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<H1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Philosophy of mind</H1>			<DIV id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content">
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A phrenological <A href="/wiki/Brain_mapping" title="Brain mapping">mapping</A><SUP id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-1">[1]</A></SUP> of the <A href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</A> – <A href="/wiki/Phrenology" title="Phrenology">phrenology</A> was among the first attempts to correlate mental functions with specific parts of the brain although it is now largely discredited.</DIV>
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<P><B>Philosophy of mind</B> is a branch of <A href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</A> that studies the nature of the <A href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</A>. The <A href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_problem" title="Mind–body problem">mind–body problem</A> is a paradigm issue in philosophy of mind, although other issues are addressed, such as the <A href="/wiki/Hard_problem_of_consciousness" title="Hard problem of consciousness">hard problem of consciousness</A>, and the nature of particular mental states.<SUP id="cite_ref-Kim1_2-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Kim1-2">[2]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_3-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-3">[3]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Macpherson,_F._2008_4-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Macpherson,_F._2008-4">[4]</A></SUP> Aspects of the mind that are studied include <A href="/wiki/Mental_event" title="Mental event">mental events</A>, <A href="/wiki/Mental_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental function">mental functions</A>, <A href="/wiki/Mental_property" title="Mental property">mental properties</A>, <A href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</A>, the ontology of the mind, the nature of thought, and the relationship of the mind to the body.</P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Dualism_(philosophy_of_mind)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dualism (philosophy of mind)">Dualism</A> and <A href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">monism</A> are the two central <A href="/wiki/Schools_of_thought" class="mw-redirect" title="Schools of thought">schools of thought</A> on the mind–body problem, although nuanced views have arisen that do not fit one or the other category neatly. Dualism is seen even in the Eastern tradition, in the <A href="/wiki/Sankhya" class="mw-redirect" title="Sankhya">Sankhya</A> and <A href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</A> schools of <A href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hindu</A> philosophy,<SUP id="cite_ref-Sa_5-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Sa-5">[5]</A></SUP> and <A href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-Plato_6-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Plato-6">[6]</A></SUP> but its entry into Western philosophy was thanks to <A href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</A> in the 17th century.<SUP id="cite_ref-De_7-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-De-7">[7]</A></SUP> Substance dualists like Descartes argue that the mind is an independently existing <A href="/wiki/Substance_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Substance (philosophy)">substance</A>, whereas <A href="/wiki/Property_dualism" title="Property dualism">property dualists</A> maintain that the mind is a group of independent properties that <A href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">emerge</A> from and cannot be reduced to the brain, but that it is not a distinct substance.<SUP id="cite_ref-Du_8-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Du-8">[8]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Monism is the position that mind and body are not <A href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontologically</A> distinct entities (independent substances). This view was first advocated in <A href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</A> by <A href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</A> in the 5th century BC and was later espoused by the 17th century <A href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalist</A> <A href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Spin_9-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Spin-9">[9]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalists</A> argue that only entities postulated by physical theory exist, and that mental processes will eventually be explained in terms of these entities as physical theory continues to evolve. Physicalists maintain various positions on the prospects of reducing mental properties to physical properties (many of whom adopt compatible forms of property dualism),<SUP id="cite_ref-Schneider2013_10-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Schneider2013-10">[10]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-DePaulBaltimore2013_11-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-DePaulBaltimore2013-11">[11]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-GibbLowe2013_12-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-GibbLowe2013-12">[12]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Demircioglu2011_13-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Demircioglu2011-13">[13]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Francescotti_14-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Francescotti-14">[14]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Gibb2010_15-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Gibb2010-15">[15]</A></SUP> and the ontological status of such mental properties remains unclear.<SUP id="cite_ref-Francescotti_14-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Francescotti-14">[14]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-McLaughlinAndBennett_16-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-McLaughlinAndBennett-16">[16]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Megill2012_17-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Megill2012-17">[17]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Idealism_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Idealism (philosophy)">Idealists</A> maintain that the mind is all that exists and that the external world is either mental itself, or an illusion created by the mind. <A href="/wiki/Neutral_monism" title="Neutral monism">Neutral monists</A> such as <A href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Ernst Mach</A> and <A href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</A> argue that events in the world can be thought of as either mental (psychological) or physical depending on the network of relationships into which they enter, and dual-aspect monists such as <A href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</A> adhere to the position that there is some other, neutral substance, and that both matter and mind are properties of this unknown substance. The most common monisms in the 20th and 21st centuries have all been variations of physicalism; these positions include <A href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">behaviorism</A>, the <A href="/wiki/Type_physicalism" title="Type physicalism">type identity theory</A>, <A href="/wiki/Anomalous_monism" title="Anomalous monism">anomalous monism</A> and <A href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">functionalism</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Kim_18-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Kim-18">[18]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Most modern philosophers of mind adopt either a reductive or non-reductive physicalist position, maintaining in their different ways that the mind is not something separate from the body.