C</A></SMALL></DIV>
<DIV style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(247,88,60); left:118.83384615385px; width:15.907015384615px;"><SMALL><A href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">P</A></SMALL></DIV>
<DIV style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(153,78,150); left:134.74086153846px; width:17.126830769231px;"><SMALL><A href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">T</A></SMALL></DIV>
<DIV style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(0,187,231); left:151.86769230769px; width:19.055384615385px;"><SMALL><A href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">J</A></SMALL></DIV>
<DIV style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(111,200,107); left:170.92307692308px; width:26.738461538462px;"><SMALL><A href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">K</A></SMALL></DIV>
<DIV style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(254,161,99); left:197.66153846154px; width:14.543692307692px;"><SMALL><A href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene"><SMALL>Pg</SMALL></A></SMALL></DIV>
<DIV style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(254,221,45); left:212.20523076923px; width:6.9215384615385px;"><A href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene"><SMALL>N</SMALL></A></DIV>
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</TH>
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<TR>
<TD style="text-align:center;"><A href="/wiki/File:Devonianfishes_ntm_1905_smit_1929.gif" class="image" title="The Devonian period 419–359 Ma (Age of Fishes) saw the development of early sharks, armoured placoderms and various lobe-finned fishes including the tetrapod transitional species"><IMG alt="The Devonian period 419–359 Ma (Age of Fishes) saw the development of early sharks, armoured placoderms and various lobe-finned fishes including the tetrapod transitional species" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Devonianfishes_ntm_1905_smit_1929.gif/220px-Devonianfishes_ntm_1905_smit_1929.gif" width="220" height="149" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Devonianfishes_ntm_1905_smit_1929.gif/330px-Devonianfishes_ntm_1905_smit_1929.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Devonianfishes_ntm_1905_smit_1929.gif/440px-Devonianfishes_ntm_1905_smit_1929.gif 2x" data-file-width="760" data-file-height="516" /></A><BR />
<DIV style="text-align:center"><SMALL>The <A href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</A> period 419–359 <A href="/wiki/Mya_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mya (unit)">Ma</A> <I>(Age of Fishes)</I> saw the development of early sharks, armoured <A href="/wiki/Placoderm" class="mw-redirect" title="Placoderm">placoderms</A> and various <A href="/wiki/Lobe-finned_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Lobe-finned fish">lobe-finned fishes</A> including the <A href="/wiki/Rhipidistia" title="Rhipidistia">tetrapod transitional species</A></SMALL></DIV>
</TD>
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<TR>
<TH style="text-align:center; background:rgb(235,235,210);"><A href="/wiki/Biological_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological classification">Scientific classification</A></TH>
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<TR>
<TD style="text-align:center;">
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<TBODY><TR style="vertical-align:top;">
<TD>Kingdom:</TD>
<TD><SPAN class="kingdom"><A href="/wiki/Animalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Animalia">Animalia</A></SPAN><BR /></TD>
</TR>
<TR style="vertical-align:top;">
<TD>Phylum:</TD>
<TD><SPAN class="phylum"><A href="/wiki/Chordata" class="mw-redirect" title="Chordata">Chordata</A></SPAN><BR /></TD>
</TR>
<TR style="vertical-align:top;">
<TD>(unranked)</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Craniata" class="mw-redirect" title="Craniata">Craniata</A><BR /></TD>
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</TD>
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<TR style="background:rgb(235,235,210);">
<TH style="text-align:center;">Included groups</TH>
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<TD style="padding:0 .5em; text-align:left;">
<DL>
<DD><A href="/wiki/Agnatha" title="Agnatha">Jawless fish</A></DD>
<DD>†<A href="/wiki/Placodermi" title="Placodermi">Armoured fish</A></DD>
<DD>†<A href="/wiki/Acanthodii" title="Acanthodii">Spiny sharks</A></DD>
<DD><A href="/wiki/Chondrichthyes" title="Chondrichthyes">Cartilaginous fish</A></DD>
<DD><A href="/wiki/Osteichthyes" title="Osteichthyes">Bony fish</A>
<DL>
<DD><A href="/wiki/Actinopterygii" title="Actinopterygii">Ray-finned fish</A></DD>
<DD><A href="/wiki/Sarcopterygii" title="Sarcopterygii">Lobe-finned fish</A></DD>
</DL>
</DD>
</DL>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="background:rgb(235,235,210);">
<TH style="text-align:center;"><A href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistically</A> included but traditionally excluded groups</TH>
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<TR>
<TD style="padding:0 .5em; text-align:left;">
<P><A href="/wiki/Tetrapoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrapoda">Tetrapods</A></P>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
<P>The <B>evolution of fish</B> began about 530 million years ago during the <A href="/wiki/Cambrian_explosion" title="Cambrian explosion">Cambrian explosion</A>. It was during this time that the early <A href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">chordates</A> developed the <A href="/wiki/Skull" title="Skull">skull</A> and the <A href="/wiki/Vertebral_column" title="Vertebral column">vertebral column</A>, leading to the first <A href="/wiki/Craniate" title="Craniate">craniates</A> and <A href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</A>. The first <A href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</A> lineages belong to the <A href="/wiki/Agnatha" title="Agnatha">Agnatha</A>, or jawless fish. Early examples include <I><A href="/wiki/Haikouichthys" title="Haikouichthys">Haikouichthys</A></I>. During the late <A href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</A>, eel-like jawless fish called the <A href="/wiki/Conodont" title="Conodont">conodonts</A>, and small mostly armoured fish known as <A href="/wiki/Ostracoderm" title="Ostracoderm">ostracoderms</A>, first appeared. Most jawless fish are now extinct; but the extant <A href="/wiki/Lamprey" title="Lamprey">lampreys</A> may approximate ancient pre-jawed fish. Lampreys belong to the <A href="/wiki/Cyclostomata" title="Cyclostomata">Cyclostomata</A>, which includes the extant <A href="/wiki/Hagfish" title="Hagfish">hagfish</A>, and this group may have split early on from other agnathans.</P>
<P>The first <A href="/wiki/Gnathostomata" title="Gnathostomata">jawed vertebrates</A> probably developed during the late <A href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</A> period. They are first represented in the <A href="/wiki/Fossil_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil record">fossil record</A> from the <A href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</A> by two groups of fish: the armoured fish known as <A href="/wiki/Placodermi" title="Placodermi">placoderms</A>, which evolved from the ostracoderms; and the <A href="/wiki/Acanthodii" title="Acanthodii">Acanthodii</A> (or spiny sharks). The jawed fish that are still extant in modern days also appeared in late Silurian: the <A href="/wiki/Chondrichthyes" title="Chondrichthyes">Chondrichthyes</A> (or cartilaginous fish) and the <A href="/wiki/Osteichthyes" title="Osteichthyes">Osteichthyes</A> (or bony fish). The bony fish evolved into two separate groups: the <A href="/wiki/Actinopterygii" title="Actinopterygii">Actinopterygii</A> (or ray-finned fish) and <A href="/wiki/Sarcopterygii" title="Sarcopterygii">Sarcopterygii</A> (which includes the lobe-finned fish).</P>
<P>During the <A href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</A> period a great increase in fish variety occurred, especially that of the ostracoderms and placoderms, as well as lobe-finned fish and early sharks. This has led to the Devonian being known as the <I>age of fishes</I>. It was from the lobe-finned fish that the <A href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">tetrapods</A> evolved, the four-limbed vertebrates, represented today by <A href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">amphibians</A>, <A href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</A>, <A href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">reptiles</A> and <A href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</A>. <A href="/wiki/Tetrapodomorpha" title="Tetrapodomorpha">Transitional tetrapods</A> first appeared during the early Devonian, and by the late Devonian the first tetrapods appeared. The diversity of jawed vertebrates may indicate the evolutionary advantage of a jawed <A href="/wiki/Mouth" title="Mouth">mouth</A>; but it is unclear if the advantage of a hinged jaw is greater biting force, improved respiration, or a combination of factors. Fish do not represent a <A href="/wiki/Monophyly" title="Monophyly">monophyletic</A> group, but a <A href="/wiki/Paraphyly" title="Paraphyly">paraphyletic</A> one, as they exclude the <A href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">tetrapods</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELecointreLe_Guyader2007_1-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELecointreLe_Guyader2007-1">[1]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Fish, like many other organisms, have been greatly affected by <A href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">extinction events</A> throughout natural history. The <A href="/wiki/Ordovician%E2%80%93Silurian_extinction_events" title="Ordovician–Silurian extinction events">Ordovician–Silurian extinction events</A> led to the loss of many species. The <A href="/wiki/Late_Devonian_extinction" title="Late Devonian extinction">late Devonian extinction</A> led to the extinction of the ostracoderms and placoderms by the end of the Devonian, as well as other fish. The spiny sharks became extinct at the <A href="/wiki/Permian%E2%80%93Triassic_extinction_event" title="Permian–Triassic extinction event">Permian–Triassic extinction event</A>; the conodonts became extinct at the <A href="/wiki/Triassic%E2%80%93Jurassic_extinction_event" title="Triassic–Jurassic extinction event">Triassic–Jurassic extinction event</A>. The <A href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event</A>, and the present day <A href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction</A>, have also affected fish variety and <A href="/wiki/Fish_stock" title="Fish stock">fish stocks</A>.</P>
<P></P>
<DIV id="toc" class="toc">
<DIV class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr">
<H2>Contents</H2>
<SPAN class="toctoggle"> [<A role="button" tabindex="0" class="togglelink">hide</A>] </SPAN></DIV>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><A href="#Overview"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Overview</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><A href="#Jawless_fish"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Jawless fish</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><A href="#†Conodonts"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext"><SUP>†</SUP>Conodonts</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><A href="#†Ostracoderms"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext"><SUP>†</SUP>Ostracoderms</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><A href="#Jawed_fish"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Jawed fish</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><A href="#†Placoderms"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext"><SUP>†</SUP>Placoderms</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><A href="#†Spiny_sharks"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext"><SUP>†</SUP>Spiny sharks</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><A href="#Cartilaginous_fishes"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Cartilaginous fishes</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><A href="#Bony_fishes"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Bony fishes</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><A href="#Lobe-finned_fishes"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.4.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Lobe-finned fishes</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11"><A href="#Ray-finned_fishes"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.4.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Ray-finned fishes</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><A href="#Timeline"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Timeline</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><A href="#Pre_Devonian:_Origin_of_fish"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Pre Devonian: Origin of fish</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><A href="#Devonian:_Age_of_fishes"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Devonian: Age of fishes</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><A href="#Fish_to_tetrapods"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Fish to tetrapods</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><A href="#Post_Devonian"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Post Devonian</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><A href="#Prehistoric_fish"><SPAN class="tocnumber">5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Prehistoric fish</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><A href="#Living_fossils"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Living fossils</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><A href="#Fossil_sites"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Fossil sites</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><A href="#Fossil_collections"><SPAN class="tocnumber">8</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Fossil collections</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><A href="#Paleoichthyologists"><SPAN class="tocnumber">9</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Paleoichthyologists</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><A href="#See_also"><SPAN class="tocnumber">10</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">See also</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><A href="#References"><SPAN class="tocnumber">11</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">References</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><A href="#Citations"><SPAN class="tocnumber">11.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Citations</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><A href="#Bibliography"><SPAN class="tocnumber">11.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Bibliography</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><A href="#Further_reading"><SPAN class="tocnumber">12</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Further reading</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-27"><A href="#External_links"><SPAN class="tocnumber">13</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">External links</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<P></P>
<DIV style="clear:both;"></DIV>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Overview">Overview</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_fish&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="thumb tmulti tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:364px;max-width:364px">
<DIV style="clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:;background-color:">Vertebrate classes</DIV>
<DIV class="tsingle" style="margin:1px;width:362px;max-width:362px">
<DIV class="thumbimage"><A href="/wiki/File:Fish_evolution.png" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Fish_evolution.png/360px-Fish_evolution.png" width="360" height="257" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Fish_evolution.png/540px-Fish_evolution.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Fish_evolution.png/720px-Fish_evolution.png 2x" data-file-width="1073" data-file-height="767" /></A></DIV>
<DIV class="thumbcaption" style="clear:left">Spindle diagram for the evolution of fish and other vertebrate classes. The diagram is based on <A href="/wiki/Michael_Benton" title="Michael Benton">Michael Benton</A>, 2005.<SUP id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-2">[2]</A></SUP>
<P>Conventional classification has living <A href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</A> as a subphylum grouped into eight classes based on traditional interpretations of gross <A href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">anatomical</A> and <A href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiological</A> traits. In turn, these classes are grouped into the vertebrates that have four limbs (the <A href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">tetrapods</A>) and those that do not: <A href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fishes</A>. The <A href="/wiki/Extant_taxon" class="mw-redirect" title="Extant taxon">extant</A> vertebrate classes are:<SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERomer1970_3-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERomer1970-3">[3]</A></SUP></P>
<DL>
<DD>Fish:
<DL>
<DD>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Jawless_fishes" class="mw-redirect" title="Jawless fishes">jawless fishes</A> (Agnatha)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cartilaginous_fishes" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartilaginous fishes">cartilaginous fishes</A> (Chondrichthyes)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ray-finned_fishes" class="mw-redirect" title="Ray-finned fishes">ray-finned fishes</A> (Actinopterygii)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lobe-finned_fishes" class="mw-redirect" title="Lobe-finned fishes">lobe-finned fishes</A> (Sarcopterygii)</LI>
</UL>
</DD>
</DL>
</DD>
<DD>Tetrapods:
<DL>
<DD>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">amphibians</A> (Amphibia)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">reptiles</A> (Reptilia)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</A> (Aves)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</A> (Mammalia)</LI>
</UL>
</DD>
</DL>
</DD>
</DL>
In addition to these are two classes of extinct jawed fishes, the armoured <A href="/wiki/Placodermi" title="Placodermi">placoderms</A> and the <A href="/wiki/Acanthodii" title="Acanthodii">spiny sharks</A>.</DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <A href="/wiki/Vertebrate_paleontology" title="Vertebrate paleontology">Vertebrate paleontology</A> and <A href="/wiki/List_of_transitional_fossils#Invertebrates_to_Fish" title="List of transitional fossils">List of transitional fossils § Invertebrates to Fish</A></DIV>
<P>Fish may have evolved from an animal similar to a coral-like <A href="/wiki/Sea_squirt" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea squirt">sea squirt</A> (a <A href="/wiki/Tunicate" title="Tunicate">tunicate</A>), whose larvae resemble early fish in important ways. The first ancestors of fish may have <A href="/wiki/Neoteny" title="Neoteny">kept the larval form into adulthood</A> (as some sea squirts do today), although this path cannot be proven.</P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">Vertebrates</A>, among them the first <A href="/wiki/Fishes" class="mw-redirect" title="Fishes">fishes</A>, originated about 530 million years ago during the <A href="/wiki/Cambrian_explosion" title="Cambrian explosion">Cambrian explosion</A>, which saw the rise in organism diversity.<SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDawkins2004357_4-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDawkins2004357-4">[4]</A></SUP></P>
<DIV class="thumb tmulti tleft">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:224px;max-width:224px">
<DIV class="tsingle" style="margin:1px;width:222px;max-width:222px">
<DIV class="thumbimage"><A href="/wiki/File:Amphioxus.png" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Amphioxus.png/220px-Amphioxus.png" width="220" height="139" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Amphioxus.png/330px-Amphioxus.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Amphioxus.png/440px-Amphioxus.png 2x" data-file-width="2020" data-file-height="1277" /></A></DIV>
<DIV class="thumbcaption" style="clear:left">The <A href="/wiki/Lancelet" title="Lancelet">lancelet</A>, a small, translucent, fish-like animal, is the closest living invertebrate relative of the olfactoreans (vertebrates and tunicates).<SUP id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-5">[5]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-6">[6]</A></SUP></DIV>
</DIV>
<DIV class="tsingle" style="margin:1px;width:222px;max-width:222px">
<DIV class="thumbimage"><A href="/wiki/File:Haikouichthys_cropped.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Haikouichthys_cropped.jpg/220px-Haikouichthys_cropped.jpg" width="220" height="79" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Haikouichthys_cropped.jpg/330px-Haikouichthys_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Haikouichthys_cropped.jpg/440px-Haikouichthys_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="568" data-file-height="205" /></A></DIV>
<DIV class="thumbcaption" style="clear:left">The early vertebrate <I><A href="/wiki/Haikouichthys" title="Haikouichthys">Haikouichthys</A></I>, from about <SPAN class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><A class="external text" href="http://tools.wmflabs.org/timescale/?Ma=518">518</A> million years ago</SPAN> in China, may be the "ancestor to all vertebrates" and is one of the earliest known fish.<SUP id="cite_ref-Shu2003_7-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Shu2003-7">[7]</A></SUP></DIV>
</DIV>
<DIV class="tsingle" style="margin:1px;width:222px;max-width:222px">
<DIV class="thumbimage"><A href="/wiki/File:Ancestors.gif" class="image"><IMG alt="Animation showing life at different evolutionary stages" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Ancestors.gif/220px-Ancestors.gif" width="220" height="156" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Ancestors.gif/330px-Ancestors.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Ancestors.gif 2x" data-file-width="347" data-file-height="246" /></A></DIV>
<DIV class="thumbcaption" style="clear:left">Somewhat dated view of continuous evolutionary gradation (click to animate)</DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<P>The first ancestors of fish, or animals that were probably closely related to fish, were <I><A href="/wiki/Pikaia" title="Pikaia">Pikaia</A></I>, <I><A href="/wiki/Haikouichthys" title="Haikouichthys">Haikouichthys</A></I> and <I><A href="/wiki/Myllokunmingia" title="Myllokunmingia">Myllokunmingia</A></I>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Shu1999_8-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Shu1999-8">[8]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDawkins2004357_4-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDawkins2004357-4">[4]</A></SUP> These three <A href="/wiki/Genus_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Genus (biology)">genera</A> all appeared around 530 <A href="/wiki/Mya_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mya (unit)">Ma</A>. <I>Pikaia</I> had a primitive <A href="/wiki/Notochord" title="Notochord">notochord</A>, a structure that could have developed into a <A href="/wiki/Vertebral_column" title="Vertebral column">vertebral column</A> later. Unlike the other fauna that dominated the Cambrian, these groups had the basic vertebrate <A href="/wiki/Body_plan" title="Body plan">body plan</A>: a <A href="/wiki/Notochord" title="Notochord">notochord</A>, rudimentary vertebrae, and a well-defined head and tail.<SUP id="cite_ref-Waggoner2011_9-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Waggoner2011-9">[9]</A></SUP> All of these early vertebrates lacked <A href="/wiki/Jaw" title="Jaw">jaws</A> in the common sense and relied on filter feeding close to the seabed.<SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHainesChambers2005_10-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHainesChambers2005-10">[10]</A></SUP></P>
<P>These were followed by indisputable fossil vertebrates in the form of heavily armoured fishes discovered in rocks from the <A href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</A> Period 500–430 <A href="/wiki/Mya_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mya (unit)">Ma</A>.</P>
<P>The first <A href="/wiki/Gnathostomata" title="Gnathostomata">jawed vertebrates</A> appeared in the late <A href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</A> and became common in the <A href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</A>, often known as the "Age of Fishes".<SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEncyclopædia_Britannica1954107_11-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEncyclopædia_Britannica1954107-11">[11]</A></SUP> The two groups of <A href="/wiki/Bony_fishes" class="mw-redirect" title="Bony fishes">bony fishes</A>, the <A href="/wiki/Actinopterygii" title="Actinopterygii">actinopterygii</A> and <A href="/wiki/Sarcopterygii" title="Sarcopterygii">sarcopterygii</A>, evolved and became common.<SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerg2004599_12-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerg2004599-12">[12]</A></SUP> The Devonian also saw the demise of virtually all jawless fishes, save for lampreys and hagfish, as well as the <A href="/wiki/Placodermi" title="Placodermi">Placodermi</A>, a group of armoured fish that dominated much of the late <A href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</A>. The Devonian also saw the rise of the first <A href="/wiki/Labyrinthodontia" title="Labyrinthodontia">labyrinthodonts</A>, which was a transitional between fishes and <A href="/wiki/Amphibians" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphibians">amphibians</A>.</P>
<P>The colonisation of new <A href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">niches</A> resulted in diversification of body plans and sometimes an increase in size. The <A href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</A> Period (395 to 345 Ma) brought in such giants as the <A href="/wiki/Placoderm" class="mw-redirect" title="Placoderm">placoderm</A> <I><A href="/wiki/Dunkleosteus" title="Dunkleosteus">Dunkleosteus</A></I>, which could grow up to seven meters long, and early air-breathing fish that could remain on land for extended periods. Among this latter group were ancestral <A href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">amphibians</A>.</P>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/Reptiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Reptiles">reptiles</A> appeared from labyrinthodonts in the subsequent <A href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</A> period. The <A href="/wiki/Anapsid" title="Anapsid">anapsid</A> and <A href="/wiki/Synapsid" title="Synapsid">synapsid</A> reptiles were common during the late <A href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic</A>, while the <A href="/wiki/Diapsid" title="Diapsid">diapsids</A> became dominant during the <A href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</A>. In the sea, the <A href="/wiki/Bony_fishes" class="mw-redirect" title="Bony fishes">bony fishes</A> became dominant.</P>
<P>The later radiations, such as those of fish in the Silurian and Devonian periods, involved fewer taxa, mainly with very similar body plans. The first animals to venture onto dry land were <A href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">arthropods</A>. Some fish had lungs and strong, bony fins and could crawl onto the land also.</P>
<DIV style="clear:both;"></DIV>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Jawless_fish">Jawless fish</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_fish&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Jawless fish">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:262px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Lamprey_attached.png" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Lamprey_attached.png/260px-Lamprey_attached.png" width="260" height="116" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Lamprey_attached.png/390px-Lamprey_attached.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Lamprey_attached.png/520px-Lamprey_attached.png 2x" data-file-width="784" data-file-height="349" /></A>
<DIV class="thumbcaption">
<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:Lamprey_attached.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
A modern jawless fish, the <A href="/wiki/Lamprey" title="Lamprey">lamprey</A>, attached to a modern jawed fish</DIV>
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</DIV>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:142px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Petromyzon_marinus.003_-_Aquarium_Finisterrae.JPG" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Petromyzon_marinus.003_-_Aquarium_Finisterrae.JPG/140px-Petromyzon_marinus.003_-_Aquarium_Finisterrae.JPG" width="140" height="105" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Petromyzon_marinus.003_-_Aquarium_Finisterrae.JPG/210px-Petromyzon_marinus.003_-_Aquarium_Finisterrae.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Petromyzon_marinus.003_-_Aquarium_Finisterrae.JPG/280px-Petromyzon_marinus.003_-_Aquarium_Finisterrae.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></A>
<DIV class="thumbcaption">
<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:Petromyzon_marinus.003_-_Aquarium_Finisterrae.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
<DIV class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Lamprey mouth</DIV>
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</DIV>
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<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Agnatha" title="Agnatha">Agnatha</A></DIV>
<P>Jawless fishes belong to the <A href="/wiki/Superclass_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Superclass (biology)">superclass</A> <A href="/wiki/Agnatha" title="Agnatha">Agnatha</A> in the <A href="/wiki/Phylum_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylum (biology)">phylum</A> <A href="/wiki/Chordata" class="mw-redirect" title="Chordata">Chordata</A>, subphylum <A href="/wiki/Vertebrata" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebrata">Vertebrata</A>. Agnatha comes from the <A href="/wiki/Greek_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek Language">Greek</A>, and means "no jaws".<SUP id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-13">[13]</A></SUP> It excludes all vertebrates with jaws, known as <A href="/wiki/Gnathostome" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnathostome">gnathostomes</A>. Although a minor element of modern marine <A href="/wiki/Fauna_(animals)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fauna (animals)">fauna</A>, jawless fish were prominent among the early fish in the early <A href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic</A>. Two types of <A href="/wiki/Early_Cambrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Cambrian">Early Cambrian</A> animal apparently having fins, <A href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrate</A> musculature, and gills are known from the early Cambrian <A href="/wiki/Maotianshan_shales" class="mw-redirect" title="Maotianshan shales">Maotianshan shales</A> of <A href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</A>: <I><A href="/wiki/Haikouichthys" title="Haikouichthys">Haikouichthys</A></I> and <I><A href="/wiki/Myllokunmingia" title="Myllokunmingia">Myllokunmingia</A></I>. They have been tentatively assigned to Agnatha by Janvier. A third possible agnathid from the same region is <I><A href="/wiki/Haikouella" title="Haikouella">Haikouella</A></I>. A possible agnathid that has not been formally described was reported by Simonetti from the Middle Cambrian <A href="/wiki/Burgess_Shale" title="Burgess Shale">Burgess Shale</A> of <A href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</A>.<SUP class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><SPAN title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2013)">citation needed</SPAN></A></I>]</SUP></P>
<P>Many Ordovician, Silurian, and Devonian agnathians were armoured with heavy bony-spiky plates. The first armoured agnathans—the <A href="/wiki/Ostracoderm" title="Ostracoderm">Ostracoderms</A>, precursors to the <A href="/wiki/Bony_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Bony fish">bony fish</A> and hence to the <A href="/wiki/Tetrapods" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrapods">tetrapods</A> (including humans)—are known from the middle <A href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</A>, and by the Late <A href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</A> the agnathans had reached the high point of their evolution. Most of the ostracoderms, such as <A href="/wiki/Thelodont" class="mw-redirect" title="Thelodont">thelodonts</A>, <A href="/wiki/Osteostracan" class="mw-redirect" title="Osteostracan">osteostracans</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Galeaspid" class="mw-redirect" title="Galeaspid">galeaspids</A>, were more closely related to the gnathostomes than to the surviving agnathans, known as cyclostomes. Cyclostomes apparently split from other agnathans before the evolution of dentine and bone, which are present in many fossil agnathans, including <A href="/wiki/Conodonts" class="mw-redirect" title="Conodonts">conodonts</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Baker_2008_14-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Baker_2008-14">[14]</A></SUP> Agnathans declined in the <A href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</A> and never recovered.</P>
<P>The agnathans as a whole are <A href="/wiki/Paraphyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraphyletic">paraphyletic</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-15">[15]</A></SUP> because most extinct agnathans belong to the <A href="/wiki/Stem_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Stem group">stem group</A> of gnathostomes.<SUP id="cite_ref-Zhao_&_Zhu_2007_16-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Zhao_&_Zhu_2007-16">[16]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Sansom_2009_17-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Sansom_2009-17">[17]</A></SUP> Recent molecular data, both from rRNA<SUP id="cite_ref-Mallatt,_J.,_and_J._Sullivan._1998._18-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Mallatt,_J.,_and_J._Sullivan._1998.-18">[18]</A></SUP> and from mtDNA<SUP id="cite_ref-DeLarbre_et_al._2002_19-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-DeLarbre_et_al._2002-19">[19]</A></SUP> strongly supports the theory that living agnathans, known as <A href="/wiki/Cyclostomata" title="Cyclostomata">cyclostomes</A>, are <A href="/wiki/Monophyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Monophyletic">monophyletic</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-20">[20]</A></SUP> In <A href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">phylogenetic taxonomy</A>, the relationships between animals are not typically divided into ranks, but illustrated as a nested "family tree" known as a <A href="/wiki/Cladogram" title="Cladogram">cladogram</A>. Phylogenetic groups are given definitions based on their relationship to one another, rather than purely on physical traits such as the presence of a backbone. This nesting pattern is often combined with traditional taxonomy, in a practice known as <A href="/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy" title="Evolutionary taxonomy">evolutionary taxonomy</A>.</P>
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Evolution of <A href="/wiki/Agnatha" title="Agnatha">jawless fishes</A>. The diagram is based on <A href="/wiki/Michael_Benton" title="Michael Benton">Michael Benton</A>, 2005.<SUP id="cite_ref-Benton,_M._J._2005_page_73_21-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Benton,_M._J._2005_page_73-21">[21]</A></SUP></DIV>
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<P>The <A href="/wiki/Cladogram" title="Cladogram">cladogram</A> below for jawless fish is based on studies compiled by <A href="/wiki/Philippe_Janvier" title="Philippe Janvier">Philippe Janvier</A> and others for the <I>Tree of Life Web Project</I>.<SUP id="cite_ref-tol_22-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tol-22">[22]</A></SUP> <SMALL>(† = group is extinct)</SMALL></P>
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<TD style="width:1em;border:0;padding:0 0.2em;border-bottom:1px solid;vertical-align:bottom;text-align:center;"><B><A href="/wiki/Agnatha" title="Agnatha">Jawless fish</A></B></TD>
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<P><A href="/wiki/Hyperoartia" title="Hyperoartia">Hyperoartia</A> (lampreys)<A href="/wiki/File:Nejon%C3%B6ga,_Iduns_kokbok.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Nejonöga, Iduns kokbok.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Nejon%C3%B6ga%2C_Iduns_kokbok.jpg/50px-Nejon%C3%B6ga%2C_Iduns_kokbok.jpg" width="50" height="11" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Nejon%C3%B6ga%2C_Iduns_kokbok.jpg/75px-Nejon%C3%B6ga%2C_Iduns_kokbok.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Nejon%C3%B6ga%2C_Iduns_kokbok.jpg/100px-Nejon%C3%B6ga%2C_Iduns_kokbok.jpg 2x" data-file-width="942" data-file-height="216" /></A></P>
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<P>?†<A href="/wiki/Euconodonta" class="mw-redirect" title="Euconodonta">Euconodonta</A> (eel like animals)</P>
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<P>†<A href="/wiki/Pteraspidomorphi" title="Pteraspidomorphi">Pteraspidomorphi</A> (jawless fishes)<A href="/wiki/File:Astraspis_desiderata.png" class="image"><IMG alt="Astraspis desiderata.png" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Astraspis_desiderata.png/50px-Astraspis_desiderata.png" width="50" height="35" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Astraspis_desiderata.png/75px-Astraspis_desiderata.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Astraspis_desiderata.png/100px-Astraspis_desiderata.png 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="250" /></A></P>
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<P>?†<A href="/wiki/Thelodonti" title="Thelodonti">Thelodonti</A> (jawless fishes with scales)<A href="/wiki/File:Sphenonectris_turnernae_white_background.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Sphenonectris turnernae white background.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Sphenonectris_turnernae_white_background.jpg/50px-Sphenonectris_turnernae_white_background.jpg" width="50" height="25" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Sphenonectris_turnernae_white_background.jpg/75px-Sphenonectris_turnernae_white_background.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Sphenonectris_turnernae_white_background.jpg/100px-Sphenonectris_turnernae_white_background.jpg 2x" data-file-width="356" data-file-height="176" /></A></P>
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<P>?†<A href="/wiki/Anaspida" title="Anaspida">Anaspida</A> (jawless ancestors<SUP id="cite_ref-isbn0-521-32271-5_23-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-isbn0-521-32271-5-23">[23]</A></SUP> of lampreys)<A href="/wiki/File:Pharyngolepis2.png" class="image"><IMG alt="Pharyngolepis2.png" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Pharyngolepis2.png/50px-Pharyngolepis2.png" width="50" height="36" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Pharyngolepis2.png/75px-Pharyngolepis2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Pharyngolepis2.png/100px-Pharyngolepis2.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="400" /></A></P>
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<P>†<A href="/wiki/Galeaspida" title="Galeaspida">Galeaspida</A> (jawless fishes with bone head shields)</P>
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<P>?†<A href="/wiki/Pituriaspida" title="Pituriaspida">Pituriaspida</A> (armoured jawless fishes with large rostrums)</P>
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<P>†<A href="/wiki/Osteostraci" title="Osteostraci">Osteostraci</A> (bony armoured jawless fish with bone head shields)<A href="/wiki/File:Cephalaspis.png" class="image"><IMG alt="Cephalaspis.png" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Cephalaspis.png/50px-Cephalaspis.png" width="50" height="36" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Cephalaspis.png/75px-Cephalaspis.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Cephalaspis.png/100px-Cephalaspis.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="400" /></A></P>
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<P><B><A href="/wiki/Gnathostomata" title="Gnathostomata">Jawed vertebrates</A></B> → continued <A href="#Jawed_fish">in section below</A></P>
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<H3><SPAN id=".E2.80.A0Conodonts"></SPAN><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="†Conodonts"><SUP>†</SUP>Conodonts</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_fish&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: †Conodonts">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
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<DIV class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><SUP>†</SUP><A href="/wiki/Conodonts" class="mw-redirect" title="Conodonts">Conodonts</A> (extinct) resembled primitive jawless eels</DIV>
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<P><A href="/wiki/Conodont" title="Conodont">Conodonts</A> resembled primitive jawless eels. They appeared 495 Ma and were wiped out 200 Ma.<SUP id="cite_ref-Renzi1996_24-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Renzi1996-24">[24]</A></SUP> Initially they were known only from tooth-like microfossils called <I>conodont elements</I>. These "teeth" have been variously interpreted as filter-feeding apparatuses or as a "grasping and crushing array".<SUP id="cite_ref-Gabbott1995_25-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Gabbott1995-25">[25]</A></SUP> Conodonts ranged in length from a centimeter to the 40 cm <I><A href="/wiki/Promissum" title="Promissum">Promissum</A></I>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Gabbott1995_25-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Gabbott1995-25">[25]</A></SUP> Their large eyes had a lateral position, which makes a predatory role unlikely. The preserved musculature hints that some conodonts (<I>Promissum</I> at least) were efficient cruisers but incapable of bursts of speed.<SUP id="cite_ref-Gabbott1995_25-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Gabbott1995-25">[25]</A></SUP> In 2012 researchers classified the conodonts in the <A href="/wiki/Phylum_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylum (biology)">phylum</A> <A href="/wiki/Chordata" class="mw-redirect" title="Chordata">Chordata</A> on the basis of their fins with fin rays, <A href="/wiki/Chevron_(insignia)" title="Chevron (insignia)">chevron</A>-shaped muscles and <A href="/wiki/Notochord" title="Notochord">notochord</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Briggs1992_26-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Briggs1992-26">[26]</A></SUP> Some researchers see them as vertebrates similar in appearance to modern <A href="/wiki/Hagfish" title="Hagfish">hagfish</A> and <A href="/wiki/Lamprey" title="Lamprey">lampreys</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-Milsom2004_27-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Milsom2004-27">[27]</A></SUP> though <A href="/wiki/Phylogenetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogenetic">phylogenetic</A> analysis suggests that they are more <A href="/wiki/Synapomorphy" title="Synapomorphy">derived</A> than either of these groups.<SUP id="cite_ref-Donoghue2000_28-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Donoghue2000-28">[28]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN id=".E2.80.A0Ostracoderms"></SPAN><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="†Ostracoderms"><SUP>†</SUP>Ostracoderms</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_fish&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: †Ostracoderms">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
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<DIV class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><SUP>†</SUP><A href="/wiki/Ostracoderms" class="mw-redirect" title="Ostracoderms">Ostracoderms</A> (extinct) were armoured jawless fishes</DIV>
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<P><A href="/wiki/Ostracoderms" class="mw-redirect" title="Ostracoderms">Ostracoderms</A> <I>(shell-skinned)</I> are <A href="/wiki/Armour_(zoology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Armour (zoology)">armoured</A> <A href="/wiki/Agnatha" title="Agnatha">jawless fishes</A> of the <A href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic</A>. The term does not often appear in classifications today because it is <A href="/wiki/Paraphyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraphyletic">paraphyletic</A> or <A href="/wiki/Polyphyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyphyletic">polyphyletic</A>, and has no phylogenetic meaning.<SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenton199944_29-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenton199944-29">[29]</A></SUP> However, the term is still used informally to group together the armoured jawless fishes.</P>
<P>The ostracoderm armour consisted of 3–5 mm polygonal plates that shielded the head and gills, and then overlapped further down the body like scales. The eyes were particularly shielded. Earlier <A href="/wiki/Chordates" class="mw-redirect" title="Chordates">chordates</A> used their <A href="/wiki/Gill" title="Gill">gills</A> for both respiration and feeding, whereas ostracoderms used their gills for <A href="/wiki/Respiration_(physiology)" title="Respiration (physiology)">respiration</A> only. They had up to eight separate pharyngeal gill pouches along the side of the head, which were permanently open with no protective <A href="/wiki/Operculum_(fish)" title="Operculum (fish)">operculum</A>. Unlike <A href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</A> that use <A href="/wiki/Cilium" title="Cilium">ciliated</A> motion to move food, ostracoderms used their muscular pharynx to create a suction that pulled small and slow moving <A href="/wiki/Prey" class="mw-redirect" title="Prey">prey</A> into their mouths.</P>
<P>The first fossil fishes that were discovered were ostracoderms. The <A href="/wiki/Swiss" class="mw-redirect" title="Swiss">Swiss</A> anatomist <A href="/wiki/Louis_Agassiz" title="Louis Agassiz">Louis Agassiz</A> received some fossils of bony armored fish from <A href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</A> in the 1830s. He had a hard time classifying them as they did not resemble any living creature. He compared them at first with extant armored fish such as <A href="/wiki/Catfish" title="Catfish">catfish</A> and <A href="/wiki/Sturgeon" title="Sturgeon">sturgeons</A> but later realizing that they had no movable jaws, classified them in 1844 into a new group "ostracoderms".<SUP id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-30">[30]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Ostracoderms existed in two major groups, the more primitive <A href="/wiki/Heterostraci" title="Heterostraci">heterostracans</A> and the <A href="/wiki/Cephalaspidomorphi" title="Cephalaspidomorphi">cephalaspids</A>. Later, about 420 million years ago, the jawed fish evolved from one of the ostracoderms. After the appearance of jawed fish, most ostracoderm species underwent a decline, and the last ostracoderms became extinct at the end of the <A href="/wiki/Devonian_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Devonian period">Devonian period</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-31">[31]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Jawed_fish">Jawed fish</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_fish&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Jawed fish">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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<CAPTION>External video</CAPTION>
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<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center;text-align: left"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" width="16" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ga6n2vnM3Nc">Evolution Of Jaws 1 of 5</A> <I>Animal Planet</I></TD>
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<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center;text-align: left"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" width="16" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vrjAtZZCpdg">Evolution Of Jaws 2 of 5</A> <I>Animal Planet</I></TD>
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<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <A href="/wiki/Jawed_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Jawed fish">Jawed fish</A> and <A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_jaws" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of jaws">Evolution of jaws</A></DIV>
<P>The vertebrate jaw probably originally evolved in the <A href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</A> period and appeared in the <A href="/wiki/Placodermi" title="Placodermi">Placoderm</A> <A href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</A>, which further diversified in the <A href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</A>. The two most anterior <A href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_arch" title="Pharyngeal arch">pharyngeal arches</A> are thought to have become the jaw itself and the hyoid arch, respectively. The hyoid system suspends the jaw from the braincase of the skull, permitting great mobility of the jaws. Already long assumed to be a paraphyletic assemblage leading to more derived gnathostomes, the discovery of <I><A href="/wiki/Entelognathus" title="Entelognathus">Entelognathus</A></I> suggests that placoderms are directly ancestral to modern bony fish.</P>
<P>As in most <A href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</A>, fish jaws are <A href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">bony</A> or <A href="/wiki/Cartilage" title="Cartilage">cartilaginous</A> and oppose vertically, comprising an <I>upper jaw</I> and a <I>lower jaw</I>. The jaw is derived from the most anterior two <A href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_arch" title="Pharyngeal arch">pharyngeal arches</A> supporting the gills, and usually bears numerous <A href="/wiki/Teeth" class="mw-redirect" title="Teeth">teeth</A>. The skull of the last common ancestor of today's jawed vertebrates is assumed to have resembled sharks.<SUP id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-32">[32]</A></SUP></P>
<P>It is thought that the original selective advantage garnered by the jaw was not related to feeding, but to increased respiration efficiency. The jaws were used in the <A href="/wiki/Buccal_pump" class="mw-redirect" title="Buccal pump">buccal pump</A> (observable in modern fish and <A href="/wiki/Amphibians" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphibians">amphibians</A>) that pumps water across the gills of fish or air into the lungs in the case of amphibians. Over evolutionary time the more familiar use of jaws (to humans), in feeding, was selected for and became a very important function in vertebrates. Many <A href="/wiki/Teleostei" class="mw-redirect" title="Teleostei">teleost</A> fish have substantially modified their jaws for <A href="/wiki/Suction_feeding" class="mw-redirect" title="Suction feeding">suction feeding</A> and <A href="/wiki/Cranial_kinesis" title="Cranial kinesis">jaw protrusion</A>, resulting in highly complex jaws with dozens of bones involved.</P>
<P>Jawed vertebrates and jawed fish evolved from earlier jawless fish, and the <A href="/wiki/Cladogram" title="Cladogram">cladogram</A> below for jawed vertebrates is a continuation of the cladogram in the section above. <SMALL>(† = group is extinct)</SMALL></P>
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<P>†<A href="/wiki/Placodermi" title="Placodermi">Placodermi</A> (armoured fishes)<A href="/wiki/File:Dunkleosteus_intermedius.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Dunkleosteus intermedius.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Dunkleosteus_intermedius.jpg/70px-Dunkleosteus_intermedius.jpg" width="70" height="28" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Dunkleosteus_intermedius.jpg/105px-Dunkleosteus_intermedius.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Dunkleosteus_intermedius.jpg/140px-Dunkleosteus_intermedius.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2600" data-file-height="1023" /></A></P>
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<P><A href="/wiki/Acanthodians" class="mw-redirect" title="Acanthodians">Acanthodians</A> and <A href="/wiki/Chondrichthyes" title="Chondrichthyes">Chondrichthyes</A> (cartilaginous fishes)<A href="/wiki/File:Acanthodes_BW.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Acanthodes BW.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Acanthodes_BW.jpg/70px-Acanthodes_BW.jpg" width="70" height="27" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Acanthodes_BW.jpg/105px-Acanthodes_BW.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Acanthodes_BW.jpg/140px-Acanthodes_BW.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="303" /></A><A href="/wiki/File:Carcharodon_carcharias_drawing.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Carcharodon carcharias drawing.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Carcharodon_carcharias_drawing.jpg/70px-Carcharodon_carcharias_drawing.jpg" width="70" height="31" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Carcharodon_carcharias_drawing.jpg/105px-Carcharodon_carcharias_drawing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Carcharodon_carcharias_drawing.jpg/140px-Carcharodon_carcharias_drawing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="701" /></A></P>
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<P><A href="/wiki/Actinopterygii" title="Actinopterygii">Actinopterygii</A> (ray-finned fishes) <dominant class of fish today <A href="/wiki/File:Cyprinus_carpio3.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Cyprinus carpio3.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Cyprinus_carpio3.jpg/70px-Cyprinus_carpio3.jpg" width="70" height="36" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Cyprinus_carpio3.jpg/105px-Cyprinus_carpio3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Cyprinus_carpio3.jpg/140px-Cyprinus_carpio3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1309" data-file-height="676" /></A></P>
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<P>?†<A href="/wiki/Onychodontiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Onychodontiformes">Onychodontiformes</A> (lobe-finned)<A href="/wiki/File:OnychodusDB15_flipped.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="OnychodusDB15 flipped.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/OnychodusDB15_flipped.jpg/70px-OnychodusDB15_flipped.jpg" width="70" height="29" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/OnychodusDB15_flipped.jpg/105px-OnychodusDB15_flipped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/OnychodusDB15_flipped.jpg/140px-OnychodusDB15_flipped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2370" data-file-height="986" /></A></P>
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<P><A href="/wiki/Actinistia" title="Actinistia">Actinistia</A> (coelacanths)<A href="/wiki/File:Coelacanth_flipped.png" class="image"><IMG alt="Coelacanth flipped.png" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Coelacanth_flipped.png/70px-Coelacanth_flipped.png" width="70" height="26" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Coelacanth_flipped.png/105px-Coelacanth_flipped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Coelacanth_flipped.png/140px-Coelacanth_flipped.png 2x" data-file-width="623" data-file-height="228" /></A></P>
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<P>†<A href="/wiki/Porolepiformes" title="Porolepiformes">Porolepiformes</A> (lobe-finned)<A href="/wiki/File:Reconstruction_of_Porolepis_sp_flipped.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Reconstruction of Porolepis sp flipped.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Reconstruction_of_Porolepis_sp_flipped.jpg/70px-Reconstruction_of_Porolepis_sp_flipped.jpg" width="70" height="41" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Reconstruction_of_Porolepis_sp_flipped.jpg/105px-Reconstruction_of_Porolepis_sp_flipped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Reconstruction_of_Porolepis_sp_flipped.jpg/140px-Reconstruction_of_Porolepis_sp_flipped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2952" data-file-height="1724" /></A></P>