<SUP id="cite_ref-Kim_18-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Kim-18">[18]</A></SUP> These approaches have been particularly influential in the sciences, especially in the fields of <A href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">sociobiology</A>, <A href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</A>, <A href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">evolutionary psychology</A> and the various <A href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neurosciences</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-PsyBio_19-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-PsyBio-19">[19]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-LeDoux_20-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-LeDoux-20">[20]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-RussNor_21-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-RussNor-21">[21]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-DawkRich_22-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-DawkRich-22">[22]</A></SUP> Reductive physicalists assert that all mental states and properties will eventually be explained by scientific accounts of physiological processes and states.<SUP id="cite_ref-Pat_23-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Pat-23">[23]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Paul_24-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Paul-24">[24]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Smart_25-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Smart-25">[25]</A></SUP> Non-reductive physicalists argue that although the mind is not a separate substance, mental properties <A href="/wiki/Supervenience" title="Supervenience">supervene</A> on physical properties, or that the predicates and vocabulary used in mental descriptions and explanations are indispensable, and cannot be reduced to the language and lower-level explanations of physical science.<SUP id="cite_ref-Davidson_26-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Davidson-26">[26]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Pu_27-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Pu-27">[27]</A></SUP> Continued <A href="/wiki/Neuroscientific" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuroscientific">neuroscientific</A> progress has helped to clarify some of these issues; however, they are far from being resolved. Modern philosophers of mind continue to ask how the subjective qualities and the <A href="/wiki/Intentionality" title="Intentionality">intentionality</A> of mental states and properties can be explained in naturalistic terms.<SUP id="cite_ref-Int_28-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Int-28">[28]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Searleint_29-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Searleint-29">[29]</A></SUP></P>
<P></P>
<DIV id="toc" class="toc">
<DIV class="toctitle">
<H2>Contents</H2>
<SPAN class="toctoggle"> [<A role="button" tabindex="0" class="togglelink">hide</A>] </SPAN></DIV>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><A href="#Mind–body_problem"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Mind–body problem</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><A href="#Dualist_solutions_to_the_mind–body_problem"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Dualist solutions to the mind–body problem</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><A href="#Arguments_for_dualism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Arguments for dualism</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><A href="#Interactionist_dualism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Interactionist dualism</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><A href="#Other_forms_of_dualism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Other forms of dualism</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-6"><A href="#Psychophysical_parallelism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.3.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Psychophysical parallelism</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7"><A href="#Occasionalism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.3.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Occasionalism</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-8"><A href="#Property_dualism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.3.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Property dualism</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-9"><A href="#Dual_aspect_theory"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.3.4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Dual aspect theory</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><A href="#Experiential_dualism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.3.5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Experiential dualism</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11"><A href="#Hylomorphism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.3.6</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Hylomorphism</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><A href="#Monist_solutions_to_the_mind–body_problem"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Monist solutions to the mind–body problem</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><A href="#Physicalistic_monisms"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Physicalistic monisms</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-14"><A href="#Behaviorism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.1.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Behaviorism</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-15"><A href="#Identity_theory"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.1.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Identity theory</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-16"><A href="#Functionalism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.1.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Functionalism</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-17"><A href="#Non-reductive_physicalism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.1.4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Non-reductive physicalism</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-18"><A href="#Weak_emergentism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.1.5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Weak emergentism</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-19"><A href="#Eliminative_materialism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.1.6</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Eliminative materialism</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><A href="#Non-physicalist_monisms"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Non-physicalist monisms</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-21"><A href="#Idealism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.2.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Idealism</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-22"><A href="#Neutral_monism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.2.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Neutral monism</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><A href="#Mysterianism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Mysterianism</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><A href="#Linguistic_criticism_of_the_mind–body_problem"><SPAN class="tocnumber">5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Linguistic criticism of the mind–body problem</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><A href="#Externalism_and_internalism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Externalism and internalism</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><A href="#Naturalism_and_its_problems"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Naturalism and its problems</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><A href="#Qualia"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Qualia</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><A href="#Intentionality"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Intentionality</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><A href="#Philosophy_of_perception"><SPAN class="tocnumber">8</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Philosophy of perception</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30"><A href="#Philosophy_of_mind_and_science"><SPAN class="tocnumber">9</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Philosophy of mind and science</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-31"><A href="#Neurobiology"><SPAN class="tocnumber">9.