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<P><A href="/wiki/Dipnoi" class="mw-redirect" title="Dipnoi">Dipnoi</A> (lungfishes)<A href="/wiki/File:Protopterus_dolloi_Boulenger.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Protopterus dolloi Boulenger.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Protopterus_dolloi_Boulenger.jpg/70px-Protopterus_dolloi_Boulenger.jpg" width="70" height="24" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Protopterus_dolloi_Boulenger.jpg/105px-Protopterus_dolloi_Boulenger.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Protopterus_dolloi_Boulenger.jpg/140px-Protopterus_dolloi_Boulenger.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="505" /></A></P>
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<P>†<A href="/wiki/Rhizodontidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhizodontidae">Rhizodontimorpha</A> (predatory lobe-finned)<A href="/wiki/File:Gooloogongia_loomesi_reconstruction.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Gooloogongia loomesi reconstruction.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Gooloogongia_loomesi_reconstruction.jpg/70px-Gooloogongia_loomesi_reconstruction.jpg" width="70" height="41" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Gooloogongia_loomesi_reconstruction.jpg/105px-Gooloogongia_loomesi_reconstruction.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Gooloogongia_loomesi_reconstruction.jpg/140px-Gooloogongia_loomesi_reconstruction.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3272" data-file-height="1905" /></A></P>
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<P>†<A href="/wiki/Tristichopteridae" title="Tristichopteridae">Tristichopteridae</A> (<A href="/wiki/Tetrapodomorph" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrapodomorph">tetrapodomorphs</A>)<A href="/wiki/File:Elginerpeton_BW.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Elginerpeton BW.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Elginerpeton_BW.jpg/70px-Elginerpeton_BW.jpg" width="70" height="30" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Elginerpeton_BW.jpg/105px-Elginerpeton_BW.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Elginerpeton_BW.jpg/140px-Elginerpeton_BW.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="340" /></A></P>
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<P><B><A href="/wiki/Tetrapoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrapoda">Tetrapods</A></B> (four-legged animals)<A href="/wiki/File:Deutschlands_Amphibien_und_Reptilien_(Salamandra_salamdra).jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Deutschlands Amphibien und Reptilien (Salamandra salamdra).jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Deutschlands_Amphibien_und_Reptilien_%28Salamandra_salamdra%29.jpg/70px-Deutschlands_Amphibien_und_Reptilien_%28Salamandra_salamdra%29.jpg" width="70" height="27" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Deutschlands_Amphibien_und_Reptilien_%28Salamandra_salamdra%29.jpg/105px-Deutschlands_Amphibien_und_Reptilien_%28Salamandra_salamdra%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Deutschlands_Amphibien_und_Reptilien_%28Salamandra_salamdra%29.jpg/140px-Deutschlands_Amphibien_und_Reptilien_%28Salamandra_salamdra%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1520" data-file-height="588" /></A></P>
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<H3><SPAN id=".E2.80.A0Placoderms"></SPAN><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="†Placoderms"><SUP>†</SUP>Placoderms</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_fish&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: †Placoderms">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:262px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Evolution_of_placoderms.png" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Evolution_of_placoderms.png/260px-Evolution_of_placoderms.png" width="260" height="256" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Evolution_of_placoderms.png/390px-Evolution_of_placoderms.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Evolution_of_placoderms.png/520px-Evolution_of_placoderms.png 2x" data-file-width="776" data-file-height="765" /></A>
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Evolution of the (now extinct) <A href="/wiki/Placoderms" class="mw-redirect" title="Placoderms">placoderms</A>. The diagram is based on <A href="/wiki/Michael_Benton" title="Michael Benton">Michael Benton</A>, 2005.<SUP id="cite_ref-Benton,_M._J._2005_page_73_21-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Benton,_M._J._2005_page_73-21">[21]</A></SUP></DIV>
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<SUP>†</SUP><A href="/wiki/Placoderm" class="mw-redirect" title="Placoderm">Placoderms</A> (extinct) were armoured jawed fishes (compare with the ostracoderms above)</DIV>
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<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <A href="/wiki/Placodermi" title="Placodermi">Placodermi</A> and <A href="/wiki/List_of_placoderms" class="mw-redirect" title="List of placoderms">List of placoderms</A></DIV>
<P><A href="/wiki/Placoderm" class="mw-redirect" title="Placoderm">Placoderms</A>, <A href="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">class</A> Placodermi <I>(plate skinned)</I>, are <A href="/wiki/Extinction_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Extinction (biology)">extinct</A> armoured prehistoric fish, which appeared about 430 Ma in the Early to Middle Silurian. They were mostly wiped out during the <A href="/wiki/Late_Devonian_Extinction" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Devonian Extinction">Late Devonian Extinction</A> event, 378 Ma, though some survived and made a slight recovery in diversity during the <A href="/wiki/Famennian" title="Famennian">Famennian</A> epoch before dying out entirely at the close of the Devonian, 360 mya; they are ultimately ancestal to modern vertebrates. Their head and thorax were covered with massive and often ornamented armoured plates. The rest of the body was <A href="/wiki/Fish_scale" title="Fish scale">scaled</A> or naked, depending on the species. The armour shield was articulated, with the head armour hinged to the thoratic armour. This allowed placoderms to lift their heads, unlike ostracoderms. Placoderms were the first jawed fish; their jaws likely evolved from the first of their <A href="/wiki/Gill" title="Gill">gill</A> arches. The chart on the right shows the rise and demise of the separate placoderm lineages: <A href="/wiki/Acanthothoraci" title="Acanthothoraci">Acanthothoraci</A>, <A href="/wiki/Rhenanida" title="Rhenanida">Rhenanida</A>, <A href="/wiki/Antiarchi" title="Antiarchi">Antiarchi</A>, <A href="/wiki/Petalichthyidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Petalichthyidae">Petalichthyidae</A>, <A href="/wiki/Ptyctodontida" title="Ptyctodontida">Ptyctodontida</A> and <A href="/wiki/Arthrodira" title="Arthrodira">Arthrodira</A>.</P>
<H3><SPAN id=".E2.80.A0Spiny_sharks"></SPAN><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="†Spiny_sharks"><SUP>†</SUP>Spiny sharks</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_fish&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: †Spiny sharks">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
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<SUP>†</SUP><A href="/wiki/Spiny_shark" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiny shark">Spiny sharks</A> (extinct) were the earliest known jawed fishes. They resembled sharks and were indeed ancestral to them.</DIV>
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<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <A href="/wiki/Acanthodii" title="Acanthodii">Acanthodii</A> and <A href="/wiki/List_of_acanthodians" title="List of acanthodians">List of acanthodians</A></DIV>
<P><A href="/wiki/Spiny_shark" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiny shark">Spiny sharks</A>, class Acanthodii, are extinct fishes that share features with both bony and cartilaginous fishes, though ultimately more closely related to and ancestral to the latter. Despite being called "spiny sharks", acanthodians predate sharks, though they gave rise to them. They evolved in the sea at the beginning of the Silurian Period, some 50 million years before the first sharks appeared. Eventually competition from bony fishes proved too much, and the spiny sharks died out in Permian times about 250 Ma. In form they resembled sharks, but their <A href="/wiki/Epidermis_(skin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidermis (skin)">epidermis</A> was covered with tiny rhomboid platelets like the scales of <A href="/wiki/Holostean" class="mw-redirect" title="Holostean">holosteans</A> (<A href="/wiki/Gar" title="Gar">gars</A>, <A href="/wiki/Bowfin" title="Bowfin">bowfins</A>).</P>
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<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Cartilaginous_fishes">Cartilaginous fishes</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_fish&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Cartilaginous fishes">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
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Radiation of <A href="/wiki/Cartilaginous_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartilaginous fish">cartilaginous fishes</A>, derived from work by <A href="/wiki/Michael_Benton" title="Michael Benton">Michael Benton</A>, 2005.<SUP id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-33">[33]</A></SUP></DIV>
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<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <A href="/wiki/List_of_transitional_fossils#Chondrichthyes" title="List of transitional fossils">List of transitional fossils § Chondrichthyes</A>, and <A href="/wiki/List_of_prehistoric_cartilaginous_fish" title="List of prehistoric cartilaginous fish">List of prehistoric cartilaginous fish</A></DIV>
<P>Cartilaginous fishes, class <A href="/wiki/Chondrichthyes" title="Chondrichthyes">Chondrichthyes</A>, consisting of <A href="/wiki/Shark" title="Shark">sharks</A>, <A href="/wiki/Batoidea" title="Batoidea">rays</A> and <A href="/wiki/Chimaera" title="Chimaera">chimaeras</A>, appeared by about 395 million years ago, in the middle <A href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</A>, evolving from acanthodians. The class contains the sub classes <A href="/wiki/Holocephali" title="Holocephali">Holocephali</A> (<A href="/wiki/Chimaera" title="Chimaera">chimaera</A>) and <A href="/wiki/Elasmobranchii" title="Elasmobranchii">Elasmobranchii</A> (<A href="/wiki/Shark" title="Shark">sharks</A> and <A href="/wiki/Batoidea" title="Batoidea">rays</A>). The radiation of elasmobranches in the chart on the right is divided into the taxa: <A href="/wiki/Cladoselache" title="Cladoselache">Cladoselache</A>, <A href="/wiki/Eugeneodontiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugeneodontiformes">Eugeneodontiformes</A>, <A href="/wiki/Symmoriida" title="Symmoriida">Symmoriida</A>, <A href="/wiki/Xenacanthiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Xenacanthiformes">Xenacanthiformes</A>, <A href="/w/index.php?title=Ctenacanthiformes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ctenacanthiformes (page does not exist)">Ctenacanthiformes</A>, <A href="/wiki/Hybodontiformes" title="Hybodontiformes">Hybodontiformes</A>, <A href="/wiki/Galeomorphi" class="mw-redirect" title="Galeomorphi">Galeomorphi</A>, <A href="/wiki/Squaliformes" title="Squaliformes">Squaliformes</A> and <A href="/wiki/Batoidea" title="Batoidea">Batoidea</A>.</P>
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<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Bony_fishes">Bony fishes</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_fish&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Bony fishes">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <A href="/wiki/Osteichthyes" title="Osteichthyes">Osteichthyes</A>, <A href="/wiki/List_of_transitional_fossils#Bony_fish" title="List of transitional fossils">List of transitional fossils § Bony fish</A>, and <A href="/wiki/List_of_prehistoric_bony_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="List of prehistoric bony fish">List of prehistoric bony fish</A></DIV>
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<CAPTION>External video</CAPTION>
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<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center;text-align: left"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" width="16" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k-5oQlnXSTM">Chordate Evolution and Bony Fish</A> <I>YouTube</I></TD>
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<P><A href="/wiki/Bony_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Bony fish">Bony fishes</A>, class Osteichthyes, are characterised by bony skeleton rather than <A href="/wiki/Cartilage" title="Cartilage">cartilage</A>. They appeared in the late <A href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</A>, about 419 million years ago. The recent discovery of <I><A href="/wiki/Entelognathus" title="Entelognathus">Entelognathus</A></I> strongly suggests that bony fishes (and possibly cartilaginous fishes, via acanthodians) evolved from early placoderms.<SUP id="cite_ref-Zhu2013_34-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Zhu2013-34">[34]</A></SUP> A subclass of the Osteichthyes, the ray-finned fishes (<A href="/wiki/Actinopterygii" title="Actinopterygii">Actinopterygii</A>), have become the <A href="/wiki/Dominance_(ecology)" title="Dominance (ecology)">dominant group</A> of fishes in the post-Paleozoic and modern world, with some 30,000 living species.</P>
<P>The bony (and cartilaginous) fish groups that emerged after the Devonian, were characterised by steady improvements in foraging and locomotion.<SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHelfmanothers2009198_35-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHelfmanothers2009198-35">[35]</A></SUP></P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Lobe-finned_fishes">Lobe-finned fishes</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_fish&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Lobe-finned fishes">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <A href="/wiki/Sarcopterygii" title="Sarcopterygii">Sarcopterygii</A> and <A href="/wiki/List_of_sarcopterygians" class="mw-redirect" title="List of sarcopterygians">List of lobe-finned fishes</A></DIV>
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The <A href="/wiki/Queensland_lungfish" title="Queensland lungfish">Queensland lungfish</A> is a lobe-finned fish that is a <I><A href="/wiki/Living_fossil" title="Living fossil">living fossil</A></I>. Lungfish evolved the first proto-lungs and proto-limbs. They developed the ability to live outside a water environment in the middle <A href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</A> (397-385 Ma), and have remained virtually the same for over 100 million years.<SUP id="cite_ref-Allen_36-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Allen-36">[36]</A></SUP>
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<DIV class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><A href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenomic analysis</A> has shown that "the closest living fish to the tetrapod ancestor is the lungfish, not the coelacanth".<SUP id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-37">[37]</A></SUP></DIV>
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<P><A href="/wiki/Lobe-finned_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Lobe-finned fish">Lobe-finned fishes</A>, fish belonging to the class Sarcopterygii, are mostly extinct bony fishes, basally characterised by robust and stubby lobe fins containing a robust internal skeleton, <A href="/wiki/Cosmoid_scale" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmoid scale">cosmoid scales</A> and internal nostrils. Their fins are fleshy, <A href="/wiki/Lobe_(anatomy)" title="Lobe (anatomy)">lobed</A>, paired fins, joined to the body by a single bone.<SUP id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-38">[38]</A></SUP> The fins of lobe-finned fish differ from those of all other fish in that each is borne on a fleshy, lobelike, scaly stalk extending from the body. The <A href="/wiki/Pectoral_fin" class="mw-redirect" title="Pectoral fin">pectoral</A> and <A href="/wiki/Pelvic_fin" title="Pelvic fin">pelvic fins</A> are articulated in ways resembling the tetrapod limbs they were the precursors to. The fins evolved into the legs of the first tetrapod land vertebrates, <A href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">amphibians</A>. They also possess two dorsal fins with separate bases, as opposed to the single dorsal fin of <A href="/wiki/Ray-finned_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Ray-finned fish">ray-finned fish</A>. The braincase of lobe-finned fishes primitively has a hinge line, but this is lost in tetrapods and lungfish. Many early lobe-finned fishes have a symmetrical tail. All lobe-finned fishes possess teeth covered with true <A href="/wiki/Tooth_enamel" title="Tooth enamel">enamel</A>.</P>
<P>Lobe-finned fishes, such as <A href="/wiki/Coelacanth" title="Coelacanth">coelacanths</A> and <A href="/wiki/Lungfish" title="Lungfish">lungfish</A>, were the most diverse group of bony fishes in the Devonian. Taxonomists who subscribe to the cladistic approach include the grouping <A href="/wiki/Tetrapoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrapoda">Tetrapoda</A> within the Sarcopterygii, and the tetrapods in turn include all species of four-limbed vertebrates.<SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENelson2006_39-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENelson2006-39">[39]</A></SUP> The fin-limbs of lobe-finned fishes such as the coelacanths show a strong similarity to the expected ancestral form of tetrapod limbs. The lobe-finned fish apparently followed two different lines of development and are accordingly separated into two subclasses, the <A href="/wiki/Rhipidistia" title="Rhipidistia">Rhipidistia</A> (including the lungfish, and the <A href="/wiki/Tetrapodomorpha" title="Tetrapodomorpha">Tetrapodomorpha</A>, which include the Tetrapoda) and the <A href="/wiki/Actinistia" title="Actinistia">Actinistia</A> (coelacanths). The first lobe-finned fishes, found in the uppermost <A href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</A> (ca 418 Ma), closely resembled <A href="/wiki/Spiny_shark" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiny shark">spiny sharks</A>, which became extinct at the end of the Paleozoic. In the early–middle <A href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</A> (416 - 385 Ma), while the predatory <A href="/wiki/Placoderms" class="mw-redirect" title="Placoderms">placoderms</A> dominated the seas, some lobe-finned fishes came into <A href="/wiki/Freshwater" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater">freshwater</A> habitats.</P>
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The <A href="/wiki/Coelacanth" title="Coelacanth">coelacanth</A> is another lobe-finned fish that is a living fossil. It is thought to have evolved into roughly its current form about 408 million years ago, during the early Devonian,<SUP id="cite_ref-Johanson2006_40-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Johanson2006-40">[40]</A></SUP> and has not essentially evolved further from its ancient form.<SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForey1998_41-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEForey1998-41">[41]</A></SUP></DIV>
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<P>In the Early Devonian (416-397 Ma), the lobe-finned fishes split into two main lineages — the <A href="/wiki/Coelacanth" title="Coelacanth">coelacanths</A> and the <A href="/wiki/Rhipidistian" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhipidistian">rhipidistians</A>. The former never left the oceans and their heyday was the <A href="/wiki/Late_Devonian" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Devonian">Late Devonian</A> and <A href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</A>, from 385 to 299 Ma, as they were more common during those periods than in any other period in the Phanerozoic; coelacanths still live today in the <A href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">oceans</A> (genus <I><A href="/wiki/Latimeria" title="Latimeria">Latimeria</A></I>). The Rhipidistians, whose ancestors probably lived in <A href="/wiki/Estuaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Estuaries">estuaries</A>, migrated into freshwater habitats. They in turn split into two major groups: the <A href="/wiki/Lungfish" title="Lungfish">lungfish</A> and the <A href="/wiki/Tetrapodomorph" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrapodomorph">tetrapodomorphs</A>. The lungfish's greatest diversity was in the <A href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">Triassic</A> period; today there are fewer than a dozen genera left. The lungfish evolved the first proto-lungs and proto-limbs; developing the ability to live outside a water environment in the middle Devonian (397-385 Ma). The first tetrapodomorphs, which included the gigantic rhizodonts, had the same general anatomy as the lungfish, who were their closest kin, but they appear not to have left their water habitat until the late Devonian epoch (385 - 359 Ma), with the appearance of <A href="/wiki/Tetrapods" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrapods">tetrapods</A> (four-legged vertebrates). Tetrapods are the only tetrapodomorphs that survived after the Devonian. Lobe-finned fishes continued until towards the end of Paleozoic era, suffering heavy losses during the <A href="/wiki/Permian-Triassic_extinction_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Permian-Triassic extinction event">Permian-Triassic extinction event</A> (251 Ma).</P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Ray-finned_fishes">Ray-finned fishes</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_fish&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Ray-finned fishes">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
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<P><A href="/wiki/Ray-finned_fishes" class="mw-redirect" title="Ray-finned fishes">Ray-finned fishes</A>, class Actinopterygii, differ from lobe-finned fishes in that their fins consist of webs of skin supported by spines ("rays") made of bone or horn. There are other differences in respiratory and circulatory structures. Ray-finned fishes normally have skeletons made from true bone, though this is not true of <A href="/wiki/Sturgeons" class="mw-redirect" title="Sturgeons">sturgeons</A> and <A href="/wiki/Paddlefish" title="Paddlefish">paddlefishes</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-ucmp_42-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-ucmp-42">[42]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Ray-finned fishes are the dominant vertebrate group, containing half of all known vertebrate species. They inhabit abyssal depths in the sea, coastal inlets and freshwater rivers and lakes, and are a major source of food for humans.<SUP id="cite_ref-ucmp_42-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-ucmp-42">[42]</A></SUP></P>
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<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Timeline">Timeline</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_fish&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Timeline">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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<TH style="background:rgb(254,76,104);width:100px;" rowspan="3">Preceded by <A href="/wiki/Proterozoic" title="Proterozoic">Proterozoic Eon</A></TH>
<TH style="background:rgb(111,218,237);text-align:center;" colspan="12"><A href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" title="Phanerozoic">Phanerozoic Eon</A></TH>
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<TH style="background:rgb(146,195,160);text-align:center;" colspan="6"><A href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic Era</A></TH>
<TH style="background:rgb(7,202,234);" colspan="3"><A href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic Era</A></TH>
<TH style="background:rgb(246,236,57);" colspan="3"><A href="/wiki/Cenozoic" title="Cenozoic">Cenozoic Era</A></TH>
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<TH style="background:rgb(129,170,114);width:75px;text-align:center"><A href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</A></TH>
<TH style="background:rgb(0,169,138);width:56px;text-align:center;"><A href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician"><SPAN style="color:white;">Ordovician</SPAN></A></TH>
<TH style="background:rgb(166,223,197);width:32px;text-align:center;"><A href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</A></TH>
<TH style="background:rgb(221,150,81);width:80px;text-align:center;"><A href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</A></TH>
<TH style="background:rgb(63,174,173);width:80px;text-align:center;"><A href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</A></TH>
<TH style="background:rgb(247,88,60);width:63px;text-align:center;"><A href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">Permian</A></TH>
<TH style="background:rgb(153,78,150);width:68px;"><A href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic"><SPAN style="color:white;">Triassic</SPAN></A></TH>
<TH style="background:rgb(0,187,231);width:75px;"><A href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</A></TH>
<TH style="background:rgb(111,200,107);width:105px;"><A href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</A></TH>
<TH style="background:rgb(254,161,99);width:57px;"><A href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Paleogene</A></TH>
<TH style="background:rgb(254,221,45);width:31px;"><A href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">Neogene</A></TH>
<TH style="background:rgb(254,246,145)width:4px;"><SMALL><I><A href="/wiki/Quaternary" title="Quaternary">4ry</A></I></SMALL></TH>
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<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Pre_Devonian:_Origin_of_fish">Pre Devonian: Origin of fish</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_fish&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Pre Devonian: Origin of fish">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
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<TH rowspan="6" style="background:rgb(129,170,114)"><A href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</A></TH>
<TD colspan="3" style="text-align:center; background:#ddf8f8;"><A href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</A> (541–485 <A href="/wiki/Mya_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mya (unit)">Ma</A>): The beginning of the Cambrian was marked by the <A href="/wiki/Cambrian_explosion" title="Cambrian explosion">Cambrian explosion</A>, the sudden appearance of nearly all of the invertebrate animal phyla (molluscs, jellyfish, worms and arthropods, such as crustaceans) in great abundance. The first vertebrates appeared in the form of primitive fish, which were subsequently greatly diversified in the Silurian and Devonian.</TD>
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<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Pikaia_BW.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Pikaia BW.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Pikaia_BW.jpg/140px-Pikaia_BW.jpg" width="140" height="89" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Pikaia_BW.jpg/210px-Pikaia_BW.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Pikaia_BW.jpg/280px-Pikaia_BW.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="508" /></A></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Pikaia" title="Pikaia">Pikaia</A></I></TD>
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<CAPTION>External video</CAPTION>
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<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center;text-align: left"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" width="16" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://burgess-shale.rom.on.ca/en/fossil-gallery/view-species.php?id=101"><I>Pikaia gracilens</I> animation</A><BR />
<I>The Burgess Shale</I></TD>
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<P><I>Pikaia</I>, along with <I><A href="/wiki/Myllokunmingia" title="Myllokunmingia">Myllokunmingia</A></I> and <I><A href="/wiki/Haikouichthys_ercaicunensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Haikouichthys ercaicunensis">Haikouichthys ercaicunensis</A></I> immediately below, are all candidates in the fossil record for the titles of "first vertebrate" and "first fish". <I>Pikaia</I> is a <A href="/wiki/Genus_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Genus (biology)">genus</A> that appeared about 530 <A href="/wiki/Mya_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mya (unit)">Ma</A> during the <A href="/wiki/Cambrian_explosion" title="Cambrian explosion">Cambrian explosion</A> of multicellular life. <I><A href="/wiki/Pikaia_gracilens" class="mw-redirect" title="Pikaia gracilens">Pikaia gracilens</A></I> <I>(pictured)</I> is a <A href="/wiki/Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">transitional fossil</A> between invertebrates and vertebrates,<SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDawkins2004289_43-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDawkins2004289-43">[43]</A></SUP> and may be the earliest known <A href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">chordate</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Morris1979_44-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Morris1979-44">[44]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Morris2012_45-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Morris2012-45">[45]</A></SUP> In this sense it may have been the original ancestor of fishes. It was a primitive creature with no evidence of eyes, without a well defined head, and less than 2 inches (5 centimetres) long. <I>Pikaia</I> was a sideways-flattened, leaf-shaped animal that swam by throwing its body into a series of S-shaped, zig-zag curves, similar to movement of snakes. Fish inherited the same swimming movement, but they generally have stiffer backbones. It had a pair of large head tentacles and a series of short appendages, which may be linked to gill slits, on either side of its head. <I>Pikaia</I> shows the essential prerequisites for <A href="/wiki/Vertebrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebrates">vertebrates</A>. The flattened body is divided into pairs of <A href="/wiki/Myomere" title="Myomere">segmented muscle blocks</A>, seen as faint vertical lines. The muscles lie on either side of a flexible structure resembling a rod that runs from the tip of the head to the tip of the tail.<SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPalmer200066-67_46-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer200066-67-46">[46]</A></SUP></P>
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<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Haikouichthys_3d.png" class="image"><IMG alt="Haikouichthys 3d.png" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Haikouichthys_3d.png/140px-Haikouichthys_3d.png" width="140" height="112" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Haikouichthys_3d.png/210px-Haikouichthys_3d.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Haikouichthys_3d.png/280px-Haikouichthys_3d.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1024" /></A></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Haikouichthys" title="Haikouichthys">Haikouichthys</A></I></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Haikouichthys" title="Haikouichthys">Haikouichthys</A></I> <I>(fish from Haikou)</I> is another genus that also appears in the fossil record about 530 Ma, and also marks the transition from invertebrate to vertebrates.<SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShu2003_47-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShu2003-47">[47]</A></SUP> Haikouichthys are <A href="/wiki/Craniata" class="mw-redirect" title="Craniata">craniates</A> (animals with backbones and distinct heads). Unlike <I>Pikaia</I>, they had eyes. They also had a defined skull and other characteristics that have led <A href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">paleontologists</A> to label it a true craniate, and even to be popularly characterized as one of the earliest fishes. <A href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistic analysis</A> indicates that the animal is probably a basal <A href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">chordate</A> or a basal <A href="/wiki/Craniate" title="Craniate">craniate</A>;<SUP id="cite_ref-Paleos:_The_Cambrian:_2_48-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Paleos:_The_Cambrian:_2-48">[48]</A></SUP> but it does not possess sufficient features to be included uncontroversially even in either <A href="/wiki/Stem_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Stem group">stem group</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Donoghue2005_49-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Donoghue2005-49">[49]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShu2003_47-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShu2003-47">[47]</A></SUP></TD>
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<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Myllokunmingia.png" class="image"><IMG alt="Myllokunmingia.png" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Myllokunmingia.png/140px-Myllokunmingia.png" width="140" height="40" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Myllokunmingia.png/210px-Myllokunmingia.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Myllokunmingia.png/280px-Myllokunmingia.png 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="150" /></A></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Myllokunmingia" title="Myllokunmingia">Myllokunmingia</A></I></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Myllokunmingia" title="Myllokunmingia">Myllokunmingia</A></I> is a genus that appeared about 530 Ma. It is a chordate, and it has been argued that it is a <A href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrate</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-Shu1999_8-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Shu1999-8">[8]</A></SUP> It is 28 mm long and 6 mm high, and is among the oldest possible craniates.</TD>
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<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Euconodonta.gif" class="image"><IMG alt="Euconodonta.gif" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Euconodonta.gif/140px-Euconodonta.gif" width="140" height="110" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Euconodonta.gif/210px-Euconodonta.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Euconodonta.gif/280px-Euconodonta.gif 2x" data-file-width="299" data-file-height="234" /></A></TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Conodont" title="Conodont">Conodont</A></TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Conodont" title="Conodont">Conodonts</A> <I>(cone-teeth)</I> resembled primitive eels. They appeared 495 Ma and were wiped out 200 Ma.<SUP id="cite_ref-Renzi1996_24-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Renzi1996-24">[24]</A></SUP> Initially they were known only from tooth-like microfossils called <I>conodont elements</I>. These "teeth" have been variously interpreted as filter-feeding apparatuses or as a "grasping and crushing array".<SUP id="cite_ref-Gabbott1995_25-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Gabbott1995-25">[25]</A></SUP> Conodonts ranged in length from a centimeter to the 40 cm <I><A href="/wiki/Promissum" title="Promissum">Promissum</A></I>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Gabbott1995_25-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Gabbott1995-25">[25]</A></SUP> Their large eyes had a lateral position of which makes a predatory role unlikely. The preserved musculature hints that some conodonts (<I>Promissum</I> at least) were efficient cruisers but incapable of bursts of speed.<SUP id="cite_ref-Gabbott1995_25-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Gabbott1995-25">[25]</A></SUP> In 2012 researchers classify the conodonts in the <A href="/wiki/Phylum_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylum (biology)">phylum</A> <A href="/wiki/Chordata" class="mw-redirect" title="Chordata">Chordata</A> on the basis of their fins with fin rays, <A href="/wiki/Chevron_(insignia)" title="Chevron (insignia)">chevron</A>-shaped muscles and <A href="/wiki/Notochord" title="Notochord">notochord</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Briggs1992_26-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Briggs1992-26">[26]</A></SUP> Some researchers see them as vertebrates similar in appearance to modern <A href="/wiki/Hagfish" title="Hagfish">hagfish</A> and <A href="/wiki/Lamprey" title="Lamprey">lampreys</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-Milsom2004_27-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Milsom2004-27">[27]</A></SUP> though <A href="/wiki/Phylogenetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogenetic">phylogenetic</A> analysis suggests that they are more <A href="/wiki/Synapomorphy" title="Synapomorphy">derived</A> than either of these groups.<SUP id="cite_ref-Donoghue2000_28-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Donoghue2000-28">[28]</A></SUP></TD>
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<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Thelodonti.gif" class="image"><IMG alt="Thelodonti.gif" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Thelodonti.gif/140px-Thelodonti.gif" width="140" height="97" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Thelodonti.gif/210px-Thelodonti.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Thelodonti.gif/280px-Thelodonti.gif 2x" data-file-width="437" data-file-height="303" /></A></TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Ostracoderms" class="mw-redirect" title="Ostracoderms">Ostracoderms</A></TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Ostracoderms" class="mw-redirect" title="Ostracoderms">Ostracoderms</A> <I>(shell-skinned)</I> are any of several groups of extinct, primitive, jawless fishes that were covered in an armour of bony plates. They appeared in the <A href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</A>, about 510 million years ago, and became <A href="/wiki/Extinct" class="mw-redirect" title="Extinct">extinct</A> towards the end of the <A href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</A>, about 377 million years ago. Initially Ostracoderms had poorly formed fins, and paired <A href="/wiki/Fish_fin" title="Fish fin">fins</A>, or limbs, first evolved within this group. They were covered with a bony armour or scales and were often less than 30 cm (0.98 ft) long.</TD>
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<TH rowspan="6" style="background:rgb(0,169,138)"><A href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician"><SPAN style="color:white;">Ordov-<BR />
ician</SPAN></A></TH>
<TD colspan="3" style="text-align:center; background:#ddf8f8;"><A href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</A> (485–443 Ma): Fish, the world's first true vertebrates, continued to evolve, and those with jaws (<A href="/wiki/Gnathostomata" title="Gnathostomata">Gnathostomata</A>) may have first appeared late in this period. Life had yet to diversify on land.</TD>
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<DIV class="center">
<DIV class="floatnone"><A href="/wiki/File:Arandaspis_NT.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Arandaspis NT.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Arandaspis_NT.jpg/140px-Arandaspis_NT.jpg" width="140" height="68" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Arandaspis_NT.jpg/210px-Arandaspis_NT.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Arandaspis_NT.jpg/280px-Arandaspis_NT.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="290" /></A></DIV>
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</TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Arandaspis" title="Arandaspis">Arandaspis</A></I></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Arandaspis" title="Arandaspis">Arandaspis</A></I> are jawless fish that lived in the early Ordovician period, about 480–470 Ma. It was about 15 cm (6 in) long, with a streamlined body covered in rows of knobbly armoured <A href="/wiki/Scute" title="Scute">scutes</A>. The front of the body and the head were protected by hard plates with openings for the eyes, nostrils and <A href="/wiki/Gill" title="Gill">gills</A>. Although it was jawless, <I>Arandaspis</I> might have had some moveable plates in its mouth, serving as lips, sucking in food particles. The low position of its mouth suggests it foraged the ocean floor. It lacked fins and its only method of propulsion was its horizontally flattened tail. As a result, it probably swam in a fashion similar to a modern <A href="/wiki/Tadpole" title="Tadpole">tadpole</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-EoDP_50-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-EoDP-50">[50]</A></SUP></TD>
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<TD>
<DIV class="center">
<DIV class="floatnone"><A href="/wiki/File:Astraspis_desiderata.png" class="image"><IMG alt="Astraspis desiderata.png" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Astraspis_desiderata.png/110px-Astraspis_desiderata.png" width="110" height="78" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Astraspis_desiderata.png/165px-Astraspis_desiderata.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Astraspis_desiderata.png/220px-Astraspis_desiderata.png 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="250" /></A></DIV>
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</TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Astraspis" title="Astraspis">Astraspis</A></I></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Astraspis" title="Astraspis">Astraspis</A></I> <I>(star shield)</I> is an extinct genus of primitive jawless fish related to other Ordovician fishes, such as <I><A href="/wiki/Sacabambaspis" title="Sacabambaspis">Sacabambaspis</A></I> and <I><A href="/wiki/Arandaspis" title="Arandaspis">Arandaspis</A></I>. Fossils show clear evidence of a sensory structure (lateral line system). The arrangement of these organs in regular lines allows the fish to detect the direction and distance from which a disturbance in the water is coming. <I>Arandaspis</I> are thought to have had a mobile tail covered with small protective plates and a head region covered with larger plates. A specimen described by Sansom <I>et al.</I> had relatively large, lateral eyes and a series of eight <A href="/wiki/Gill" title="Gill">gill</A> openings on each side.<SUP id="cite_ref-Sansom1997_51-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Sansom1997-51">[51]</A></SUP></TD>
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<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Heterostraci.gif" class="image"><IMG alt="Heterostraci.gif" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Heterostraci.gif/140px-Heterostraci.gif" width="140" height="46" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Heterostraci.gif/210px-Heterostraci.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Heterostraci.gif/280px-Heterostraci.gif 2x" data-file-width="313" data-file-height="103" /></A></TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Pteraspidomorphi" title="Pteraspidomorphi">Pteraspidomorphi</A></TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Pteraspidomorphi" title="Pteraspidomorphi">Pteraspidomorphi</A> is an extinct class of early jawless fish. The fossils show extensive shielding of the head. Many had hypocercal tails to generate lift to increase ease of movement through the water for their armoured bodies, which were covered in dermal bone. They also had sucking mouth parts and some species may have lived in fresh water.</TD>
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<DIV class="center">
<DIV class="floatnone"><A href="/wiki/File:Shielia_tiati.svg" class="image"><IMG alt="Shielia tiati.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Shielia_tiati.svg/125px-Shielia_tiati.svg.png" width="125" height="43" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Shielia_tiati.svg/188px-Shielia_tiati.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Shielia_tiati.svg/250px-Shielia_tiati.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="390" data-file-height="135" /></A></DIV>
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</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Thelodonts" class="mw-redirect" title="Thelodonts">Thelodonts</A></TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Thelodonts" class="mw-redirect" title="Thelodonts">Thelodonts</A> <I>(nipple teeth)</I> are a class of small, extinct jawless fishes with distinctive scales instead of large plates of armour. There is debate over whether these represent a <A href="/wiki/Monophyly" title="Monophyly">monophyletic grouping</A>, or disparate stem groups to the major lines of <A href="/wiki/Agnatha" title="Agnatha">jawless</A> and <A href="/wiki/Gnathostome" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnathostome">jawed fish</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Turner1982_52-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Turner1982-52">[52]</A></SUP> Thelodonts are united by their characteristic "thelodont scales". This defining character is not necessarily a result of shared ancestry, as it may have been <A href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">evolved independently by different groups</A>. Thus the thelodonts are generally thought to represent a polyphyletic group.<SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESarjeantHalstead_53-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESarjeantHalstead-53">[53]</A></SUP> If they are monophyletic, there is no firm evidence on what their ancestral state was.<SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonoghue2000206_54-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonoghue2000206-54">[54]</A></SUP> These scales were easily dispersed after death; their small size and resilience makes them the most common vertebrate fossil of their time.<SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner199942–78_55-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner199942–78-55">[55]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Palaeos:_Thelodonti_56-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Palaeos:_Thelodonti-56">[56]</A></SUP> The fish lived in both freshwater and marine environments, first appearing during the <A href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</A>, and perishing during the <A href="/wiki/Late_Devonian_extinction" title="Late Devonian extinction">Frasnian–Famennian extinction event</A> of the Late <A href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</A>. They were predominantly deposit-feeding bottom dwellers, although some species may have been pelagic.</TD>
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<TR>
<TD colspan="3" style="line-height:16px; background:#dddddd;"><SMALL>The Ordovician ended with the <A href="/wiki/Ordovician%E2%80%93Silurian_extinction_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordovician–Silurian extinction event">Ordovician–Silurian extinction event</A> (450–440 Ma). Two events occurred that killed off 27% of all families, 57% of all genera and 60% to 70% of all species.<SUP id="cite_ref-Baez2006_57-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Baez2006-57">[57]</A></SUP> Together they are ranked by many scientists as the second largest of the five major extinctions in Earth's history in terms of percentage of <A href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genera</A> that became extinct.</SMALL></TD>
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<TR>
<TH rowspan="8" style="background:rgb(166,223,197)"><A href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</A></TH>
<TD colspan="3" style="text-align:center; background:#ddf8f8;"><A href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</A> (443–419 Ma): Many evolutionary milestones occurred during this period, including the appearance of armoured jawless fish, jawed fish, spiny sharks and ray-finned fish.</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Silurianfishes_ntm_1905_smit_1929.gif" class="image"><IMG alt="Silurianfishes ntm 1905 smit 1929.gif" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Silurianfishes_ntm_1905_smit_1929.gif/140px-Silurianfishes_ntm_1905_smit_1929.gif" width="140" height="97" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Silurianfishes_ntm_1905_smit_1929.gif/210px-Silurianfishes_ntm_1905_smit_1929.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Silurianfishes_ntm_1905_smit_1929.gif/280px-Silurianfishes_ntm_1905_smit_1929.gif 2x" data-file-width="558" data-file-height="386" /></A></TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD>While it is traditional to refer to the Devonian as the age of fishes, recent findings have shown the Silurian was also a period of considerable diversification. Jawed fish developed <A href="/wiki/Fish_jaw" title="Fish jaw">movable jaws</A>, adapted from the supports of the front two or three <A href="/wiki/Gills" class="mw-redirect" title="Gills">gill arches</A></TD>
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<TD>
<DIV class="center">
<DIV class="floatnone"><A href="/wiki/File:Jamoytius_kerwoodi.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Jamoytius kerwoodi.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Jamoytius_kerwoodi.jpg/140px-Jamoytius_kerwoodi.jpg" width="140" height="179" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Jamoytius_kerwoodi.jpg/210px-Jamoytius_kerwoodi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Jamoytius_kerwoodi.jpg/280px-Jamoytius_kerwoodi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="392" data-file-height="500" /></A></DIV>
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</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Anaspida" title="Anaspida">Anaspida</A></TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Anaspida" title="Anaspida">Anaspida</A> <I>(without shield)</I> is an extinct class of primitive jawless vertebrates that lived during the <A href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</A> and <A href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</A> periods.<SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhlberg2001188_58-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhlberg2001188-58">[58]</A></SUP> They are classically regarded as the ancestors of <A href="/wiki/Lamprey" title="Lamprey">lampreys</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson1987142_59-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson1987142-59">[59]</A></SUP> Anaspids were small, primarily marine <A href="/wiki/Agnatha" title="Agnatha">agnathans</A> that lacked heavy bony shield and paired fins, but have highly exaggerated <A href="/w/index.php?title=Hypocercal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hypocercal (page does not exist)">hypocercal</A> tails. They first appeared in the early <A href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</A>, and flourished until the <A href="/wiki/Late_Devonian_extinction" title="Late Devonian extinction">Late Devonian extinction</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHallHanken1993131_60-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHallHanken1993131-60">[60]</A></SUP> where most species, save for <A href="/wiki/Lamprey" title="Lamprey">lampreys</A>, became extinct. Unusually for an <A href="/wiki/Agnathan" class="mw-redirect" title="Agnathan">agnathan</A>, anaspids did not possess a bony shield or armour. The head is instead covered in an array of smaller, weakly mineralised scales.<SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJanvier2003_61-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJanvier2003-61">[61]</A></SUP></TD>
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<DIV class="center">
<DIV class="floatnone"><A href="/wiki/File:Osteostraci.gif" class="image"><IMG alt="Osteostraci.gif" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Osteostraci.gif/140px-Osteostraci.gif" width="140" height="73" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Osteostraci.gif/210px-Osteostraci.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Osteostraci.gif/280px-Osteostraci.gif 2x" data-file-width="345" data-file-height="179" /></A></DIV>
</DIV>
</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Osteostraci" title="Osteostraci">Osteostraci</A></TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Osteostraci" title="Osteostraci">Osteostraci</A> ("bony shields") was a class of bony-armored jawless fish that lived from the <A href="/wiki/Wenlock_epoch" class="mw-redirect" title="Wenlock epoch">Middle Silurian</A> to <A href="/wiki/Late_Devonian" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Devonian">Late Devonian</A>. Anatomically speaking, the osteostracans, especially the Devonian species, were among the most advanced of all known agnathans. This is due to the development of paired fins, and their complicated cranial anatomy. The osteostracans were more similar to <A href="/wiki/Lamprey" title="Lamprey">lampreys</A> than to jawed vertebrates in possessing two pairs of semicircular canals in the inner ear, as opposed to the three pairs found in the inner ears of jawed vertebrates.<SUP id="cite_ref-SRS09_62-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-SRS09-62">[62]</A></SUP> Most osteostracans had a massive cephalothorac shield, but all Middle and Late Devonian species appear to have had a reduced, thinner, and often micromeric dermal skeleton.<SUP id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-63">[63]</A></SUP> They were probably relatively good swimmers, possessing <A href="/wiki/Dorsal_fin" title="Dorsal fin">dorsal fins</A>, paired <A href="/wiki/Pectoral_fin" class="mw-redirect" title="Pectoral fin">pectoral fins</A>, and a strong tail.<SUP id="cite_ref-EoDP_50-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-EoDP-50">[50]</A></SUP></TD>
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<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Acanthodii.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Acanthodii.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Acanthodii.jpg/140px-Acanthodii.jpg" width="140" height="60" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Acanthodii.jpg/210px-Acanthodii.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Acanthodii.jpg 2x" data-file-width="240" data-file-height="102" /></A></TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Spiny_shark" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiny shark">Spiny sharks</A></TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Spiny_shark" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiny shark">Spiny sharks</A>, more formally called "Acanthodians" <I>(having spines)</I>, constitute the class Acanthodii. They first appeared by the late Silurian ~420 Ma, and were among the first fishes to evolve jaws. They share features with both <A href="/wiki/Cartilaginous_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartilaginous fish">cartilaginous fish</A> and <A href="/wiki/Bony_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Bony fish">bony fish</A>, but they are not true sharks, though leading to them. They became extinct before the end of the Permian ~250 Ma. However, scales and teeth attributed to this group, as well as more derived jawed fish, such as cartilaginous and bony fish, date from the <A href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</A> ~460 Ma. Acanthodians were generally small shark-like fishes varying from toothless filter-feeders to toothed predators. They were once often classified as an order of the class <A href="/wiki/Placodermi" title="Placodermi">Placodermi</A>, but recent authorities tend to place the acanthodians as a paraphyletic assemblage leading to modern cartilaginous fish. They are distinguished in two respects: they were the earliest known jawed vertebrates, and they had stout <A href="/wiki/Spine_(zoology)" title="Spine (zoology)">spines</A> supporting all their <A href="/wiki/Fin" title="Fin">fins</A>, fixed in place and non-movable (like a <A href="/wiki/Shark" title="Shark">shark</A>'s <A href="/wiki/Dorsal_fin" title="Dorsal fin">dorsal fin</A>), an important defensive adaptation. Their fossils are extremely rare.</TD>
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<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Pterichthyodes_milleri.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Pterichthyodes milleri.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Pterichthyodes_milleri.jpg/140px-Pterichthyodes_milleri.jpg" width="140" height="93" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Pterichthyodes_milleri.jpg/210px-Pterichthyodes_milleri.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Pterichthyodes_milleri.jpg/280px-Pterichthyodes_milleri.jpg 2x" data-file-width="502" data-file-height="334" /></A></TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Placoderm" class="mw-redirect" title="Placoderm">Placoderms</A></TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Placoderm" class="mw-redirect" title="Placoderm">Placoderms</A>, <I>(plate-like skin)</I>, are a group of armoured jawed fishes, of the class Placodermi. The oldest fossils appeared during the late Silurian, and became extinct at the end of the Devonian. Recent studies suggest that the placoderms are possibly a <A href="/wiki/Paraphyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraphyletic">paraphyletic</A> group of <A href="/wiki/Basal_(phylogenetics)" title="Basal (phylogenetics)">basal</A> jawed fishes, and the closest relatives of all living jawed vertebrates. Some placoderms were small, flattened bottom-dwellers, such as <A href="/wiki/Antiarch" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiarch">antiarchs</A>. However many, particularly the arthrodires, were active midwater predators. <I><A href="/wiki/Dunkleosteus" title="Dunkleosteus">Dunkleosteus</A></I>, which appeared later in the Devonian below, was the largest and most famous of these. The upper jaw was firmly fused to the skull, but there was a hinge joint between the skull and the bony plating of the trunk region. This allowed the upper part of the head to be thrown back and, in <A href="/wiki/Arthrodire" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthrodire">arthrodires</A>, allowed them to take larger bites.</TD>