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Neurobiology</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-32"><A href="#Computer_science"><SPAN class="tocnumber">9.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Computer science</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-33"><A href="#Psychology"><SPAN class="tocnumber">9.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Psychology</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-34"><A href="#Cognitive_science"><SPAN class="tocnumber">9.4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Cognitive science</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-35"><A href="#Philosophy_of_mind_in_the_continental_tradition"><SPAN class="tocnumber">10</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Philosophy of mind in the continental tradition</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-36"><A href="#Mind_in_Eastern_philosophy"><SPAN class="tocnumber">11</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Mind in Eastern philosophy</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-37"><A href="#Mind_in_Hindu_philosophy"><SPAN class="tocnumber">11.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Mind in Hindu philosophy</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-38"><A href="#Dualism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">11.1.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Dualism</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-39"><A href="#Vedanta_monistic_idealism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">11.1.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Vedanta monistic idealism</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-40"><A href="#Materialism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">11.1.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Materialism</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-41"><A href="#Buddhist_philosophy_of_mind"><SPAN class="tocnumber">11.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Buddhist philosophy of mind</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-42"><A href="#Abhidharma_theories_of_mind"><SPAN class="tocnumber">11.2.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Abhidharma theories of mind</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-43"><A href="#Indian_Mahayana"><SPAN class="tocnumber">11.2.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Indian Mahayana</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-44"><A href="#Tibetan_Buddhism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">11.2.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Tibetan Buddhism</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-45"><A href="#Zen_Buddhism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">11.2.4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Zen Buddhism</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-46"><A href="#Topics_related_to_philosophy_of_mind"><SPAN class="tocnumber">12</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Topics related to philosophy of mind</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-47"><A href="#Free_will"><SPAN class="tocnumber">12.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Free will</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-48"><A href="#Self"><SPAN class="tocnumber">12.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Self</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-49"><A href="#See_also"><SPAN class="tocnumber">13</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">See also</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-50"><A href="#References"><SPAN class="tocnumber">14</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">References</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-51"><A href="#Further_reading"><SPAN class="tocnumber">15</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Further reading</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-52"><A href="#External_links"><SPAN class="tocnumber">16</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">External links</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<P></P>
<H2><SPAN id="Mind.E2.80.93body_problem"></SPAN><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Mind–body_problem">Mind–body problem</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Mind–body problem">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_problem" title="Mind–body problem">Mind–body problem</A></DIV>
<P>The mind–body problem concerns the explanation of the relationship that exists between <A href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">minds</A>, or <A href="/wiki/Mental_processes" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental processes">mental processes</A>, and bodily states or processes.<SUP id="cite_ref-Kim1_2-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Kim1-2">[2]</A></SUP> The main aim of philosophers working in this area is to determine the nature of the mind and mental states/processes, and how—or even if—minds are affected by and can affect the body.</P>
<P>Our perceptual experiences depend on <A href="/wiki/Stimulation" title="Stimulation">stimuli</A> that arrive at our various <A href="/wiki/Sensory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory system">sensory organs</A> from the external world, and these stimuli cause changes in our mental states, ultimately causing us to feel a sensation, which may be pleasant or unpleasant. Someone's desire for a slice of pizza, for example, will tend to cause that person to move his or her body in a specific manner and in a specific direction to obtain what he or she wants. The question, then, is how it can be possible for conscious experiences to arise out of a lump of gray matter endowed with nothing but electrochemical properties.<SUP id="cite_ref-Kim_18-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Kim-18">[18]</A></SUP></P>
<P>A related problem is how someone's <A href="/wiki/Propositional_attitude" title="Propositional attitude">propositional attitudes</A> (e.g. beliefs and desires) cause that individual's <A href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neurons</A> to fire and muscles to contract. These comprise some of the puzzles that have confronted <A href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemologists</A> and philosophers of mind from at least the time of <A href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-De_7-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-De-7">[7]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN id="Dualist_solutions_to_the_mind.E2.80.93body_problem"></SPAN><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Dualist_solutions_to_the_mind–body_problem">Dualist solutions to the mind–body problem</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Dualist solutions to the mind–body problem">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P><A href="/wiki/Dualism_(philosophy_of_mind)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dualism (philosophy of mind)">Dualism</A> is a set of views about the relationship between <A href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</A> and <A href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</A> (or <A href="/wiki/Human_body" title="Human body">body</A>). It begins with the claim that mental <A href="/wiki/Phenomenon" title="Phenomenon">phenomena</A> are, in some respects, non-<A href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">physical</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Du_8-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Du-8">[8]</A></SUP> One of the earliest known formulations of mind–body dualism was expressed in the eastern <A href="/wiki/Sankhya" class="mw-redirect" title="Sankhya">Sankhya</A> and <A href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</A> schools of <A href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu philosophy</A> (c. 650 BCE), which divided the world into <A href="/wiki/Purusha" title="Purusha">purusha</A> (mind/spirit) and <A href="/wiki/Prakriti" class="mw-redirect" title="Prakriti">prakriti</A> (material substance).<SUP id="cite_ref-Sa_5-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Sa-5">[5]</A></SUP> Specifically, the <A href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Yoga Sutra">Yoga Sutra</A> of <A href="/wiki/Patanjali" title="Patanjali">Patanjali</A> presents an analytical approach to the nature of the mind.</P>
<P>In <A href="/wiki/Western_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Philosophy">Western Philosophy</A>, the earliest discussions of dualist ideas are in the writings of <A href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</A> who maintained that humans' "intelligence" (a faculty of the mind or soul) could not be identified with, or explained in terms of, their physical body.<SUP id="cite_ref-Plato_6-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Plato-6">[6]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Rob_30-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Rob-30">[30]</A></SUP> However, the best-known version of dualism is due to <A href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</A> (1641), and holds that the mind is a non-extended, non-physical substance, a "<A href="/wiki/Mental_substance" title="Mental substance">res cogitans</A>".<SUP id="cite_ref-De_7-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-De-7">[7]</A></SUP> Descartes was the first to clearly identify the mind with <A href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</A> and <A href="/wiki/Self-awareness" title="Self-awareness">self-awareness</A>, and to distinguish this from the brain, which was the seat of intelligence. He was therefore the first to formulate the mind–body problem in the form in which it still exists today.<SUP id="cite_ref-De_7-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-De-7">[7]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Arguments_for_dualism">Arguments for dualism</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Arguments for dualism">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>The most frequently used argument in favor of dualism appeals to the common-sense intuition that conscious experience is distinct from inanimate matter. If asked what the mind is, the average person would usually respond by identifying it with their <A href="/wiki/Self_(psychology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Self (psychology)">self</A>, their personality, their <A href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">soul</A>, or some other such entity. They would almost certainly deny that the mind simply is the brain, or vice versa, finding the idea that there is just one <A href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontological</A> entity at play to be too mechanistic, or simply unintelligible.<SUP id="cite_ref-Du_8-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Du-8">[8]</A></SUP> Many modern philosophers of mind think that these intuitions are misleading and that we should use our critical faculties, along with <A href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical evidence</A> from the sciences, to examine these assumptions to determine whether there is any real basis to them.<SUP id="cite_ref-Du_8-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Du-8">[8]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Another important argument in favor of dualism is that the mental and the physical seem to have quite different, and perhaps irreconcilable, properties.<SUP id="cite_ref-Ja_31-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Ja-31">[31]</A></SUP> Mental events have a subjective quality, whereas physical events do not. So, for example, one can reasonably ask what a burnt finger feels like, or what a blue sky looks like, or what nice music sounds like to a person. But it is meaningless, or at least odd, to ask what a surge in the uptake of <A href="/wiki/Glutamate" class="mw-redirect" title="Glutamate">glutamate</A> in the dorsolateral portion of the <A href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">hippocampus</A> feels like.</P>
<P>Philosophers of mind call the subjective aspects of mental events "<A href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">qualia</A>" or "raw feels".<SUP id="cite_ref-Ja_31-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Ja-31">[31]</A></SUP> There is something that it is like to feel pain, to see a familiar shade of blue, and so on. There are qualia involved in these mental events that seem particularly difficult to reduce to anything physical. David Chalmers explains this argument by stating that we could conceivably know all the objective information about something, such as the brain states and wavelengths of light involved with seeing the color red, but still not know something fundamental about the situation – what it is like to see the color red.<SUP id="cite_ref-Nagel_32-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Nagel-32">[32]</A></SUP></P>
<P>If consciousness (the mind) can exist independently of physical reality (the brain), one must explain how physical memories are created concerning consciousness. Dualism must therefore explain how consciousness affects physical reality. One possible explanation is that of a miracle, proposed by <A href="/wiki/Arnold_Geulincx" title="Arnold Geulincx">Arnold Geulincx</A> and <A href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</A>, where all mind–body interactions require the direct intervention of God.</P>
<P>Another possible argument that has been proposed by <A href="/wiki/C._S._Lewis" title="C. S. Lewis">C. S. Lewis</A><SUP id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-33">[33]</A></SUP> is the <A href="/wiki/Argument_from_Reason" class="mw-redirect" title="Argument from Reason">Argument from Reason</A>: if, as monism implies, all of our thoughts are the effects of physical causes, then we have no reason for assuming that they are also the <A href="/wiki/Consequent" title="Consequent">consequent</A> of a reasonable ground. Knowledge, however, is apprehended by reasoning from ground to consequent. Therefore, if monism is correct, there would be no way of knowing this—or anything else—we could not even suppose it, except by a fluke.</P>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/P-zombie" class="mw-redirect" title="P-zombie">zombie argument</A> is based on a <A href="/wiki/Thought_experiment" title="Thought experiment">thought experiment</A> proposed by Todd Moody, and developed by <A href="/wiki/David_Chalmers" title="David Chalmers">David Chalmers</A> in his book <I><A href="/wiki/The_Conscious_Mind" title="The Conscious Mind">The Conscious Mind</A></I>. The basic idea is that one can imagine one's body, and therefore conceive the existence of one's body, without any conscious states being associated with this body. Chalmers' argument is that it seems possible that such a being could exist because all that is needed is that all and only the things that the physical sciences describe about a zombie must be true of it. Since none of the concepts involved in these sciences make reference to consciousness or other mental phenomena, and any physical entity can be by definition described scientifically via <A href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</A>, the move from conceivability to possibility is not such a large one.<SUP id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-34">[34]</A></SUP> Others such as Dennett have <A href="/wiki/Philosophical_zombie#Criticism" title="Philosophical zombie">argued</A> that the notion of a philosophical zombie is an incoherent,<SUP id="cite_ref-Dennett,_Daniel_1995_322–6_35-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Dennett,_Daniel_1995_322–6-35">[35]</A></SUP> or unlikely,<SUP id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-36">[36]</A></SUP> concept. It has been argued under physicalism that one must either believe that anyone including oneself might be a zombie, or that no one can be a zombie—following from the assertion that one's own conviction about being (or not being) a zombie is a product of the physical world and is therefore no different from anyone else's. This argument has been expressed by Dennett who argues that "Zombies think they are conscious, think they have qualia, think they suffer pains—they are just 'wrong' (according to this lamentable tradition) in ways that neither they nor we could ever discover!"<SUP id="cite_ref-Dennett,_Daniel_1995_322–6_35-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Dennett,_Daniel_1995_322–6-35">[35]</A></SUP> See also the <A href="/wiki/Problem_of_other_minds" title="Problem of other minds">problem of other minds</A>.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Interactionist_dualism">Interactionist dualism</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Interactionist dualism">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/220px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg" width="220" height="269" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/330px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/440px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="817" data-file-height="1000" /></A>