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<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Guiyu_BW.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Guiyu BW.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Guiyu_BW.jpg/140px-Guiyu_BW.jpg" width="140" height="82" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Guiyu_BW.jpg/210px-Guiyu_BW.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Guiyu_BW.jpg/280px-Guiyu_BW.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="466" /></A></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Guiyu_oneiros" title="Guiyu oneiros">Guiyu oneiros</A></I></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Guiyu_oneiros" title="Guiyu oneiros">Guiyu oneiros</A></I>, the earliest known bony fish. It has the combination of both <A href="/wiki/Actinopterygii" title="Actinopterygii">ray-finned</A> and <A href="/wiki/Sarcopterygii" title="Sarcopterygii">lobe-finned</A> features, although analysis of the totality of its features place it closer to lobe-finned fish.<SUP id="cite_ref-Zhu2009_64-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Zhu2009-64">[64]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Coates2009_65-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Coates2009-65">[65]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-SL2009_66-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-SL2009-66">[66]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-SB2009_67-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-SB2009-67">[67]</A></SUP></TD>
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<TD></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Andreolepis" title="Andreolepis">Andreolepis</A></I></TD>
<TD>The extinct genus <I><A href="/wiki/Andreolepis" title="Andreolepis">Andreolepis</A></I> includes the earliest known ray finned fish <I><A href="/wiki/Andreolepis_hedei" title="Andreolepis hedei">Andreolepis hedei</A></I>, which appeared in the late Silurian, around 420 Ma.<SUP id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-68">[68]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-69">[69]</A></SUP></TD>
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</TBODY></TABLE>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Devonian:_Age_of_fishes">Devonian: Age of fishes</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_fish&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Devonian: Age of fishes">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV id="Container" class="toccolours searchaux" style="text-align: left; padding:0.5em 0 0 0; border-style:solid; float:right;clear:right; padding:0 0.5em; margin:0.3em 0 0.8em 1.4em; overflow: hidden;">
<DIV id="Title" style="background-color:rgb(221,150,81); font-weight:bold; padding:0.2em; text-align:center; margin:0.6em 0 1.2em 0">Events of the Devonian Period</DIV>
<DIV id="Contains-Timeline-Scale-Notes">
<DIV style="text-align:right; position:relative; top:-1em;"><SMALL><A href="/wiki/Template:Fish_graphical_timeline" title="Template:Fish graphical timeline"><SPAN style="color:#002bb8;" title="View this timeline in its own page">view</SPAN></A> • <A href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Fish_graphical_timeline&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Fish graphical timeline (page does not exist)"><SPAN style="color:#002bb8;" title="Discussion about this template">discuss</SPAN></A> • <SPAN class="noprint plainlinksneverexpand" style="color:#002bb8;" title="You can edit this timeline. Please use the preview button before saving."><SPAN class="plainlinks"><A class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Fish_graphical_timeline&action=edit">edit</A></SPAN></SPAN></SMALL></DIV>
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<DIV style="float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:32.5em;"><SPAN style="font-size:86%;white-space:nowrap;">-420 —</SPAN></DIV>
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<DIV style="float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:16.25em;"><SPAN style="font-size:86%;white-space:nowrap;">–</SPAN></DIV>
<DIV style="float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:15em;"><SPAN style="font-size:86%;white-space:nowrap;">-385 —</SPAN></DIV>
<DIV style="float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:13.75em;"><SPAN style="font-size:86%;white-space:nowrap;">–</SPAN></DIV>
<DIV style="float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:12.5em;"><SPAN style="font-size:86%;white-space:nowrap;">-380 —</SPAN></DIV>
<DIV style="float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:11.25em;"><SPAN style="font-size:86%;white-space:nowrap;">–</SPAN></DIV>
<DIV style="float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:10em;"><SPAN style="font-size:86%;white-space:nowrap;">-375 —</SPAN></DIV>
<DIV style="float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:8.75em;"><SPAN style="font-size:86%;white-space:nowrap;">–</SPAN></DIV>
<DIV style="float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:7.5em;"><SPAN style="font-size:86%;white-space:nowrap;">-370 —</SPAN></DIV>
<DIV style="float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:6.25em;"><SPAN style="font-size:86%;white-space:nowrap;">–</SPAN></DIV>
<DIV style="float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:5em;"><SPAN style="font-size:86%;white-space:nowrap;">-365 —</SPAN></DIV>
<DIV style="float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:3.75em;"><SPAN style="font-size:86%;white-space:nowrap;">–</SPAN></DIV>
<DIV style="float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:2.5em;"><SPAN style="font-size:86%;white-space:nowrap;">-360 —</SPAN></DIV>
<DIV style="float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:1.25em;"><SPAN style="font-size:86%;white-space:nowrap;">–</SPAN></DIV>
<DIV style="float:right; position:absolute; right:-1px; top:0em;"><SPAN style="font-size:86%;white-space:nowrap;">-355 —</SPAN></DIV>
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<DIV class="nudge" style="font-size:100%; position:relative; top:-0.86em; left:0em;"><SPAN style="position:relative; align:center; vertical-align:middle; bottom:-17em;"><SPAN style="line-height:10px;display:block;"><B><A href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">P<BR />
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<DIV class="bar" style="font-size:100%; background-color:rgb(166,223,197); border-width:.0em; border-style:solid none; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:32.1em; height:1.9em; margin-left:0.7em; width:6.3em;">
<DIV class="nudge" style="font-size:100%; position:relative; top:-0.86em; left:0em;"><SPAN style="position:relative; align:center; vertical-align:middle; bottom:-0.95em;"><B><A href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</A></B></SPAN></DIV>
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<DIV class="nudge" style="font-size:100%; position:relative; top:-5.86em; left:0em;"><SPAN style="position:relative; align:center; vertical-align:middle; bottom:-15.075em;"><SPAN style="line-height:10px;display:block;"><B><A href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">D<BR />
e<BR />
v<BR />
o<BR />
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a<BR />
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<DIV class="bar" style="font-size:100%; background-color:rgb(63,174,173); border-width:.0em; border-style:solid none; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:0em; height:1.95em; margin-left:0.7em; width:6.3em;">
<DIV class="nudge" style="font-size:100%; position:relative; top:-0.86em; left:0em;"><SPAN style="position:relative; align:center; vertical-align:middle; bottom:-0.97499999999999em;"><B><A href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</A></B></SPAN></DIV>
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<DIV class="nudge" style="font-size:100%; position:relative; top:-1.86em; left:0em;"><SPAN style="position:relative; align:center; vertical-align:middle; bottom:-6.475em;"><SPAN style="line-height:10px;display:block;"><A href="/wiki/Early_Devonian" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Devonian">E<BR />
a<BR />
r<BR />
l<BR />
y</A></SPAN></SPAN></DIV>
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<DIV class="bar" style="font-size:100%; background-color:rgb(246,200,122); border-width:.05em; border-style:solid none; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:13.85em; height:5.2em; margin-left:1.575em; width:0.805em;">
<DIV class="nudge" style="font-size:100%; position:relative; top:-2.26em; left:0em;"><SPAN style="position:relative; align:center; vertical-align:middle; bottom:-2.65em;"><SPAN style="line-height:10px;display:block;"><A href="/wiki/Middle_Devonian" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Devonian">M<BR />
i<BR />
d<BR />
d<BR />
l<BR />
e</A></SPAN></SPAN></DIV>
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<DIV class="bar" style="font-size:100%; background-color:rgb(244,224,169); border-width:0.05em; border-style:solid none; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:1.95em; height:11.8em; margin-left:1.575em; width:0.805em;">
<DIV class="nudge" style="font-size:100%; position:relative; top:-2.06em; left:0em;"><SPAN style="position:relative; align:center; vertical-align:middle; bottom:-5.95em;"><SPAN style="line-height:10px;display:block;"><A href="/wiki/Late_Devonian" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Devonian">L<BR />
a<BR />
t<BR />
e</A></SPAN></SPAN></DIV>
</DIV>
<DIV class="bar" style="font-size:100%; background-color:rgb(238,186,110); border-width:.05em; border-style:solid none; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:27.9em; height:4.1em; margin-left:2.415em; width:4.585em;">
<DIV class="nudge" style="font-size:100%; position:relative; top:-0.86em; left:0em;"><SPAN style="position:relative; align:center; vertical-align:middle; bottom:-2.1em;"><SPAN style="font-size:90%"><A href="/wiki/Lochkovian" title="Lochkovian">Lochkovian</A></SPAN></SPAN></DIV>
</DIV>
<DIV class="bar" style="font-size:100%; background-color:rgb(238,197,123); border-width:0.05em; border-style:solid none; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:26.3em; height:1.5em; margin-left:2.415em; width:4.585em;">
<DIV class="nudge" style="font-size:100%; position:relative; top:-0.86em; left:0em;"><SPAN style="position:relative; align:center; vertical-align:middle; bottom:-0.8em;"><SPAN style="font-size:90%"><A href="/wiki/Pragian" title="Pragian">Pragian</A></SPAN></SPAN></DIV>
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<DIV class="nudge" style="font-size:100%; position:relative; top:-0.86em; left:0em;"><SPAN style="position:relative; align:center; vertical-align:middle; bottom:-3.575em;"><SPAN style="font-size:90%"><A href="/wiki/Emsian" title="Emsian">Emsian</A></SPAN></SPAN></DIV>
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<DIV class="nudge" style="font-size:100%; position:relative; top:-0.86em; left:0em;"><SPAN style="position:relative; align:center; vertical-align:middle; bottom:-1.4em;"><SPAN style="font-size:90%"><A href="/wiki/Eifelian" title="Eifelian">Eifelian</A></SPAN></SPAN></DIV>
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<DIV class="nudge" style="font-size:100%; position:relative; top:-0.86em; left:0em;"><SPAN style="position:relative; align:center; vertical-align:middle; bottom:-1.25em;"><SPAN style="font-size:90%"><A href="/wiki/Givetian" title="Givetian">Givetian</A></SPAN></SPAN></DIV>
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<DIV class="nudge" style="font-size:100%; position:relative; top:-0.86em; left:0em;"><SPAN style="position:relative; align:center; vertical-align:middle; bottom:-2.625em;"><SPAN style="font-size:90%"><A href="/wiki/Frasnian" title="Frasnian">Frasnian</A></SPAN></SPAN></DIV>
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<DIV class="nudge" style="font-size:100%; position:relative; top:-0.86em; left:0em;"><SPAN style="position:relative; align:center; vertical-align:middle; bottom:-3.325em;"><SPAN style="font-size:90%"><A href="/wiki/Famennian" title="Famennian">Famennian</A></SPAN></SPAN></DIV>
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<DIV class="nudge" style="font-size:100%; position:relative; top:-0.86em; left:0em;"><SPAN style="position:relative; align:center; vertical-align:middle; bottom:-17em;"> </SPAN></DIV>
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<DIV class="nudge" style="font-size:100%; position:relative; top:-0.86em; left:0em;"><SPAN style="position:relative; align:center; vertical-align:middle; bottom:-17em;"> </SPAN></DIV>
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<DIV class="nudge" style="font-size:100%; position:relative; top:-0.86em; left:0em;"><SPAN style="position:relative; align:center; vertical-align:middle; bottom:-15.075em;"> </SPAN></DIV>
</DIV>
<DIV class="bar" style="font-size:100%; background-color:#000000; border-style: none; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:1.95em; height:30.15em; margin-left:1.54em; width:0.035em;">
<DIV class="nudge" style="font-size:100%; position:relative; top:-0.86em; left:0em;"><SPAN style="position:relative; align:center; vertical-align:middle; bottom:-15.075em;"> </SPAN></DIV>
</DIV>
<DIV class="bar" style="font-size:100%; background-color:#000000; border-style: none; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:1.95em; height:30.15em; margin-left:2.38em; width:0.035em;">
<DIV class="nudge" style="font-size:100%; position:relative; top:-0.86em; left:0em;"><SPAN style="position:relative; align:center; vertical-align:middle; bottom:-15.075em;"> </SPAN></DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<DIV id="Annotations" style="float:left; position:relative; width:8.25em">
<DIV class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:28.25em;">
<DIV class="annot-arrow" style="position:relative; text-size:100%; top:-0.86em; left:0em; float:left;"><SPAN style="color:black;">←</SPAN></DIV>
<DIV class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:0em; width:7em;"><SPAN style="position:relative; width:auto; z-index:10; font-size:90%; color:black; vertical-align:middle; line-height:100%; bottom:0;"><A href="/wiki/Rhynie_chert" title="Rhynie chert">Rhynie chert</A><SUP id="cite_ref-Parry_70-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Parry-70">[70]</A></SUP></SPAN></DIV>
</DIV>
<DIV class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:2.5em;">
<DIV class="annot-arrow" style="position:relative; text-size:100%; top:-0.86em; left:0em; float:left;"><SPAN style="color:black;">←</SPAN></DIV>
<DIV class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:0em; width:7em;"><SPAN style="position:relative; width:auto; z-index:10; font-size:90%; color:black; vertical-align:middle; line-height:100%; bottom:0;"><A href="/wiki/Late_Devonian_extinction#The_Hangenberg_event" title="Late Devonian extinction">Hangenberg event</A>; last <A href="/wiki/Placoderms" class="mw-redirect" title="Placoderms">placoderms</A> disappear</SPAN></DIV>
</DIV>
<DIV class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:11.1em;">
<DIV class="annot-arrow" style="position:relative; text-size:100%; top:-0.86em; left:0em; float:left;"><SPAN style="color:black;">←</SPAN></DIV>
<DIV class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:0em; width:7em;"><SPAN style="position:relative; width:auto; z-index:10; font-size:90%; color:black; vertical-align:middle; line-height:100%; bottom:0;"><A href="/wiki/Late_Devonian_extinction#The_Kellwasser_event" title="Late Devonian extinction">Kellwasser event</A>(s)<SUP id="cite_ref-Kaufmann2004_71-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Kaufmann2004-71">[71]</A></SUP></SPAN></DIV>
</DIV>
<DIV class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:17.5em;">
<DIV class="annot-arrow" style="position:relative; text-size:100%; top:-0.86em; left:0em; float:left;"><SPAN style="color:black;">←</SPAN></DIV>
<DIV class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:0em; width:7em;"><SPAN style="position:relative; width:auto; z-index:10; font-size:90%; color:black; vertical-align:middle; line-height:100%; bottom:0;">first <A href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">tetrapods</A></SPAN></DIV>
</DIV>
<DIV class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:13.5em;">
<DIV class="annot-arrow" style="position:relative; text-size:100%; top:-0.86em; left:0em; float:left;"><SPAN style="color:black;">←</SPAN></DIV>
<DIV class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:0em; width:7em;"><SPAN style="position:relative; width:auto; z-index:10; font-size:90%; color:black; vertical-align:middle; line-height:100%; bottom:0;">most <A href="/wiki/Jawless_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Jawless fish">jawless fish</A> disappear</SPAN></DIV>
</DIV>
<DIV class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:17em;">
<DIV class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:0em; width:7em;"></DIV>
</DIV>
<DIV class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:26em;">
<DIV class="annot-arrow" style="position:relative; text-size:100%; top:-0.86em; left:0em; float:left;"><SPAN style="color:black;">←</SPAN></DIV>
<DIV class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:0em; width:7em;"><SPAN style="position:relative; width:auto; z-index:10; font-size:90%; color:black; vertical-align:middle; line-height:100%; bottom:0;"><A href="/wiki/Hunsr%C3%BCck_Slates" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunsrück Slates">Hunsrück fauna</A><BR /></SPAN></DIV>
</DIV>
<DIV class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:17em;">
<DIV class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:0em; width:7em;"></DIV>
</DIV>
<DIV class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:17em;">
<DIV class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:0em; width:7em;"></DIV>
</DIV>
<DIV class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:17em;">
<DIV class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:0em; width:7em;"></DIV>
</DIV>
<DIV class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:17em;">
<DIV class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:0em; width:7em;"></DIV>
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<DIV class="annot-bar" style="width:auto; font-size:100%; position:absolute; text-align:center; margin-top:17em;">
<DIV class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:0em; width:7em;"></DIV>
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<DIV class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:0em; width:7em;"></DIV>
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<DIV class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:0em; width:7em;"></DIV>
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<DIV class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:0em; width:7em;"></DIV>
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<DIV class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:0em; width:7em;"></DIV>
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<DIV class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:0em; width:7em;"></DIV>
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<DIV class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:0em; width:7em;"></DIV>
</DIV>
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<DIV class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:0em; width:7em;"></DIV>
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<DIV class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:0em; width:7em;"></DIV>
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<DIV class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:0em; width:7em;"></DIV>
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<DIV class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:0em; width:7em;"></DIV>
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<DIV class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:0em; width:7em;"></DIV>
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<DIV class="annot-nudge" style="text-size:100%; float:left; position:relative; text-align:left; top:-0.75em; left:0em; width:7em;"></DIV>
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<DIV id="Caption" class="toccolours" style="margin:0 0.5em; float:left; padding:0 auto; border-style:none; clear:both; text-align:center; width:17.5em">Key events of the Devonian Period.<BR />
Axis scale: millions of years ago.</DIV>
</DIV>
<P>The Devonian Period is broken into the Early, Middle and Late Devonian. By the start of the Early Devonian 419 mya, <A href="/wiki/Jawed_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Jawed fish">jawed fishes</A> had divided into four distinct clades: the <A href="/wiki/Placoderm" class="mw-redirect" title="Placoderm">placoderms</A> and <A href="/wiki/Spiny_shark" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiny shark">spiny sharks</A>, both of which are now extinct, and the <A href="/wiki/Cartilaginous_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartilaginous fish">cartilaginous</A> and <A href="/wiki/Bony_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Bony fish">bony fishes</A>, both of which are still extant. The modern bony fishes, class <A href="/wiki/Osteichthyes" title="Osteichthyes">Osteichthyes</A>, appeared in the late <A href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</A> or early Devonian, about 416 million years ago. Both the cartilaginous and bony fishes may have arisen from either the placoderms or the spiny sharks. A subclass of bony fishes, the <A href="/wiki/Ray-finned_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Ray-finned fish">ray-finned fishes</A> (Actinopterygii), have become the <A href="/wiki/Dominance_(ecology)" title="Dominance (ecology)">dominant group</A> in the post-Paleozoic and modern world, with some 30,000 living species.</P>
<P>Sea levels in the Devonian were generally high. Marine faunas were dominated by <A href="/wiki/Bryozoa" title="Bryozoa">bryozoa</A>, diverse and abundant <A href="/wiki/Brachiopoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Brachiopoda">brachiopods</A>, the enigmatic <A href="/wiki/Hederellid" title="Hederellid">hederelloids</A>, <A href="/wiki/Microconchids" class="mw-redirect" title="Microconchids">microconchids</A> and <A href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">corals</A>. Lily-like <A href="/wiki/Crinoids" class="mw-redirect" title="Crinoids">crinoids</A> were abundant, and <A href="/wiki/Trilobite" title="Trilobite">trilobites</A> were still fairly common. Among vertebrates, jawless armoured fish (<A href="/wiki/Ostracoderms" class="mw-redirect" title="Ostracoderms">ostracoderms</A>) declined in diversity, while the jawed fish (gnathostomes) simultaneously increased in both the sea and <A href="/wiki/Fresh_water" title="Fresh water">fresh water</A>. Armoured <A href="/wiki/Placoderms" class="mw-redirect" title="Placoderms">placoderms</A> were numerous during the lower stages of the Devonian Period but became extinct in the Late Devonian, perhaps because of competition for food against the other fish species. Early cartilaginous (<A href="/wiki/Chondrichthyes" title="Chondrichthyes">Chondrichthyes</A>) and bony fishes (<A href="/wiki/Osteichthyes" title="Osteichthyes">Osteichthyes</A>) also become diverse and played a large role within the Devonian seas. The first abundant genus of shark, <I><A href="/wiki/Cladoselache" title="Cladoselache">Cladoselache</A></I>, appeared in the oceans during the Devonian Period. The great diversity of fish around at the time have led to the Devonian being given the name "The Age of Fish" in popular culture.</P>
<P>The first <A href="/wiki/Actinopterygii" title="Actinopterygii">ray-finned</A> and <A href="/wiki/Sarcopterygii" title="Sarcopterygii">lobe-finned</A> <A href="/wiki/Bony_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Bony fish">bony fish</A> appeared in the Devonian, while the <A href="/wiki/Placoderms" class="mw-redirect" title="Placoderms">placoderms</A> began dominating almost every known aquatic environment. However, another subclass of Osteichthyes, the <A href="/wiki/Sarcopterygii" title="Sarcopterygii">Sarcopterygii</A>, including lobe-finned fishes including <A href="/wiki/Coelacanth" title="Coelacanth">coelacanths</A> and <A href="/wiki/Lungfish" title="Lungfish">lungfish</A>) and <A href="/wiki/Tetrapods" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrapods">tetrapods</A>, was the most diverse group of bony fishes in the Devonian. Sarcopterygians are basally characterized by internal nostrils, lobe fins containing a robust internal skeleton, and <A href="/wiki/Cosmoid_scale" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmoid scale">cosmoid scales</A>.</P>
<P>During the Middle Devonian 393–383 Ma, the armoured jawless <A href="/wiki/Ostracoderm" title="Ostracoderm">ostracoderm</A> fishes were declining in diversity; the jawed fish were thriving and increasing in diversity in both the oceans and freshwater. The shallow, warm, oxygen-depleted waters of Devonian inland lakes, surrounded by primitive plants, provided the environment necessary for certain early fish to develop essential characteristics such as well developed lungs and the ability to crawl out of the water and onto the land for short periods of time. Cartilaginous fishes, class <A href="/wiki/Chondrichthyes" title="Chondrichthyes">Chondrichthyes</A>, consisting of <A href="/wiki/Shark" title="Shark">sharks</A>, <A href="/wiki/Batoidea" title="Batoidea">rays</A> and <A href="/wiki/Chimaera" title="Chimaera">chimaeras</A>, appeared by about 395 million years ago, in the middle <A href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</A></P>
<P>During the Late Devonian the first forests were taking shape on land. The first tetrapods appear in the fossil record over a period, the beginning and end of which are marked with extinction events. This lasted until the end of the Devonian 359 mya. The ancestors of all <A href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">tetrapods</A> began adapting to walking on land, their strong pectoral and pelvic fins gradually evolved into legs (see <I><A href="/wiki/Tiktaalik" title="Tiktaalik">Tiktaalik</A></I>).<SUP id="cite_ref-BBC2010_72-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-BBC2010-72">[72]</A></SUP> In the oceans, primitive <A href="/wiki/Shark" title="Shark">sharks</A> became more numerous than in the <A href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</A> and the <A href="/wiki/Late_Ordovician" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Ordovician">late Ordovician</A>. The first <A href="/wiki/Ammonite" class="mw-redirect" title="Ammonite">ammonite</A> <A href="/wiki/Mollusk" class="mw-redirect" title="Mollusk">mollusks</A> appeared. <A href="/wiki/Trilobite" title="Trilobite">Trilobites</A>, the mollusk-like <A href="/wiki/Brachiopod" title="Brachiopod">brachiopods</A> and the great <A href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reefs</A>, were still common.</P>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/Late_Devonian_extinction" title="Late Devonian extinction">Late Devonian extinction</A> occurred at the beginning of the last phase of the Devonian period, the Famennian faunal stage, (the Frasnian-Famennian boundary), about 372.2 Ma. Many fossil <A href="/wiki/Agnathan" class="mw-redirect" title="Agnathan">agnathan</A> fishes, save for the <A href="/wiki/Psammosteid" class="mw-redirect" title="Psammosteid">psammosteid</A> <A href="/wiki/Heterostracan" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterostracan">heterostracans</A>, make their last appearance shortly before this event. The Late Devonian extinction crisis primarily affected the marine community, and selectively affected shallow warm-water organisms rather than cool-water organisms. The most important group affected by this extinction event were the reef-builders of the great Devonian reef-systems.</P>
<P>A second extinction pulse, the <A href="/wiki/Hangenberg_event" title="Hangenberg event">Hangenberg event</A> closed the Devonian period and had a dramatic impact on vertebrate faunas. Placoderms mostly became extinct during this event, as did most members of other groups including lobe-finned fishes, acanthodians and early tetrapods in both marine and terrestrial habitats, leaving only a handful of survivors. This event has been related to glaciation in the temperate and polar zones as well as euxinia and anoxia in the seas.</P>
<TABLE class="wikitable" style="clear: both; margin-left: 5em">
<TBODY><TR>
<TD colspan="5" style="text-align:center; background:#ddf8f8;"><A href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</A> (419–359 mya): The start of Devonian saw the first appearance of <A href="/wiki/Lobe-finned_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Lobe-finned fish">lobe-finned fish</A>, precursors to the <A href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">tetrapods</A> (animals with four limbs). Major groups of fish evolved during this period, often referred to as the <B>age of fishes</B>.<SUP id="cite_ref-AOF_73-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-AOF-73">[73]</A></SUP> See <A href="/wiki/Category:Devonian_fish" title="Category:Devonian fish">Category:Devonian fish</A>.</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="5"></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH rowspan="20" style="background:rgb(221,150,81); text-align: center"><A href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">D<BR />
e<BR />
v<BR />
o<BR />
n<BR />
i<BR />
a<BR />
n</A></TH>
<TD rowspan="6" style="background:rgb(236,207,135); text-align: center"><A href="/wiki/Early_Devonian" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Devonian">Early<BR />
Devonian</A></TD>
<TD colspan="3" style="text-align:center; background:#ddf8f8;"><A href="/wiki/Early_Devonian" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Devonian">Early Devonian</A> (419–393 Ma):</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Psarolepis_BW.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Psarolepis BW.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Psarolepis_BW.jpg/140px-Psarolepis_BW.jpg" width="140" height="78" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Psarolepis_BW.jpg/210px-Psarolepis_BW.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Psarolepis_BW.jpg/280px-Psarolepis_BW.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="445" /></A></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Psarolepis" title="Psarolepis">Psarolepis</A></I></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Psarolepis" title="Psarolepis">Psarolepis</A></I> <I>(speckled scale)</I> is a genus of extinct <A href="/wiki/Lobe-finned_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Lobe-finned fish">lobe-finned fish</A> that lived around 397 to 418 Ma. Fossils of <I>Psarolepis</I> have been found mainly in South <A href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">China</A> and described by <A href="/wiki/Paleontologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleontologist">paleontologist</A> <A href="/wiki/Xiaobo_Yu" title="Xiaobo Yu">Xiaobo Yu</A> in 1998. It is not known for certain which group <I>Psarolepis</I> belongs, but paleontologists agree that it probably is a <A href="/wiki/Basal_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Basal (biology)">basal</A> genus and seems to be close to the common ancestor of lobe-finned and <A href="/wiki/Ray-finned_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Ray-finned fish">ray-finned fishes</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenton200565_74-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenton200565-74">[74]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Holoptychius_nobilissimus.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Holoptychius nobilissimus.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Holoptychius_nobilissimus.jpg/140px-Holoptychius_nobilissimus.jpg" width="140" height="67" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Holoptychius_nobilissimus.jpg/210px-Holoptychius_nobilissimus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Holoptychius_nobilissimus.jpg/280px-Holoptychius_nobilissimus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="243" /></A></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Holoptychius" title="Holoptychius">Holoptychius</A></I></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Holoptychius" title="Holoptychius">Holoptychius</A></I> is an extinct genus from the <A href="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">order</A> of <A href="/wiki/Porolepiform" class="mw-redirect" title="Porolepiform">porolepiform</A> lobe-finned fish, extant from 416 to 359 Ma. It was a streamlined predator about 50 centimetres (20 in) long (though it could grow up to 2.5 m), which fed on other <A href="/wiki/Bony_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Bony fish">bony fish</A>. Its rounded scales and body form indicate that it could have swum quickly through the water to catch prey.<SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals199943_75-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals199943-75">[75]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Holland2010_76-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Holland2010-76">[76]</A></SUP> Similar to other <A href="/wiki/Rhipidistia" title="Rhipidistia">rhipidistians</A>, it had fang-like <A href="/wiki/Teeth" class="mw-redirect" title="Teeth">teeth</A> on its <A href="/wiki/Palate" title="Palate">palate</A> in addition to smaller teeth on the jaws. Its asymmetrical tail sported a <A href="/wiki/Caudal_fin" class="mw-redirect" title="Caudal fin">caudal fin</A> on its lower end. To compensate for the downward push caused by this fin placement, <I>Holoptychius'</I>s <A href="/wiki/Pectoral_fin" class="mw-redirect" title="Pectoral fin">pectoral fins</A> were placed high on the body.</TD>
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<DIV class="center">
<DIV class="floatnone"><A href="/wiki/File:Ctenurella_gladbachensis.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Ctenurella gladbachensis.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Ctenurella_gladbachensis.jpg/100px-Ctenurella_gladbachensis.jpg" width="100" height="111" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Ctenurella_gladbachensis.jpg/150px-Ctenurella_gladbachensis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Ctenurella_gladbachensis.jpg/200px-Ctenurella_gladbachensis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="445" /></A></DIV>
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</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Ptyctodontida" title="Ptyctodontida">Ptyctodontida</A></TD>
<TD>The <A href="/wiki/Ptyctodontids" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptyctodontids">ptyctodontids</A> (<I>beak-teeth</I>) are an extinct <A href="/wiki/Monotypic" class="mw-redirect" title="Monotypic">monotypic</A> <A href="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">order</A> of unarmored <A href="/wiki/Placoderm" class="mw-redirect" title="Placoderm">placoderms</A>, containing only one family. They were extant from the start to the end of the Devonian. With their big heads, big eyes, and long bodies, the ptyctodontids bore a strong resemblance to modern day chimaeras (<A href="/wiki/Holocephali" title="Holocephali">Holocephali</A>). Their armor was reduced to a pattern of small plates around the head and neck. Like the extinct and related <A href="/wiki/Acanthothoracids" class="mw-redirect" title="Acanthothoracids">acanthothoracids</A>, and the living and unrelated holocephalians, most of the ptyctodontids are thought to have lived near the sea bottom and preyed on <A href="/wiki/Shellfish" title="Shellfish">shellfish</A>.</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>
<DIV class="center">
<DIV class="floatnone"><A href="/wiki/File:Lunaspis.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Lunaspis.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Lunaspis.jpg/100px-Lunaspis.jpg" width="100" height="124" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Lunaspis.jpg/150px-Lunaspis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Lunaspis.jpg/200px-Lunaspis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="496" /></A></DIV>
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</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Petalichthyida" title="Petalichthyida">Petalichthyida</A></TD>
<TD>The <A href="/wiki/Petalichthyida" title="Petalichthyida">Petalichthyida</A> was an order of small, flattened <A href="/wiki/Placoderm" class="mw-redirect" title="Placoderm">placoderms</A> that existed from the beginning of the Devonian to the Late Devonian. They were typified by splayed fins and numerous tubercles that decorated all of the plates and scales of their armour. They reached a peak in diversity during the Early Devonian and were found throughout the world. Because they had compressed body forms, it is supposed they were bottom-dwellers that chased after or ambushed smaller fish. Their diet is not clear, as none of the fossil specimens found have preserved mouth parts.</TD>
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<TD>
<DIV class="center">
<DIV class="floatnone"><A href="/wiki/File:Laccognathus_embryi_-_reconstruction.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Laccognathus embryi - reconstruction.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Laccognathus_embryi_-_reconstruction.jpg/100px-Laccognathus_embryi_-_reconstruction.jpg" width="100" height="100" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Laccognathus_embryi_-_reconstruction.jpg/150px-Laccognathus_embryi_-_reconstruction.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Laccognathus_embryi_-_reconstruction.jpg/200px-Laccognathus_embryi_-_reconstruction.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1200" /></A></DIV>
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</TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Laccognathus" title="Laccognathus">Laccognathus</A></I></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Laccognathus" title="Laccognathus">Laccognathus</A></I> <I>(pitted jaw)</I> was a genus of <A href="/wiki/Amphibious_fish" title="Amphibious fish">amphibious</A> lobe-finned fish that existed 398–360 Ma.<SUP id="cite_ref-ngs_77-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-ngs-77">[77]</A></SUP> They were characterized by the three large pits (fossae) on the external surface of the lower jaw, which may have had sensory functions.<SUP id="cite_ref-avril_78-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-avril-78">[78]</A></SUP> <I>Laccognathus</I> grew to 1–2 metres (3–7 ft) in length. They had very short dorsoventrally flattened heads, less than one-fifth the length of the body.<SUP id="cite_ref-vorobyeva_79-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-vorobyeva-79">[79]</A></SUP> The skeleton was structured so large areas of skin were stretched over solid plates of bone. This bone was composed of particularly dense fibers – so dense that exchange of oxygen through the skin was unlikely. Rather, the dense <A href="/wiki/Ossification" title="Ossification">ossifications</A> served to retain water inside the body as <I>Laccognathus</I> traveled on land between bodies of water.<SUP id="cite_ref-witzmann_80-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-witzmann-80">[80]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD rowspan="8" style="background:rgb(245,222,148)">
<CENTER><A href="/wiki/Middle_Devonian" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Devonian">Middle<BR />
Devonian</A></CENTER>
</TD>
<TD colspan="3" style="text-align:center; background:#ddf8f8;"><A href="/wiki/Middle_Devonian" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Devonian">Middle Devonian</A> (393–383 Ma): <A href="/wiki/Chondrichthyes" title="Chondrichthyes">Cartilaginous fishes</A>, consisting of <A href="/wiki/Shark" title="Shark">sharks</A>, <A href="/wiki/Batoidea" title="Batoidea">rays</A> and <A href="/wiki/Chimaera" title="Chimaera">chimaeras</A>, appeared about 395 Ma.</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Dipterus_valenciennesi1.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Dipterus valenciennesi1.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Dipterus_valenciennesi1.jpg/140px-Dipterus_valenciennesi1.jpg" width="140" height="44" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Dipterus_valenciennesi1.jpg/210px-Dipterus_valenciennesi1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Dipterus_valenciennesi1.jpg/280px-Dipterus_valenciennesi1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1425" data-file-height="445" /></A></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Dipterus" title="Dipterus">Dipterus</A></I></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Dipterus" title="Dipterus">Dipterus</A></I> <I>(two wings)</I> is an extinct genus of <A href="/wiki/Lungfish" title="Lungfish">lungfish</A> from 376–361 Ma. It was about 35 centimetres (14 in) long, mostly ate invertebrates, and had lungs, not an air bladder. Like its ancestor <I><A href="/wiki/Dipnorhynchus" title="Dipnorhynchus">Dipnorhynchus</A></I> it had tooth-like plates on its palate instead of real teeth. However, unlike its modern relatives, in which the <A href="/wiki/Dorsal_fin" title="Dorsal fin">dorsal</A>, <A href="/wiki/Caudal_fin" class="mw-redirect" title="Caudal fin">caudal</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Anal_fin" class="mw-redirect" title="Anal fin">anal fin</A> are fused into one, its fins were still separated. Otherwise <I>Dipterus</I> closely resembled modern lungfish.<SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals199945_81-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals199945-81">[81]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Cheirolepis.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Cheirolepis.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Cheirolepis.jpg/140px-Cheirolepis.jpg" width="140" height="97" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Cheirolepis.jpg/210px-Cheirolepis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Cheirolepis.jpg/280px-Cheirolepis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1471" data-file-height="1017" /></A></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Cheirolepis" title="Cheirolepis">Cheirolepis</A></I></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Cheirolepis" title="Cheirolepis">Cheirolepis</A></I> <I>(hand fin)</I> was a genus of <A href="/wiki/Ray-finned_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Ray-finned fish">ray-finned fishes</A>. It was among the most <A href="/wiki/Basal_(phylogenetics)" title="Basal (phylogenetics)">basal</A> of the Devonian ray-finned fishes and is considered the first to possess the "standard" dermal cranial bones seen in later ray-finned fish. It was a predatory freshwater fish about 55 centimetres (22 in) long, and based on the size of its eyes it hunted by sight.<SUP id="cite_ref-EoDP_50-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-EoDP-50">[50]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Early_Shark.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Early Shark.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Early_Shark.jpg/140px-Early_Shark.jpg" width="140" height="113" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Early_Shark.jpg/210px-Early_Shark.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Early_Shark.jpg/280px-Early_Shark.jpg 2x" data-file-width="340" data-file-height="274" /></A></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Cladoselache" title="Cladoselache">Cladoselache</A></I></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Cladoselache" title="Cladoselache">Cladoselache</A></I> was the first abundant genus of primitive shark, appearing about 370 Ma.<SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals199926_82-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals199926-82">[82]</A></SUP> It grew to 6 feet (1.8 m) long, with anatomical features similar to modern <A href="/wiki/Mackerel_shark" class="mw-redirect" title="Mackerel shark">mackerel sharks</A>. It had a streamlined body almost entirely devoid of <A href="/wiki/Fish_scale" title="Fish scale">scales</A>, with five to seven <A href="/wiki/Gill_slit" title="Gill slit">gill slits</A> and a short, rounded snout that had a terminal mouth opening at the front of the skull.<SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals199926_82-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals199926-82">[82]</A></SUP> It had a very weak jaw joint compared with modern-day sharks, but it compensated for that with very strong jaw-closing muscles. Its teeth were multi-cusped and smooth-edged, making them suitable for grasping, but not tearing or chewing. <I>Cladoselache</I> therefore probably seized prey by the tail and swallowed it whole.<SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals199926_82-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals199926-82">[82]</A></SUP> It had powerful keels that extended onto the side of the tail stalk and a semi-lunate tail fin, with the superior lobe about the same size as the inferior. This combination helped with its speed and agility, which was useful when trying to outswim its probable predator, the heavily armoured 10 metres (33 ft) long placoderm fish <I><A href="/wiki/Dunkleosteus" title="Dunkleosteus">Dunkleosteus</A></I>.<SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals199926_82-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals199926-82">[82]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Coccosteus_BW.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Coccosteus BW.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Coccosteus_BW.jpg/140px-Coccosteus_BW.jpg" width="140" height="37" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Coccosteus_BW.jpg/210px-Coccosteus_BW.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Coccosteus_BW.jpg/280px-Coccosteus_BW.jpg 2x" data-file-width="763" data-file-height="199" /></A></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Coccosteus" title="Coccosteus">Coccosteus</A></I></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Coccosteus" title="Coccosteus">Coccosteus</A></I> <I>(seed bone)</I> is an extinct genus of <A href="/wiki/Arthrodire" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthrodire">arthrodire</A> <A href="/wiki/Placoderm" class="mw-redirect" title="Placoderm">placoderm</A>. The majority of fossils have been found in freshwater sediments, though they may have been able to enter saltwater. They grew up to 40 centimetres (16 in) long. Like all other arthrodires, <I>Coccosteus</I> had a joint between the armour of the body and skull. In addition, it also had an internal joint between its neck <A href="/wiki/Vertebrae" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebrae">vertebrae</A> and the back of the skull, allowing it to open its mouth even wider. Along with the longer jaws, this allowed <I>Coccosteus</I> to feed on fairly large prey. As with all other arthrodires, <I>Coccosteus</I> had bony dental plates embedded in its jaws, forming a beak. The beak was kept sharp by having the edges of the dental plates grind away at each other.<SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals199932_83-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals199932-83">[83]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>
<DIV class="center">
<DIV class="floatnone"><A href="/wiki/File:Bothriolepis_canadensis_2.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Bothriolepis canadensis 2.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Bothriolepis_canadensis_2.jpg/120px-Bothriolepis_canadensis_2.jpg" width="120" height="93" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Bothriolepis_canadensis_2.jpg/180px-Bothriolepis_canadensis_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Bothriolepis_canadensis_2.jpg/240px-Bothriolepis_canadensis_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="774" /></A></DIV>
</DIV>
</TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Bothriolepis" title="Bothriolepis">Bothriolepis</A></I></TD>
<TD>
<TABLE class="infobox" style="width:22em;width: 200px; float: right; clear: right; margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em">
<CAPTION>External video</CAPTION>
<TBODY><TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center;text-align: left"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" width="16" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://animal.discovery.com/tv-shows/other/videos/animal-armageddon-bothriopelis"><I>Bothriolepis</I></A> – <I>Animal Planet</I></TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
<P><I><A href="/wiki/Bothriolepis" title="Bothriolepis">Bothriolepis</A></I> <I>(pitted scale)</I> was the most successful genus of <A href="/wiki/Antiarch" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiarch">antiarch</A> <A href="/wiki/Placoderms" class="mw-redirect" title="Placoderms">placoderms</A>, if not the most successful genus of any placoderm, with over 100 species spread across Middle to Late Devonian strata across every continent.</P>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>
<DIV class="center">
<DIV class="floatnone"><A href="/wiki/File:Pituriaspis_doylei.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Pituriaspis doylei.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Pituriaspis_doylei.jpg/80px-Pituriaspis_doylei.jpg" width="80" height="88" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Pituriaspis_doylei.jpg/120px-Pituriaspis_doylei.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Pituriaspis_doylei.jpg/160px-Pituriaspis_doylei.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="822" /></A></DIV>
</DIV>
</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Pituriaspida" title="Pituriaspida">Pituriaspida</A></TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Pituriaspida" title="Pituriaspida">Pituriaspida</A> <I>(hallucinogenic shield)</I> is a class containing two bizarre species of armoured jawless fishes with tremendous nose-like <A href="/wiki/Rostrum_(anatomy)" title="Rostrum (anatomy)">rostrums</A>. They lived in estuaries around 390 Ma. The <A href="/wiki/Paleontologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleontologist">paleontologist</A> Gavin Young, named the class after the hallucinogenic drug <A href="/wiki/Pituri" title="Pituri">pituri</A>, since he thought he might be hallucinating upon viewing the bizarre forms.<SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong1996_84-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong1996-84">[84]</A></SUP> The better studied species looked like a throwing-dart-like, with an elongate headshield and spear-like rostrum. The other species looked like a guitar pick with a tail, with a smaller and shorter rostrum and a more triangular headshield.</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="3" style="line-height:16px; background:#dddddd;"><SMALL><A href="/wiki/Late_Devonian_extinction" title="Late Devonian extinction">Late Devonian extinction</A>: 375–360 Ma. A prolonged series of extinctions eliminated about 19% of all families, 50% of all genera<SUP id="cite_ref-Baez2006_57-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Baez2006-57">[57]</A></SUP> and 70% of all species. This extinction event lasted perhaps as long as 20 Ma, and there is evidence for a series of extinction pulses within this period.</SMALL></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD rowspan="6" style="background:rgb(243,235,204)">
<CENTER><A href="/wiki/Late_Devonian" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Devonian">Late<BR />
Devonian</A></CENTER>
</TD>
<TD colspan="3" style="text-align:center; background:#ddf8f8;"><A href="/wiki/Late_Devonian" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Devonian">Late Devonian</A> (383–359 Ma):</TD>
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<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Dunkleosteus_intermedius.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Dunkleosteus intermedius.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Dunkleosteus_intermedius.jpg/140px-Dunkleosteus_intermedius.jpg" width="140" height="55" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Dunkleosteus_intermedius.jpg/210px-Dunkleosteus_intermedius.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Dunkleosteus_intermedius.jpg/280px-Dunkleosteus_intermedius.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2600" data-file-height="1023" /></A></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Dunkleosteus" title="Dunkleosteus">Dunkleosteus</A></I></TD>
<TD>
<TABLE class="infobox" style="width:22em;width: 210px; float: right; clear: right; margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em">
<CAPTION>External video</CAPTION>
<TBODY><TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center;text-align: left"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" width="16" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://animal.discovery.com/tv-shows/other/videos/animal-armageddon-dunkleosteus"><I>Dunkleosteus</I></A> – <I>Animal Planet</I></TD>
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</TBODY></TABLE>
<P><I><A href="/wiki/Dunkleosteus" title="Dunkleosteus">Dunkleosteus</A></I> is a <A href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</A> of <A href="/wiki/Arthrodire" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthrodire">arthrodire</A> <A href="/wiki/Placoderm" class="mw-redirect" title="Placoderm">placoderms</A> that existed from 380 to 360 Ma. It grew up to 10 metres (33 ft) long<SUP id="cite_ref-ScienceNews1999_85-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-ScienceNews1999-85">[85]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals199933_86-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals199933-86">[86]</A></SUP> and weighed up to 3.6 tonnes.<SUP id="cite_ref-SydneyMorningHerald2006_87-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-SydneyMorningHerald2006-87">[87]</A></SUP> It was a <A href="/wiki/Hypercarnivore" title="Hypercarnivore">hypercarnivorous</A> <A href="/wiki/Apex_predator" title="Apex predator">apex predator</A>. Apart from its contemporary <I>Titanichthys</I> (below), no other placoderm rivalled it in size. Instead of teeth, <I>Dunkleosteus</I> had two pairs of sharp bony plates, which formed a beak-like structure. Apart from <A href="/wiki/Megalodon" title="Megalodon">megalodon</A>, it had the most powerful bite of any fish,<SUP id="cite_ref-Field2006_88-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Field2006-88">[88]</A></SUP> generating bite forces in the same league as <I><A href="/wiki/Tyrannosaurus" title="Tyrannosaurus">Tyrannosaurus rex</A></I> and the modern <A href="/wiki/Crocodile" title="Crocodile">crocodile</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-LiveScience2006_89-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-LiveScience2006-89">[89]</A></SUP></P>
</TD>
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<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Titanichthys10.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Titanichthys10.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Titanichthys10.jpg/140px-Titanichthys10.jpg" width="140" height="65" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Titanichthys10.jpg/210px-Titanichthys10.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Titanichthys10.jpg/280px-Titanichthys10.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="476" /></A></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Titanichthys" title="Titanichthys">Titanichthys</A></I></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Titanichthys" title="Titanichthys">Titanichthys</A></I> is a genus of giant, aberrant marine <A href="/wiki/Placoderm" class="mw-redirect" title="Placoderm">placoderm</A> that lived in shallow seas. Many of the species approached <I><A href="/wiki/Dunkleosteus" title="Dunkleosteus">Dunkleosteus</A></I> in size and build. Unlike its relative, however, the various species of <I>Titanichys</I> had small, ineffective-looking mouth-plates that lacked a sharp cutting edge. It is assumed that <I>Titanichthys</I> was a <A href="/wiki/Filter_feeder" title="Filter feeder">filter feeder</A> that used its capacious mouth to swallow or inhale schools of small, <A href="/wiki/Anchovy" title="Anchovy">anchovy</A>-like fish, or possibly <A href="/wiki/Krill" title="Krill">krill</A>-like <A href="/wiki/Zooplankton" title="Zooplankton">zooplankton</A>, and that the mouth-plates retained the prey while allowing the water to escape as it closed its mouth.</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Materpiscis02.JPG" class="image"><IMG alt="Materpiscis02.JPG" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Materpiscis02.JPG/140px-Materpiscis02.JPG" width="140" height="105" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Materpiscis02.JPG/210px-Materpiscis02.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Materpiscis02.JPG/280px-Materpiscis02.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></A></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Materpiscis" title="Materpiscis">Materpiscis</A></I></TD>
<TD>
<TABLE class="infobox" style="width:22em;width: 180px; float: right; clear: right; margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em">
<CAPTION>External video</CAPTION>
<TBODY><TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center;text-align: left"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" width="16" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/nature/videoarchive/themotherfish/">The mother fish</A> – <I>Nature</I></TD>
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</TBODY></TABLE>
<P><I><A href="/wiki/Materpiscis" title="Materpiscis">Materpiscis</A></I> <I>(mother fish)</I> is a <A href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</A> of <A href="/wiki/Ptyctodontid" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptyctodontid">ptyctodontid</A> <A href="/wiki/Placodermi" title="Placodermi">placoderm</A> from about 380 Ma. Known from only one specimen, it is unique in having an unborn <A href="/wiki/Embryo" title="Embryo">embryo</A> present inside, and with remarkable preservation of a mineralised placental feeding structure (<A href="/wiki/Umbilical_cord" title="Umbilical cord">umbilical cord</A>). This makes <I>Materpiscis</I> the first known vertebrate to show <A href="/wiki/Viviparity" title="Viviparity">viviparity</A>, or giving birth to live young.<SUP id="cite_ref-Long2008_90-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Long2008-90">[90]</A></SUP> The specimen was named <I>Materpiscis attenboroughi</I> in honour of <A href="/wiki/David_Attenborough" title="David Attenborough">David Attenborough</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-BBC2008_91-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-BBC2008-91">[91]</A></SUP></P>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Hyneria.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Hyneria.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Hyneria.jpg/140px-Hyneria.jpg" width="140" height="97" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Hyneria.jpg/210px-Hyneria.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Hyneria.jpg/280px-Hyneria.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2038" data-file-height="1418" /></A></TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Hyneria" title="Hyneria">Hyneria</A></TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Hyneria" title="Hyneria">Hyneria</A> is a genus of predatory lobe-finned fish, about 2.5 m (8.2 ft) long, that lived 360 million years ago.<SUP id="cite_ref-Thomson1968_92-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Thomson1968-92">[92]</A></SUP></TD>
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<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Rhizodus.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Rhizodus.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Rhizodus.jpg/140px-Rhizodus.jpg" width="140" height="55" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Rhizodus.jpg/210px-Rhizodus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Rhizodus.jpg/280px-Rhizodus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3446" data-file-height="1347" /></A></TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Rhizodont" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhizodont">Rhizodonts</A></TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Rhizodont" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhizodont">Rhizodonts</A> were an order of lobe-finned fish that survived to the end of the Carboniferous, 377–310 Ma. They reached huge sizes. The largest known species, <I><A href="/wiki/Rhizodus" title="Rhizodus">Rhizodus hibberti</A></I> grew up to 7 metres in length, making it the largest freshwater fish known.</TD>
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<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Fish_to_tetrapods">Fish to tetrapods</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_fish&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Fish to tetrapods">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <A href="/wiki/Tetrapod#Evolution" title="Tetrapod">Tetrapod § Evolution</A>, and <A href="/wiki/List_of_transitional_fossils#Fish_to_Tetrapods" title="List of transitional fossils">List of transitional fossils § Fish to Tetrapods</A></DIV>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Fishapod_evolution.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Fishapod_evolution.jpg/300px-Fishapod_evolution.jpg" width="300" height="408" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Fishapod_evolution.jpg/450px-Fishapod_evolution.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Fishapod_evolution.jpg/600px-Fishapod_evolution.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3197" data-file-height="4349" /></A>
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A cladogram of the evolution of tetrapods showing some of the best-known transitional fossils. It starts with <I><A href="/wiki/Eusthenopteron" title="Eusthenopteron">Eusthenopteron</A></I> at the bottom, indisputably still a fish, through <I><A href="/wiki/Panderichthys" title="Panderichthys">Panderichthys</A></I>, <I><A href="/wiki/Tiktaalik" title="Tiktaalik">Tiktaalik</A></I>, <I><A href="/wiki/Acanthostega" title="Acanthostega">Acanthostega</A></I> and <I><A href="/wiki/Ichthyostega" title="Ichthyostega">Ichthyostega</A></I> to <I><A href="/wiki/Pederpes" title="Pederpes">Pederpes</A></I> at the top, indisputably a tetrapod
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<TH width="290px"><SPAN class="collapseButton">[<A id="collapseButton0" href="#">show</A>]</SPAN>From fins to limbs</TH>
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<DIV class="thumbimage"><A href="/wiki/File:Crossopterygii_tetrapod_hips.JPG" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Crossopterygii_tetrapod_hips.JPG/280px-Crossopterygii_tetrapod_hips.JPG" width="280" height="168" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Crossopterygii_tetrapod_hips.JPG/420px-Crossopterygii_tetrapod_hips.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Crossopterygii_tetrapod_hips.JPG/560px-Crossopterygii_tetrapod_hips.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1258" data-file-height="756" /></A></DIV>
<DIV class="thumbcaption" style="clear:left">Illustration showing shows how much the hindlimb attachments in lobe-finned fishes need to change in transitioning from lobe-finned fishes (A) to early tetrapods (B) if the fish was to become a terrestrial animal.</DIV>
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<DIV class="thumbimage"><A href="/wiki/File:Fishapods_and_tetrapods.JPG" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Fishapods_and_tetrapods.JPG/280px-Fishapods_and_tetrapods.JPG" width="280" height="113" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Fishapods_and_tetrapods.JPG/420px-Fishapods_and_tetrapods.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Fishapods_and_tetrapods.JPG/560px-Fishapods_and_tetrapods.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1666" data-file-height="670" /></A></DIV>
<DIV class="thumbcaption" style="clear:left">Comparison between the fins of lobe-finned fishes and the legs of early tetrapods: 1. <I><A href="/wiki/Tiktaalik" title="Tiktaalik">Tiktaalik</A></I> 2. <I><A href="/wiki/Panderichthys" title="Panderichthys">Panderichthys</A></I> 3. <I><A href="/wiki/Eusthenopteron" title="Eusthenopteron">Eusthenopteron</A></I> 4. <I><A href="/wiki/Acanthostega" title="Acanthostega">Acanthostega</A></I> 5. <I><A href="/wiki/Ichthyostega" title="Ichthyostega">Ichthyostega</A></I> (hindleg)</DIV>
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<P>The first <A href="/wiki/Tetrapods" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrapods">tetrapods</A> are four-legged, air-breathing, terrestrial animals from which the land vertebrates descended, including humans. They evolved from lobe-finned fish of the clade <A href="/wiki/Sarcopterygii" title="Sarcopterygii">Sarcopterygii</A>, appearing in coastal water in the middle Devonian, and giving rise to the first <A href="/wiki/Amphibians" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphibians">amphibians</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Niedźwiedzki2010_93-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Niedźwiedzki2010-93">[93]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The group of lobe-finned fishes that were the ancestors of the tetrapod are grouped together as the <A href="/wiki/Rhipidistia" title="Rhipidistia">Rhipidistia</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-Gordon2004_94-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Gordon2004-94">[94]</A></SUP> and the first tetrapods evolved from these fish over the relatively short timespan 385–360 Ma. The early tetrapod groups themselves are grouped as <A href="/wiki/Labyrinthodontia" title="Labyrinthodontia">Labyrinthodontia</A>. They retained aquatic, fry-like <A href="/wiki/Tadpole" title="Tadpole">tadpoles</A>, a system still seen in <A href="/wiki/Lissamphibia" title="Lissamphibia">modern amphibians</A>. From the 1950s to the early 1980s it was thought that tetrapods evolved from fish that had already acquired the ability to crawl on land, possibly so they could go from a pool that was drying out to one that was deeper. However, in 1987, nearly complete fossils of <I><A href="/wiki/Acanthostega" title="Acanthostega">Acanthostega</A></I> from about <SPAN class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><A class="external text" href="http://tools.wmflabs.org/timescale/?Ma=363">363</A> Ma</SPAN> showed that this Late Devonian <A href="/wiki/Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">transitional</A> animal had legs and both lungs and gills, but could never have survived on land: its limbs and its wrist and ankle joints were too weak to bear its weight; its ribs were too short to prevent its lungs from being squeezed flat by its weight; its fish-like tail fin would have been damaged by dragging on the ground. The current hypothesis is that <I>Acanthostega</I>, which was about 1 metre (3.3 ft) long, was a wholly aquatic predator that hunted in shallow water. Its skeleton differed from that of most fish, in ways that enabled it to raise its head to breathe air while its body remained submerged, including: its jaws show modifications that would have enabled it to gulp air; the bones at the back of its skull are locked together, providing strong attachment points for muscles that raised its head; the head is not joined to the <A href="/wiki/Shoulder_girdle" title="Shoulder girdle">shoulder girdle</A> and it has a distinct neck.<SUP id="cite_ref-Clack2005_95-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Clack2005-95">[95]</A></SUP></P>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Ancestors_of_the_land_vertebrates_cropped.png" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Ancestors_of_the_land_vertebrates_cropped.png/250px-Ancestors_of_the_land_vertebrates_cropped.png" width="250" height="223" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Ancestors_of_the_land_vertebrates_cropped.png/375px-Ancestors_of_the_land_vertebrates_cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Ancestors_of_the_land_vertebrates_cropped.png/500px-Ancestors_of_the_land_vertebrates_cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="1099" data-file-height="980" /></A>
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Until the 1980s early transitional lobe-finned fishes, such as the <I><A href="/wiki/Eusthenopteron" title="Eusthenopteron">Eusthenopteron</A></I> shown here, were depicted as emerging onto land. Paleontologists now widely agree this did not happen, and they were strictly aquatic.<SUP id="cite_ref-Laurin2007_96-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Laurin2007-96">[96]</A></SUP>
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<CAPTION>External video</CAPTION>
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<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center;text-align: left"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" width="16" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k-5oQlnXSTM">Tetrapod Evolution</A> <I>Animal Planet</I><BR />
<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k-5oQlnXSTM">1</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B3iFADplW6U">2</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8HCTFe_XZFQ">3</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JKRTrC1B1PI">4</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=khUw_OGRcBs">5</A></TD>
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<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center;text-align: left"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" width="16" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ga6n2vnM3Nc">Evolution fish with fingers Transitional fossils</A> – <I>YouTube</I></TD>
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<P>The Devonian proliferation of land plants may help to explain why air-breathing would have been an advantage: leaves falling into streams and rivers would have encouraged the growth of aquatic vegetation; this would have attracted grazing invertebrates and small fish that preyed on them; they would have been attractive prey but the environment was unsuitable for the big marine predatory fish; air-breathing would have been necessary because these waters would have been short of oxygen, since warm water holds less dissolved oxygen than cooler marine water and since the decomposition of vegetation would have used some of the oxygen.<SUP id="cite_ref-Clack2005_95-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Clack2005-95">[95]</A></SUP></P>
<P>There are three major hypotheses as to how tetrapods evolved their stubby fins (proto-limbs). The traditional explanation is the "shrinking waterhole hypothesis" or "desert hypothesis" posited by the American paleontologist <A href="/wiki/Alfred_Romer" title="Alfred Romer">Alfred Romer</A>. He believed limbs and lungs may have evolved from the necessity of having to find new bodies of water as old waterholes dried up.<SUP id="cite_ref-science22011_97-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-science22011-97">[97]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The second hypothesis is the "inter-tidal hypothesis" put forward in 2010 by a team of Polish paleontologists led by Grzegorz Niedźwiedzki. They argued that sarcopterygians may have first emerged unto land from <A href="/wiki/Intertidal_zone" title="Intertidal zone">intertidal zones</A> rather than inland bodies of water. Their hypothesis is based on the discovery of the 395 million-year-old Zachełmie tracks in <A href="/wiki/Zache%C5%82mie,_%C5%9Awi%C4%99tokrzyskie_Voivodeship" title="Zachełmie, Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship">Zachełmie</A>, Poland, the oldest ever discovered fossil evidence of tetrapods.<SUP id="cite_ref-Niedźwiedzki2010_93-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Niedźwiedzki2010-93">[93]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-newscientist2010_98-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-newscientist2010-98">[98]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The third hypothesis, the "woodland hypothesis", was proposed by the American paleontologist Gregory J. Retallack in 2011. He argues that limbs may have developed in shallow bodies of water in woodlands as a means of navigating in environments filled with roots and vegetation. He based his conclusions on the evidence that transitional tetrapod fossils are consistently found in habitats that were formerly humid and wooded <A href="/wiki/Floodplain" title="Floodplain">floodplains</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Retallack2011_99-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Retallack2011-99">[99]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Research by <A href="/wiki/Jennifer_A._Clack" class="mw-redirect" title="Jennifer A. Clack">Jennifer A. Clack</A> and her colleagues showed that the very earliest tetrapods, animals similar to <I><A href="/wiki/Acanthostega" title="Acanthostega">Acanthostega</A></I>, were wholly aquatic and quite unsuited to life on land. This is in contrast to the earlier view that fish had first invaded the land — either in search of prey (like modern <A href="/wiki/Mudskipper" title="Mudskipper">mudskippers</A>) or to find water when the pond they lived in dried out — and later evolved legs, lungs, etc.</P>
<P>Two ideas about the <A href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">homology</A> of arms, hands and digits have existed in the past 130 years. First that digits are unique to tetrapods<SUP id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-100">[100]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-101">[101]</A></SUP> and second that antecedents were present in the fins of early <A href="/wiki/Sarcopterygian" class="mw-redirect" title="Sarcopterygian">sarcopterygian</A> fish.<SUP id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-102">[102]</A></SUP> Until recently it was believed that "genetic and fossil data support the hypothesis that digits are evolutionary novelties".<SUP id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-103">[103]</A></SUP><SUP>p. 640.</SUP> However new research that created a three-dimensional reconstruction of <A href="/wiki/Panderichthys" title="Panderichthys">Panderichthys</A>, a coastal fish from the <A href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</A> period 385 million years ago, shows that these animals already had many of the homologous bones present in the forelimbs of limbed vertebrates.<SUP id="cite_ref-Boisvert_104-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Boisvert-104">[104]</A></SUP> For example, they had <A href="/wiki/Radius_(bone)" title="Radius (bone)">radial</A> bones similar to rudimentary fingers but positioned in the arm-like base of their fins.<SUP id="cite_ref-Boisvert_104-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Boisvert-104">[104]</A></SUP> Thus there was in the evolution of <A href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">tetrapods</A> a shift such that the outermost part of the fins were lost and eventually replaced by early digits. This change is consistent with additional evidence from the study of <A href="/wiki/Actinopterygian" class="mw-redirect" title="Actinopterygian">actinopterygians</A>, <A href="/wiki/Shark" title="Shark">sharks</A> and <A href="/wiki/Lungfish" title="Lungfish">lungfish</A> that the digits of tetrapods arose from pre-existing distal radials present in more primitive fish.<SUP id="cite_ref-Boisvert_104-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Boisvert-104">[104]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-105">[105]</A></SUP> Controversy still exists since <A href="/wiki/Tiktaalik" title="Tiktaalik">Tiktaalik</A>, a vertebrate often considered the <A href="/wiki/Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">missing link</A> between fishes and land-living animals, had stubby leg-like limbs that lacked the finger-like radial bones found in the Panderichthys. The researchers of the paper commented that it "is difficult to say whether this character distribution implies that Tiktaalik is <A href="/wiki/Autapomorph" class="mw-redirect" title="Autapomorph">autapomorphic</A>, that Panderichthys and tetrapods are convergent, or that Panderichthys is closer to tetrapods than Tiktaalik. At any rate, it demonstrates that the fish–tetrapod transition was accompanied by significant character incongruence in functionally important structures.".<SUP id="cite_ref-Boisvert_104-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Boisvert-104">[104]</A></SUP><SUP>p. 638.</SUP></P>
<P>From the end of the Devonian to the Mid <A href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</A> a 30 million year gap occurs in the fossil record. This gap, called <A href="/wiki/Romer%27s_gap" title="Romer's gap">Romer's gap</A>, is marked by the absence of ancestral tetrapod fossils and fossils of other vertebrates that look well-adapted for life on land.<SUP id="cite_ref-Ahlberg1994_106-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Ahlberg1994-106">[106]</A></SUP></P>
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<TH colspan="4">Transition from lobe-finned fishes to tetrapods</TH>
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<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Eusthenopteron_model.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Eusthenopteron model.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Eusthenopteron_model.jpg/140px-Eusthenopteron_model.jpg" width="140" height="78" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Eusthenopteron_model.jpg/210px-Eusthenopteron_model.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Eusthenopteron_model.jpg/280px-Eusthenopteron_model.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1845" data-file-height="1023" /></A><SMALL>~385 <A href="/wiki/Mya_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mya (unit)">Ma</A></SMALL></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Eusthenopteron" title="Eusthenopteron">Eusthenopteron</A></I></TD>
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<CAPTION>External video</CAPTION>
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<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center;text-align: left"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" width="16" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://animal.discovery.com/tv-shows/other/videos/animal-armageddon-eusthenopteron"><I>Eusthenopteron</I></A> – <I>Animal Planet</I></TD>
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<P>Genus of <A href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinct</A> <A href="/wiki/Lobe-finned_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Lobe-finned fish">lobe-finned fishes</A> that has attained an iconic status from its close relationships to <A href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">tetrapods</A>. Early depictions of this animal show it emerging onto land, however paleontologists now widely agree that it was a strictly aquatic animal.<SUP id="cite_ref-Laurin2007_96-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Laurin2007-96">[96]</A></SUP> The genus <I>Eusthenopteron</I> is known from several species that lived during the Late Devonian period, about 385 Ma. It was the object of intense study from the 1940s to the 1990s by the <A href="/wiki/Paleoichthyologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleoichthyologist">paleoichthyologist</A> <A href="/wiki/Erik_Jarvik" title="Erik Jarvik">Erik Jarvik</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Jarvik2008_107-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Jarvik2008-107">[107]</A></SUP></P>
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<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Gogonasus_BW.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Gogonasus BW.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Gogonasus_BW.jpg/140px-Gogonasus_BW.jpg" width="140" height="63" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Gogonasus_BW.jpg/210px-Gogonasus_BW.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Gogonasus_BW.jpg/280px-Gogonasus_BW.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="359" /></A></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Gogonasus" title="Gogonasus">Gogonasus</A></I></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Gogonasus" title="Gogonasus">Gogonasus</A> (snout from Gogo)</I> was a lobe-finned fish known from 3-dimensionally preserved 380 million-year-old fossils found in the <A href="/wiki/Gogo_Formation" title="Gogo Formation">Gogo Formation</A>. It was a small fish reaching 30–40 cm (0.98–1.31 ft) in length.<SUP id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-108">[108]</A></SUP> Its skeleton shows several tetrapod-like features. They included the structure of its <A href="/wiki/Middle_ear" title="Middle ear">middle ear</A>, and its fins show the precursors of the forearm bones, the <A href="/wiki/Radius_(bone)" title="Radius (bone)">radius</A> and <A href="/wiki/Ulna" title="Ulna">ulna</A>. Researchers believe it used its forearm-like fins to dart out of the reef to catch prey. <I>Gogonasus</I> was first described in 1985 by <A href="/wiki/John_A._Long" title="John A. Long">John A. Long</A>. For almost 100 years <I><A href="/wiki/Eusthenopteron" title="Eusthenopteron">Eusthenopteron</A></I> has been the role model for demonstrating stages in the evolution of lobe-finned fishes to tetrapods. <I>Gogonasus</I> now replaces <I>Eusthenopteron</I> in being a better preserved representative without any ambiguity in interpreting its anatomy.</TD>
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<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Panderichthys_BW.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Panderichthys BW.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Panderichthys_BW.jpg/140px-Panderichthys_BW.jpg" width="140" height="48" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Panderichthys_BW.jpg/210px-Panderichthys_BW.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Panderichthys_BW.jpg/280px-Panderichthys_BW.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="274" /></A><BR />
<SMALL>~385 Ma</SMALL></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Panderichthys" title="Panderichthys">Panderichthys</A></I></TD>
<TD>Adapted to muddy shallows, and capable of some kind of shallow water or terrestrial body flexion locomotion. Had the ability to prop itself up.<SUP id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-109">[109]</A></SUP><BR />
They had large tetrapod-like heads, and are thought to be the most crownward stem fish-tetrapod with paired fins.</TD>
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<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Tiktaalik_BW.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Tiktaalik BW.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Tiktaalik_BW.jpg/140px-Tiktaalik_BW.jpg" width="140" height="43" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Tiktaalik_BW.jpg/210px-Tiktaalik_BW.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Tiktaalik_BW.jpg/280px-Tiktaalik_BW.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="244" /></A><BR />
<SMALL>~375 Ma</SMALL></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Tiktaalik" title="Tiktaalik">Tiktaalik</A></I></TD>
<TD>A fish with limb-like fins that could take it onto land.<SUP id="cite_ref-Nature_110-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Nature-110">[110]</A></SUP> It is an example from several lines of ancient sarcopterygian fish developing adaptations to the oxygen-poor shallow-water habitats of its time, which led to the evolution of tetrapods.<SUP id="cite_ref-scientificamerican_111-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-scientificamerican-111">[111]</A></SUP> Paleontologists suggest that it is representative of the <A href="/wiki/Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">transition</A> between non-tetrapod vertebrates (fish) such as <I><A href="/wiki/Panderichthys" title="Panderichthys">Panderichthys</A></I>, known from fossils 380 million years old, and early tetrapods such as <I><A href="/wiki/Acanthostega" title="Acanthostega">Acanthostega</A></I> and <I><A href="/wiki/Ichthyostega" title="Ichthyostega">Ichthyostega</A></I>, known from fossils about 365 million years old. Its mixture of primitive fish and derived tetrapod characteristics led one of its discoverers, <A href="/wiki/Neil_Shubin" title="Neil Shubin">Neil Shubin</A>, to characterize <I>Tiktaalik</I> as a "<A href="/wiki/Tetrapodomorpha" title="Tetrapodomorpha">fishapod</A>".<SUP id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-112">[112]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Shubin_2008_113-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Shubin_2008-113">[113]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Acanthostega_BW.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Acanthostega BW.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Acanthostega_BW.jpg/140px-Acanthostega_BW.jpg" width="140" height="53" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Acanthostega_BW.jpg/210px-Acanthostega_BW.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Acanthostega_BW.jpg/280px-Acanthostega_BW.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="302" /></A><BR />
<SMALL>365 Ma</SMALL></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Acanthostega" title="Acanthostega">Acanthostega</A></I></TD>
<TD>A fish-like early <A href="/wiki/Labyrinthodontia" title="Labyrinthodontia">labyrinthodont</A> that occupied swamps and changed views about the early evolution of tetrapods.<SUP id="cite_ref-Clack2005_95-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Clack2005-95">[95]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Polydactyly_in_early_tetrapods" title="Polydactyly in early tetrapods">It had eight digits</A> on each hand (the number of digits on the feet is unclear) linked by webbing, it lacked wrists, and was generally poorly adapted to come onto land.<SUP id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-114">[114]</A></SUP> Subsequent discoveries revealed earlier transitional forms between <I>Acanthostega</I> and completely fish-like animals.<SUP id="cite_ref-Daeschler2006_115-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Daeschler2006-115">[115]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Ichthyostega_BW.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Ichthyostega BW.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Ichthyostega_BW.jpg/140px-Ichthyostega_BW.jpg" width="140" height="53" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Ichthyostega_BW.jpg/210px-Ichthyostega_BW.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Ichthyostega_BW.jpg/280px-Ichthyostega_BW.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="305" /></A><BR />
<SMALL>374–359 Ma</SMALL></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Ichthyostega" title="Ichthyostega">Ichthyostega</A></I></TD>
<TD>
<TABLE class="infobox" style="width:22em;width: 225px; float: right; clear: right; margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em">
<CAPTION>External video</CAPTION>
<TBODY><TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center;text-align: left"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" width="16" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://animal.discovery.com/tv-shows/other/videos/animal-armageddon-ichthyostega.htm"><I>Ichthyostega</I></A> – <I>Animal Planet</I></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center;text-align: left"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" width="16" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qY6cHGVG8-c">Pierce et al. Vertebral Architecture<BR />
1</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8g0_vCd71bw">2</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0IPmHJ_3nug">3</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lzEzAC5DsUc">4</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TWst4N70Wr4">5</A> – <I>YouTube</I></TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
<P>Until finds of other early tetrapods and closely related fishes in the late 20th century, <I><A href="/wiki/Ichthyostega" title="Ichthyostega">Ichthyostega</A></I> stood alone as the transitional fossil between fish and tetrapods, combining a fishlike tail and gills with an amphibian skull and limbs. It possessed lungs and limbs with seven digits that helped it navigate through shallow water in swamps.</P>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Pederpes22small.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Pederpes22small.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Pederpes22small.jpg/140px-Pederpes22small.jpg" width="140" height="46" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Pederpes22small.jpg/210px-Pederpes22small.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Pederpes22small.jpg/280px-Pederpes22small.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="325" /></A><BR />
<SMALL>359–345 Ma</SMALL></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Pederpes" title="Pederpes">Pederpes</A></I></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Pederpes" title="Pederpes">Pederpes</A></I> is the earliest known fully terrestrial tetrapod. It is included here to complete the transition of lobe-finned fishes to tetrapods, even though <I>Pederpes</I> is no longer a fish.</TD>
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</TBODY></TABLE>
<DIV style="clear:both;"></DIV>
<P>By the late Devonian, land plants had stabilized freshwater habitats, allowing the first <A href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">wetland</A> <A href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</A> to develop, with increasingly complex <A href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">food webs</A> that afforded new opportunities. Freshwater habitats were not the only places to find water filled with organic matter and choked with plants with dense vegetation near the water's edge. Swampy habitats like shallow wetlands, coastal lagoons and large brackish river deltas also existed at this time, and there is much to suggest that this is the kind of environment in which the tetrapods evolved. Early fossil tetrapods have been found in marine sediments, and because fossils of primitive tetrapods in general are found scattered all around the world, they must have spread by following the coastal lines — they could not have lived in freshwater only.</P>
<UL>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=fossil-illuminates-evolut">Fossil Illuminates Evolution of Limbs from Fins</A> <I>Scientific American</I>, 2 2 April 2004.</LI>
</UL>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Post_Devonian">Post Devonian</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_fish&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Post Devonian">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<UL>
<LI>The <A href="/wiki/Mesozoic_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesozoic Era">Mesozoic Era</A> began about 250 million years ago in the wake of the <A href="/wiki/Permian-Triassic_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Permian-Triassic event">Permian-Triassic event</A>, the largest <A href="/wiki/Mass_extinction" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass extinction">mass extinction</A> in Earth's history, and ended about 66 million years ago with the <A href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event</A>, another mass extinction that killed off non-avian <A href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">dinosaurs</A>, as well as other plant and animal species. It is often referred to as the <I>Age of Reptiles</I> because reptiles were the dominant vertebrates of the time. The Mesozoic witnessed the gradual rifting of the supercontinent <A href="/wiki/Pangaea" title="Pangaea">Pangaea</A> into separate landmasses. The climate alternated between warming and cooling periods; overall the Earth was hotter than it is today.</LI>
</UL>
<TABLE class="wikitable">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH rowspan="5" style="background:rgb(63,174,173)"><A href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carbon-<BR />
iferous</A></TH>
<TD colspan="3" style="text-align:center; background:#ddf8f8;"><A href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</A> (359–299 Ma): <A href="/wiki/Shark" title="Shark">Sharks</A> underwent a major <A href="/wiki/Evolutionary_radiation" title="Evolutionary radiation">evolutionary radiation</A> during the <A href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-goldsharks_116-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-goldsharks-116">[116]</A></SUP> It is believed that this evolutionary radiation occurred because the decline of the <A href="/wiki/Placodermi" title="Placodermi">placoderms</A> at the end of the Devonian period caused many <A href="/wiki/Niche_(ecology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Niche (ecology)">environmental niches</A> to become unoccupied and allowed new organisms to evolve and fill these niches.<SUP id="cite_ref-goldsharks_116-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-goldsharks-116">[116]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD></TD>
<TD>Coastal seas during the Carboniferous<BR />
c. 300 Ma</TD>
<TD>The first 15 million years of the Carboniferous has very few terrestrial fossils. This gap in the fossil record, is called <A href="/wiki/Romer%27s_gap" title="Romer's gap">Romer's gap</A> after the American palaentologist <A href="/wiki/Alfred_Romer" title="Alfred Romer">Alfred Romer</A>. While it has long been debated whether the gap is a result of fossilisation or relates to an actual event, recent work indicates the gap period saw a drop in atmospheric oxygen levels, indicating some sort of ecological collapse.<SUP id="cite_ref-Ward_117-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Ward-117">[117]</A></SUP> The gap saw the demise of the <A href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</A> fish-like <A href="/wiki/Ichthyostegalia" title="Ichthyostegalia">ichthyostegalian</A> labyrinthodonts, and the rise of the more advanced <A href="/wiki/Temnospondyli" title="Temnospondyli">temnospondyl</A> and <A href="/wiki/Reptiliomorpha" title="Reptiliomorpha">reptiliomorphan</A> amphibians that so typify the Carboniferous terrestrial vertebrate fauna.
<P>The <A href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</A> seas were inhabited by many fish, mainly <A href="/wiki/Elasmobranch" class="mw-redirect" title="Elasmobranch">Elasmobranchs</A> (sharks and their relatives). These included some, like <I><A href="/w/index.php?title=Psammodus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Psammodus (page does not exist)">Psammodus</A></I>, with crushing pavement-like teeth adapted for grinding the shells of brachiopods, crustaceans, and other marine organisms. Other sharks had piercing teeth, such as the <A href="/wiki/Symmoriida" title="Symmoriida">Symmoriida</A>; some, the <A href="/wiki/Petalodontiformes" title="Petalodontiformes">petalodonts</A>, had peculiar cycloid cutting teeth. Most of the sharks were marine, but the <A href="/wiki/Xenacanthida" title="Xenacanthida">Xenacanthida</A> invaded fresh waters of the coal swamps. Among the <A href="/wiki/Osteichthyes" title="Osteichthyes">bony fish</A>, the <A href="/wiki/Palaeonisciformes" title="Palaeonisciformes">Palaeonisciformes</A> found in coastal waters also appear to have migrated to rivers. <A href="/wiki/Sarcopterygii" title="Sarcopterygii">Sarcopterygian</A> fish were also prominent, and one group, the <A href="/wiki/Rhizodont" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhizodont">Rhizodonts</A>, reached very large size.</P>
<P>Most species of Carboniferous marine fish have been described largely from teeth, fin spines and dermal ossicles, with smaller freshwater fish preserved whole. Freshwater fish were abundant, and include the genera <I><A href="/wiki/Ctenodus" title="Ctenodus">Ctenodus</A></I>, <I><A href="/w/index.php?title=Uronemus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Uronemus (page does not exist)">Uronemus</A></I>, <I><A href="/wiki/Acanthodes" title="Acanthodes">Acanthodes</A></I>, <I><A href="/w/index.php?title=Cheirodus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cheirodus (page does not exist)">Cheirodus</A></I>, and <I><A href="/wiki/Gyracanthus" title="Gyracanthus">Gyracanthus</A></I>.</P>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Stethacanthus1DB.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Stethacanthus1DB.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Stethacanthus1DB.jpg/140px-Stethacanthus1DB.jpg" width="140" height="102" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Stethacanthus1DB.jpg/210px-Stethacanthus1DB.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Stethacanthus1DB.jpg/280px-Stethacanthus1DB.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1700" data-file-height="1238" /></A></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Stethacanthidae" title="Stethacanthidae">Stethacanthidae</A></I></TD>
<TD>
<DIV class="floatright"><A href="/wiki/File:Steth_pair1.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Steth pair1.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Steth_pair1.jpg/140px-Steth_pair1.jpg" width="140" height="100" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Steth_pair1.jpg/210px-Steth_pair1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Steth_pair1.jpg/280px-Steth_pair1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1500" /></A></DIV>
<P>As a result of the evolutionary radiation, carboniferous sharks assumed a wide variety of bizarre shapes—including sharks of the family <A href="/wiki/Stethacanthidae" title="Stethacanthidae">Stethacanthidae</A>, which possessed a flat brush-like dorsal fin with a patch of <A href="/wiki/Dermal_denticle" class="mw-redirect" title="Dermal denticle">denticles</A> on its top.<SUP id="cite_ref-goldsharks_116-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-goldsharks-116">[116]</A></SUP> <I><A href="/wiki/Stethacanthus" title="Stethacanthus">Stethacanthus</A>'</I> unusual fin may have been used in mating rituals.<SUP id="cite_ref-goldsharks_116-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-goldsharks-116">[116]</A></SUP> Apart from the fins, Stethacanthidae resembled <I>Falcatus</I> (below).</P>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Falcatus.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Falcatus.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Falcatus.jpg/140px-Falcatus.jpg" width="140" height="101" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Falcatus.jpg/210px-Falcatus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Falcatus.jpg/280px-Falcatus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1957" data-file-height="1408" /></A></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Falcatus" title="Falcatus">Falcatus</A></I></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Falcatus" title="Falcatus">Falcatus</A></I> is a genus of small <A href="/wiki/Cladodont" title="Cladodont">cladodont</A>-toothed sharks that lived 335–318 Ma. They were about 25–30 cm (10–12 in) long.<SUP id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-118">[118]</A></SUP> They are characterised by the prominent fin spines that curved anteriorly over their heads.</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Orodus_sp1DB.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Orodus sp1DB.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Orodus_sp1DB.jpg/140px-Orodus_sp1DB.jpg" width="140" height="54" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Orodus_sp1DB.jpg/210px-Orodus_sp1DB.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Orodus_sp1DB.jpg/280px-Orodus_sp1DB.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="959" /></A></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Orodus" title="Orodus">Orodus</A></I></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Orodus" title="Orodus">Orodus</A></I> is another shark of the Carboniferous, a genus from the family <A href="/wiki/Orodontidae" title="Orodontidae">Orodontidae</A> that lived into the early Permian from 303 to 295 Ma. It grew to 2 m (6.6 ft) in length.</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH rowspan="3" style="background:rgb(247,88,60)"><A href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">Permian</A></TH>
<TD colspan="3" style="text-align:center; background:#ddf8f8;"><A href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">Permian</A> (298–252 Ma):</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Acanthodes_BW.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Acanthodes BW.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Acanthodes_BW.jpg/140px-Acanthodes_BW.jpg" width="140" height="53" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Acanthodes_BW.jpg/210px-Acanthodes_BW.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Acanthodes_BW.jpg/280px-Acanthodes_BW.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="303" /></A></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Acanthodes" title="Acanthodes">Acanthodes</A></I></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Acanthodes" title="Acanthodes">Acanthodes</A></I> are an extinct genus of <A href="/wiki/Acanthodii" title="Acanthodii">spiny shark</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-119">[119]</A></SUP> It had <A href="/wiki/Gill" title="Gill">gills</A> but no <A href="/wiki/Teeth" class="mw-redirect" title="Teeth">teeth</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-Nicholson_120-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Nicholson-120">[120]</A></SUP> and was presumably a <A href="/wiki/Filter_feeder" title="Filter feeder">filter feeder</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-EoDP_50-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-EoDP-50">[50]</A></SUP> <I>Acanthodes</I> had only two skull bones and were covered in cubical scales. Each paired <A href="/wiki/Pectoral_fin" class="mw-redirect" title="Pectoral fin">pectoral</A> and <A href="/wiki/Pelvic_fin" title="Pelvic fin">pelvic fins</A> had one spine, as did the single <A href="/wiki/Anal_fin" class="mw-redirect" title="Anal fin">anal</A> and <A href="/wiki/Dorsal_fin" title="Dorsal fin">dorsal fins</A>, giving it a total of six spines, less than half that of many other spiny sharks.<SUP id="cite_ref-EoDP_50-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-EoDP-50">[50]</A></SUP> Acanthodians share qualities of both bony fish (osteichthyes) and cartilaginous fish (chondrichthyes), and it has been suggested that they may have been stem chondrichthyans and stem gnathostomes.<SUP id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-121">[121]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-122">[122]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="3" style="line-height:16px; background:#dddddd;"><SMALL>The Permian ended with the most extensive <A href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">extinction event</A> recorded in <A href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">paleontology</A>: the <A href="/wiki/Permian-Triassic_extinction_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Permian-Triassic extinction event">Permian-Triassic extinction event</A>. 90% to 95% of marine species became <A href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinct</A>, as well as 70% of all land organisms. It is also the only known mass extinction of insects.<SUP id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-123">[123]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-124">[124]</A></SUP> Recovery from the Permian-Triassic extinction event was protracted; land ecosystems took 30M years to recover,<SUP id="cite_ref-SahneyBenton2008RecoveryFromProfoundExtinction_125-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-SahneyBenton2008RecoveryFromProfoundExtinction-125">[125]</A></SUP> and marine ecosystems took even longer.<SUP id="cite_ref-Baez2006_57-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Baez2006-57">[57]</A></SUP></SMALL></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH rowspan="5" style="background:rgb(153,78,150)"><A href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic"><SPAN style="color:white;">Triassic</SPAN></A></TH>
<TD colspan="3" style="text-align:center; background:#ddf8f8;"><A href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">Triassic</A> (252–201 Ma): The fish fauna of the Triassic was remarkably uniform, reflecting the fact that very few families survived the Permian extinction. A considerable radiation of <A href="/wiki/Ray-finned_fishes" class="mw-redirect" title="Ray-finned fishes">ray-finned fishes</A> occurred during the Triassic, laying the foundation for many modern fishes.<SUP id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-126">[126]</A></SUP> <I>See <A href="/wiki/Category:Triassic_fish" title="Category:Triassic fish">Category:Triassic fish</A>.</I></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Perleidus.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Perleidus.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Perleidus.jpg/140px-Perleidus.jpg" width="140" height="90" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Perleidus.jpg/210px-Perleidus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Perleidus.jpg/280px-Perleidus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1107" data-file-height="715" /></A></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Perleidus" title="Perleidus">Perleidus</A></I></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Perleidus" title="Perleidus">Perleidus</A></I> was a <A href="/wiki/Ray-finned_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Ray-finned fish">ray-finned fish</A> from the Early Triassic. About 15 centimetres (5.9 in) in length, it was a freshwater predatory fish with jaws that hung vertically under the braincase, allowing them to open wide. <I>Perleidus</I> had highly flexible <A href="/wiki/Dorsal_fin" title="Dorsal fin">dorsal</A> and <A href="/wiki/Anal_fin" class="mw-redirect" title="Anal fin">anal fins</A>, with a reduced number of fin rays, which would have made the fish more agile in the water.<SUP id="cite_ref-EoDP_50-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-EoDP-50">[50]</A></SUP></TD>
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<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Protosphyraena2DB.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Protosphyraena2DB.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Protosphyraena2DB.jpg/140px-Protosphyraena2DB.jpg" width="140" height="100" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Protosphyraena2DB.jpg/210px-Protosphyraena2DB.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Protosphyraena2DB.jpg/280px-Protosphyraena2DB.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1500" /></A></TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Pachycormiformes" title="Pachycormiformes">Pachycormiformes</A></TD>
<TD>
<DIV class="floatright"><A href="/wiki/File:Hypsocormus2.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Hypsocormus2.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Hypsocormus2.jpg/140px-Hypsocormus2.jpg" width="140" height="100" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Hypsocormus2.jpg/210px-Hypsocormus2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Hypsocormus2.jpg/280px-Hypsocormus2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1500" /></A></DIV>
<P><A href="/wiki/Pachycormiformes" title="Pachycormiformes">Pachycormiformes</A> are an extinct order of ray-finned fish that existed from the Middle Triassic to the <A href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">K-Pg extinction</A> (below). They were characterized by serrated pectoral fins, reduced pelvic fins and a bony rostrum. Their relations with other fish are unclear.</P>
</TD>
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<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Pholidophorus_NT.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Pholidophorus NT.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Pholidophorus_NT.jpg/140px-Pholidophorus_NT.jpg" width="140" height="105" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Pholidophorus_NT.jpg/210px-Pholidophorus_NT.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Pholidophorus_NT.jpg/280px-Pholidophorus_NT.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="450" /></A></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Pholidophorus" title="Pholidophorus">Pholidophorus</A></I></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Pholidophorus" title="Pholidophorus">Pholidophorus</A></I> was an <A href="/wiki/Extinct" class="mw-redirect" title="Extinct">extinct</A> genus of <A href="/wiki/Teleost" title="Teleost">teleost</A>, around 40 centimetres (16 in) long, from about 240–140 Ma. Although not closely related to the modern <A href="/wiki/Herring" title="Herring">herring</A>, it was somewhat like them. It had a single <A href="/wiki/Dorsal_fin" title="Dorsal fin">dorsal fin</A>, a symmetrical tail, and an <A href="/wiki/Anal_fin" class="mw-redirect" title="Anal fin">anal fin</A> placed towards the rear of the body. It had large eyes and was probably a fast swimming predator, hunting <A href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">planktonic</A> <A href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</A> and smaller fish.<SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals199938–39_127-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals199938–39-127">[127]</A></SUP> A very early <A href="/wiki/Teleost" title="Teleost">teleost</A>, <I>Pholidophoris</I> had many primitive characteristics such as <A href="/wiki/Ganoid_scale" class="mw-redirect" title="Ganoid scale">ganoid scales</A> and a <A href="/wiki/Vertebral_column" title="Vertebral column">spine</A> that was partially composed of <A href="/wiki/Cartilage" title="Cartilage">cartilage</A>, rather than <A href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">bone</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals199938–39_127-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals199938–39-127">[127]</A></SUP></TD>
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<TR>
<TD colspan="3" style="line-height:16px; background:#dddddd;"><SMALL>The Triassic ended with the <A href="/wiki/Triassic%E2%80%93Jurassic_extinction_event" title="Triassic–Jurassic extinction event">Triassic–Jurassic extinction event</A>. About 23% of all families, 48% of all genera (20% of marine families and 55% of marine genera) and 70% to 75% of all species became extinct.<SUP id="cite_ref-ucr_128-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-ucr-128">[128]</A></SUP> Non-dinosaurian archosaurs continued to dominate aquatic environments, while <A href="/wiki/Diapsid#Taxonomy" title="Diapsid">non-archosaurian diapsids</A> continued to dominate marine environments.<SUP id="cite_ref-ucr_128-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-ucr-128">[128]</A></SUP></SMALL></TD>
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<TH rowspan="3" style="background:rgb(0,187,231)"><A href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</A></TH>
<TD colspan="3" style="text-align:center; background:#ddf8f8;"><A href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</A> (201–145 Ma): During the <A href="/wiki/Jurassic_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Jurassic period">Jurassic period</A>, the primary vertebrates living in the seas were <A href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</A> and marine <A href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">reptiles</A>. The latter include <A href="/wiki/Ichthyosaur" title="Ichthyosaur">ichthyosaurs</A> who were at the peak of their diversity, <A href="/wiki/Plesiosauria" title="Plesiosauria">plesiosaurs</A>, <A href="/wiki/Pliosaur" class="mw-redirect" title="Pliosaur">pliosaurs</A>, and marine <A href="/wiki/Crocodilia" title="Crocodilia">crocodiles</A> of the families <A href="/wiki/Teleosauridae" title="Teleosauridae">Teleosauridae</A> and <A href="/wiki/Metriorhynchidae" title="Metriorhynchidae">Metriorhynchidae</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-129">[129]</A></SUP> Numerous <A href="/wiki/Turtle" title="Turtle">turtles</A> could be found in lakes and rivers.<SUP id="cite_ref-nws_130-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-nws-130">[130]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-ls_131-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-ls-131">[131]</A></SUP> <I>See <A href="/wiki/Category:Jurassic_fish" title="Category:Jurassic fish">Category:Jurassic fish</A>.</I></TD>
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<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Leedsichthys_problematicus.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Leedsichthys problematicus.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Leedsichthys_problematicus.jpg/140px-Leedsichthys_problematicus.jpg" width="140" height="67" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Leedsichthys_problematicus.jpg/210px-Leedsichthys_problematicus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Leedsichthys_problematicus.jpg/280px-Leedsichthys_problematicus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1441" /></A></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Leedsichthys" title="Leedsichthys">Leedsichthys</A></I></TD>
<TD>Along with its close pachycormid relatives <I><A href="/wiki/Bonnerichthys" title="Bonnerichthys">Bonnerichthys</A></I> and <I><A href="/wiki/Rhinconichthys" title="Rhinconichthys">Rhinconichthys</A></I>, <I>Leedsichthys</I> is part of a lineage of large-sized <A href="/wiki/Filter-feeder" class="mw-redirect" title="Filter-feeder">filter-feeders</A> that swam the Mesozoic seas for over 100 million years, from the middle Jurassic until the end of the <A href="/wiki/Cretaceous_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Cretaceous period">Cretaceous period</A>. Pachycormids might represent an early branch of <A href="/wiki/Teleostei" class="mw-redirect" title="Teleostei">Teleostei</A>, the group most modern bony fishes belong to; in that case <I>Leedsichthys</I> is the largest known teleost fish.<SUP id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-132">[132]</A></SUP> In 2003, a fossil specimen 22 meters (72 feet) long was unearthed.<SUP id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-133">[133]</A></SUP></TD>