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Portrait of <A href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</A> by <A href="/wiki/Frans_Hals" title="Frans Hals">Frans Hals</A> (1648)</DIV>
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<P>Interactionist dualism, or simply interactionism, is the particular form of dualism first espoused by Descartes in the <I>Meditations</I>.<SUP id="cite_ref-De_7-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-De-7">[7]</A></SUP> In the 20th century, its major defenders have been <A href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</A> and <A href="/wiki/John_Carew_Eccles" class="mw-redirect" title="John Carew Eccles">John Carew Eccles</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-PopE_37-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-PopE-37">[37]</A></SUP> It is the view that mental states, such as beliefs and desires, causally interact with physical states.<SUP id="cite_ref-Du_8-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Du-8">[8]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Descartes' famous argument for this position can be summarized as follows: Seth has a clear and distinct idea of his mind as a thinking thing that has no spatial extension (i.e., it cannot be measured in terms of length, weight, height, and so on). He also has a clear and distinct idea of his body as something that is spatially extended, subject to quantification and not able to think. It follows that mind and body are not identical because they have radically different properties.<SUP id="cite_ref-De_7-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-De-7">[7]</A></SUP></P>
<P>At the same time, however, it is clear that Seth's mental states (desires, beliefs, etc.) have <A href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causal</A> effects on his body and vice versa: A child touches a hot stove (physical event) which causes pain (mental event) and makes her yell (physical event), this in turn provokes a sense of fear and protectiveness in the caregiver (mental event), and so on.</P>
<P>Descartes' argument crucially depends on the premise that what Seth believes to be "clear and distinct" ideas in his mind are <A href="/wiki/Logical_truth" title="Logical truth">necessarily true</A>. Many contemporary philosophers doubt this.<SUP id="cite_ref-CE_38-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-CE-38">[38]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-SS_39-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-SS-39">[39]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-40">[40]</A></SUP> For example, <A href="/wiki/Joseph_Agassi" title="Joseph Agassi">Joseph Agassi</A> suggests that several scientific discoveries made since the early 20th century have undermined the idea of privileged access to one's own ideas. <A href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Freud</A> claimed that a psychologically-trained observer can understand a person's unconscious motivations better than the person himself does. <A href="/wiki/Pierre_Duhem" title="Pierre Duhem">Duhem</A> has shown that a philosopher of science can know a person's methods of discovery better than that person herself does, while <A href="/wiki/Bronis%C5%82aw_Malinowski" title="Bronisław Malinowski">Malinowski</A> has shown that an anthropologist can know a person's customs and habits better than the person whose customs and habits they are. He also asserts that modern psychological experiments that cause people to see things that are not there provide grounds for rejecting Descartes' argument, because scientists can describe a person's perceptions better than the person herself can.<SUP id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-41">[41]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-42">[42]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Other_forms_of_dualism">Other forms of dualism</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Other forms of dualism">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
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Four varieties of dualism. The arrows indicate the direction of the causal interactions. Occasionalism is not shown.</DIV>
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<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Psychophysical_parallelism">Psychophysical parallelism</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Psychophysical parallelism">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<P><A href="/wiki/Psychophysical_parallelism" title="Psychophysical parallelism">Psychophysical parallelism</A>, or simply <B>parallelism</B>, is the view that mind and body, while having distinct ontological statuses, do not causally influence one another. Instead, they run along parallel paths (mind events causally interact with mind events and brain events causally interact with brain events) and only seem to influence each other.<SUP id="cite_ref-DuSEP_43-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-DuSEP-43">[43]</A></SUP> This view was most prominently defended by <A href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</A>. Although Leibniz was an ontological monist who believed that only one type of substance, the <A href="/wiki/Monad_(Greek_philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Monad (Greek philosophy)">monad</A>, exists in the universe, and that everything is reducible to it, he nonetheless maintained that there was an important distinction between "the mental" and "the physical" in terms of causation. He held that God had arranged things in advance so that minds and bodies would be in harmony with each other. This is known as the doctrine of <A href="/wiki/Pre-established_harmony" title="Pre-established harmony">pre-established harmony</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-44">[44]</A></SUP></P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Occasionalism">Occasionalism</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Occasionalism">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<P><A href="/wiki/Occasionalism" title="Occasionalism">Occasionalism</A> is the view espoused by <A href="/wiki/Nicholas_Malebranche" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas Malebranche">Nicholas Malebranche</A> that asserts that all supposedly causal relations between physical events, or between physical and mental events, are not really causal at all. While body and mind are different substances, causes (whether mental or physical) are related to their effects by an act of God's intervention on each specific occasion.<SUP id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-45">[45]</A></SUP></P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Property_dualism">Property dualism</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Property dualism">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<P><A href="/wiki/Property_dualism" title="Property dualism">Property dualism</A> is the view that the world is constituted of just one kind of <A href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">substance</A> – the physical kind – and there exist two distinct kinds of properties: <A href="/wiki/Physical_properties" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical properties">physical properties</A> and <A href="/wiki/Mental_properties" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental properties">mental properties</A>. In other words, it is the view that non-physical, mental properties (such as beliefs, desires and emotions) inhere in some physical bodies (at least, brains). How mental and physical properties relate causally depends on the variety of property dualism in question, and is not always a clear issue. Sub-varieties of property dualism include:</P>