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<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Ichthyodectidae1.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Ichthyodectidae1.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Ichthyodectidae1.jpg/140px-Ichthyodectidae1.jpg" width="140" height="75" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Ichthyodectidae1.jpg/210px-Ichthyodectidae1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Ichthyodectidae1.jpg/280px-Ichthyodectidae1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4500" data-file-height="2400" /></A></TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Ichthyodectidae" title="Ichthyodectidae">Ichthyodectidae</A></TD>
<TD>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:162px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Thrissops_cf_formosus_01.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Thrissops_cf_formosus_01.jpg/160px-Thrissops_cf_formosus_01.jpg" width="160" height="52" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Thrissops_cf_formosus_01.jpg/240px-Thrissops_cf_formosus_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Thrissops_cf_formosus_01.jpg/320px-Thrissops_cf_formosus_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5706" data-file-height="1850" /></A>
<DIV class="thumbcaption">
<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:Thrissops_cf_formosus_01.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
This fossil Ichthyodectidae from the Lower Jurassic is one of the best conserved fossil fishes worldwide</DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<P>The family <A href="/wiki/Ichthyodectidae" title="Ichthyodectidae">Ichthyodectidae</A> (literally "fish-biters") was a family of marine <A href="/wiki/Actinopterygii" title="Actinopterygii">actinopterygian</A> fish. They first appeared 156 Ma during the <A href="/wiki/Late_Jurassic" title="Late Jurassic">Late Jurassic</A> and disappeared during the K-Pg extinction event 66 Ma. They were most diverse throughout the Cretaceous period. Sometimes classified in the primitive <A href="/wiki/Bony_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Bony fish">bony fish</A> <A href="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">order</A> <A href="/wiki/Pachycormiformes" title="Pachycormiformes">Pachycormiformes</A>, they are today generally regarded as members of the "bulldog fish" order Ichthyodectiformes in the far more advanced <A href="/wiki/Osteoglossomorpha" title="Osteoglossomorpha">Osteoglossomorpha</A>. Most ichthyodectids ranged between 1 and 5 meters (3.3 and 16.4 ft) in length. All known <A href="/wiki/Taxa" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxa">taxa</A> were <A href="/wiki/Predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Predator">predators</A>, feeding on smaller fish; in several cases, larger Ichthyodectidae preyed on smaller members of the family. Some species had remarkably large teeth, though others, such as <I><A href="/wiki/Gillicus_arcuatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Gillicus arcuatus">Gillicus arcuatus</A></I>, had small ones and sucked in their prey. The largest <I>Xiphactinus</I> was 20 feet long, and appeared in the Late Cretaceous (below).</P>
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<TH rowspan="7" style="background:rgb(111,200,107)"><A href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cret-<BR />
aceous</A></TH>
<TD colspan="3" style="text-align:center; background:#ddf8f8;"><A href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</A> (145–66 Ma): <I>See <A href="/wiki/Category:Cretaceous_fish" title="Category:Cretaceous fish">Category:Cretaceous fish</A>.</I></TD>
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<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Sturgeon2.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Sturgeon2.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Sturgeon2.jpg/140px-Sturgeon2.jpg" width="140" height="41" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Sturgeon2.jpg/210px-Sturgeon2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Sturgeon2.jpg/280px-Sturgeon2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="118" /></A></TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Sturgeon" title="Sturgeon">Sturgeon</A></TD>
<TD>True <A href="/wiki/Sturgeon" title="Sturgeon">sturgeons</A> appear in the fossil record during the Upper Cretaceous. Since that time, sturgeons have undergone remarkably little <A href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphological</A> change, indicating their evolution has been exceptionally slow and earning them informal status as <A href="/wiki/Living_fossils" class="mw-redirect" title="Living fossils">living fossils</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-134">[134]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-krieger_135-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-krieger-135">[135]</A></SUP> This is explained in part by the long generation interval, tolerance for wide ranges of <A href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</A> and <A href="/wiki/Salinity" title="Salinity">salinity</A>, lack of <A href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">predators</A> due to size, and the abundance of prey items in the <A href="/wiki/Benthic" class="mw-redirect" title="Benthic">benthic</A> environment.</TD>
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<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Cretoxyrhina_mantelli_21DB.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Cretoxyrhina mantelli 21DB.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Cretoxyrhina_mantelli_21DB.jpg/150px-Cretoxyrhina_mantelli_21DB.jpg" width="150" height="70" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Cretoxyrhina_mantelli_21DB.jpg/225px-Cretoxyrhina_mantelli_21DB.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Cretoxyrhina_mantelli_21DB.jpg/300px-Cretoxyrhina_mantelli_21DB.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4271" data-file-height="1991" /></A></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Cretoxyrhina" title="Cretoxyrhina">Cretoxyrhina</A></I></TD>
<TD>
<P><I><A href="/wiki/Cretoxyrhina_mantelli" class="mw-redirect" title="Cretoxyrhina mantelli">Cretoxyrhina mantelli</A></I> was a large <A href="/wiki/Shark" title="Shark">shark</A> that lived about 100 to 82 million years ago, during the mid Cretaceous period. It is commonly known as the Ginsu Shark. This shark was first identified by a famous Swiss Naturalist, <A href="/wiki/Louis_Agassiz" title="Louis Agassiz">Louis Agassiz</A> in 1843, as <I>Cretoxyhrina mantelli</I>. However, the most complete specimen of this shark was discovered in 1890, by the fossil hunter Charles H. Sternberg, who published his findings in 1907. The specimen consisted of a nearly complete associated vertebral column and over 250 associated teeth. This kind of exceptional preservation of fossil sharks is rare because a shark's skeleton is made of <A href="/wiki/Cartilage" title="Cartilage">cartilage</A>, which is not prone to fossilization. Charles dubbed the specimen <I>Oxyrhina mantelli</I>. This specimen represented a 20-foot-long (6.1 m) shark.</P>
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<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Enchodus_petrosus.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Enchodus petrosus.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Enchodus_petrosus.jpg/140px-Enchodus_petrosus.jpg" width="140" height="112" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Enchodus_petrosus.jpg/210px-Enchodus_petrosus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Enchodus_petrosus.jpg/280px-Enchodus_petrosus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2400" /></A></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Enchodus" title="Enchodus">Enchodus</A></I></TD>
<TD>
<P><I>Enchodus</I> is an extinct genus of bony fish. It flourished during the Upper Cretaceous and was small to medium in size. One of the genus' most notable attributes are the large "fangs" at the front of the upper and lower jaws and on the palatine bones, leading to its misleading nickname among fossil hunters and paleoichthyologists, "the saber-toothed herring". These fangs, along with a long sleek body and large eyes, suggest <I>Enchodus</I> was a predatory species.</P>
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<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Xiphactinus_audax_fossil.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Xiphactinus audax fossil.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Xiphactinus_audax_fossil.jpg/140px-Xiphactinus_audax_fossil.jpg" width="140" height="105" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Xiphactinus_audax_fossil.jpg/210px-Xiphactinus_audax_fossil.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Xiphactinus_audax_fossil.jpg/280px-Xiphactinus_audax_fossil.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></A></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Xiphactinus" title="Xiphactinus">Xiphactinus</A></I></TD>
<TD>
<TABLE class="infobox" style="width:22em;width: 250px; float: right; clear: right; margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em">
<CAPTION>External video</CAPTION>
<TBODY><TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center;text-align: left"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" width="16" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jla2g1iM8tE"><I>Xiphactinus</I></A> – <I>YouTube</I></TD>
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</TBODY></TABLE>
<P><I><A href="/wiki/Xiphactinus" title="Xiphactinus">Xiphactinus</A></I> is an extinct genus of large predatory marine bony fish of the Late Cretaceous. They grew more than 4.5 metres (15 feet) long.<SUP id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-136">[136]</A></SUP></P>
</TD>
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<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Ptychodus_mortoni.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Ptychodus mortoni.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Ptychodus_mortoni.jpg/140px-Ptychodus_mortoni.jpg" width="140" height="96" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Ptychodus_mortoni.jpg/210px-Ptychodus_mortoni.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Ptychodus_mortoni.jpg/280px-Ptychodus_mortoni.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="705" /></A></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Ptychodus" title="Ptychodus">Ptychodus</A></I></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Ptychodus" title="Ptychodus">Ptychodus</A></I> is a genus of extinct <A href="/wiki/Hybodontiformes" title="Hybodontiformes">hybodontiform</A> shark that lived from the late Cretaceous to the Paleogene.<SUP id="cite_ref-ward_137-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-ward-137">[137]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-PBDB_138-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-PBDB-138">[138]</A></SUP> <I><A href="/wiki/Ptychodus_mortoni" title="Ptychodus mortoni">Ptychodus mortoni</A></I> <I>(pictured)</I> was about 32 feet (9.8 metres) long and was unearthed in <A href="/wiki/Kansas" title="Kansas">Kansas</A>, United States.<SUP id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-139">[139]</A></SUP></TD>
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<TR>
<TD colspan="3" style="line-height:16px; background:#dddddd;"><SMALL>The end of the Cretaceous was marked by the <A href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event</A> (K-Pg extinction). There are substantial fossil records of <A href="/wiki/Gnathostomata" title="Gnathostomata">jawed</A> <A href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fishes</A> across the K–T boundary, which provides good evidence of extinction patterns of these classes of marine vertebrates. Within <A href="/wiki/Chondrichthyes" title="Chondrichthyes">cartilaginous fish</A>, approximately 80% of the <A href="/wiki/Shark" title="Shark">sharks</A>, <A href="/wiki/Rajiformes" title="Rajiformes">rays</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Skate_(fish)" title="Skate (fish)">skates</A> families survived the extinction event,<SUP id="cite_ref-MacLeod_140-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-MacLeod-140">[140]</A></SUP> and more than 90% of <A href="/wiki/Teleostei" class="mw-redirect" title="Teleostei">teleost fish</A> (bony fish) families survived.<SUP id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-141">[141]</A></SUP> There is evidence of a mass kill of bony fishes at a fossil site immediately above the K–T boundary layer on <A href="/wiki/Seymour_Island" title="Seymour Island">Seymour Island</A> near Antarctica, apparently precipitated by the K–Pg extinction event.<SUP id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-142">[142]</A></SUP> However, the marine and freshwater environments of fishes mitigated environmental effects of the extinction event,<SUP id="cite_ref-Robertson_143-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Robertson-143">[143]</A></SUP> and evidence shows that there was a major increase in size and abundance of teleosts immediately after the extinction, apparently due to the elimination of their <A href="/wiki/Ammonite" class="mw-redirect" title="Ammonite">ammonite</A> competitors (there was no similar change in shark populations across the boundary).<SUP id="cite_ref-Sibert2015_144-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Sibert2015-144">[144]</A></SUP></SMALL></TD>
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<TR>
<TH rowspan="3" style="background:rgb(246,236,57)"><A href="/wiki/Cenozoic_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Cenozoic Era">Cenozoic<BR />
Era</A></TH>
<TD colspan="3" style="text-align:center; background:#ddf8f8;"><A href="/wiki/Cenozoic_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Cenozoic Era">Cenozoic Era</A> (66 Ma to present): The current era has seen great diversification of bony fishes. Over half of all living vertebrate species (about 32,000 species) are fishes (non-tetrapod craniates), a diverse set of lineages that inhabit all the world's aquatic ecosystems, from snow minnows (Cypriniformes) in Himalayan lakes at elevations over 4,600 metres (15,100 feet) to flatfishes (order Pleuronectiformes) in the Challenger Deep, the deepest ocean trench at about 11,000 metres (36,000 feet). Fishes of myriad varieties are the main predators in most of the world's water bodies, both freshwater and marine.</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Amphistium.JPG" class="image"><IMG alt="Amphistium.JPG" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Amphistium.JPG/140px-Amphistium.JPG" width="140" height="98" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Amphistium.JPG/210px-Amphistium.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Amphistium.JPG/280px-Amphistium.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1892" data-file-height="1327" /></A></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Amphistium" title="Amphistium">Amphistium</A></I></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Amphistium" title="Amphistium">Amphistium</A></I> is a 50-million-year-old fossil fish that has been identified as an early relative of the flatfish, and as a transitional fossil.<SUP id="cite_ref-NaEvo_145-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-NaEvo-145">[145]</A></SUP> In a typical modern flatfish, the head is asymmetric with both eyes on one side of the head. In <I>Amphistium</I>, the transition from the typical symmetric head of a vertebrate is incomplete, with one eye placed near the top of the head.<SUP id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-146">[146]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/File:VMNH_megalodon.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="VMNH megalodon.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/VMNH_megalodon.jpg/140px-VMNH_megalodon.jpg" width="140" height="140" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/VMNH_megalodon.jpg/210px-VMNH_megalodon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/VMNH_megalodon.jpg/280px-VMNH_megalodon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="489" data-file-height="489" /></A></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/wiki/Megalodon" title="Megalodon">Megalodon</A></I></TD>
<TD>
<TABLE class="infobox" style="width:22em;width: 250px; float: right; clear: right; margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em">
<CAPTION>External video</CAPTION>
<TBODY><TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center;text-align: left"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" width="16" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bIjNqDvlyeI">Megalodon Giant Shark</A> – <I>National Geographic</I> (full documentary)</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center;text-align: left"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" width="16" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_9LAWve5Xq4">Megalodon battle</A> <I>History Channel</I></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center;text-align: left"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" width="16" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Spo8vkrJFRo">The Nightmarish Megalodon</A> <I>Discovery</I></TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
<P><A href="/wiki/Megalodon" title="Megalodon">Megalodon</A> is an extinct species of shark that lived about 28 to 1.5 Ma. It looked much like a stocky version of the <A href="/wiki/Great_white_shark" title="Great white shark">great white shark</A>, but was much larger with fossil lengths reaching 20.3 metres (67 ft).<SUP id="cite_ref-GWB_147-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-GWB-147">[147]</A></SUP> Found in all oceans<SUP id="cite_ref-AN_148-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-AN-148">[148]</A></SUP> it was one of the largest and most powerful predators in vertebrate history,<SUP id="cite_ref-GWB_147-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-GWB-147">[147]</A></SUP> and probably had a profound impact on <A href="/wiki/Marine_life" title="Marine life">marine life</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-LV_149-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-LV-149">[149]</A></SUP></P>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Prehistoric_fish">Prehistoric fish</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_fish&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Prehistoric fish">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <A href="/wiki/Lists_of_prehistoric_fish" title="Lists of prehistoric fish">Lists of prehistoric fish</A></DIV>
<TABLE class="infobox" style="width:22em;width: 250px; float: right; clear: right; margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em">
<CAPTION>External video</CAPTION>
<TBODY><TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center;text-align: left"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" width="16" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=muof-wVRJZE">Fossil Fishes</A> <I>American Museum of Natural History</I></TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
<P>Prehistoric fish are early fish that are known only from <A href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossil</A> records. They are the earliest known <A href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</A>, and include the first and extinct fish that lived through the <A href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</A> to the <A href="/wiki/Tertiary" title="Tertiary">Tertiary</A>. The study of prehistoric fish is called <I>paleoichthyology</I>. A few living forms, such as the <A href="/wiki/Coelacanth" title="Coelacanth">coelacanth</A> are also referred to as prehistoric fish, or even <A href="/wiki/Living_fossil" title="Living fossil">living fossils</A>, due to their current rarity and similarity to extinct forms. Fish that have become recently <A href="/wiki/Extinct" class="mw-redirect" title="Extinct">extinct</A> are not usually referred to as prehistoric fish.</P>
<DIV style="clear:both;"></DIV>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Living_fossils">Living fossils</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_fish&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Living fossils">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:201px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Pacific_hagfish_Myxine.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Pacific_hagfish_Myxine.jpg" width="199" height="149" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="199" data-file-height="149" /></A>
<DIV class="thumbcaption">
<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:Pacific_hagfish_Myxine.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
The jawless <A href="/wiki/Hagfish" title="Hagfish">hagfish</A> is a living fossil that essentially has not changed for 300 million years.<SUP id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-150">[150]</A></SUP></DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<DIV class="div-col columns column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 22em; -webkit-column-width: 22em; column-width: 22em;">
<P><B>Bony fishes</B></P>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Arowana" title="Arowana">Arowana</A> and <A href="/wiki/Arapaima" title="Arapaima">Arapaima</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bowfin" title="Bowfin">Bowfin</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Coelacanth" title="Coelacanth">Coelacanth</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Gar" title="Gar">Gar</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Queensland_lungfish" title="Queensland lungfish">Queensland lungfish</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sturgeons" class="mw-redirect" title="Sturgeons">Sturgeons</A> and <A href="/wiki/Paddlefish" title="Paddlefish">paddlefish</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bichir" title="Bichir">Bichir</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Polypterus_retropinnis" class="mw-redirect" title="Polypterus retropinnis">Polypterus retropinnis</A></LI>
</UL>
<P><B>Sharks</B></P>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Blind_shark" title="Blind shark">Blind shark</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bullhead_shark" title="Bullhead shark">Bullhead shark</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Elephant_shark" class="mw-redirect" title="Elephant shark">Elephant shark</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Frilled_shark" title="Frilled shark">Frilled shark</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Goblin_shark" title="Goblin shark">Goblin shark</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Gulper_shark" title="Gulper shark">Gulper shark</A></LI>
</UL>
<P><B>Jawless fishes</B></P>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hagfish" title="Hagfish">Hagfish</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Northern_brook_lamprey" title="Northern brook lamprey">Northern brook lamprey</A></LI>
</UL>
<P><B>Eels</B></P>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Protoanguilla_palau" class="mw-redirect" title="Protoanguilla palau">Protoanguilla palau</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/Coelacanth" title="Coelacanth">coelacanth</A> was thought to have gone extinct <SPAN class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><A class="external text" href="http://tools.wmflabs.org/timescale/?Ma=66">66</A> million years ago</SPAN>, until a living specimen belonging to the <A href="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">order</A> was discovered in 1938</P>
<DIV style="clear:both;"></DIV>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Fossil_sites">Fossil sites</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_fish&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Fossil sites">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Miguasha_affleurement_2.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Miguasha_affleurement_2.jpg/220px-Miguasha_affleurement_2.jpg" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Miguasha_affleurement_2.jpg/330px-Miguasha_affleurement_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Miguasha_affleurement_2.jpg/440px-Miguasha_affleurement_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></A>
<DIV class="thumbcaption">
<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:Miguasha_affleurement_2.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
<A href="/wiki/Miguasha_National_Park" title="Miguasha National Park">Miguasha National Park</A>: outcrop of Devonian beds rich in fossil fish</DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <A href="/wiki/List_of_fossil_sites" title="List of fossil sites">List of fossil sites</A></DIV>
<P>Some fossil sites that have produced notable fish fossils</P>
<DIV class="div-col columns column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 22em; -webkit-column-width: 22em; column-width: 22em;">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Abbey_Wood_SSSI" title="Abbey Wood SSSI">Abbey Wood SSSI</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bracklesham_Beds" class="mw-redirect" title="Bracklesham Beds">Bracklesham Beds</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bear_Gulch_Limestone" title="Bear Gulch Limestone">Bear Gulch Limestone</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Burgess_Shale" title="Burgess Shale">Burgess Shale</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Canowindra" title="Canowindra">Canowindra</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Crato_Formation" title="Crato Formation">Crato Formation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Dura_Den" title="Dura Den">Dura Den</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Feltville_Formation" title="Feltville Formation">Feltville Formation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fossil_Butte_National_Monument" title="Fossil Butte National Monument">Fossil Butte National Monument</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fur_Formation" title="Fur Formation">Fur Formation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Gogo_Formation" title="Gogo Formation">Gogo Formation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Green%27s_Creek_(Ontario)" title="Green's Creek (Ontario)">Green's Creek</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Green_River_Formation" title="Green River Formation">Green River Formation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kakwa_Provincial_Park_and_Protected_Area" title="Kakwa Provincial Park and Protected Area">Kakwa Provincial Park</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Land_Grove_Quarry,_Mitcheldean" title="Land Grove Quarry, Mitcheldean">Land Grove Quarry</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Maotianshan_Shales" title="Maotianshan Shales">Maotianshan Shales</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Matanuska_Formation" title="Matanuska Formation">Matanuska Formation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/McAbee_Fossil_Beds" title="McAbee Fossil Beds">McAbee Fossil Beds</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Miguasha_National_Park" title="Miguasha National Park">Miguasha National Park</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/MoClay" title="MoClay">MoClay</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Monte_Bolca" title="Monte Bolca">Monte Bolca</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mount_Ritchie" title="Mount Ritchie">Mount Ritchie</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Orcadian_Basin" title="Orcadian Basin">Orcadian Basin</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Portishead_Pier_to_Black_Nore_SSSI" title="Portishead Pier to Black Nore SSSI">Portishead Pier to Black Nore SSSI</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Santana_Formation" title="Santana Formation">Santana Formation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Southerham_Grey_Pit" title="Southerham Grey Pit">Southerham Grey Pit</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Thanet_Formation" title="Thanet Formation">Thanet Formation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Towaco_Formation" title="Towaco Formation">Towaco Formation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Weydale" title="Weydale">Weydale</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Zhoukoudian" title="Zhoukoudian">Zhoukoudian</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<DIV style="clear:both;"></DIV>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Fossil_collections">Fossil collections</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_fish&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Fossil collections">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<TABLE class="vertical-navbox nowraplinks" style="float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;width:20.0em;">
<TBODY><TR>
<TD style="padding-top:0.4em;line-height:1.2em"><B>Part of a series on</B></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;padding-top:0;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em;padding:0 0.0em 0.5em; font-size:175%; line-height:1.0em;"><A href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</A></TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;padding:0 0 1.0em;"><A href="/wiki/File:Palais_de_la_Decouverte_Tyrannosaurus_rex_p1050042.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Palais de la Decouverte Tyrannosaurus rex p1050042.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Palais_de_la_Decouverte_Tyrannosaurus_rex_p1050042.jpg/220px-Palais_de_la_Decouverte_Tyrannosaurus_rex_p1050042.jpg" width="220" height="142" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Palais_de_la_Decouverte_Tyrannosaurus_rex_p1050042.jpg/330px-Palais_de_la_Decouverte_Tyrannosaurus_rex_p1050042.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Palais_de_la_Decouverte_Tyrannosaurus_rex_p1050042.jpg/440px-Palais_de_la_Decouverte_Tyrannosaurus_rex_p1050042.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1552" /></A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
<DIV class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0" id="NavFrame1">
<DIV class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;background: #e6d8ac; border:1px solid #b9ad8a; text-align: center; padding-left:0.0em;">Fossils<A class="NavToggle" id="NavToggle1" href="#">[show]</A></DIV>
<DIV class="NavContent hlist" style="font-size: 105%; padding: 0.2em 0px 0.4em; text-align: center; display: none;">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">Fossilization</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Trace_fossil" title="Trace fossil">Trace fossil</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Index_fossil" class="mw-redirect" title="Index fossil">Index fossil</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_fossils" class="mw-redirect" title="List of fossils">List of fossils</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_fossil_sites" title="List of fossil sites">List of fossil sites</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lagerst%C3%A4tte" title="Lagerstätte">Lagerstätte fossil beds</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_transitional_fossils" title="List of transitional fossils">List of transitional fossils</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_human_evolution_fossils" title="List of human evolution fossils">List of human evolution fossils</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
<DIV class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0" id="NavFrame2">
<DIV class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;background: #e6d8ac; border:1px solid #b9ad8a; text-align: center; padding-left:0.0em;">Natural history<A class="NavToggle" id="NavToggle2" href="#">[show]</A></DIV>
<DIV class="NavContent hlist" style="font-size: 105%; padding: 0.2em 0px 0.4em; text-align: center; display: none;">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Extinction event</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">Geochronology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">Geologic time scale</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Geologic_record" title="Geologic record">Geologic record</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_life" title="Evolutionary history of life">History of life</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Origin of life</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Timeline_of_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of evolution">Timeline of evolution</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">Transitional fossil</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
<DIV class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0" id="NavFrame3">
<DIV class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;background: #e6d8ac; border:1px solid #b9ad8a; text-align: center; padding-left:0.0em;">Organs and processes<A class="NavToggle" id="NavToggle3" href="#">[show]</A></DIV>
<DIV class="NavContent hlist" style="font-size: 105%; padding: 0.2em 0px 0.4em; text-align: center; display: none;">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Origin_of_avian_flight" title="Origin of avian flight">Avian flight</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cells" title="Evolution of cells">Cells</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_multicellularity" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of multicellularity">Multicells</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">Eyes</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_flagella" title="Evolution of flagella">Flagella</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_hair" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of hair">Hair</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammalian_auditory_ossicles" title="Evolution of mammalian auditory ossicles">Mammalian auditory ossicles</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mosaic_evolution" title="Mosaic evolution">Mosaic evolution</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">Nervous systems</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Sex</A></LI>
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<DIV class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;background: #e6d8ac; border:1px solid #b9ad8a; text-align: center; padding-left:0.0em;">Evolution of various taxa<A class="NavToggle" id="NavToggle4" href="#">[show]</A></DIV>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_birds" title="Evolution of birds">Birds</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Butterfly_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Butterfly evolution">Butterflies</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cephalopods" title="Evolution of cephalopods">Cephalopods</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cetaceans" title="Evolution of cetaceans">Cetaceans</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_dinosaurs" title="Evolution of dinosaurs">Dinosaurs</A></LI>
<LI><A class="mw-selflink selflink">Fishes</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fungi" title="Evolution of fungi">Fungi</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Humans</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_insects" title="Evolution of insects">Insects</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammals" title="Evolution of mammals">Mammals</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_Mollusca" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of Mollusca">Molluscs</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of plants">Plants</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_reptiles" title="Evolution of reptiles">Reptiles</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sirenians" title="Evolution of sirenians">Sea cows</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_spiders" title="Evolution of spiders">Spiders</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tetrapods#Evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrapods">Tetrapods</A></LI>
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<DIV class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;background: #e6d8ac; border:1px solid #b9ad8a; text-align: center; padding-left:0.0em;">Evolution<A class="NavToggle" id="NavToggle5" href="#">[show]</A></DIV>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Introduction to evolution</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">Common descent</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">Phylogeny</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Biological_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological classification">Biological classification</A></LI>
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<DIV class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;background: #e6d8ac; border:1px solid #b9ad8a; text-align: center; padding-left:0.0em;">History of paleontology<A class="NavToggle" id="NavToggle6" href="#">[show]</A></DIV>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">History of paleontology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Timeline_of_paleontology" title="Timeline of paleontology">Timeline of paleontology</A></LI>
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<DIV class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;background: #e6d8ac; border:1px solid #b9ad8a; text-align: center; padding-left:0.0em;">Branches of paleontology<A class="NavToggle" id="NavToggle7" href="#">[show]</A></DIV>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Biostratigraphy" title="Biostratigraphy">Biostratigraphy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ichnology" title="Ichnology">Ichnology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Invertebrate_paleontology" title="Invertebrate paleontology">Invertebrate paleontology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Micropaleontology" title="Micropaleontology">Micropaleontology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Molecular_paleontology" title="Molecular paleontology">Molecular paleontology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Palaeoxylology" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeoxylology">Palaeoxylology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Paleobiology" title="Paleobiology">Paleobiology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Paleobotany" title="Paleobotany">Paleobotany</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Paleoecology" title="Paleoecology">Paleoecology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Paleogenetics" title="Paleogenetics">Paleogenetics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Paleolimnology" title="Paleolimnology">Paleolimnology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Paleopedology" title="Paleopedology">Paleopedology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Paleotempestology" title="Paleotempestology">Paleotempestology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Paleozoology" title="Paleozoology">Paleozoology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Palynology" title="Palynology">Palynology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sclerochronology" title="Sclerochronology">Sclerochronology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Taphonomy" title="Taphonomy">Taphonomy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Vertebrate_paleontology" title="Vertebrate paleontology">Vertebrate paleontology</A></LI>
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<A href="/wiki/Category:Paleontology" title="Category:Paleontology">Category</A></TD>
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<P>Some notable fossil fish collections.</P>
<DIV class="div-col columns column-count column-count-2" style="-moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;">
<UL>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nhm.ac.uk/research-curation/collections/our-collections/fossil-vertebrate-collections/fishes/index.html">Fossil fish collection</A> <I><A href="/wiki/Natural_History_Museum,_London" title="Natural History Museum, London">Natural History Museum</A></I>, Britain.</LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121111161458/http://www.synthesys.info/de_taf_mfn.htm">Collection and expertise</A> <I><A href="/wiki/Museum_f%C3%BCr_Naturkunde" class="mw-redirect" title="Museum für Naturkunde">Museum für Naturkunde</A></I>, Germany.</LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fieldmuseum.org/explore/department/geology/fossil-fishes">Fossil fishes</A> <I><A href="/wiki/The_Field_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="The Field Museum">The Field Museum</A></I>, United States.</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Paleoichthyologists">Paleoichthyologists</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_fish&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Paleoichthyologists">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>Paleoichthyology is the scientific study of the prehistoric life of fish. Listed below are some researchers who have made notable contributions to paleoichthyology.</P>
<DIV class="div-col columns column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 22em; -webkit-column-width: 22em; column-width: 22em;">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Louis_Agassiz" title="Louis Agassiz">Louis Agassiz</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mary_Anning" title="Mary Anning">Mary Anning</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Michael_Benton" title="Michael Benton">Michael Benton</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Derek_Briggs" title="Derek Briggs">Derek Briggs</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hans_C._Bjerring" title="Hans C. Bjerring">Hans C. Bjerring</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/John_Samuel_Budgett" title="John Samuel Budgett">John Samuel Budgett</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Frederick_Chapman_(palaeontologist)" title="Frederick Chapman (palaeontologist)">Frederick Chapman</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Jenny_Clack" title="Jenny Clack">Jenny Clack</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ted_Daeschler" title="Ted Daeschler">Ted Daeschler</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bashford_Dean" title="Bashford Dean">Bashford Dean</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Robert_Dick" title="Robert Dick">Robert Dick</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sir_Philip_Grey_Egerton,_10th_Baronet" title="Sir Philip Grey Egerton, 10th Baronet">Philip Grey Egerton</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Edwin_Sherbon_Hills" title="Edwin Sherbon Hills">Edwin Sherbon Hills</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Jeffrey_A._Hutchings" title="Jeffrey A. Hutchings">Jeffrey A. Hutchings</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Thomas_Henry_Huxley" title="Thomas Henry Huxley">Thomas Henry Huxley</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Johan_Aschehoug_Ki%C3%A6r" title="Johan Aschehoug Kiær">Johan Aschehoug Kiær</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philippe_Janvier" title="Philippe Janvier">Philippe Janvier</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Erik_Jarvik" title="Erik Jarvik">Erik Jarvik</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/George_V._Lauder" title="George V. Lauder">George V. Lauder</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/John_A._Long" title="John A. Long">John A. Long</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hugh_Miller" title="Hugh Miller">Hugh Miller</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Charles_Moore_(geologist)" title="Charles Moore (geologist)">Charles Moore</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Paul_E._Olsen" title="Paul E. Olsen">Paul E. Olsen</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Heinz_Christian_Pander" title="Heinz Christian Pander">Heinz Christian Pander</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Philpot" title="Elizabeth Philpot">Elizabeth Philpot</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Jean_Piveteau" title="Jean Piveteau">Jean Piveteau</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Colin_Patterson_(biologist)" title="Colin Patterson (biologist)">Colin Patterson</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Alfred_Romer" title="Alfred Romer">Alfred Romer</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ira_Rubinoff" title="Ira Rubinoff">Ira Rubinoff</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Neil_Shubin" title="Neil Shubin">Neil Shubin</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Franz_Steindachner" title="Franz Steindachner">Franz Steindachner</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Erik_Stensi%C3%B6" title="Erik Stensiö">Erik Stensiö</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ramsay_Heatley_Traquair" class="mw-redirect" title="Ramsay Heatley Traquair">Ramsay Heatley Traquair</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Thomas_Stanley_Westoll" title="Thomas Stanley Westoll">Thomas Stanley Westoll</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tiberius_Cornelis_Winkler" title="Tiberius Cornelis Winkler">Tiberius Cornelis Winkler</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Arthur_Smith_Woodward" title="Arthur Smith Woodward">Arthur Smith Woodward</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_fish&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Comparative_anatomy" title="Comparative anatomy">Comparative anatomy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_examples_of_convergent_evolution#Fish" title="List of examples of convergent evolution">Convergent evolution in fish</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_paired_fins" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of paired fins">Evolution of paired fins</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ichthyolith" title="Ichthyolith">Ichthyolith</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_paleontology" title="List of years in paleontology">List of years in paleontology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Old_Red_Sandstone" title="Old Red Sandstone">Old Red Sandstone</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Parodies_of_the_ichthys_symbol" class="mw-redirect" title="Parodies of the ichthys symbol">Parodies of the ichthys symbol</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Prehistoric_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Prehistoric life">Prehistoric life</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Walking_fish" title="Walking fish">Walking fish</A> - fish with tetrapod-like features</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Vertebrate_paleontology" title="Vertebrate paleontology">Vertebrate paleontology</A></LI>
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<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="References">References</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_fish&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Citations">Citations</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_fish&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV class="reflist" style="list-style-type: decimal;">
<DIV class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns">
<OL class="references">
<LI id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELecointreLe_Guyader2007-1"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELecointreLe_Guyader2007_1-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFLecointreLe_Guyader2007">Lecointre & Le Guyader 2007</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-2"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-2"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Benton, M. J. (2005) <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VThUUUtM8A4C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Benton+2005+%22%27Vertebrate+Palaeontology%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=wUDVVI6IO8fQmAW44YKoDw&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false"><I>Vertebrate Palaeontology</I></A> John Wiley, 3rd edition, page 14. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781405144490" title="Special:BookSources/9781405144490">9781405144490</A>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERomer1970-3"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERomer1970_3-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFRomer1970">Romer 1970</A>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDawkins2004357-4"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDawkins2004357_4-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDawkins2004357_4-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFDawkins2004">Dawkins 2004</A>, p. 357.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-5"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-5"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Gewin, V (2005). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1149496">"Functional genomics thickens the biological plot"</A>. <I>PLOS Biology</I>. <B>3</B> (6): e219. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0030219">10.1371/journal.pbio.0030219</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1149496">1149496</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15941356">15941356</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Biology&rft.atitle=Functional+genomics+thickens+the+biological+plot&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=e219&rft.date=2005&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1149496&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15941356&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0030219&rft.aulast=Gewin&rft.aufirst=V&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1149496&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-6"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-6"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arstechnica.com/science/2008/06/lancelet-amphioxus-genome-and-the-origin-of-vertebrates/">Lancelet (amphioxus) genome and the origin of vertebrates</A> <I>Ars Technica</I>, 19 June 2008.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Shu2003-7"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Shu2003_7-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Shu, D.-G.; Conway Morris, S.; Han, J.; et al. (January 2003). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v421/n6922/abs/nature01264.html">"Head and backbone of the Early Cambrian vertebrate Haikouichthys"</A>. <I>Nature</I>. <B>421</B> (6922): 526–529. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003Natur.421..526S">2003Natur.421..526S</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature01264">10.1038/nature01264</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12556891">12556891</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">September 21,</SPAN> 2008</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Head+and+backbone+of+the+Early+Cambrian+vertebrate+Haikouichthys&rft.volume=421&rft.issue=6922&rft.pages=526-529&rft.date=2003-01&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12556891&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature01264&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003Natur.421..526S&rft.aulast=Shu&rft.aufirst=D.-G.&rft.au=Conway+Morris%2C+S.&rft.au=Han%2C+J.&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Z.-F.&rft.au=Yasui%2C+K.&rft.au=Janvier%2C+P.&rft.au=Chen%2C+L.&rft.au=Zhang%2C+X.-L.&rft.au=Liu%2C+J.-N.&rft.au=Li%2C+Y.&rft.au=Liu%2C+H.-Q.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Fnature%2Fjournal%2Fv421%2Fn6922%2Fabs%2Fnature01264.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Shu1999-8"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Shu1999_8-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Shu1999_8-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Shu, D-G.; et al. (November 4, 1999). "Lower Cambrian vertebrates from south China". <I>Nature</I>. <B>402</B> (6757): 42–46. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999Natur.402...42S">1999Natur.402...42S</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2F46965">10.1038/46965</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Lower+Cambrian+vertebrates+from+south+China&rft.volume=402&rft.issue=6757&rft.pages=42-46&rft.date=1999-11-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F46965&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999Natur.402...42S&rft.aulast=Shu&rft.aufirst=D-G.&rft.au=Luo%2C+H-L.&rft.au=Conway+Morris%2C+S.&rft.au=Zhang%2C+X-L.&rft.au=Hu%2C+S-X.&rft.au=Chen%2C+L.&rft.au=Han%2C+J.&rft.au=Zhu%2C+M.&rft.au=Li%2C+Y.&rft.au=Chen%2C+L-Z.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Waggoner2011-9"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Waggoner2011_9-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Waggoner, Ben. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/vertfr.html">"Vertebrates: Fossil Record"</A>. UCMP<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">15 July</SPAN> 2011</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Vertebrates%3A+Fossil+Record&rft.pub=UCMP&rft.aulast=Waggoner&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucmp.berkeley.edu%2Fvertebrates%2Fvertfr.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHainesChambers2005-10"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHainesChambers2005_10-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFHainesChambers2005">Haines & Chambers 2005</A>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEncyclopædia_Britannica1954107-11"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEncyclopædia_Britannica1954107_11-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFEncyclopædia_Britannica1954">Encyclopædia Britannica 1954</A>, p. 107.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerg2004599-12"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerg2004599_12-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFBerg2004">Berg 2004</A>, p. 599.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-13"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-13"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">SOED</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Baker_2008-14"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Baker_2008_14-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Baker, Clare V.H. (2008). "The evolution and elaboration of vertebrate neural crest cells". <I>Current Opinion in Genetics & Development</I>. <B>18</B> (6): 536–543. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.gde.2008.11.006">10.1016/j.gde.2008.11.006</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19121930">19121930</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Opinion+in+Genetics+%26+Development&rft.atitle=The+evolution+and+elaboration+of+vertebrate+neural+crest+cells&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=536-543&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.gde.2008.11.006&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19121930&rft.au=Baker%2C+Clare+V.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-15"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-15"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Purnell, M. A. (2001). <A href="/wiki/Derek_Briggs" title="Derek Briggs">Derek E. G. Briggs</A> and Peter R. Crowther, ed. <I>Palaeobiology II</I>. <A href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</A>: <A href="/wiki/Blackwell_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackwell Publishing">Blackwell Publishing</A>. p. 401. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-632-05149-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-632-05149-3">0-632-05149-3</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Palaeobiology+II&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=401&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-632-05149-3&rft.aulast=Purnell&rft.aufirst=M.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Zhao_&_Zhu_2007-16"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Zhao_&_Zhu_2007_16-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Zhao Wen-Jin; Zhu Min (2007). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/114129423/abstract">"Diversification and faunal shift of Siluro-Devonian vertebrates of China"</A>. <I>Geological Journal</I>. <B>42</B> (3–4): 351–369. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1002%2Fgj.1072">10.1002/gj.1072</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geological+Journal&rft.atitle=Diversification+and+faunal+shift+of+Siluro-Devonian+vertebrates+of+China&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=351-369&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fgj.1072&rft.au=Zhao+Wen-Jin&rft.au=Zhu+Min&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww3.interscience.wiley.com%2Fjournal%2F114129423%2Fabstract&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Sansom_2009-17"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Sansom_2009_17-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Sansom, Robert S. (2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=3978288">"Phylogeny, classification, & character polarity of the Osteostraci (Vertebrata)"</A>. <I>Journal of Systematic Palaeontology</I>. <B>7</B>: 95–115. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1017%2FS1477201908002551">10.1017/S1477201908002551</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Systematic+Palaeontology&rft.atitle=Phylogeny%2C+classification%2C+%26+character+polarity+of+the+Osteostraci+%28Vertebrata%29&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=95-115&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1477201908002551&rft.au=Sansom%2C+Robert+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.cambridge.org%2Faction%2FdisplayAbstract%3FfromPage%3Donline%26aid%3D3978288&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Mallatt,_J.,_and_J._Sullivan._1998.-18"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Mallatt,_J.,_and_J._Sullivan._1998._18-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Mallatt, J., and J. Sullivan. 1998. (1998). "28S and 18S ribosomal DNA sequences support the monophyly of lampreys and hagfishes". <I>Molecular Biology and Evolution</I>. <B>15</B> (12): 1706–1718. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordjournals.molbev.a025897">10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025897</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9866205">9866205</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Biology+and+Evolution&rft.atitle=28S+and+18S+ribosomal+DNA+sequences+support+the+monophyly+of+lampreys+and+hagfishes&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=1706-1718&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordjournals.molbev.a025897&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9866205&rft.au=Mallatt%2C+J.%2C+and+J.+Sullivan.+1998.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN><SPAN class="citation-comment" style="display:none; color:#33aa33; margin-left:0.3em">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<A href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list">link</A>)</SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-DeLarbre_et_al._2002-19"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-DeLarbre_et_al._2002_19-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">DeLarbre Christiane; Gallut Cyril; Barriel Veronique; Janvier Philippe; Gachelin Gabriel (2002). "Complete mitochondrial DNA of the hagfish, Eptatretus burgeri: The comparative analysis of mitochondrial DNA sequences strongly supports the cyclostome monophyly". <I>Molecular Phylogenetics & Evolution</I>. <B>22</B> (2): 184–192. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1006%2Fmpev.2001.1045">10.1006/mpev.2001.1045</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11820840">11820840</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Phylogenetics+%26+Evolution&rft.atitle=Complete+mitochondrial+DNA+of+the+hagfish%2C+Eptatretus+burgeri%3A+The+comparative+analysis+of+mitochondrial+DNA+sequences+strongly+supports+the+cyclostome+monophyly&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=184-192&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1006%2Fmpev.2001.1045&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11820840&rft.au=DeLarbre+Christiane&rft.au=Gallut+Cyril&rft.au=Barriel+Veronique&rft.au=Janvier+Philippe&rft.au=Gachelin+Gabriel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-20"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-20"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="/wiki/Philippe_Janvier" title="Philippe Janvier">Janvier, P.</A> 2010. "MicroRNAs revive old views about jawless vertebrate divergence and evolution." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA) 107:19137-19138. <A rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.pnas.org/content/107/45/19137.full.pdf+html">[1]</A> "<I>Although I was among the early supporters of vertebrate paraphyly, I am impressed by the evidence provided by Heimberg et al. and prepared to admit that cyclostomes are, in fact, monophyletic. The consequence is that they may tell us little, if anything, about the dawn of vertebrate evolution, except that the intuitions of 19th century zoologists were correct in assuming that these odd vertebrates (notably, hagfishes) are strongly degenerate and have lost many characters over time.</I>"</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Benton,_M._J._2005_page_73-21"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Benton,_M._J._2005_page_73_21-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Benton,_M._J._2005_page_73_21-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Benton, M. J. (2005) Vertebrate Palaeontology, Blackwell, 3rd edition, Fig 3.25 on page 73.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tol-22"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tol_22-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Janvier, Philippe (1997) <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tolweb.org/Vertebrata/14829/1997.01.01">Vertebrata. Animals with backbones</A>. Version 01 January 1997 in <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tolweb.org/">The Tree of Life Web Project</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-isbn0-521-32271-5-23"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-isbn0-521-32271-5_23-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Patterson, Colin (1987). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DL_KQPX3AmIC&pg=PA142"><I>Molecules and morphology in evolution: conflict or compromise?</I></A>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 142. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-32271-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-32271-5">0-521-32271-5</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Molecules+and+morphology+in+evolution%3A+conflict+or+compromise%3F&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pages=142&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-521-32271-5&rft.au=Patterson%2C+Colin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDL_KQPX3AmIC%26pg%3DPA142&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Renzi1996-24"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Renzi1996_24-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Renzi1996_24-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">De Renzi M, Budorov K, Sudar M (1996). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/CGIB/article/viewFile/CGIB9696120347A/2552">"The extinction of conodonts-in terms of discrete elements-at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary"</A>. <I>Cuadernos de Geología Ibérica</I>. <B>20</B>: 347–364.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cuadernos+de+Geolog%C3%ADa+Ib%C3%A9rica&rft.atitle=The+extinction+of+conodonts-in+terms+of+discrete+elements-at+the+Triassic-Jurassic+boundary&rft.volume=20&rft.pages=347-364&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=De+Renzi&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Budorov%2C+K&rft.au=Sudar%2C+M&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frevistas.ucm.es%2Findex.php%2FCGIB%2Farticle%2FviewFile%2FCGIB9696120347A%2F2552&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Gabbott1995-25"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Gabbott1995_25-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Gabbott1995_25-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Gabbott1995_25-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Gabbott1995_25-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Gabbott1995_25-4"><SUP><I><B>e</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Gabbott1995_25-5"><SUP><I><B>f</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Gabbott, S.E.; R. J. Aldridge; J. N. Theron (1995). "A giant conodont with preserved muscle tissue from the Upper Ordovician of South Africa". <I>Nature</I>. <B>374</B> (6525): 800–803. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995Natur.374..800G">1995Natur.374..800G</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2F374800a0">10.1038/374800a0</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=A+giant+conodont+with+preserved+muscle+tissue+from+the+Upper+Ordovician+of+South+Africa&rft.volume=374&rft.issue=6525&rft.pages=800-803&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F374800a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1995Natur.374..800G&rft.aulast=Gabbott&rft.aufirst=S.E.&rft.au=R.+J.+Aldridge&rft.au=J.+N.+Theron&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Briggs1992-26"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Briggs1992_26-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Briggs1992_26-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Briggs, D. (May 1992). "Conodonts: a major extinct group added to the vertebrates". <I>Science</I>. <B>256</B> (5061): 1285–1286. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992Sci...256.1285B">1992Sci...256.1285B</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1598571">10.1126/science.1598571</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1598571">1598571</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Conodonts%3A+a+major+extinct+group+added+to+the+vertebrates&rft.volume=256&rft.issue=5061&rft.pages=1285-1286&rft.date=1992-05&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F1598571&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1598571&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1992Sci...256.1285B&rft.aulast=Briggs&rft.aufirst=D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Milsom2004-27"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Milsom2004_27-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Milsom2004_27-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Milsom, Clare; Rigby, Sue (2004). "Vertebrates". <I>Fossils at a Glance</I>. Victoria, Australia: Blackwell Publishing. p. 88. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-632-06047-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-632-06047-6">0-632-06047-6</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Vertebrates&rft.btitle=Fossils+at+a+Glance&rft.place=Victoria%2C+Australia&rft.pages=88&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-632-06047-6&rft.aulast=Milsom&rft.aufirst=Clare&rft.au=Rigby%2C+Sue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Donoghue2000-28"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Donoghue2000_28-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Donoghue2000_28-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Donoghue, P.C.J.; Forey, P.L.; Aldridge, R.J. (2000). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0006323199005472">"Conodont affinity and chordate phylogeny"</A>. <I>Biological Reviews</I>. <B>75</B> (2): 191–251. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1469-185X.1999.tb00045.x">10.1111/j.1469-185X.1999.tb00045.x</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10881388">10881388</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2008-04-07</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biological+Reviews&rft.atitle=Conodont+affinity+and+chordate+phylogeny&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=191-251&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1469-185X.1999.tb00045.x&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10881388&rft.au=Donoghue%2C+P.C.J.&rft.au=Forey%2C+P.L.&rft.au=Aldridge%2C+R.J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.cambridge.org%2Fabstract_S0006323199005472&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenton199944-29"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenton199944_29-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFBenton1999">Benton 1999</A>, p. 44.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-30"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-30"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Maisey, John G. (1996). <I>Discovering Fossil Fishes</I> (illustrated ed.). New York: Henry Holt & Company. p. 37.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Discovering+Fossil+Fishes&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=37&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Henry+Holt+%26+Company&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Maisey&rft.aufirst=John+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-31"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-31"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cosmosmagazine.com/news/4492/vertebrate-jaw-design-locked-down-early">Vertebrate jaw design locked down early</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120908234704/http://www.cosmosmagazine.com/news/4492/vertebrate-jaw-design-locked-down-early">Archived</A> 2012-09-08 at the <A href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</A>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-32"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-32"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sciencelife.uchospitals.edu/2012/06/13/where-we-split-from-sharks/">Where We Split From Sharks</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-33"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-33"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Benton, M. J. (2005) Vertebrate Palaeontology, Blackwell, 3rd edition, Fig 7.13 on page 185.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Zhu2013-34"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Zhu2013_34-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Zhu, Min; Xiaobo Yu; Per Erik Ahlberg; Brian Choo; Jing Lu; Tuo Qiao; Qingming Qu; Wenjin Zhao; Liantao Jia; Henning Blom; You'an Zhu (2013). "A Silurian placoderm with osteichthyan-like marginal jaw bones". <I><A href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</A></I>. <B>502</B>: 188–193. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013Natur.502..188Z">2013Natur.502..188Z</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature12617">10.1038/nature12617</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24067611">24067611</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=A+Silurian+placoderm+with+osteichthyan-like+marginal+jaw+bones&rft.volume=502&rft.pages=188-193&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24067611&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature12617&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013Natur.502..188Z&rft.aulast=Zhu&rft.aufirst=Min&rft.au=Xiaobo+Yu&rft.au=Per+Erik+Ahlberg&rft.au=Brian+Choo&rft.au=Jing+Lu&rft.au=Tuo+Qiao&rft.au=Qingming+Qu&rft.au=Wenjin+Zhao&rft.au=Liantao+Jia&rft.au=Henning+Blom&rft.au=You%27an+Zhu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHelfmanothers2009198-35"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHelfmanothers2009198_35-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFHelfmanothers2009">Helfman & others 2009</A>, p. 198.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Allen-36"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Allen_36-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Allen, G.R., S.H. Midgley, M. Allen. <I>Field Guide to the Freshwater Fishes of Australia. Eds. Jan Knight/Wendy Bulgin</I>. Perth, W.A.: Western Australia Museum, 2002. pp. 54–55.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Field+Guide+to+the+Freshwater+Fishes+of+Australia.+Eds.+Jan+Knight%2FWendy+Bulgin&rft.pages=54-55&rft.pub=Perth%2C+W.A.%3A+Western+Australia+Museum%2C+2002&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=G.R.%2C+S.H.+Midgley%2C+M.+Allen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-37"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-37"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Amemiya, C T; Alföldi, J; Lee, A P; Fan, S; Philippe, H; MacCallum, I; et al. (2013). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3633110">"The African coelacanth genome provides insights into tetrapod evolution"</A>. <I>Nature</I>. <B>496</B> (7445): 311–316. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature12027">10.1038/nature12027</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3633110">3633110</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23598338">23598338</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+African+coelacanth+genome+provides+insights+into+tetrapod+evolution&rft.volume=496&rft.issue=7445&rft.pages=311-316&rft.date=2013&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3633110&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23598338&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature12027&rft.aulast=Amemiya&rft.aufirst=C+T&rft.au=Alf%C3%B6ldi%2C+J&rft.au=Lee%2C+A+P&rft.au=Fan%2C+S&rft.au=Philippe%2C+H&rft.au=MacCallum%2C+I&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3633110&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-38"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-38"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Clack, J. A. (2002) <I>Gaining Ground</I>. Indiana University</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENelson2006-39"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENelson2006_39-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFNelson2006">Nelson 2006</A>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Johanson2006-40"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Johanson2006_40-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Johanson Zerina; Long John A.; Talent John A.; Janvier Philippe; Warren James W. (2006). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.is/20130219094154/http://171.66.127.192/content/2/3/443.full">"Oldest Coelacanth, from the Early Devonian of Australia"</A>. <I>Biology Letters</I>. <B>2</B> (3): 443–46. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbl.2006.0470">10.1098/rsbl.2006.0470</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1686207">1686207</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17148426">17148426</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://171.66.127.192/content/2/3/443.full">the original</A> on 2013-02-19.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biology+Letters&rft.atitle=Oldest+Coelacanth%2C+from+the+Early+Devonian+of+Australia&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=443-46&rft.date=2006&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1686207&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17148426&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsbl.2006.0470&rft.au=Johanson+Zerina&rft.au=Long+John+A.&rft.au=Talent+John+A.&rft.au=Janvier+Philippe&rft.au=Warren+James+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2F171.66.127.192%2Fcontent%2F2%2F3%2F443.full&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEForey1998-41"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForey1998_41-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFForey1998">Forey 1998</A>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-ucmp-42"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-ucmp_42-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-ucmp_42-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/actinopterygii/actinintro.html">Introduction to the Actinopterygii</A> <I>Museum of Palaeontology</I>, University of California.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDawkins2004289-43"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDawkins2004289_43-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFDawkins2004">Dawkins 2004</A>, p. 289: "Obviously vertebrates must have had ancestors living in the Cambrian, but they were assumed to be invertebrate forerunners of the true vertebrates — protochordates. Pikaia has been heavily promoted as the oldest fossil protochordate."</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Morris1979-44"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Morris1979_44-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Morris SC (1979). "The Burgess Shale (Middle Cambrian) fauna". <I>Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics</I>. <B>10</B>: 327–349. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.es.10.110179.001551">10.1146/annurev.es.10.110179.001551</A>. <A href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/2096795">2096795</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Ecology+and+Systematics&rft.atitle=The+Burgess+Shale+%28Middle+Cambrian%29+fauna&rft.volume=10&rft.pages=327-349&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.es.10.110179.001551&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2096795&rft.au=Morris+SC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Morris2012-45"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Morris2012_45-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Morris SC, Caron JB (2012). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.artsci.utoronto.ca/main/media-releases/papers/pikaia-gracilens.pdf">"<I>Pikaia gracilens</I> Walcott, a stem-group chordate from the Middle Cambrian of British Columbia"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>Biological Reviews</I>. <B>87</B> (2): 480–512. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1469-185X.2012.00220.x">10.1111/j.1469-185X.2012.00220.x</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22385518">22385518</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biological+Reviews&rft.atitle=Pikaia+gracilens+Walcott%2C+a+stem-group+chordate+from+the+Middle+Cambrian+of+British+Columbia&rft.volume=87&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=480-512&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1469-185X.2012.00220.x&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22385518&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=SC&rft.au=Caron%2C+JB&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.artsci.utoronto.ca%2Fmain%2Fmedia-releases%2Fpapers%2Fpikaia-gracilens.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer200066-67-46"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPalmer200066-67_46-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFPalmer2000">Palmer 2000</A>, p. 66-67.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShu2003-47"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShu2003_47-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShu2003_47-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFShu2003">Shu2003</A>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Paleos:_The_Cambrian:_2-48"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Paleos:_The_Cambrian:_2_48-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://palaeos.com/paleozoic/cambrian/cambrian2.html">The Cambrian: 2</A> <I><A href="/wiki/Palaeos" title="Palaeos">Palaeos</A></I>. Modified 26 October 2002. Retrieved 20 January 2013.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Donoghue2005-49"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Donoghue2005_49-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Donoghue, P.C.J.; Purnell, M.A. (2005). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Publs/donoghue/Donoghue_and_Purnell_2005.pdf">"Genome duplication, extinction and vertebrate evolution"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>Trends in Ecology & Evolution</I>. <B>20</B> (6): 312–319. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tree.2005.04.008">10.1016/j.tree.2005.04.008</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16701387">16701387</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Ecology+%26+Evolution&rft.atitle=Genome+duplication%2C+extinction+and+vertebrate+evolution&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=312-319&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tree.2005.04.008&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16701387&rft.aulast=Donoghue&rft.aufirst=P.C.J.&rft.au=Purnell%2C+M.A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpalaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk%2FPubls%2Fdonoghue%2FDonoghue_and_Purnell_2005.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-EoDP-50"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-EoDP_50-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-EoDP_50-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-EoDP_50-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-EoDP_50-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-EoDP_50-4"><SUP><I><B>e</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-EoDP_50-5"><SUP><I><B>f</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Palmer, D., ed. (1999). <I><A href="/wiki/The_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals" title="The Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Animals">The Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Animals</A></I>. London: Marshall Editions. p. 23. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84028-152-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-84028-152-9">1-84028-152-9</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Marshall+Illustrated+Encyclopedia+of+Dinosaurs+and+Prehistoric+Animals&rft.place=London&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Marshall+Editions&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=1-84028-152-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Sansom1997-51"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Sansom1997_51-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Sansom IJ, Smith MP, Smith MM, Turner P (1997). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131029202735/http://palaeontology.palass-pubs.org/pdf/Vol%2040/Pages%20625-643.pdf">"<I>Astraspis</I>: The anatomy and histology of an Ordovician fish"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>Palaeontology</I>. <B>40</B> (3): 625–642. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://palaeontology.palass-pubs.org/pdf/Vol%2040/Pages%20625-643.pdf">the original</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN> on 2013-10-29.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Palaeontology&rft.atitle=Astraspis%3A+The+anatomy+and+histology+of+an+Ordovician+fish&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=625-642&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Sansom&rft.aufirst=IJ&rft.au=Smith%2C+MP&rft.au=Smith%2C+MM&rft.au=Turner%2C+P&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpalaeontology.palass-pubs.org%2Fpdf%2FVol%252040%2FPages%2520625-643.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Turner1982-52"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Turner1982_52-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Turner, S.; Tarling, D. H. (1982). "Thelodont and other agnathan distributions as tests of Lower Paleozoic continental reconstructions". <I><A href="/wiki/Palaeogeography,_Palaeoclimatology,_Palaeoecology" title="Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology">Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology</A></I>. <B>39</B> (3–4): 295–311. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2F0031-0182%2882%2990027-X">10.1016/0031-0182(82)90027-X</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Palaeogeography%2C+Palaeoclimatology%2C+Palaeoecology&rft.atitle=Thelodont+and+other+agnathan+distributions+as+tests+of+Lower+Paleozoic+continental+reconstructions&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=295-311&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0031-0182%2882%2990027-X&rft.au=Turner%2C+S.&rft.au=Tarling%2C+D.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESarjeantHalstead-53"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESarjeantHalstead_53-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFSarjeantHalstead">Sarjeant & Halstead</A>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonoghue2000206-54"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonoghue2000206_54-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFDonoghue2000">Donoghue 2000</A>, p. 206.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner199942–78-55"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner199942–78_55-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFTurner1999">Turner1999</A>, p. 42–78.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Palaeos:_Thelodonti-56"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Palaeos:_Thelodonti_56-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">The early and mid Silurian. See <CITE class="citation web">Kazlev, M.A.; White, T (March 6, 2001). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/050Thelodonti/050.100.html#Thelodonti">"Palaeos: Thelodonti"</A>. <I>Palaeos.com</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 30,</SPAN> 2007</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Palaeos.com&rft.atitle=Palaeos%3A+Thelodonti&rft.date=2001-03-06&rft.au=Kazlev%2C+M.A.&rft.au=White%2C+T&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.palaeos.com%2FVertebrates%2FUnits%2F050Thelodonti%2F050.100.html%23Thelodonti&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Baez2006-57"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Baez2006_57-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Baez2006_57-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Baez2006_57-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="/wiki/John_Baez" class="mw-redirect" title="John Baez">Baez. John</A> (2006) <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/extinction/">Extinction</A> University of California. Retrieved 20 January 2013.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhlberg2001188-58"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhlberg2001188_58-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFAhlberg2001">Ahlberg 2001</A>, p. 188.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson1987142-59"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson1987142_59-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFPatterson1987">Patterson 1987</A>, p. 142.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHallHanken1993131-60"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHallHanken1993131_60-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFHallHanken1993">Hall & Hanken 1993</A>, p. 131.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJanvier2003-61"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJanvier2003_61-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFJanvier2003">Janvier 2003</A>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-SRS09-62"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-SRS09_62-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Sansom, R. S. (2009). "Phylogeny, classification and character polarity of the Osteostraci (Vertebrata)". <I>Journal of Systematic Palaeontology</I>. <B>7</B>: 95–115. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1017%2FS1477201908002551">10.1017/S1477201908002551</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Systematic+Palaeontology&rft.atitle=Phylogeny%2C+classification+and+character+polarity+of+the+Osteostraci+%28Vertebrata%29&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=95-115&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1477201908002551&rft.aulast=Sansom&rft.aufirst=R.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-63"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-63"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Otto, M.; Laurin, M. (2001). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bioone.org/toc/vrpa/21/1">"Microanatomy of the dermal skeleton of <I>Balticaspis latvica</I> (Osteostraci, Middle Devonian)"</A>. <I>Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</I>. <B>21</B> (1): 186–189. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1671%2F0272-4634%282001%29021%5B0186%3Amotdso%5D2.0.co%3B2">10.1671/0272-4634(2001)021[0186:motdso]2.0.co;2</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Vertebrate+Paleontology&rft.atitle=Microanatomy+of+the+dermal+skeleton+of+Balticaspis+latvica+%28Osteostraci%2C+Middle+Devonian%29&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=186-189&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1671%2F0272-4634%282001%29021%5B0186%3Amotdso%5D2.0.co%3B2&rft.aulast=Otto&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Laurin%2C+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bioone.org%2Ftoc%2Fvrpa%2F21%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Zhu2009-64"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Zhu2009_64-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Zhu M, Zhao W, Jia L, Lu J, Qiao T, Qu Q (2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v458/n7237/full/nature07855.html">"The oldest articulated osteichthyan reveals mosaic gnathostome characters"</A>. <I>Nature</I>. <B>458</B> (7237): 469–474. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009Natur.458..469Z">2009Natur.458..469Z</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature07855">10.1038/nature07855</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19325627">19325627</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+oldest+articulated+osteichthyan+reveals+mosaic+gnathostome+characters&rft.volume=458&rft.issue=7237&rft.pages=469-474&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19325627&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature07855&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009Natur.458..469Z&rft.aulast=Zhu&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Zhao%2C+W&rft.au=Jia%2C+L&rft.au=Lu%2C+J&rft.au=Qiao%2C+T&rft.au=Qu%2C+Q&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Fnature%2Fjournal%2Fv458%2Fn7237%2Ffull%2Fnature07855.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Coates2009-65"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Coates2009_65-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Coates M.I. (2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v458/n7237/full/458413a.html">"Palaeontology: Beyond the Age of Fishes"</A>. <I>Nature</I>. <B>458</B> (7237): 413–414. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009Natur.458..413C">2009Natur.458..413C</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2F458413a">10.1038/458413a</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19325614">19325614</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Palaeontology%3A+Beyond+the+Age+of+Fishes&rft.volume=458&rft.issue=7237&rft.pages=413-414&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19325614&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F458413a&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009Natur.458..413C&rft.au=Coates+M.I.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Fnature%2Fjournal%2Fv458%2Fn7237%2Ffull%2F458413a.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-SL2009-66"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-SL2009_66-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arn.org/blogs/index.php/literature/2009/03/27/critical_transitions_in_fish_evolution_l">Post details: Critical transitions in fish evolution lack fossil documentation</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130512040709/http://www.arn.org/blogs/index.php/literature/2009/03/27/critical_transitions_in_fish_evolution_l">Archived</A> 2013-05-12 at the <A href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</A>. <I>Science Literature</I>, 27 March 2009.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-SB2009-67"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-SB2009_67-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scienceblogs.com/pharyngula/2009/04/guiyu_oneiros.php">Pharyngula</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120309223251/http://scienceblogs.com/pharyngula/2009/04/guiyu_oneiros.php">Archived</A> 2012-03-09 at the <A href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</A>.<I>Science blogs</I>, 1 April 2009.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-68"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-68"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Min Z; Schultze, Hans-Peter (1997). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225089993_The_oldest_sarcopterygian_fish/file/d912f4fcb0d2e1d901.pdf">"The oldest sarcopterygian fish"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>Lethaia</I>. <B>30</B> (4): 293–304. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1502-3931.1997.tb00472.x">10.1111/j.1502-3931.1997.tb00472.x</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lethaia&rft.atitle=The+oldest+sarcopterygian+fish&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=293-304&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1502-3931.1997.tb00472.x&rft.au=Min+Z&rft.au=Schultze%2C+Hans-Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F225089993_The_oldest_sarcopterygian_fish%2Ffile%2Fd912f4fcb0d2e1d901.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-69"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-69"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Märss T (2001). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=0D3ucZP97e4C&pg=PA174&dq=%22Andreolepis+%28Actinopterygii%29+in+the+upper+Silurian+of+northern+Eurasia%22#v=onepage&q=%22Andreolepis%20%28Actinopterygii%29%20in%20the%20upper%20Silurian%20of%20northern%20Eurasia%22&f=false">"<I>Andreolepis</I> (Actinopterygii) in the upper Silurian of northern Eurasia"</A>. <I>Proceedings of the Estonian Academy of Sciences</I>. <B>50</B> (3): 174–189.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Estonian+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Andreolepis+%28Actinopterygii%29+in+the+upper+Silurian+of+northern+Eurasia&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=174-189&rft.date=2001&rft.au=M%C3%A4rss+T&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3D0D3ucZP97e4C%26pg%3DPA174%26dq%3D%2522Andreolepis%2B%2528Actinopterygii%2529%2Bin%2Bthe%2Bupper%2BSilurian%2Bof%2Bnorthern%2BEurasia%2522%23v%3Donepage%26q%3D%2522Andreolepis%2520%2528Actinopterygii%2529%2520in%2520the%2520upper%2520Silurian%2520of%2520northern%2520Eurasia%2522%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Parry-70"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Parry_70-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Parry, S.F.; Noble S.R.; Crowley Q.G.; Wellman C.H. (2011). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jgs.lyellcollection.org/content/168/4/863.abstract">"A high-precision U–Pb age constraint on the Rhynie Chert Konservat-Lagerstätte: time scale and other implications"</A>. <I>Journal of the Geological Society</I>. London: Geological Society. <B>168</B> (4): 863–872. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1144%2F0016-76492010-043">10.1144/0016-76492010-043</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Geological+Society&rft.atitle=A+high-precision+U%E2%80%93Pb+age+constraint+on+the+Rhynie+Chert+Konservat-Lagerst%C3%A4tte%3A+time+scale+and+other+implications&rft.volume=168&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=863-872&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1144%2F0016-76492010-043&rft.aulast=Parry&rft.aufirst=S.F.&rft.au=Noble+S.R.&rft.au=Crowley+Q.G.&rft.au=Wellman+C.H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjgs.lyellcollection.org%2Fcontent%2F168%2F4%2F863.abstract&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Kaufmann2004-71"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Kaufmann2004_71-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Kaufmann, B.; Trapp, E.; Mezger, K. (2004). "The numerical age of the Upper Frasnian (Upper Devonian) Kellwasser horizons: A new U-Pb zircon date from Steinbruch Schmidt(Kellerwald, Germany)". <I>The Journal of Geology</I>. <B>112</B> (4): 495–501. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004JG....112..495K">2004JG....112..495K</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1086%2F421077">10.1086/421077</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Geology&rft.atitle=The+numerical+age+of+the+Upper+Frasnian+%28Upper+Devonian%29+Kellwasser+horizons%3A+A+new+U-Pb+zircon+date+from+Steinbruch+Schmidt%28Kellerwald%2C+Germany%29&rft.volume=112&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=495-501&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F421077&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004JG....112..495K&rft.au=Kaufmann%2C+B.&rft.au=Trapp%2C+E.&rft.au=Mezger%2C+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-BBC2010-72"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-BBC2010_72-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/8443879.stm">Fossil tracks record 'oldest land-walkers'</A> <I>BBC News</I>, 6 January 2010.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-AOF-73"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-AOF_73-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ageoffishes.org.au">Age of Fishes Museum</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenton200565-74"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenton200565_74-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFBenton2005">Benton 2005</A>, p. 65.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals199943-75"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals199943_75-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals1999">The Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Animals 1999</A>, p. 43.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Holland2010-76"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Holland2010_76-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Holland T (2010). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://136.154.202.60/pages/21374/67_holland.pdf">"Upper Devonian osteichthyan remains from the Genoa River, Victoria, Australia"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>Memoirs of Museum Victoria</I>. <B>67</B>: 35–44.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Memoirs+of+Museum+Victoria&rft.atitle=Upper+Devonian+osteichthyan+remains+from+the+Genoa+River%2C+Victoria%2C+Australia&rft.volume=67&rft.pages=35-44&rft.date=2010&rft.au=Holland+T&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2F136.154.202.60%2Fpages%2F21374%2F67_holland.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-ngs-77"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-ngs_77-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A href="/w/index.php?title=Christine_Dell%27Amore&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Christine Dell'Amore (page does not exist)">Dell'Amore, C.</A> (September 12, 2011). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/09/110912-ancient-fish-arctic-predator-devonian-fossils-animals-science/">"Ancient Toothy Fish Found in Arctic—Giant Prowled Rivers"</A>. <A href="/wiki/National_Geographic_Society" title="National Geographic Society">National Geographic</A> Daily News<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">September 13,</SPAN> 2011</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ancient+Toothy+Fish+Found+in+Arctic%E2%80%94Giant+Prowled+Rivers&rft.pub=National+Geographic+Daily+News&rft.date=2011-09-12&rft.au=Dell%27Amore%2C+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.nationalgeographic.com%2Fnews%2F2011%2F09%2F110912-ancient-fish-arctic-predator-devonian-fossils-animals-science%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-avril-78"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-avril_78-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Tom Avril (September 12, 2011). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://articles.philly.com/2011-09-12/news/30145487_1_tiktaalik-roseae-ted-daeschler/2">"Fish fossil sheds light on 'Euramerica' phase"</A>. The Inquirer<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">September 15,</SPAN> 2011</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Fish+fossil+sheds+light+on+%27Euramerica%27+phase&rft.pub=The+Inquirer&rft.date=2011-09-12&rft.au=Tom+Avril&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farticles.philly.com%2F2011-09-12%2Fnews%2F30145487_1_tiktaalik-roseae-ted-daeschler%2F2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-vorobyeva-79"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-vorobyeva_79-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal"><A href="/w/index.php?title=Emiliya_Ivanovna_Vorobyeva&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Emiliya Ivanovna Vorobyeva (page does not exist)">Vorobyeva, E.I.</A> (2006). "A new species of <I>Laccognathus</I> (Porolepiform Crossopterygii) from the Devonian of Latvia". <I><A href="/wiki/Paleontological_Journal" title="Paleontological Journal">Palaeont. J.</A></I> Physorg.com. <B>40</B> (3): 312–322. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1134%2FS0031030106030129">10.1134/S0031030106030129</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Palaeont.+J.&rft.atitle=A+new+species+of+Laccognathus+%28Porolepiform+Crossopterygii%29+from+the+Devonian+of+Latvia&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=312-322&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1134%2FS0031030106030129&rft.au=Vorobyeva%2C+E.I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-witzmann-80"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-witzmann_80-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal"><A href="/w/index.php?title=Florian_Witzman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Florian Witzman (page does not exist)">Witzman, F.</A> (2011). "A New Species of <I>Laccognathus</I> (Sarcopterygii, Porolepiformes) from the Late Devonian of Ellesmere Island, Nunavut, Canada". <I>Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</I>. <B>31</B> (5): 981–996. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1080%2F02724634.2011.599462">10.1080/02724634.2011.599462</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Vertebrate+Paleontology&rft.atitle=A+New+Species+of+Laccognathus+%28Sarcopterygii%2C+Porolepiformes%29+from+the+Late+Devonian+of+Ellesmere+Island%2C+Nunavut%2C+Canada&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=981-996&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F02724634.2011.599462&rft.au=Witzman%2C+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals199945-81"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals199945_81-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals1999">The Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Animals 1999</A>, p. 45.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals199926-82"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals199926_82-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals199926_82-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals199926_82-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals199926_82-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals1999">The Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Animals 1999</A>, p. 26.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals199932-83"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals199932_83-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals1999">The Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Animals 1999</A>, p. 32.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELong1996-84"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong1996_84-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFLong1996">Long 1996</A>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-ScienceNews1999-85"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-ScienceNews1999_85-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/43940/title/Ancient_fish_with_killer_bite">Ancient Fish With Killer Bite</A>. Science News. May 19, 2009.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals199933-86"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals199933_86-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals1999">The Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Animals 1999</A>, p. 33.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-SydneyMorningHerald2006-87"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-SydneyMorningHerald2006_87-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.smh.com.au/news/science/jaws-of-steel-on-this-fish-tank/2006/11/29/1164777657728.html">Monster fish crushed opposition with strongest bite ever</A>. The Sydney Morning Herald. November 30, 2006.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Field2006-88"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Field2006_88-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2006-11/fm-aph112706.php">"Press release: Ancient predator had strongest bite of any fish, rivaling bite of large alligators and T. rex"</A>. Field Museum via EurekAlert!. November 28, 2006.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Press+release%3A+Ancient+predator+had+strongest+bite+of+any+fish%2C+rivaling+bite+of+large+alligators+and+T.+rex&rft.pub=Field+Museum+via+EurekAlert%21&rft.date=2006-11-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eurekalert.org%2Fpub_releases%2F2006-11%2Ffm-aph112706.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-LiveScience2006-89"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-LiveScience2006_89-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Roy Britt, Robert (28 November 2006). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.livescience.com/animals/061128_big_bite.html">"Prehistoric Fish Had Most Powerful Jaws"</A>. LiveScience<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-04-26</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Prehistoric+Fish+Had+Most+Powerful+Jaws&rft.pub=LiveScience&rft.date=2006-11-28&rft.aulast=Roy+Britt&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.livescience.com%2Fanimals%2F061128_big_bite.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Long2008-90"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Long2008_90-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Long, J. A.; Trinajstic, K.; Young, G. C.; Senden, T. (2008). "Live birth in the Devonian period". <I>Nature</I>. <B>453</B> (7195): 650–652. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008Natur.453..650L">2008Natur.453..650L</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature06966">10.1038/nature06966</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18509443">18509443</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Live+birth+in+the+Devonian+period&rft.volume=453&rft.issue=7195&rft.pages=650-652&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18509443&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature06966&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008Natur.453..650L&rft.aulast=Long&rft.aufirst=J.+A.&rft.au=Trinajstic%2C+K.&rft.au=Young%2C+G.+C.&rft.au=Senden%2C+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-BBC2008-91"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-BBC2008_91-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/7424281.stm">Fossil reveals oldest live birth</A> <I>BBC News</I>, 28 May 2008.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Thomson1968-92"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Thomson1968_92-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Thomson, K. S. (1968). "A new Devonian fish (Crossopterygii: Rhipidistia) considered in relation to the origin of the Amphibia". <I>Postilla</I>. <B>124</B>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Postilla&rft.atitle=A+new+Devonian+fish+%28Crossopterygii%3A+Rhipidistia%29+considered+in+relation+to+the+origin+of+the+Amphibia&rft.volume=124&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Thomson&rft.aufirst=K.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Niedźwiedzki2010-93"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Niedźwiedzki2010_93-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Niedźwiedzki2010_93-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Grzegorz Niedźwiedzki; Piotr Szrek; Katarzyna Narkiewicz; Marek Narkiewicz; Per E. Ahlberg (2010). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v463/n7277/full/nature08623.html">"Tetrapod trackways from the early Middle Devonian period of Poland"</A>. <I>Nature</I>. Nature Publishing Group. <B>463</B> (7277): 43–48. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010Natur.463...43N">2010Natur.463...43N</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature08623">10.1038/nature08623</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20054388">20054388</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">January 3,</SPAN> 2012</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Tetrapod+trackways+from+the+early+Middle+Devonian+period+of+Poland&rft.volume=463&rft.issue=7277&rft.pages=43-48&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20054388&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature08623&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010Natur.463...43N&rft.au=Grzegorz+Nied%C5%BAwiedzki&rft.au=Piotr+Szrek&rft.au=Katarzyna+Narkiewicz&rft.au=Marek+Narkiewicz&rft.au=Per+E.+Ahlberg&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Fnature%2Fjournal%2Fv463%2Fn7277%2Ffull%2Fnature08623.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Gordon2004-94"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Gordon2004_94-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Gordon, M. S.; Graham, J. B.; Wang, T. (2004). "Revisiting the Vertebrate Invasion of the Land". <I>Physiological and Biochemical Zoology</I>. <B>77</B> (5): 697–699. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1086%2F425182">10.1086/425182</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physiological+and+Biochemical+Zoology&rft.atitle=Revisiting+the+Vertebrate+Invasion+of+the+Land&rft.volume=77&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=697-699&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F425182&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=M.+S.&rft.au=Graham%2C+J.+B.&rft.au=Wang%2C+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Clack2005-95"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Clack2005_95-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Clack2005_95-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Clack2005_95-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A href="/wiki/Jennifer_A._Clack" class="mw-redirect" title="Jennifer A. Clack">Clack, J. A.</A> (November 2005). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=getting-a-leg-up-on-land">"Getting a Leg Up on Land"</A>. <I>Scientific American</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2008-09-06</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Getting+a+Leg+Up+on+Land&rft.date=2005-11&rft.au=Clack%2C+J.+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciam.com%2Farticle.cfm%3Fid%3Dgetting-a-leg-up-on-land&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Laurin2007-96"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Laurin2007_96-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Laurin2007_96-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Laurin M.; Meunier F. J.; Germain D.; Lemoine M. (2007). "A microanatomical and histological study of the paired fin skeleton of the Devonian sarcopterygian". <I>Eusthenopteron foordi. Journal of Paleontology</I>. <B>81</B>: 143–153. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1666%2F0022-3360%282007%2981%5B143%3AAMAHSO%5D2.0.CO%3B2">10.1666/0022-3360(2007)81[143:AMAHSO]2.0.CO;2</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Eusthenopteron+foordi.+Journal+of+Paleontology&rft.atitle=A+microanatomical+and+histological+study+of+the+paired+fin+skeleton+of+the+Devonian+sarcopterygian&rft.volume=81&rft.pages=143-153&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1666%2F0022-3360%282007%2981%5B143%3AAMAHSO%5D2.0.CO%3B2&rft.au=Laurin+M.&rft.au=Meunier+F.+J.&rft.au=Germain+D.&rft.au=Lemoine+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-science22011-97"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-science22011_97-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.science20.com/news_articles/fishtetrapod_transition_got_new_hypothesis_2011-85782">"Fish-Tetrapod Transition Got A New Hypothesis In 2011"</A>. <I>Science 2.0</I>. December 27, 2011<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">January 2,</SPAN> 2012</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+2.0&rft.atitle=Fish-Tetrapod+Transition+Got+A+New+Hypothesis+In+2011&rft.date=2011-12-27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.science20.com%2Fnews_articles%2Ffishtetrapod_transition_got_new_hypothesis_2011-85782&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-newscientist2010-98"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-newscientist2010_98-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Shanta Barley (6 January 2010). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn18346-oldest-footprints-of-a-fourlegged-vertebrate-discovered.html">"Oldest footprints of a four-legged vertebrate discovered"</A>. New Scientist<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">January 3,</SPAN> 2010</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Oldest+footprints+of+a+four-legged+vertebrate+discovered&rft.pub=New+Scientist&rft.date=2010-01-06&rft.au=Shanta+Barley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newscientist.com%2Farticle%2Fdn18346-oldest-footprints-of-a-fourlegged-vertebrate-discovered.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Retallack2011-99"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Retallack2011_99-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Retallack, Gregory (2011). "Woodland Hypothesis for Devonian Tetrapod Evolution". <I>Journal of Geology</I>. University of Chicago Press. <B>119</B> (3): 235–258. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011JG....119..235R">2011JG....119..235R</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1086%2F659144">10.1086/659144</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Geology&rft.atitle=Woodland+Hypothesis+for+Devonian+Tetrapod+Evolution&rft.volume=119&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=235-258&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F659144&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011JG....119..235R&rft.aulast=Retallack&rft.aufirst=Gregory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-100"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-100"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Holmgren, N (1933). "On the origin of the tetrapod limb". <I>Acta Zoologica</I>. <B>14</B>: 185–295. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1463-6395.1933.tb00009.x">10.1111/j.1463-6395.1933.tb00009.x</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Acta+Zoologica&rft.atitle=On+the+origin+of+the+tetrapod+limb&rft.volume=14&rft.pages=185-295&rft.date=1933&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1463-6395.1933.tb00009.x&rft.aulast=Holmgren&rft.aufirst=N&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-101"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-101"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Vorobyeva EI (1992). "The role of development and function in formation of tetrapod like pectoral fins". <I>Zh. Obshch. Biol</I>. <B>53</B>: 149–158.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zh.+Obshch.+Biol.&rft.atitle=The+role+of+development+and+function+in+formation+of+tetrapod+like+pectoral+fins&rft.volume=53&rft.pages=149-158&rft.date=1992&rft.au=Vorobyeva+EI&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-102"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-102"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Watson DMS (1913). "On the primitive tetrapod limb". <I>Anat. Anzeiger</I>. <B>44</B>: 24–27.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Anat.+Anzeiger&rft.atitle=On+the+primitive+tetrapod+limb&rft.volume=44&rft.pages=24-27&rft.date=1913&rft.au=Watson+DMS&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-103"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-103"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Shubin N, Tabin C, Carroll S (1997). "Fossils, genes and the evolution of animal limbs". <I>Nature</I>. <B>388</B> (6643): 639–48. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2F41710">10.1038/41710</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9262397">9262397</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Fossils%2C+genes+and+the+evolution+of+animal+limbs&rft.volume=388&rft.issue=6643&rft.pages=639-48&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F41710&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9262397&rft.aulast=Shubin&rft.aufirst=N&rft.au=Tabin%2C+C&rft.au=Carroll%2C+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Boisvert-104"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Boisvert_104-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Boisvert_104-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Boisvert_104-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Boisvert_104-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Boisvert CA, Mark-Kurik E, Ahlberg PE (2008). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uu.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:221262/FULLTEXT01">"The pectoral fin of Panderichthys and the origin of digits"</A>. <I>Nature</I>. <B>456</B> (7222): 636–8. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008Natur.456..636B">2008Natur.456..636B</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature07339">10.1038/nature07339</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18806778">18806778</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+pectoral+fin+of+Panderichthys+and+the+origin+of+digits&rft.volume=456&rft.issue=7222&rft.pages=636-8&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18806778&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature07339&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008Natur.456..636B&rft.aulast=Boisvert&rft.aufirst=CA&rft.au=Mark-Kurik%2C+E&rft.au=Ahlberg%2C+PE&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fuu.diva-portal.org%2Fsmash%2Fget%2Fdiva2%3A221262%2FFULLTEXT01&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-105"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-105"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Than, Ker (September 24, 2008). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2008/09/080924-fish-fingers.html?source=rss">"Ancient Fish Had Primitive Fingers, Toes"</A>. National Geographic News.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ancient+Fish+Had+Primitive+Fingers%2C+Toes&rft.pub=National+Geographic+News&rft.date=2008-09-24&rft.aulast=Than&rft.aufirst=Ker&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.nationalgeographic.com%2Fnews%2F2008%2F09%2F080924-fish-fingers.html%3Fsource%3Drss&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Ahlberg1994-106"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Ahlberg1994_106-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Ahlberg, P. E.; Milner, A. R. (April 1994). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v368/n6471/abs/368507a0.html">"The Origin and Early Diversification of Tetrapods"</A>. <I>Nature</I>. <B>368</B> (6471): 507–514. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994Natur.368..507A">1994Natur.368..507A</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2F368507a0">10.1038/368507a0</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2008-09-06</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+Origin+and+Early+Diversification+of+Tetrapods&rft.volume=368&rft.issue=6471&rft.pages=507-514&rft.date=1994-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F368507a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1994Natur.368..507A&rft.au=Ahlberg%2C+P.+E.&rft.au=Milner%2C+A.+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Fnature%2Fjournal%2Fv368%2Fn6471%2Fabs%2F368507a0.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Jarvik2008-107"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Jarvik2008_107-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A href="/wiki/Geological_Survey_of_Canada" title="Geological Survey of Canada">Geological Survey of Canada</A> (2008-02-07). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041211035928/http://gsc.nrcan.gc.ca/paleochron/22_e.php">"Past lives: Chronicles of Canadian Paleontology: Eusthenopteron - the Prince of Miguasha"</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gsc.nrcan.gc.ca/paleochron/22_e.php">the original</A> on 2004-12-11<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-02-10</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Past+lives%3A+Chronicles+of+Canadian+Paleontology%3A+Eusthenopteron+-+the+Prince+of+Miguasha&rft.date=2008-02-07&rft.au=Geological+Survey+of+Canada&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgsc.nrcan.gc.ca%2Fpaleochron%2F22_e.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-108"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-108"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://dinosaurs.about.com/od/tetrapodsandamphibians/p/gogonasus.htm">http://dinosaurs.about.com/od/tetrapodsandamphibians/p/gogonasus.htm</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-109"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-109"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Nature: <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v438/n7071/edsumm/e051222-13.html">The pelvic fin and girdle of <I>Panderichthys</I> and the origin of tetrapod locomotion</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Nature-110"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Nature_110-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Edward B. Daeschler; Neil H. Shubin; Farish A. Jenkins Jr (6 April 2006). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v440/n7085/abs/nature04639.html">"A Devonian tetrapod-like fish and the evolution of the tetrapod body plan"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</A></I>. <B>440</B> (7085): 757–763. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Natur.440..757D">2006Natur.440..757D</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature04639">10.1038/nature04639</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16598249">16598249</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=A+Devonian+tetrapod-like+fish+and+the+evolution+of+the+tetrapod+body+plan&rft.volume=440&rft.issue=7085&rft.pages=757-763&rft.date=2006-04-06&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16598249&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature04639&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006Natur.440..757D&rft.au=Edward+B.+Daeschler&rft.au=Neil+H.+Shubin&rft.au=Farish+A.+Jenkins+Jr&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Fnature%2Fjournal%2Fv440%2Fn7085%2Fabs%2Fnature04639.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-scientificamerican-111"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-scientificamerican_111-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="/wiki/Jennifer_A._Clack" class="mw-redirect" title="Jennifer A. Clack">Jennifer A. Clack</A>, <I>Scientific American</I>, <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=getting-a-leg-up-on-land"><I>Getting a Leg Up on Land</I></A> Nov. 21, 2005.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-112"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-112"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">John Noble Wilford, <I>The New York Times</I>, <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/05/science/05cnd-fossil.html?hp&ex=1144296000&en=fe3427d67e965e46&ei=5094&partner=homepage"><I>Scientists Call Fish Fossil the Missing Link</I></A>, Apr. 5, 2006.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Shubin_2008-113"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Shubin_2008_113-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Shubin, Neil (2008). <I>Your Inner Fish</I>. Pantheon. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-375-42447-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-375-42447-2">978-0-375-42447-2</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Your+Inner+Fish&rft.pub=Pantheon&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-375-42447-2&rft.aulast=Shubin&rft.aufirst=Neil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-114"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-114"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">"<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.devoniantimes.org/Order/re-acanthostega.html">Acanthostega gunneri</A>," <I>Devonian Times</I>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Daeschler2006-115"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Daeschler2006_115-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Daeschler, E. B., Shubin, N. H. and Jenkins, F. A. (April 2006). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120301020117/http://www.com.univ-mrs.fr/~boudouresque/Publications_DOM_2006_2007/Daeschler_et_al_2006_Nature.pdf">"A Devonian tetrapod-like fish and the evolution of the tetrapod body plan"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>Nature</I>. <B>440</B> (7085): 757–763. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Natur.440..757D">2006Natur.440..757D</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature04639">10.1038/nature04639</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16598249">16598249</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.com.univ-mrs.fr/~boudouresque/Publications_DOM_2006_2007/Daeschler_et_al_2006_Nature.pdf">the original</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN> on 2012-03-01.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=A+Devonian+tetrapod-like+fish+and+the+evolution+of+the+tetrapod+body+plan&rft.volume=440&rft.issue=7085&rft.pages=757-763&rft.date=2006-04&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16598249&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature04639&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006Natur.440..757D&rft.au=Daeschler%2C+E.+B.%2C+Shubin%2C+N.+H.+and+Jenkins%2C+F.+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.com.univ-mrs.fr%2F~boudouresque%2FPublications_DOM_2006_2007%2FDaeschler_et_al_2006_Nature.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN><SPAN class="citation-comment" style="display:none; color:#33aa33; margin-left:0.3em">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<A href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list">link</A>)</SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-goldsharks-116"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-goldsharks_116-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-goldsharks_116-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-goldsharks_116-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-goldsharks_116-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">R. Aidan Martin. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.elasmo-research.org/education/evolution/golden_age.htm">"A Golden Age of Sharks"</A>. <I>Biology of Sharks and Rays</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2008-06-23</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Biology+of+Sharks+and+Rays&rft.atitle=A+Golden+Age+of+Sharks&rft.au=R.+Aidan+Martin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.elasmo-research.org%2Feducation%2Fevolution%2Fgolden_age.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Ward-117"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Ward_117-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Ward P.; Labandeira, C.; Laurin, M.; Berner, R. A.; et al. (2006). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1636538">"Confirmation of Romer's Gap is a low oxygen interval constraining the timing of initial arthropod and vertebrate terrestrialization"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</A></I>. <B>103</B> (45): 16818–16822. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006PNAS..10316818W">2006PNAS..10316818W</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0607824103">10.1073/pnas.0607824103</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1636538">1636538</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17065318">17065318</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Confirmation+of+Romer%27s+Gap+is+a+low+oxygen+interval+constraining+the+timing+of+initial+arthropod+and+vertebrate+terrestrialization&rft.volume=103&rft.issue=45&rft.pages=16818-16822&rft.date=2006&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1636538&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17065318&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0607824103&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006PNAS..10316818W&rft.au=Ward+P.&rft.au=Labandeira%2C+C.&rft.au=Laurin%2C+M.&rft.au=Berner%2C+R.+A.&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1636538&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-118"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-118"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080821203413/http://www.sju.edu/research/bear_gulch/pages_fish_species/Falcatus_falcatus.php">"Archived copy"</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sju.edu/research/bear_gulch/pages_fish_species/Falcatus_falcatus.php">the original</A> on 2008-08-21<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2008-09-04</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sju.edu%2Fresearch%2Fbear_gulch%2Fpages_fish_species%2FFalcatus_falcatus.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN> Fossil Fish of Bear Gulch 2005 by Richard Lund and Eileen Grogan Accessed 2009-01-14</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-119"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-119"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Edinburgh, Royal Physical Society of (1880). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=69kKAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA115&dq=Acanthodes+extinct">"Proceedings of the Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh"</A>. <B>V</B>: 115.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Physical+Society+of+Edinburgh&rft.volume=V&rft.pages=115&rft.date=1880&rft.au=Edinburgh%2C+Royal+Physical+Society+of&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3D69kKAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA115%26dq%3DAcanthodes%2Bextinct&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Nicholson-120"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Nicholson_120-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Nicholson, Henry Alleyne; Richard Lydekker (1889). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=MoAXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA966&dq=Acanthodes+pectoral+fins"><I>A Manual of Palaeontology</I></A>. p. 966.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Manual+of+Palaeontology&rft.pages=966&rft.date=1889&rft.aulast=Nicholson&rft.aufirst=Henry+Alleyne&rft.au=Richard+Lydekker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DMoAXAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA966%26dq%3DAcanthodes%2Bpectoral%2Bfins&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-121"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-121"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Article on Acanthodes as ancestor of Man, <A rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.sci-news.com/paleontology/article00396.html">http://www.sci-news.com/paleontology/article00396.html</A>, accessed 15 June 2012</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-122"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-122"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Journal article on Acanthodes, <A rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v486/n7402/full/nature11080.html">http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v486/n7402/full/nature11080.html</A>, accessed 15 June 2012</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-123"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-123"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://geology.about.com/od/extinction/a/aa_permotrias.htm">http://geology.about.com/od/extinction/a/aa_permotrias.htm</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-124"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-124"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.kgs.ku.edu/Extension/fossils/massExtinct.html">http://www.kgs.ku.edu/Extension/fossils/massExtinct.html</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-SahneyBenton2008RecoveryFromProfoundExtinction-125"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-SahneyBenton2008RecoveryFromProfoundExtinction_125-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Sahney, S.; Benton, M.J. (2008). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2596898">"Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time"</A>. <I>Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</I>. <B>275</B> (1636): 759–65. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2007.1370">10.1098/rspb.2007.1370</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2596898">2596898</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18198148">18198148</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+B%3A+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Recovery+from+the+most+profound+mass+extinction+of+all+time&rft.volume=275&rft.issue=1636&rft.pages=759-65&rft.date=2008&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2596898&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18198148&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspb.2007.1370&rft.au=Sahney%2C+S.&rft.au=Benton%2C+M.J.&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2596898&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-126"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-126"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.seaworld.org/animal-info/info-books/bony-fish/scientific-classification.htm">Bony fishes</A> <I><A href="/wiki/SeaWorld" title="SeaWorld">SeaWorld</A></I>. Retrieved 2 February 2013.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals199938–39-127"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals199938–39_127-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals199938–39_127-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFThe_Marshall_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Animals1999">The Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Animals 1999</A>, p. 38–39.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-ucr-128"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-ucr_128-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-ucr_128-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/extinction">"extinction"</A>. Math.ucr.edu<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2008-11-09</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=extinction&rft.pub=Math.ucr.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmath.ucr.edu%2Fhome%2Fbaez%2Fextinction&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-129"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-129"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Motani, R. (2000), Rulers of the Jurassic Seas, Scientific American vol.283, no. 6</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-nws-130"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-nws_130-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Wings, Oliver; Rabi, Márton; Schneider, Jörg W.; Schwermann, Leonie; sun, Ge; Zhou, Chang-Fu; Joyce, Walter G. (2012). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.springerlink.com/content/l55q277254344462/">"An enormous Jurassic turtle bone bed from the Turpan Basin of Xinjiang, China"</A>. <I>Naturwissenschaften</I>. <B>114</B> (11): 925–935. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012NW.....99..925W">2012NW.....99..925W</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00114-012-0974-5">10.1007/s00114-012-0974-5</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Naturwissenschaften&rft.atitle=An+enormous+Jurassic+turtle+bone+bed+from+the+Turpan+Basin+of+Xinjiang%2C+China&rft.volume=114&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=925-935&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00114-012-0974-5&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012NW.....99..925W&rft.aulast=Wings&rft.aufirst=Oliver&rft.au=Rabi%2C+M%C3%A1rton&rft.au=Schneider%2C+J%C3%B6rg+W.&rft.au=Schwermann%2C+Leonie&rft.au=sun%2C+Ge&rft.au=Zhou%2C+Chang-Fu&rft.au=Joyce%2C+Walter+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.springerlink.com%2Fcontent%2Fl55q277254344462%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-ls-131"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-ls_131-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Gannon, Megan (October 31, 2012). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-205_162-57542904/jurassic-turtle-graveyard-found-in-china/">"Jurassic turtle graveyard found in China"</A>. <I>Livescience.com</I>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Livescience.com&rft.atitle=Jurassic+turtle+graveyard+found+in+China&rft.date=2012-10-31&rft.aulast=Gannon&rft.aufirst=Megan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbsnews.com%2F8301-205_162-57542904%2Fjurassic-turtle-graveyard-found-in-china%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-132"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-132"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Liston, Jeff, M. Newbrey, T. Challands and C. Adams (2013) <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/81797/1/81797.pdf">"Growth, age and size of the Jurassic pachycormid <I>Leedsichthys problematicus</I> (Osteichthyes: Actinopterygii)</A>." in G. Arratia, H. P. Schultze and M. V. H. Wilson (Eds) <I>Mesozoic Fishes</I> 5 – Global Diversity and Evolution, : Pages 145-175, F. Pfeil. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783899370539" title="Special:BookSources/9783899370539">9783899370539</A>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-133"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-133"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/10/1001_031001_biggestfish.html">"Biggest Fish Ever Found" Unearthed in U.K.</A> <I>National Geographic News</I>, 1 October 2003.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-134"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-134"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">B. G. Gardiner (1984) Sturgeons as living fossils. Pp. 148–152 in N. Eldredge and S.M. Stanley, eds. Living fossils. Springer-Verlag, New York.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-krieger-135"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-krieger_135-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Krieger J.; Fuerst P.A. (2002). "Evidence for a Slowed Rate of Molecular Evolution in the Order Acipenseriformes". <I>Molecular Biology and Evolution</I>. <B>19</B> (6): 891–897. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordjournals.molbev.a004146">10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a004146</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12032245">12032245</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Biology+and+Evolution&rft.atitle=Evidence+for+a+Slowed+Rate+of+Molecular+Evolution+in+the+Order+Acipenseriformes&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=891-897&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordjournals.molbev.a004146&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12032245&rft.au=Krieger+J.&rft.au=Fuerst+P.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-136"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-136"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Rafferty, John P (2010) <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kFd-1DApcRYC&pg=PA219&dq=%22Cretaceous+fish%22+OR+%22Cretaceous+fishes%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=HkrtUNPWHonKlAWshYGQBQ&ved=0CKEBEOgBMBM#v=onepage&q=%22Cretaceous%20fish%22%20OR%20%22Cretaceous%20fishes%22&f=false"><I>The Mesozoic Era: Age of Dinosaurs</I></A> Page 219, Rosen Publishing Group. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781615301935" title="Special:BookSources/9781615301935">9781615301935</A>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-ward-137"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-ward_137-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Fossils (Smithsonian Handbooks) by <A href="/wiki/David_Ward_(paleontologist)" class="mw-redirect" title="David Ward (paleontologist)">David Ward</A> (Page 200)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-PBDB-138"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-PBDB_138-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.paleodb.org/cgi-bin/bridge.pl?action=checkTaxonInfo&taxon_no=34513&is_real_user=1">The paleobioloy Database Ptychodus entry</A> accessed on 8/23/09</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-139"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-139"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">"BBC - Earth News - Giant predatory shark fossil unearthed in Kansas"</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-MacLeod-140"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-MacLeod_140-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">MacLeod, N, Rawson, PF, Forey, PL, Banner, FT, Boudagher-Fadel, MK, Bown, PR, Burnett, JA, Chambers, P, Culver, S, Evans, SE, Jeffery, C, Kaminski, MA, Lord, AR, Milner, AC, Milner, AR, Morris, N, Owen, E, Rosen, BR, Smith, AB, Taylor, PD, Urquhart, E & Young, JR (1997). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3721/is_199703/ai_n8738406/print">"The Cretaceous–Tertiary biotic transition"</A>. <I>Journal of the Geological Society</I>. <B>154</B> (2): 265–292. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1144%2Fgsjgs.154.2.0265">10.1144/gsjgs.154.2.0265</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Geological+Society&rft.atitle=The+Cretaceous%E2%80%93Tertiary+biotic+transition&rft.volume=154&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=265-292&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1144%2Fgsjgs.154.2.0265&rft.au=MacLeod%2C+N%2C+Rawson%2C+PF%2C+Forey%2C+PL%2C+Banner%2C+FT%2C+Boudagher-Fadel%2C+MK%2C+Bown%2C+PR%2C+Burnett%2C+JA%2C+Chambers%2C+P%2C+Culver%2C+S%2C+Evans%2C+SE%2C+Jeffery%2C+C%2C+Kaminski%2C+MA%2C+Lord%2C+AR%2C+Milner%2C+AC%2C+Milner%2C+AR%2C+Morris%2C+N%2C+Owen%2C+E%2C+Rosen%2C+BR%2C+Smith%2C+AB%2C+Taylor%2C+PD%2C+Urquhart%2C+E+%26+Young%2C+JR&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffindarticles.com%2Fp%2Farticles%2Fmi_qa3721%2Fis_199703%2Fai_n8738406%2Fprint&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN><SPAN class="citation-comment" style="display:none; color:#33aa33; margin-left:0.3em">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<A href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list">link</A>)</SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-141"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-141"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Patterson, C (1993). <I>Osteichthyes: Teleostei. In: The Fossil Record 2 (Benton, MJ, editor)</I>. Springer. pp. 621–656. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-412-39380-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-412-39380-8">0-412-39380-8</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Osteichthyes%3A+Teleostei.+In%3A+The+Fossil+Record+2+%28Benton%2C+MJ%2C+editor%29&rft.pages=621-656&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-412-39380-8&rft.aulast=Patterson&rft.aufirst=C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-142"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-142"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Zinsmeister WJ (1 May 1998). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jpaleontol.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/72/3/556?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=1&author1=zinsmeister&andorexacttitle=and&field_name=fulltext&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&sortspec=relevance&fdate=7/1/1927&tdate=7/31/2007&resourcetype=HWCIT">"Discovery of fish mortality horizon at the K–T boundary on Seymour Island: Re-evaluation of events at the end of the Cretaceous"</A>. <I>Journal of Paleontology</I>. <B>72</B> (3): 556–571<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2007-08-27</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Paleontology&rft.atitle=Discovery+of+fish+mortality+horizon+at+the+K%E2%80%93T+boundary+on+Seymour+Island%3A+Re-evaluation+of+events+at+the+end+of+the+Cretaceous&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=556-571&rft.date=1998-05-01&rft.au=Zinsmeister+WJ&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjpaleontol.geoscienceworld.org%2Fcgi%2Fcontent%2Fabstract%2F72%2F3%2F556%3Fmaxtoshow%3D%26HITS%3D10%26hits%3D10%26RESULTFORMAT%3D1%26author1%3Dzinsmeister%26andorexacttitle%3Dand%26field_name%3Dfulltext%26searchid%3D1%26FIRSTINDEX%3D0%26sortspec%3Drelevance%26fdate%3D7%2F1%2F1927%26tdate%3D7%2F31%2F2007%26resourcetype%3DHWCIT&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Robertson-143"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Robertson_143-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Robertson DS, McKenna MC, Toon OB, Hope S, Lillegraven JA (2004). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uahost.uantwerpen.be/funmorph/raoul/macroevolutie/robertson2004.pdf">"Survival in the first hours of the Cenozoic"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>GSA Bulletin</I>. <B>116</B> (5–6): 760–768. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004GSAB..116..760R">2004GSAB..116..760R</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1130%2FB25402.1">10.1130/B25402.1</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2016-01-06</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=GSA+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Survival+in+the+first+hours+of+the+Cenozoic&rft.volume=116&rft.issue=5%E2%80%936&rft.pages=760-768&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1130%2FB25402.1&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004GSAB..116..760R&rft.aulast=Robertson&rft.aufirst=DS&rft.au=McKenna%2C+MC&rft.au=Toon%2C+OB&rft.au=Hope%2C+S&rft.au=Lillegraven%2C+JA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fuahost.uantwerpen.be%2Ffunmorph%2Fraoul%2Fmacroevolutie%2Frobertson2004.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Sibert2015-144"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Sibert2015_144-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Sibert, E. C.; Norris, R. D. (2015-06-29). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4507219">"New Age of Fishes initiated by the Cretaceous−Paleogene mass extinction"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/PNAS" class="mw-redirect" title="PNAS">PNAS</A></I>. <B>112</B>: 201504985. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1504985112">10.1073/pnas.1504985112</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4507219">4507219</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PNAS&rft.atitle=New+Age+of+Fishes+initiated+by+the+Cretaceous%E2%88%92Paleogene+mass+extinction&rft.volume=112&rft.pages=201504985&rft.date=2015-06-29&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4507219&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1504985112&rft.aulast=Sibert&rft.aufirst=E.+C.&rft.au=Norris%2C+R.+D.&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4507219&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-NaEvo-145"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-NaEvo_145-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2008/07/080709-evolution-fish.html">"Odd Fish Find Contradicts Intelligent-Design Argument"</A>. <A href="/wiki/National_Geographic_Society" title="National Geographic Society">National Geographic</A>. July 9, 2008<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2008-07-17</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Odd+Fish+Find+Contradicts+Intelligent-Design+Argument&rft.date=2008-07-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.nationalgeographic.com%2Fnews%2F2008%2F07%2F080709-evolution-fish.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-146"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-146"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Matt Friedman (2008-07-10). "The evolutionary origin of flatfish asymmetry". <I>Nature</I>. <B>454</B> (7201): 209–212. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008Natur.454..209F">2008Natur.454..209F</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature07108">10.1038/nature07108</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18615083">18615083</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+evolutionary+origin+of+flatfish+asymmetry&rft.volume=454&rft.issue=7201&rft.pages=209-212&rft.date=2008-07-10&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18615083&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature07108&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008Natur.454..209F&rft.au=Matt+Friedman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-GWB-147"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-GWB_147-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-GWB_147-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Wroe, S.; Huber, D. R.; Lowry, M.; McHenry, C.; Moreno, K.; Clausen, P.; Ferrara, T. L.; Cunningham, E.; Dean, M. N.; Summers, A. P. (2008). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bio-nica.info/Biblioteca/Wroe2008GreatWhiteSharkBiteForce.pdf">"Three-dimensional computer analysis of white shark jaw mechanics: how hard can a great white bite?"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>Journal of Zoology</I>. <B>276</B> (4): 336–342. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1469-7998.2008.00494.x">10.1111/j.1469-7998.2008.00494.x</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Zoology&rft.atitle=Three-dimensional+computer+analysis+of+white+shark+jaw+mechanics%3A+how+hard+can+a+great+white+bite%3F&rft.volume=276&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=336-342&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1469-7998.2008.00494.x&rft.aulast=Wroe&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Huber%2C+D.+R.&rft.au=Lowry%2C+M.&rft.au=McHenry%2C+C.&rft.au=Moreno%2C+K.&rft.au=Clausen%2C+P.&rft.au=Ferrara%2C+T.+L.&rft.au=Cunningham%2C+E.&rft.au=Dean%2C+M.+N.&rft.au=Summers%2C+A.+P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bio-nica.info%2FBiblioteca%2FWroe2008GreatWhiteSharkBiteForce.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-AN-148"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-AN_148-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Pimiento, Catalina; Dana J. Ehret; Bruce J. MacFadden; Gordon Hubbell (May 10, 2010). Stepanova, Anna, ed. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0010552">"Ancient Nursery Area for the Extinct Giant Shark Megalodon from the Miocene of Panama"</A>. <I>PLoS ONE</I>. Panama: PLoS.org. <B>5</B> (5): e10552. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PLoSO...510552P">2010PLoSO...510552P</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0010552">10.1371/journal.pone.0010552</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2866656">2866656</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20479893">20479893</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">12 May</SPAN> 2010</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLoS+ONE&rft.atitle=Ancient+Nursery+Area+for+the+Extinct+Giant+Shark+Megalodon+from+the+Miocene+of+Panama&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=e10552&rft.date=2010-05-10&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2866656&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20479893&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0010552&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010PLoSO...510552P&rft.aulast=Pimiento&rft.aufirst=Catalina&rft.au=Dana+J.+Ehret&rft.au=Bruce+J.+MacFadden&rft.au=Gordon+Hubbell&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.plosone.org%2Farticle%2Finfo%253Adoi%252F10.1371%252Fjournal.pone.0010552&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-LV-149"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-LV_149-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Lambert, Olivier; Giovanni Bianucci; Klaas Post; Christian de Muizon; Rodolfo Salas-Gismondi; Mario Urbina; Jelle Reumer (1 July 2010). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v466/n7302/full/nature09067.html">"The giant bite of a new raptorial sperm whale from the Miocene epoch of Peru"</A>. <I>Nature</I>. Peru. <B>466</B> (7302): 105–108. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010Natur.466..105L">2010Natur.466..105L</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature09067">10.1038/nature09067</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20596020">20596020</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+giant+bite+of+a+new+raptorial+sperm+whale+from+the+Miocene+epoch+of+Peru&rft.volume=466&rft.issue=7302&rft.pages=105-108&rft.date=2010-07-01&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20596020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature09067&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010Natur.466..105L&rft.aulast=Lambert&rft.aufirst=Olivier&rft.au=Giovanni+Bianucci&rft.au=Klaas+Post&rft.au=Christian+de+Muizon&rft.au=Rodolfo+Salas-Gismondi&rft.au=Mario+Urbina&rft.au=Jelle+Reumer&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Fnature%2Fjournal%2Fv466%2Fn7302%2Ffull%2Fnature09067.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-150"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-150"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/basalfish/myxini.html">Myxini</A> - University of California Museum of Paleontology</SPAN></LI>
</OL>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Bibliography">Bibliography</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_fish&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV class="refbegin columns references-column-count references-column-count-2" style="-moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;">
<UL>
<LI><CITE class="citation book">Ahlberg, Per Erik (2001). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zeyRZNZl-74C&pg=PA188"><I>Major events in early vertebrate evolution: palaeontology, phylogeny, genetics, and development</I></A>. Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-23370-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-23370-4">0-415-23370-4</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Major+events+in+early+vertebrate+evolution%3A+palaeontology%2C+phylogeny%2C+genetics%2C+and+development&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-415-23370-4&rft.au=Ahlberg%2C+Per+Erik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzeyRZNZl-74C%26pg%3DPA188&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Michael_Benton" title="Michael Benton">Benton, Michael J</A> (2005): <I>Vertebrate Palaeontology</I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Michael_Benton" title="Michael Benton">Benton, Michael</A> (2009) <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VThUUUtM8A4C&pg=PA44&dq=Ostracoderms+Pituriaspida+Osteostraci&hl=en&sa=X&ei=AJ7_UMvYHdHOkAWArIHAAg&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Ostracoderms%20Pituriaspida%20Osteostraci&f=false"><I>Vertebrate Palaeontology</I></A> Edition 3, John Wiley & Sons. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781405144490" title="Special:BookSources/9781405144490">9781405144490</A>.</LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation book">Berg, Linda R.; Eldra Pearl Solomon; Diana W. Martin (2004). <I>Biology</I>. Cengage Learning. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-534-49276-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-534-49276-2">978-0-534-49276-2</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biology&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-534-49276-2&rft.aulast=Berg&rft.aufirst=Linda+R.&rft.au=Eldra+Pearl+Solomon&rft.au=Diana+W.+Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation journal">Haines, Tim; Chambers, Paul (2005). "The Complete Guide to Prehistoric Life". Firefly Books.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Complete+Guide+to+Prehistoric+Life&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Haines&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft.au=Chambers%2C+Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation book">Cloudsley-Thompson, J. L. (2005). <I>Ecology and behaviour of Mesozoic reptiles</I>. 9783540224211: Springer.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ecology+and+behaviour+of+Mesozoic+reptiles&rft.place=9783540224211&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Cloudsley-Thompson&rft.aufirst=J.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE id="CITEREFDawkins2004" class="citation book"><A href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Dawkins, Richard</A> (2004). <I><A href="/wiki/The_Ancestor%27s_Tale" title="The Ancestor's Tale">The Ancestor's Tale</A>: A Pilgrimage to the Dawn of Life</I>. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-618-00583-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-618-00583-8">0-618-00583-8</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancestor%27s+Tale%3A+A+Pilgrimage+to+the+Dawn+of+Life&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Company&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-618-00583-8&rft.aulast=Dawkins&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation journal">Donoghue, P. C., P. L. Forey & R. J. Aldridge (2000). "Conodont affinity and chordate phylogeny". <I>Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society</I>. <B>75</B> (2): 191–251. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1469-185X.1999.tb00045.x">10.1111/j.1469-185X.1999.tb00045.x</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10881388">10881388</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biological+Reviews+of+the+Cambridge+Philosophical+Society&rft.atitle=Conodont+affinity+and+chordate+phylogeny&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=191-251&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1469-185X.1999.tb00045.x&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10881388&rft.au=Donoghue%2C+P.+C.%2C+P.+L.+Forey+%26+R.+J.+Aldridge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN><SPAN class="citation-comment" style="display:none; color:#33aa33; margin-left:0.3em">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<A href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list">link</A>)</SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation book">Encyclopædia Britannica (1954). <I>Encyclopædia Britannica: A new survey of universal knowledge</I>. <B>17</B>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%3A+A+new+survey+of+universal+knowledge&rft.date=1954&rft.au=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI>Forey, Peter L (1998) <I>History of the Coelacanth Fishes.</I> London: Chapman & Hall.</LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation book">Hall, Brian Keith; Hanken, James (1993). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fB-hO7i50esC&pg=PA131"><I>The Skull</I></A>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-31568-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-31568-1">0-226-31568-1</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Skull&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-226-31568-1&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Brian+Keith&rft.au=Hanken%2C+James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfB-hO7i50esC%26pg%3DPA131&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI>Helfman G, Collette BB, Facey DH and Bowen BW (2009) <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/helfman/"><I>The Diversity of Fishes: Biology, Evolution, and Ecology</I></A> Wiley-Blackwell. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-2494-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-2494-2">978-1-4051-2494-2</A></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation book">Janvier, Philippe (2003). <I>Early Vertebrates</I>. Oxford University Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-852646-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-852646-9">978-0-19-852646-9</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Vertebrates&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-852646-9&rft.aulast=Janvier&rft.aufirst=Philippe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation journal">Lecointre, G; Le Guyader, H (2007). "The Tree of Life: A Phylogenetic Classification". Harvard University Press Reference Library.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Tree+of+Life%3A+A+Phylogenetic+Classification&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Lecointre&rft.aufirst=G&rft.au=Le+Guyader%2C+H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI>Long, John A. <I>The Rise of Fishes: 500 Million Years of Evolution</I>. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8018-5438-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8018-5438-5">0-8018-5438-5</A></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation book">Nelson, Joseph S. (2006). <I><A href="/wiki/Fishes_of_the_World" title="Fishes of the World">Fishes of the World</A></I>. <A href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</A>, Inc. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-25031-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-25031-7">0-471-25031-7</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fishes+of+the+World&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-471-25031-7&rft.aulast=Nelson&rft.aufirst=Joseph+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation book">Palmer, D., ed. (1999). <I>The Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Animals</I>. London: Marshall Editions. p. 26. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84028-152-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-84028-152-9">1-84028-152-9</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Marshall+Illustrated+Encyclopedia+of+Dinosaurs+and+Prehistoric+Animals&rft.place=London&rft.pages=26&rft.pub=Marshall+Editions&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=1-84028-152-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation journal">Palmer, D. (2000). "The Atlas of the Prehistoric World". Philadelphia: Marshall Publishing Ltd.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Atlas+of+the+Prehistoric+World&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Palmer&rft.aufirst=D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation book">Patterson, Colin (1987). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DL_KQPX3AmIC&pg=PA142"><I>Molecules and morphology in evolution: conflict or compromise?</I></A>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-32271-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-32271-5">0-521-32271-5</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Molecules+and+morphology+in+evolution%3A+conflict+or+compromise%3F&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-521-32271-5&rft.au=Patterson%2C+Colin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDL_KQPX3AmIC%26pg%3DPA142&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation book">Sarjeant, William Antony S.; L. B. Halstead (1995). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=B3leE3TTeuIC&pg=PA146"><I>Vertebrate fossils and the evolution of scientific concepts: writings in tribute to Beverly Halstead</I></A>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-88124-996-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-88124-996-9">978-2-88124-996-9</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vertebrate+fossils+and+the+evolution+of+scientific+concepts%3A+writings+in+tribute+to+Beverly+Halstead&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-2-88124-996-9&rft.au=Sarjeant%2C+William+Antony+S.&rft.au=L.+B.+Halstead&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DB3leE3TTeuIC%26pg%3DPA146&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation journal">Romer, AS (1970). "The Vertebrate Body" (4 ed.). London: W.B. Saunders.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Vertebrate+Body&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Romer&rft.aufirst=AS&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation book">Turner, S. (1999). "Early Silurian to Early Devonian thelodont assemblages and their possible ecological significance". In A. J. Boucot; J. Lawson. <I>Palaeocommunities, International Geological Correlation Programme 53, Project Ecostratigraphy, Final Report</I>. <A href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Early+Silurian+to+Early+Devonian+thelodont+assemblages+and+their+possible+ecological+significance&rft.btitle=Palaeocommunities%2C+International+Geological+Correlation+Programme+53%2C+Project+Ecostratigraphy%2C+Final+Report&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.au=Turner%2C+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_fish&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<TABLE class="infobox" style="width:22em;width: 216px; float: right; clear: right; margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em">
<CAPTION>External video</CAPTION>
<TBODY><TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center;text-align: left"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" width="16" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wJunXtPFK-0">Feeding Mechanism of Conodonts</A> – <I>YouTube</I></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center;text-align: left"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" width="16" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ypYesuV3PoI">Chordate evolution</A> – <I>YouTube</I></TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
<UL>
<LI>Benton MJ (1998) <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Essays/vertfr/default.html">"The quality of the fossil record of the vertebrates"</A> Pages 269–303 in Donovan, SK and Paul CRC (eds), <I>The adequacy of the fossil record</I>. Wiley. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780471969884" title="Special:BookSources/9780471969884">9780471969884</A>.</LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation journal">Cloutier R (2010). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fishlarvae.com/common/sitemedia/Cloutier%202010%20Sem%20Cell%20Dev%20Biol%20The%20fossil%20record%20of%20fish%20ontogenies.pdf">"The fossil record of fish ontogenies: Insights into developmental patterns and processes"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology</I>. <B>21</B> (4): 400–413. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.semcdb.2009.11.004">10.1016/j.semcdb.2009.11.004</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Seminars+in+Cell+%26+Developmental+Biology&rft.atitle=The+fossil+record+of+fish+ontogenies%3A+Insights+into+developmental+patterns+and+processes&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=400-413&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.semcdb.2009.11.004&rft.au=Cloutier+R&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fishlarvae.com%2Fcommon%2Fsitemedia%2FCloutier%25202010%2520Sem%2520Cell%2520Dev%2520Biol%2520The%2520fossil%2520record%2520of%2520fish%2520ontogenies.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN><SUP class="noprint Inline-Template"><SPAN style="white-space: nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><SPAN title=" Dead link since September 2017">permanent dead link</SPAN></A></I>]</SPAN></SUP></LI>
<LI>Janvier, Philippe (1998) <I>Early Vertebrates</I>, Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-854047-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-854047-7">0-19-854047-7</A></LI>
<LI>Long, John A. (1996) <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dEP_kQAACAAJ&dq=%22The+rise+of+fishes%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=8WgLUdOMGo2IkgWZzYGwBw&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA"><I>The Rise of Fishes: 500 Million Years of Evolution</I></A> Johns Hopkins University Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8018-5438-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8018-5438-5">0-8018-5438-5</A></LI>
<LI>McKenzie DJ, Farrell AP and Brauner CJ (2011) <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gfBc_omOIeAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22Fish+physiology%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=454PUeGDLsGimQXCpYCIBA&ved=0CF4Q6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=%22Fish%20physiology%22&f=false"><I>Fish Physiology: Primitive Fishes</I></A> Academic Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780080549521" title="Special:BookSources/9780080549521">9780080549521</A>.</LI>
<LI>Maisey JG (1996) <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gAiAPwAACAAJ&dq=editions:_y8O0MW7spIC&hl=en&sa=X&ei=UmgLUZGFNMemkQXjzoGoDA&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA"><I>Discovering fossil fishes</I></A> Holt. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780805043662" title="Special:BookSources/9780805043662">9780805043662</A>.</LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation journal">Near, T.J.; Dornburg, A.; Eytan, R.I.; Keck, B.P.; Smith, W.L.; Kuhn, K.L.; Moore, J.A.; Price, S.A.; Burbrink, F.T.; Friedman, M. (2013). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3732986">"Phylogeny and tempo of diversification in the superradiation of spiny-rayed fishes"</A>. <I>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</I>. <B>110</B> (31): 12738–12743. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1304661110">10.1073/pnas.1304661110</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3732986">3732986</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23858462">23858462</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Phylogeny+and+tempo+of+diversification+in+the+superradiation+of+spiny-rayed+fishes&rft.volume=110&rft.issue=31&rft.pages=12738-12743&rft.date=2013&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3732986&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23858462&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1304661110&rft.aulast=Near&rft.aufirst=T.J.&rft.au=Dornburg%2C+A.&rft.au=Eytan%2C+R.I.&rft.au=Keck%2C+B.P.&rft.au=Smith%2C+W.L.&rft.au=Kuhn%2C+K.L.&rft.au=Moore%2C+J.A.&rft.au=Price%2C+S.A.&rft.au=Burbrink%2C+F.T.&rft.au=Friedman%2C+M.&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3732986&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+fish" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Neil_Shubin" title="Neil Shubin">Shubin, Neil</A> (2009) <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c008kdNwR1cC&dq=%22Your+Inner+Fish%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=SePbUKKxHIavkgXllIHAAQ&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAA"><I>Your inner fish: A journey into the 3.5-billion-year history of the human body</I></A> Vintage Books. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780307277459" title="Special:BookSources/9780307277459">9780307277459</A>.</LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/vertintro.html">Introduction to the Vertebrates</A> <I>Museum of Palaeontology</I>, University of California.</LI>