<OL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Strong_emergentism" class="mw-redirect" title="Strong emergentism">Strong emergentism</A> asserts that when matter is organized in the appropriate way (i.e. in the way that living human bodies are organized), mental properties emerge in a way not fully accountable for by physical laws. Hence, it is a form of <A href="/wiki/Emergent_materialism" title="Emergent materialism">emergent materialism</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Du_8-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Du-8">[8]</A></SUP> These emergent properties have an independent ontological status and cannot be reduced to, or explained in terms of, the physical substrate from which they emerge. They are dependent on the physical properties from which they emerge, but opinions vary as to the coherence of <A href="/w/index.php?title=Top%E2%80%93down_causation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Top–down causation (page does not exist)">top–down causation</A>, i.e. the causal effectiveness of such properties. A form of property dualism has been espoused by <A href="/wiki/David_Chalmers" title="David Chalmers">David Chalmers</A> and the concept has undergone something of a renaissance in recent years,<SUP id="cite_ref-Chalmers_46-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Chalmers-46">[46]</A></SUP> but was already suggested in the 19th century by <A href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</A>.</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</A> is a doctrine first formulated by <A href="/wiki/Thomas_Henry_Huxley" title="Thomas Henry Huxley">Thomas Henry Huxley</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-47">[47]</A></SUP> It consists of the view that mental phenomena are causally ineffectual, where one or more mental states do not have any influence on physical states or mental phenomena are the effects, but not the causes, of physical phenomena. Physical events can cause other physical events and physical events can cause mental events, but mental events cannot cause anything, since they are just causally inert by-products (i.e. epiphenomena) of the physical world.<SUP id="cite_ref-DuSEP_43-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-DuSEP-43">[43]</A></SUP> This view has been defended most strongly in recent times by <A href="/wiki/Frank_Cameron_Jackson" title="Frank Cameron Jackson">Frank Jackson</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-48">[48]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Property_dualism#Non-reductive_Physicalism" title="Property dualism">Non-reductive Physicalism</A> is the view that mental properties form a separate ontological class to physical properties: mental states (such as qualia) are not reducible to physical states. The ontological stance towards qualia in the case of non-reductive physicalism does not imply that qualia are causally inert; this is what distinguishes it from epiphenomenalism.</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Panpsychism" title="Panpsychism">Panpsychism</A> is the view that all matter has a mental aspect, or, alternatively, all objects have a unified center of experience or point of view. Superficially, it seems to be a form of property dualism, since it regards everything as having both mental and physical properties. However, some panpsychists say mechanical behaviour is derived from primitive mentality of atoms and molecules—as are sophisticated mentality and organic behaviour, the difference being attributed to the presence or absence of <A href="/wiki/Complexity" title="Complexity">complex</A> structure in a compound object. So long as the <I>reduction</I> of non-mental properties to mental ones is in place, panpsychism is not a (strong) form of property dualism; otherwise it is.</LI>
</OL>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Dual_aspect_theory">Dual aspect theory</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Dual aspect theory">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<P><A href="/wiki/Dual_aspect_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Dual aspect theory">Dual aspect theory</A> or dual-aspect monism is the view that the <A href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mental</A> and the <A href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">physical</A> are two aspects of, or perspectives on, the same substance. (Thus it is a mixed position, which is monistic in some respects). In modern philosophical writings, the theory's relationship to <A href="/wiki/Neutral_monism" title="Neutral monism">neutral monism</A> has become somewhat ill-defined, but one proffered distinction says that whereas neutral monism allows the context of a given group of neutral elements and the relationships into which they enter to determine whether the group can be thought of as mental, physical, both, or neither, dual-aspect theory suggests that the mental and the physical are manifestations (or aspects) of some underlying substance, entity or process that is itself neither mental nor physical as normally understood. Various formulations of dual-aspect monism also require the mental and the physical to be complementary, mutually irreducible and perhaps inseparable (though distinct).<SUP id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-49">[49]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-50">[50]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-51">[51]</A></SUP></P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Experiential_dualism">Experiential dualism</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Experiential dualism">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<P>This is a philosophy of mind that regards the degrees of freedom between mental and physical well-being as not necessarily synonymous thus implying an experiential dualism between body and mind. An example of these disparate degrees of freedom is given by <A href="/wiki/B._Alan_Wallace" title="B. Alan Wallace">Allan Wallace</A> who notes that it is "experientially apparent that one may be physically uncomfortable—for instance, while engaging in a strenuous physical workout—while mentally cheerful; conversely, one may be mentally distraught while experiencing physical comfort".<SUP id="cite_ref-:0_52-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-:0-52">[52]</A></SUP> Experiential dualism notes that our subjective experience of merely seeing something in the physical world seems qualitatively different than mental processes like grief that comes from losing a loved one. This philosophy also is a proponent of causal dualism which is defined as the dual ability for mental states and physical states to affect one another. Mental states can cause changes in physical states and vice versa.</P>
<P>However, unlike cartesian dualism or some other systems, experiential dualism does not posit two fundamental substances in reality: mind and matter. Rather, experiential dualism is to be understood as a conceptual framework that gives credence to the qualitative difference between the experience of mental and physical states. Experiential dualism is accepted as the conceptual framework of <A href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka Buddhism</A>.</P>
<P>Madhayamaka Buddhism goes even further, finding fault with the monist view of physicalist philosophies of mind as well in that these generally posit matter and energy as the fundamental substance of reality. Nonetheless, this does not imply that the cartesian dualist view is correct, rather Madhyamaka regards as error any affirming view of a fundamental substance to reality.</P>
<BLOCKQUOTE>
<P>In denying the independent self-existence of all the phenomena that make up the world of our experience, the Madhyamaka view departs from both the substance dualism of Descartes and the substance monism—namely, physicalism—that is characteristic of modern science. The physicalism propounded by many contemporary scientists seems to assert that the real world is composed of physical things-in-themselves, while all mental phenomena are regarded as mere appearances, devoid of any reality in and of themselves. Much is made of this difference between appearances and reality.<SUP id="cite_ref-:0_52-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-:0-52">[52]</A></SUP></P>
</BLOCKQUOTE>
<P>Indeed physicalism, or the idea that matter is the only fundamental substance of reality, is explicitly rejected by Buddhism.</P>
<BLOCKQUOTE>
<P>In the Madhyamaka view, mental events are no more or less real than physical events. In terms of our common-sense experience, differences of kind do exist between physical and mental phenomena. While the former commonly have mass, location, velocity, shape, size, and numerous other physical attributes, these are not generally characteristic of mental phenomena. For example, we do not commonly conceive of the feeling of affection for another person as having mass or location. These physical attributes are no more appropriate to other mental events such as sadness, a recalled image from one's childhood, the visual perception of a rose, or consciousness of any sort. Mental phenomena are, therefore, not regarded as being physical, for the simple reason that they lack many of the attributes that are uniquely characteristic of physical phenomena. Thus, Buddhism has never adopted the physicalist principle that regards only physical things as real.<SUP id="cite_ref-:0_52-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-:0-52">[52]</A></SUP></P>
</BLOCKQUOTE>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Hylomorphism">Hylomorphism</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Hylomorphism">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Hylomorphism" title="Hylomorphism">Hylomorphism</A></DIV>
<P>Hylomorphism is a theory that originates with <A href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotelian philosophy</A>, which conceives <A href="/wiki/Ousia" title="Ousia">being</A> as a compound of <A href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</A> and <A href="/wiki/Substantial_form" title="Substantial form">form</A>. "Hylomorphism" is a 19th-century term formed from the Greek words ὕλη <I>hyle</I>, "wood, matter", and μορφή, <I>morphē</I>, "form".</P>
<H2><SPAN id="Monist_solutions_to_the_mind.E2.80.93body_problem"></SPAN><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Monist_solutions_to_the_mind–body_problem">Monist solutions to the mind–body problem</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Monist solutions to the mind–body problem">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>In contrast to <A href="/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism">dualism</A>, <A href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">monism</A> does not accept any fundamental divisions. The fundamentally disparate nature of reality has been central to forms of eastern philosophies for over two millennia. In <A href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</A> and <A href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese philosophy</A>, monism is integral to how experience is understood. Today, the most common forms of monism in Western philosophy are <A href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">physicalist</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Kim_18-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Kim-18">[18]</A></SUP> Physicalistic monism asserts that the only existing substance is physical, in some sense of that term to be clarified by our best science.<SUP id="cite_ref-Stol_53-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Stol-53">[53]</A></SUP> However, a variety of formulations (see below) are possible. Another form of monism, <A href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">idealism</A>, states that the only existing substance is mental. Although pure idealism, such as that of <A href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</A>, is uncommon in contemporary Western philosophy, a more sophisticated variant called <A href="/wiki/Panpsychism" title="Panpsychism">panpsychism</A>, according to which mental experience and properties may be at the foundation of physical experience and properties, has been espoused by some philosophers such as <A href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</A><SUP id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-54">[54]</A></SUP> and <A href="/wiki/David_Ray_Griffin" title="David Ray Griffin">David Ray Griffin</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Chalmers_46-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Chalmers-46">[46]</A></SUP></P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</A> is the theory that representations (or <A href="/wiki/Sense_data" title="Sense data">sense data</A>) of external objects are all that exist. Such a view was briefly adopted by <A href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</A> and many of the <A href="/wiki/Logical_positivists" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical positivists">logical positivists</A> during the early 20th century.<SUP id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-55">[55]</A></SUP> A third possibility is to accept the existence of a basic substance that is neither physical nor mental. The mental and physical would then both be properties of this neutral substance. Such a position was adopted by Baruch Spinoza<SUP id="cite_ref-Spin_9-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Spin-9">[9]</A></SUP> and was popularized by <A href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Ernst Mach</A><SUP id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-56">[56]</A></SUP> in the 19th century. This <A href="/wiki/Neutral_monism" title="Neutral monism">neutral monism</A>, as it is called, resembles property dualism.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Physicalistic_monisms">Physicalistic monisms</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Physicalistic monisms">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Behaviorism">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</A></DIV>
<P>Behaviorism dominated philosophy of mind for much of the 20th century, especially the first half.<SUP id="cite_ref-Kim_18-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Kim-18">[18]</A></SUP> In psychology, behaviorism developed as a reaction to the inadequacies of <A href="/wiki/Introspection" title="Introspection">introspectionism</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Stol_53-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Stol-53">[53]</A></SUP> Introspective reports on one's own interior mental life are not subject to careful examination for accuracy and cannot be used to form predictive generalizations. Without generalizability and the possibility of third-person examination, the behaviorists argued, psychology cannot be scientific.<SUP id="cite_ref-Stol_53-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Stol-53">[53]</A></SUP> The way out, therefore, was to eliminate the idea of an interior mental life (and hence an ontologically independent mind) altogether and focus instead on the description of observable behavior.<SUP id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-57">[57]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Parallel to these developments in psychology, a philosophical behaviorism (sometimes called logical behaviorism) was developed.<SUP id="cite_ref-Stol_53-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Stol-53">[53]</A></SUP> This is characterized by a strong <A href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">verificationism</A>, which generally considers unverifiable statements about interior mental life pointless. For the behaviorist, mental states are not interior states on which one can make introspective reports. They are just descriptions of behavior or <A href="/wiki/Disposition" title="Disposition">dispositions</A> to behave in certain ways, made by third parties to explain and predict another's behavior.<SUP id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-58">[58]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Philosophical behaviorism has fallen out of favor since the latter half of the 20th century, coinciding with the rise of <A href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">cognitivism</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Kim1_2-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Kim1-2">[2]</A></SUP> Cognitivists reject behaviorism due to several perceived problems. For example, behaviorism could be said to be <A href="/wiki/Counterintuitive" title="Counterintuitive">counterintuitive</A> when it maintains that someone is talking about behavior in the event that a person is experiencing a painful headache.</P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Identity_theory">Identity theory</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Identity theory">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Type_physicalism" title="Type physicalism">Type physicalism</A></DIV>