</UL>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_fish&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: External links">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<UL>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hoopermuseum.earthsci.carleton.ca/12.html">Fossil Fish</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ukwetlandhabitats.co.uk/fishbiologyandbehavior.html">Origins of Fish</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gZpsVSVRsZk">Overview of evolution</A> – <A href="/wiki/Carl_Sagan" title="Carl Sagan">Carl Sagan</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiology.org/ibioseminars/evolution-ecology/marc-w-kirschner-part-1.html">The Origin of Vertebrates</A> <A href="/wiki/Marc_W._Kirschner" class="mw-redirect" title="Marc W. Kirschner">Marc W. Kirschner</A>, <I>iBioSeminars</I>.</LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/artful-amoeba/2013/08/29/150-million-years-of-fish-evolution-in-one-handy-figure/">150 Million Years of Fish Evolution in One Handy Figure</A> <I>ScientificAmerican</I>, 29 August 2013.</LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Diversity_of_fish" title="Diversity of fish">Diversity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ethnoichthyology" title="Ethnoichthyology">Ethnoichthyology</A></LI>
<LI><A class="mw-selflink selflink">Evolution</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fish_diseases_and_parasites" class="mw-redirect" title="Fish diseases and parasites">Diseases and parasites</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fishery" title="Fishery">Fisheries</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fishing" title="Fishing">Fishing</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fish_as_food" title="Fish as food">Fish as food</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fear_of_fish" title="Fear of fish">Fear of fish</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/FishBase" title="FishBase">FishBase</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fish_kill" title="Fish kill">Fish kill</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hypoxia_in_fish" title="Hypoxia in fish">Hypoxia in fish</A></LI>
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<DIV><A href="/wiki/File:Antennarius_striatus.jpg" class="image" title="Striated frogfish"><IMG alt="Striated frogfish" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Antennarius_striatus.jpg/140px-Antennarius_striatus.jpg" width="140" height="86" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Antennarius_striatus.jpg/210px-Antennarius_striatus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Antennarius_striatus.jpg/280px-Antennarius_striatus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="340" data-file-height="209" /></A></DIV>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Fish_anatomy" title="Fish anatomy">Anatomy</A> and<BR />
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Fish_anatomy" title="Fish anatomy">Fish anatomy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fish_physiology" title="Fish physiology">Fish physiology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Age_determination_in_fish" title="Age determination in fish">Age determination</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Anguilliformity" title="Anguilliformity">Anguilliformity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fish_bone" title="Fish bone">Bone</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Dermal_bone" title="Dermal bone">dermal</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Intramembranous_ossification" title="Intramembranous ossification">intramembranous ossification</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cleithrum" title="Cleithrum">Cleithrum</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Chromatophore" title="Chromatophore">Chromatophore</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fish_fin" title="Fish fin">Fins</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Dorsal_fin" title="Dorsal fin">dorsal fin</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fish_gill" title="Fish gill">Gill</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Branchial_arch" title="Branchial arch">branchial arch</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Gill_raker" title="Gill raker">gill raker</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Gill_slit" title="Gill slit">gill slit</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_arch" title="Pharyngeal arch">pharyngeal arch</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_slit" title="Pharyngeal slit">pharyngeal slit</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pseudobranch" title="Pseudobranch">pseudobranch</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Glossohyal" title="Glossohyal">Glossohyal</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fish_jaw" title="Fish jaw">Jaw</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hyomandibula" title="Hyomandibula">hyomandibula</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_jaw" title="Pharyngeal jaw">pharyngeal jaw</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Leydig%27s_organ" title="Leydig's organ">Leydig's organ</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mauthner_cell" title="Mauthner cell">Mauthner cell</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Meristics" title="Meristics">Meristics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Operculum_(fish)" title="Operculum (fish)">Operculum</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Operculum_papillare" title="Operculum papillare">papillare</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Papilla_(fish_anatomy)" title="Papilla (fish anatomy)">Papilla</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Photophore" title="Photophore">Photophore</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Root_effect" title="Root effect">Root effect</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Shark_cartilage" title="Shark cartilage">Shark cartilage</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fish_scale" title="Fish scale">Scales</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ganoine" title="Ganoine">ganoine</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Spiral_valve" title="Spiral valve">Spiral valve</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Suckermouth" title="Suckermouth">Suckermouth</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Swim_bladder" title="Swim bladder">Swim bladder</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Physoclisti" title="Physoclisti">physoclisti</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Physostome" title="Physostome">physostome</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI>Teeth
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_teeth" title="Pharyngeal teeth">pharyngeal teeth</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Shark_tooth" title="Shark tooth">shark teeth</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Teleost_leptins" title="Teleost leptins">Teleost leptins</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Digital_Fish_Library" title="Digital Fish Library">Digital Library</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Sensory_systems_in_fish" title="Sensory systems in fish">Sensory<BR />
systems</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sensory_systems_in_fish" title="Sensory systems in fish">Sensory systems in fish</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ampullae_of_Lorenzini" title="Ampullae of Lorenzini">Ampullae of Lorenzini</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Barbel_(anatomy)" title="Barbel (anatomy)">Barbel</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hydrodynamic_reception" title="Hydrodynamic reception">Hydrodynamic reception</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Electrocommunication" title="Electrocommunication">Electrocommunication</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Electroreception" title="Electroreception">Electroreception</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Jamming_avoidance_response" title="Jamming avoidance response">Jamming avoidance response</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lateral_line" title="Lateral line">Lateral line</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Otolith" title="Otolith">Otolith</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Passive_electrolocation_in_fish" title="Passive electrolocation in fish">Passive electrolocation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pain_in_fish" title="Pain in fish">Capacity for pain</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Schreckstoff" title="Schreckstoff">Schreckstoff</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Surface_wave_detection_by_animals" title="Surface wave detection by animals">Surface wave detection</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Vision_in_fishes" title="Vision in fishes">Vision</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Weberian_apparatus" title="Weberian apparatus">Weberian apparatus</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Fish_reproduction" title="Fish reproduction">Reproduction</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fish_reproduction" title="Fish reproduction">Fish reproduction</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bubble_nest" title="Bubble nest">Bubble nest</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Clasper" title="Clasper">Clasper</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Egg_case_(Chondrichthyes)" title="Egg case (Chondrichthyes)">Egg case</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fish_development" title="Fish development">Fish development</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ichthyoplankton" title="Ichthyoplankton">Ichthyoplankton</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Juvenile_fish" title="Juvenile fish">Juvenile fish</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Life_history_theory" title="Life history theory">Life history theory</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Milt" title="Milt">Milt</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mouthbrooder" title="Mouthbrooder">Mouthbrooder</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Polyandry_in_fish" title="Polyandry in fish">Polyandry in fish</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pregnancy_in_fish" title="Pregnancy in fish">Pregnancy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Roe" title="Roe">Roe</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sequential_hermaphroditism" title="Sequential hermaphroditism">Sequential hermaphroditism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Spawn_(biology)" title="Spawn (biology)">Spawning</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Spawning_trigger" title="Spawning trigger">triggers</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Fish_locomotion" title="Fish locomotion">Locomotion</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fish_locomotion" title="Fish locomotion">Fish locomotion</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fin_and_flipper_locomotion" title="Fin and flipper locomotion">Fin and flipper locomotion</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Amphibious_fish" title="Amphibious fish">Amphibious fish</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Walking_fish" title="Walking fish">Walking fish</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Flying_fish" title="Flying fish">Flying fish</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Undulatory_locomotion" title="Undulatory locomotion">Undulatory locomotion</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tradeoffs_for_locomotion_in_air_and_water" title="Tradeoffs for locomotion in air and water">Tradeoffs for locomotion in air and water</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/RoboTuna" title="RoboTuna">RoboTuna</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other<BR />
behaviour</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Aquatic_predation" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquatic predation">Aquatic predation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Aquatic_respiration" title="Aquatic respiration">Aquatic respiration</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bait_ball" title="Bait ball">Bait ball</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bottom_feeder" title="Bottom feeder">Bottom feeders</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cleaner_fish" title="Cleaner fish">Cleaner fish</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Corallivore" title="Corallivore">Corallivory</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Diel_vertical_migration" title="Diel vertical migration">Diel vertical migration</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Electric_fish" title="Electric fish">Electric fish</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Filter_feeder" title="Filter feeder">Filter feeders</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Forage_fish" title="Forage fish">Forage fish</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fish_migration" title="Fish migration">Migrating fish</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Paedophagy" title="Paedophagy">Paedophagy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Predatory_fish" title="Predatory fish">Predatory fish</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Salmon_run" title="Salmon run">Salmon run</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sardine_run" title="Sardine run">Sardine run</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lepidophagy" title="Lepidophagy">Scale eaters</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling" title="Shoaling and schooling">Schooling fish</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sleep_in_fish" title="Sleep in fish">Sleep in fish</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Venomous_fish" title="Venomous fish">Venomous fish</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fish_intelligence" title="Fish intelligence">Fish intelligence</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By <A href="/wiki/Marine_habitats" title="Marine habitats">habitat</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cavefish" title="Cavefish">Cave</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Coastal_fish" title="Coastal fish">Coastal</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Coldwater_fish" title="Coldwater fish">Coldwater</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Coral_reef_fish" title="Coral reef fish">Coral reef</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Deep_sea_fish" title="Deep sea fish">Deep sea</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Demersal_fish" title="Demersal fish">Demersal</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Euryhaline" title="Euryhaline">Euryhaline</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Freshwater_fish" title="Freshwater fish">Freshwater</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Groundfish" title="Groundfish">Groundfish</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pelagic_fish" title="Pelagic fish">Pelagic</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tropical_fish" title="Tropical fish">Tropical</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other types</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bait_fish" title="Bait fish">Bait</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Coarse_fishing" title="Coarse fishing">Coarse</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Diversity_of_fish" title="Diversity of fish">Diversity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Game_fish" title="Game fish">Game</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_fish" title="Genetically modified fish">Genetically modified</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hallucinogenic_fish" title="Hallucinogenic fish">Hallucinogenic</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Oily_fish" title="Oily fish">Oily</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Poisonous_fish" title="Poisonous fish">Poisonous</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Rough_fish" title="Rough fish">Rough</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Whitefish_(fisheries_term)" title="Whitefish (fisheries term)">Whitefish</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/List_of_commercially_important_fish_species" title="List of commercially important fish species">Commercial</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Fish_farming" title="Fish farming">Fish farming</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Carp#Aquaculture" title="Carp">Carp</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Aquaculture_of_salmonids" title="Aquaculture of salmonids">Salmonids</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Aquaculture_of_tilapia" title="Aquaculture of tilapia">Tilapia</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Wild_fisheries" title="Wild fisheries">Wild fisheries</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Predatory_fish" title="Predatory fish">Predatory fish</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Billfish" title="Billfish">billfish</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mackerel" title="Mackerel">mackerel</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Salmon" title="Salmon">salmon</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tuna" title="Tuna">tuna</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Forage_fish" title="Forage fish">Forage fish</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Anchovy" title="Anchovy">anchovy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Herring" title="Herring">herring</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sardine" title="Sardine">sardine</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sprat" title="Sprat">sprats</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Demersal_fish" title="Demersal fish">Demersal fish</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cod" title="Cod">cod</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Flatfish" title="Flatfish">flatfish</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pollock" title="Pollock">pollock</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major groups</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Agnatha" title="Agnatha">Jawless fish</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hagfish" title="Hagfish">hagfish</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hyperoartia" title="Hyperoartia">lampreys</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Chondrichthyes" title="Chondrichthyes">Cartilaginous fish</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Holocephali" title="Holocephali">chimaeras</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Shark" title="Shark">sharks</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Batoidea" title="Batoidea">rays</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Osteichthyes" title="Osteichthyes">Bony fish</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Actinopterygii" title="Actinopterygii">spiny-finned</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sarcopterygii" title="Sarcopterygii">fleshy-finned</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lists_of_aquarium_life" title="Lists of aquarium life">Aquarium life</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Blind_fish" title="Blind fish">Blind fish</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_common_fish_names" title="List of common fish names">Fish common names</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_fish_families" title="List of fish families">Fish families</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Category:Lists_of_fish_on_stamps" title="Category:Lists of fish on stamps">Fish on stamps</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ichthyology" title="Glossary of ichthyology">Glossary of ichthyology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_largest_fish" title="List of largest fish">Large fish</A></LI>
<LI>Threatened
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_threatened_rays" title="List of threatened rays">rays</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_threatened_sharks" title="List of threatened sharks">sharks</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lists_of_prehistoric_fish" title="Lists of prehistoric fish">Prehistoric fish</A></LI>
<LI><IMG alt="Category" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/16px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png" title="Category" width="16" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/24px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/32px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="36" data-file-height="31" /> <A href="/wiki/Category:Lists_of_fishes" title="Category:Lists of fishes">more lists...</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TD class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3">
<DIV>
<UL>
<LI><IMG alt="Category" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/16px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png" title="Category" width="16" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/24px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/32px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="36" data-file-height="31" /> <B><A href="/wiki/Category:Fish" title="Category:Fish">Category</A></B></LI>
<LI><IMG alt="Portal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/16px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png" title="Portal" width="16" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/24px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/32px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="32" data-file-height="28" /> <B><A href="/wiki/Portal:Fish" title="Portal:Fish">Portal</A></B></LI>
<LI><IMG alt="WikiProject" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" title="WikiProject" width="16" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <B><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Fishes" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Fishes">WikiProject</A></B></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
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<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;"text-align:center; width:80px;""><A href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">Forerunners</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;width: auto;">
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Cephalochordate" title="Cephalochordate">Cephalochordate</A>
<UL>
<LI><SPAN title="Extinct"><SPAN style="font-style:normal;"><SPAN style="font-weight:normal;">†</SPAN></SPAN></SPAN><I><A href="/wiki/Pikaia" title="Pikaia">Pikaia</A></I></LI>
<LI><SPAN title="Extinct"><SPAN style="font-style:normal;"><SPAN style="font-weight:normal;">†</SPAN></SPAN></SPAN><I><A href="/wiki/Cathaymyrus" title="Cathaymyrus">Cathaymyrus</A></I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lancelet" title="Lancelet">Lancelet</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Olfactores" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfactores">Olfactores</A>
<UL>
<LI><SPAN title="Extinct"><SPAN style="font-style:normal;"><SPAN style="font-weight:normal;">†</SPAN></SPAN></SPAN><I><A href="/wiki/Haikouella" title="Haikouella">Haikouella</A></I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tunicate" title="Tunicate">Tunicate</A></LI>
<LI><SPAN title="Extinct"><SPAN style="font-style:normal;"><SPAN style="font-weight:normal;">†</SPAN></SPAN></SPAN><A href="/wiki/Myllokunmingiidae" title="Myllokunmingiidae">Myllokunmingiidae</A>?</LI>
<LI><SPAN title="Extinct"><SPAN style="font-style:normal;"><SPAN style="font-weight:normal;">†</SPAN></SPAN></SPAN><I><A href="/wiki/Zhongxiniscus" title="Zhongxiniscus">Zhongxiniscus</A></I>?</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
<TD class="navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px">
<DIV><A href="/wiki/File:Astraspis_desiderata.png" class="image" title="Placoderm"><IMG alt="Placoderm" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Astraspis_desiderata.png/100px-Astraspis_desiderata.png" width="100" height="71" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Astraspis_desiderata.png/150px-Astraspis_desiderata.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Astraspis_desiderata.png/200px-Astraspis_desiderata.png 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="250" /></A></DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;"text-align:center; width:80px;""><A href="/wiki/Agnatha" title="Agnatha">Jawless fish</A><BR /></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;width: auto;">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Cyclostomata" title="Cyclostomata">Cyclostomata</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hagfish" title="Hagfish">Hagfish</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hyperoartia" title="Hyperoartia">Hyperoartia</A>
<UL>
<LI><SPAN title="Extinct"><SPAN style="font-style:normal;"><SPAN style="font-weight:normal;">†</SPAN></SPAN></SPAN><I><A href="/wiki/Haikouichthys" title="Haikouichthys">Haikouichthys</A></I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lamprey" title="Lamprey">Lamprey</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><SPAN title="Extinct"><SPAN style="font-style:normal;"><SPAN style="font-weight:normal;">†</SPAN></SPAN></SPAN><A href="/wiki/Conodont" title="Conodont">Conodonts</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI>†<A href="/wiki/Protoconodont" title="Protoconodont">Protoconodonta</A>?</LI>
<LI>†<A href="/wiki/Paraconodontida" title="Paraconodontida">Paraconodontida</A></LI>
<LI>†<A href="/wiki/Prioniodontida" title="Prioniodontida">Prioniodontida</A>
<UL>
<LI>†<I><A href="/wiki/Promissum" title="Promissum">Promissum</A></I></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><SPAN title="Extinct"><SPAN style="font-style:normal;"><SPAN style="font-weight:normal;">†</SPAN></SPAN></SPAN><A href="/wiki/Ostracoderm" title="Ostracoderm">Ostracoderms</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI>†<A href="/wiki/Pteraspidomorphi" title="Pteraspidomorphi">Pteraspidomorphi</A></LI>
<LI>†<A href="/wiki/Thelodonti" title="Thelodonti">Thelodonti</A></LI>
<LI>†<A href="/wiki/Anaspida" title="Anaspida">Anaspida</A></LI>
<LI><SPAN title="Extinct"><SPAN style="font-style:normal;"><SPAN style="font-weight:normal;">†</SPAN></SPAN></SPAN><A href="/wiki/Cephalaspidomorphi" title="Cephalaspidomorphi">Cephalaspidomorphi</A>
<UL>
<LI>†<A href="/wiki/Galeaspida" title="Galeaspida">Galeaspida</A></LI>
<LI>†<A href="/wiki/Pituriaspida" title="Pituriaspida">Pituriaspida</A></LI>
<LI>†<A href="/wiki/Osteostraci" title="Osteostraci">Osteostraci</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;"text-align:center; width:80px;""><A href="/wiki/Gnathostomata" title="Gnathostomata">Jawed fish</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;width: auto;">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><SPAN title="Extinct"><SPAN style="font-style:normal;"><SPAN style="font-weight:normal;">†</SPAN></SPAN></SPAN><A href="/wiki/Placodermi" title="Placodermi">Placoderms</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI>†<A href="/wiki/Antiarchi" title="Antiarchi">Antiarchi</A></LI>
<LI>†<A href="/wiki/Arthrodira" title="Arthrodira">Arthrodira</A></LI>
<LI>†<A href="/wiki/Brindabellaspida" class="mw-redirect" title="Brindabellaspida">Brindabellaspida</A></LI>
<LI>†<A href="/wiki/Petalichthyida" title="Petalichthyida">Petalichthyida</A></LI>
<LI>†<A href="/wiki/Phyllolepida" title="Phyllolepida">Phyllolepida</A></LI>
<LI>†<A href="/wiki/Ptyctodontida" title="Ptyctodontida">Ptyctodontida</A></LI>
<LI>†<A href="/wiki/Rhenanida" title="Rhenanida">Rhenanida</A></LI>
<LI>†<A href="/wiki/Acanthothoraci" title="Acanthothoraci">Acanthothoraci</A> †</LI>
<LI>†<A href="/wiki/Pseudopetalichthyida" title="Pseudopetalichthyida">Pseudopetalichthyida</A>?</LI>
<LI>†<A href="/wiki/Stensioellida" class="mw-redirect" title="Stensioellida">Stensioellida</A>?</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><SPAN title="Extinct"><SPAN style="font-style:normal;"><SPAN style="font-weight:normal;">†</SPAN></SPAN></SPAN><A href="/wiki/Acanthodii" title="Acanthodii">Spiny sharks</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI>†<A href="/wiki/Climatiiformes" title="Climatiiformes">Climatiiformes</A></LI>
<LI>†<A href="/wiki/Ischnacanthiformes" title="Ischnacanthiformes">Ischnacanthiformes</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Chondrichthyes" title="Chondrichthyes">Cartilaginous</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Elasmobranchii" title="Elasmobranchii">Elasmobranchii</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Holocephali" title="Holocephali">Holocephali</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Osteichthyes" title="Osteichthyes">Bony</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Sarcopterygii" title="Sarcopterygii">Lobe-finned</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><SPAN title="Extinct"><SPAN style="font-style:normal;"><SPAN style="font-weight:normal;">†</SPAN></SPAN></SPAN><A href="/wiki/Onychodontida" title="Onychodontida">Onychodontida</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Actinistia" title="Actinistia">Actinistia</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Coelacanth" title="Coelacanth">Coelacanth</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Dipnomorpha" class="mw-redirect" title="Dipnomorpha">Dipnomorpha</A>
<UL>
<LI><SPAN title="Extinct"><SPAN style="font-style:normal;"><SPAN style="font-weight:normal;">†</SPAN></SPAN></SPAN><A href="/wiki/Porolepiformes" title="Porolepiformes">Porolepiformes</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lungfish" title="Lungfish">Lungfish</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tetrapodomorpha" title="Tetrapodomorpha">Tetrapodomorpha</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Actinopterygii" title="Actinopterygii">Ray-finned</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cladistii" class="mw-redirect" title="Cladistii">Cladistii</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Chondrostei" title="Chondrostei">Chondrostei</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Neopterygii" title="Neopterygii">Neopterygii</A>
<UL>
<LI><SPAN title="Extinct"><SPAN style="font-style:normal;"><SPAN style="font-weight:normal;">†</SPAN></SPAN></SPAN><A href="/wiki/Semionotiformes" title="Semionotiformes">Semionotiformes</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Holostei" title="Holostei">Holostei</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Teleostei" class="mw-redirect" title="Teleostei">Teleostei</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;"text-align:center; width:80px;"">Lists</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;width: auto;">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lists_of_prehistoric_fish" title="Lists of prehistoric fish">Lists of prehistoric fish</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_acanthodians" title="List of acanthodians">spiny sharks</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_placoderm_genera" title="List of placoderm genera">placoderms</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_prehistoric_cartilaginous_fish_genera" class="mw-redirect" title="List of prehistoric cartilaginous fish genera">cartilaginous</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_prehistoric_bony_fish_genera" title="List of prehistoric bony fish genera">bony</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_sarcopterygian_genera" title="List of sarcopterygian genera">lobe-finned</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_transitional_fossils" title="List of transitional fossils">List of transitional fossils</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;"text-align:center; width:80px;"">Related</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;width: auto;">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Prehistoric_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Prehistoric life">Prehistoric life</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Transitional_fossils" class="mw-redirect" title="Transitional fossils">Transitional fossils</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Vertebrate_paleontology" title="Vertebrate paleontology">Vertebrate paleontology</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3">
<DIV>† extinct</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</DIV>
<DIV role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Evolutionary_biology" style="padding:3px">
<TABLE class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit" id="collapsibleTable3">
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<TH scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><SPAN class="collapseButton">[<A id="collapseButton3" href="#">show</A>]</SPAN>
<DIV class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
<UL>
<LI class="nv-view"><A href="/wiki/Template:Evolution" title="Template:Evolution"><ABBR title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none;">v</ABBR></A></LI>
<LI class="nv-talk"><A href="/wiki/Template_talk:Evolution" title="Template talk:Evolution"><ABBR title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none;">t</ABBR></A></LI>
<LI class="nv-edit"><A class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Evolution&action=edit"><ABBR title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none;">e</ABBR></A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<DIV id="Evolutionary_biology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><A href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</A></DIV>
</TH>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TD class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2">
<DIV>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_life" title="Evolutionary history of life">Evolutionary history of life</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Index_of_evolutionary_biology_articles" title="Index of evolutionary biology articles">Index of evolutionary biology articles</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Introduction</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Outline_of_evolution" title="Outline of evolution">Outline of evolution</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Timeline_of_evolutionary_history_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of evolutionary history of life">Timeline of evolution</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Adaptive_radiation" title="Adaptive radiation">Adaptive radiation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">Common descent</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">Convergence</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Divergent_evolution" title="Divergent evolution">Divergence</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evidence_of_common_descent" title="Evidence of common descent">Evidence of common descent</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinction</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Event</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Gene-centered_view_of_evolution" title="Gene-centered view of evolution">Gene-centered view</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">Homology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor" title="Last universal common ancestor">Last universal common ancestor</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Macroevolution" title="Macroevolution">Macroevolution</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Microevolution" title="Microevolution">Microevolution</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Origin of life</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Panspermia" title="Panspermia">Panspermia</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Parallel_evolution" title="Parallel evolution">Parallel evolution</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Autopsy" title="Prehistoric Autopsy">Prehistoric Autopsy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy" title="Evolutionary taxonomy">Taxonomy</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">Gene flow</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">Variation</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Development</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Canalisation_(genetics)" title="Canalisation (genetics)">Canalisation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary developmental biology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Inversion_(evolutionary_biology)" title="Inversion (evolutionary biology)">Inversion</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Modularity_(biology)" title="Modularity (biology)">Modularity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Phenotypic_plasticity" title="Phenotypic plasticity">Phenotypic plasticity</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <A href="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxa</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_birds" title="Evolution of birds">Birds</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Origin_of_birds" title="Origin of birds">origin</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_brachiopods" title="Evolution of brachiopods">Brachiopods</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_molluscs" title="Evolution of molluscs">Molluscs</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cephalopods" title="Evolution of cephalopods">Cephalopods</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_dinosaurs" title="Evolution of dinosaurs">Dinosaurs</A></LI>
<LI><A class="mw-selflink selflink">Fish</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fungi" title="Evolution of fungi">Fungi</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_insects" title="Evolution of insects">Insects</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_butterflies" title="Evolution of butterflies">butterflies</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_life" title="Evolutionary history of life">Life</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammals" title="Evolution of mammals">Mammals</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cat_gap" title="Cat gap">cats</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_canids" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of canids">canids</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_wolf" title="Evolution of the wolf">wolves</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Origin_of_the_domestic_dog" title="Origin of the domestic dog">dogs</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_hyenas" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of hyenas">hyenas</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cetaceans" title="Evolution of cetaceans">dolphins and whales</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_horse" title="Evolution of the horse">horses</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_primates" title="Evolution of primates">primates</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">humans</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_lemurs" title="Evolution of lemurs">lemurs</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sirenians" title="Evolution of sirenians">sea cows</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Plants</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_reptiles" title="Evolution of reptiles">Reptiles</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_spiders" title="Evolution of spiders">Spiders</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_tetrapods" title="Evolution of tetrapods">Tetrapods</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Viral_evolution" title="Viral evolution">Viruses</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_influenza" title="Evolution of influenza">influenza</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <A href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" title="Organ (anatomy)">organs</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cells" title="Evolution of cells">Cell</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Models_of_DNA_evolution" title="Models of DNA evolution">DNA</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_flagella" title="Evolution of flagella">Flagella</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Eukaryote#Origin_of_eukaryotes" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryotes</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Symbiogenesis" title="Symbiogenesis">symbiogenesis</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Chromosome#Evolution_of_eukaryotic_chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosome</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Endomembrane_system#Evolution" title="Endomembrane system">endomembrane system</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mitochondrion#Origin" title="Mitochondrion">mitochondria</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus#Evolution" title="Cell nucleus">nucleus</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Plastid#Origin_of_plastids" title="Plastid">plastids</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI>In animals
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">eye</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_hair" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of hair">hair</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammalian_auditory_ossicles" title="Evolution of mammalian auditory ossicles">auditory ossicle</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">nervous system</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">brain</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <A href="/wiki/Biological_process" title="Biological process">processes</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_ageing" title="Evolution of ageing">Aging</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Death#Evolution_of_aging_and_mortality" title="Death">Death</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Programmed_cell_death#Evolutionary_origin" title="Programmed cell death">Programmed cell death</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Origin_of_avian_flight" title="Origin of avian flight">Avian flight</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_biological_complexity" title="Evolution of biological complexity">Biological complexity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Co-operation_(evolution)" title="Co-operation (evolution)">Cooperation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision" title="Evolution of color vision">Color vision</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">in primates</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_emotion" title="Evolution of emotion">Emotion</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Empathy#Evolution_of_empathy" title="Empathy">Empathy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Ethics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_eusociality" title="Evolution of eusociality">Eusociality</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Immune_system#Other_mechanisms_and_evolution" title="Immune system">Immune system</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Metabolism#Evolution" title="Metabolism">Metabolism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Monogamy_in_animals" title="Monogamy in animals">Monogamy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Morality</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mosaic_evolution" title="Mosaic evolution">Mosaic evolution</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_multicellularity" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of multicellularity">Multicellularity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Sexual reproduction</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Anisogamy#Evolution_of_anisogamy" title="Anisogamy">Gamete differentiation/sexes</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">Life cycles/nuclear phases</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mating_type" title="Mating type">Mating types</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Origin_and_function_of_meiosis" title="Origin and function of meiosis">Meiosis</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sex-determination_system#Evolution_of_sex-determination_systems" title="Sex-determination system">Sex-determination</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_snake_venom" title="Evolution of snake venom">Snake venom</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Tempo_and_Mode_in_Evolution" title="Tempo and Mode in Evolution">Tempo and modes</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Phyletic_gradualism" title="Phyletic gradualism">Gradualism</A>/<A href="/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">Punctuated equilibrium</A>/<A href="/wiki/Saltation_(biology)" title="Saltation (biology)">Saltationism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Micromutation" class="mw-redirect" title="Micromutation">Micromutation</A>/<A href="/wiki/Macromutation" class="mw-redirect" title="Macromutation">Macromutation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</A>/<A href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Allopatric_speciation" title="Allopatric speciation">Allopatric</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Anagenesis" title="Anagenesis">Anagenesis</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Catagenesis_(biology)" title="Catagenesis (biology)">Catagenesis</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cladogenesis" title="Cladogenesis">Cladogenesis</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cospeciation" title="Cospeciation">Cospeciation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecological_speciation" title="Ecological speciation">Ecological</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hybrid_speciation" title="Hybrid speciation">Hybrid</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Parapatric_speciation" title="Parapatric speciation">Parapatric</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Peripatric_speciation" title="Peripatric speciation">Peripatric</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Reinforcement_(speciation)" title="Reinforcement (speciation)">Reinforcement</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sympatric_speciation" title="Sympatric speciation">Sympatric</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">History</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ideas_of_the_Renaissance_and_Enlightenment" title="Evolutionary ideas of the Renaissance and Enlightenment">Renaissance and Enlightenment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Transmutation_of_species" title="Transmutation of species">Transmutation of species</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</A>
<UL>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</A></I></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">History of paleontology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">Transitional fossil</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Blending_inheritance" title="Blending inheritance">Blending inheritance</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/The_eclipse_of_Darwinism" title="The eclipse of Darwinism">The eclipse of Darwinism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_evolution" title="History of molecular evolution">History of molecular evolution</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Extended_evolutionary_synthesis" title="Extended evolutionary synthesis">Extended evolutionary synthesis</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Alternatives_to_evolution_by_natural_selection" title="Alternatives to evolution by natural selection">Alternatives</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Orthogenesis" title="Orthogenesis">Orthogenesis</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mutationism" title="Mutationism">Mutationism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Saltationism" class="mw-redirect" title="Saltationism">Saltationism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Structuralism_(biology)" title="Structuralism (biology)">Structuralism</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">Spandrel</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">Theistic</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Teleology_in_biology" title="Teleology in biology">Teleology in biology</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">Tree</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(biology)" title="Polymorphism (biology)">Polymorphism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Protocell" title="Protocell">Protocell</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TD class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2">
<DIV>
<UL>
<LI><IMG alt="Category" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/16px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png" title="Category" width="16" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/24px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/32px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="36" data-file-height="31" /> <B><A href="/wiki/Category:Evolutionary_biology" title="Category:Evolutionary biology">Category</A></B></LI>
<LI><IMG alt="Commons page" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" title="Commons page" width="12" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <B><A href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Evolutionary_biology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Evolutionary biology">Commons</A></B></LI>
<LI><IMG alt="Portal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/16px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png" title="Portal" width="16" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/24px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/32px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="32" data-file-height="28" /> <B><A href="/wiki/Portal:Evolutionary_biology" title="Portal:Evolutionary biology">Portal</A></B></LI>
<LI><IMG alt="WikiProject" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" title="WikiProject" width="16" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <B><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Evolutionary_biology" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Evolutionary biology">WikiProject</A></B></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</DIV>
<DIV role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Fins,_limbs_and_wings" style="padding:3px">
<TABLE class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit" id="collapsibleTable4">
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<DIV id="Fins,_limbs_and_wings" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><A href="/wiki/Fin" title="Fin">Fins</A>, <A href="/wiki/Limb_(anatomy)" title="Limb (anatomy)">limbs</A> and <A href="/wiki/Wing" title="Wing">wings</A></DIV>
</TH>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Fin" title="Fin">Fins</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Aquatic_locomotion" title="Aquatic locomotion">Aquatic locomotion</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cephalopod_fin" title="Cephalopod fin">Cephalopod fin</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fish_locomotion" title="Fish locomotion">Fish locomotion</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fin_and_flipper_locomotion" title="Fin and flipper locomotion">Fin and flipper locomotion</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Caudal_fin" class="mw-redirect" title="Caudal fin">Caudal fin</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Dorsal_fin" title="Dorsal fin">Dorsal fin</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fish_fin" title="Fish fin">Fish fin</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Flipper_(anatomy)" title="Flipper (anatomy)">flipper</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sarcopterygii" title="Sarcopterygii">Lobe-finned fish</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Actinopterygii" title="Actinopterygii">Ray-finned fish</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pectoral_fins" class="mw-redirect" title="Pectoral fins">Pectoral fins</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pelvic_fin" title="Pelvic fin">Pelvic fin</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
<TD class="navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px">
<DIV><A href="/wiki/File:Crossopterygii_fins_tetrapod_legs.svg" class="image" title="Fin and limb"><IMG alt="Fin and limb" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Crossopterygii_fins_tetrapod_legs.svg/140px-Crossopterygii_fins_tetrapod_legs.svg.png" width="140" height="123" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Crossopterygii_fins_tetrapod_legs.svg/210px-Crossopterygii_fins_tetrapod_legs.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Crossopterygii_fins_tetrapod_legs.svg/280px-Crossopterygii_fins_tetrapod_legs.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1093" data-file-height="957" /></A></DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Limb_(anatomy)" title="Limb (anatomy)">Limbs</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Limb_development" title="Limb development">Limb development</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Comparative_foot_morphology" title="Comparative foot morphology">Limb morphology</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Digitigrade" title="Digitigrade">digitigrade</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Plantigrade" title="Plantigrade">plantigrade</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Unguligrade" class="mw-redirect" title="Unguligrade">unguligrade</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Uniped" class="mw-redirect" title="Uniped">uniped</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bipedalism" title="Bipedalism">biped</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Facultative_biped" title="Facultative biped">facultative biped</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tripedal" class="mw-redirect" title="Tripedal">triped</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Quadrupedalism" title="Quadrupedalism">quadruped</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Arthropod_leg" title="Arthropod leg">Arthropod</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cephalopod_limb" title="Cephalopod limb">Cephalopod</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tetrapod#Limbs" title="Tetrapod">Tetrapod</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Dactyly" title="Dactyly">dactyly</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Digit_(anatomy)" title="Digit (anatomy)">Digit</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Wing" title="Wing">Wings</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals" title="Flying and gliding animals">Flying and gliding animals</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bat_wing_development" title="Bat wing development">Bat wing</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bird_flight#Wing" title="Bird flight">Bird wing</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Keel_(bird_anatomy)" title="Keel (bird anatomy)">keel</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bird_anatomy#Skeletal_system" title="Bird anatomy">skeleton</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Flight_feather" title="Flight feather">feathers</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Insect_wing" title="Insect wing">Insect wing</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pterosaur#Wings" title="Pterosaur">Pterosaur wing</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wingspan" title="Wingspan">Wingspan</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Evolution</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A class="mw-selflink selflink">Evolution of fish</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_tetrapods" title="Evolution of tetrapods">Evolution of tetrapods</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_birds" title="Evolution of birds">Evolution of birds</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Origin_of_birds" title="Origin of birds">Origin of birds</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Origin_of_avian_flight" title="Origin of avian flight">Origin of avian flight</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cetaceans" title="Evolution of cetaceans">Evolution of cetaceans</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Comparative_anatomy" title="Comparative anatomy">Comparative anatomy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">Convergent evolution</A></LI>
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document_title: Evolution of fish

token: Evolution

token: of

token: fish

token: wikipedia

token: Jump

token: to

token: navigation

token: search

token: <Table>

token: <Tr>

token: Fish

token: Fossil

token: range

token: Mid

token: Cambrian

token: Recent

token: PreЄ

token: Є

token: Pg

token: The

token: Devonian

token: period

token: Ma

token: Age

token: Fishes

token: saw

token: the

token: development

token: early

token: sharks

token: armoured

token: placoderms

token: various

token: lobe

token: finned

token: fishes

token: including

token: tetrapod

token: transitional

token: species

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token: classification

token: Kingdom

token: Animalia

token: Phylum

token: Chordata

token: unranked

token: Craniata

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token: Jawless

token: Armoured

token: Spiny

token: Cartilaginous

token: Bony

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question_text: fish appeared in the fossil record during the