<P>Type physicalism (or type-identity theory) was developed by <A href="/wiki/J._J._C._Smart" title="J. J. C. Smart">John Smart</A><SUP id="cite_ref-Smart_25-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Smart-25">[25]</A></SUP> and <A href="/wiki/Ullin_Place" title="Ullin Place">Ullin Place</A><SUP id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-59">[59]</A></SUP> as a direct reaction to the failure of behaviorism. These philosophers reasoned that, if mental states are something material, but not behavioral, then mental states are probably identical to internal states of the brain. In very simplified terms: a mental state <I>M</I> is nothing other than brain state <I>B</I>. The mental state "desire for a cup of coffee" would thus be nothing more than the "firing of certain neurons in certain brain regions".<SUP id="cite_ref-Smart_25-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Smart-25">[25]</A></SUP></P>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Anomalous_Monism.png" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Anomalous_Monism.png/250px-Anomalous_Monism.png" width="250" height="250" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Anomalous_Monism.png/375px-Anomalous_Monism.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Anomalous_Monism.png/500px-Anomalous_Monism.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></A>
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The classic Identity theory and Anomalous Monism in contrast. For the Identity theory, every token instantiation of a single mental type corresponds (as indicated by the arrows) to a physical token of a single physical type. For anomalous monism, the token–token correspondences can fall outside of the type–type correspondences. The result is token identity.</DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<P>Despite its initial plausibility, the identity theory faces a strong challenge in the form of the thesis of <A href="/wiki/Multiple_realizability" title="Multiple realizability">multiple realizability</A>, first formulated by <A href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Pu_27-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Pu-27">[27]</A></SUP> It is obvious that not only humans, but many different species of animals can, for example, experience pain. However, it seems highly unlikely that all of these diverse organisms with the same pain experience are in the identical brain state. And if this is the case, then pain cannot be identical to a specific brain state. The identity theory is thus empirically unfounded.<SUP id="cite_ref-Pu_27-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Pu-27">[27]</A></SUP></P>
<P>On the other hand, even granted the above, it does not follow that identity theories of all types must be abandoned. According to token identity theories, the fact that a certain brain state is connected with only one mental state of a person does not have to mean that there is an absolute correlation between types of mental state and types of brain state. The type–token distinction can be illustrated by a simple example: the word "green" contains four types of letters (g, r, e, n) with two tokens (occurrences) of the letter <I>e</I> along with one each of the others. The idea of token identity is that only particular occurrences of mental events are identical with particular occurrences or tokenings of physical events.<SUP id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-60">[60]</A></SUP> Anomalous monism (see below) and most other non-reductive physicalisms are token-identity theories.<SUP id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-61">[61]</A></SUP> Despite these problems, there is a renewed interest in the type identity theory today, primarily due to the influence of <A href="/wiki/Jaegwon_Kim" title="Jaegwon Kim">Jaegwon Kim</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Smart_25-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Smart-25">[25]</A></SUP></P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Functionalism">Functionalism</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Functionalism">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism (philosophy of mind)</A></DIV>
<P>Functionalism was formulated by <A href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</A> and <A href="/wiki/Jerry_Fodor" title="Jerry Fodor">Jerry Fodor</A> as a reaction to the inadequacies of the identity theory.<SUP id="cite_ref-Pu_27-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Pu-27">[27]</A></SUP> Putnam and Fodor saw mental states in terms of an empirical <A href="/wiki/Computational_theory_of_mind" title="Computational theory of mind">computational theory of the mind</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Block_62-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Block-62">[62]</A></SUP> At about the same time or slightly after, <A href="/wiki/D.M._Armstrong" class="mw-redirect" title="D.M. Armstrong">D.M. Armstrong</A> and <A href="/wiki/David_Kellogg_Lewis" class="mw-redirect" title="David Kellogg Lewis">David Kellogg Lewis</A> formulated a version of functionalism that analyzed the mental concepts of folk psychology in terms of functional roles.<SUP id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-63">[63]</A></SUP> Finally, <A href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</A>'s idea of meaning as use led to a version of functionalism as a theory of meaning, further developed by <A href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</A> and <A href="/wiki/Gilbert_Harman" title="Gilbert Harman">Gilbert Harman</A>. Another one, <A href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)#Psychofunctionalism" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">psychofunctionalism</A>, is an approach adopted by the <A href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)#Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">naturalistic philosophy of mind</A> associated with Jerry Fodor and <A href="/wiki/Zenon_Pylyshyn" title="Zenon Pylyshyn">Zenon Pylyshyn</A>.</P>
<P>What all these different varieties of functionalism share in common is the thesis that mental states are characterized by their causal relations with other mental states and with sensory inputs and behavioral outputs. That is, functionalism abstracts away from the details of the physical implementation of a mental state by characterizing it in terms of non-mental functional properties. For example, a kidney is characterized scientifically by its functional role in filtering blood and maintaining certain chemical balances. From this point of view, it does not really matter whether the kidney be made up of organic tissue, plastic nanotubes or silicon chips: it is the role that it plays and its relations to other organs that define it as a kidney.<SUP id="cite_ref-Block_62-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Block-62">[62]</A></SUP></P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Non-reductive_physicalism">Non-reductive physicalism</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Non-reductive physicalism">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</A></DIV>
<P>Non-reductionist philosophers hold firmly to two essential convictions with regard to mind–body relations: 1) Physicalism is true and mental states must be physical states, but 2) All reductionist proposals are unsatisfactory: mental states cannot be reduced to behavior, brain states or functional states.<SUP id="cite_ref-Stol_53-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Stol-53">[53]</A></SUP> Hence, the question arises whether there can still be a non-reductive physicalism. <A href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</A>'s <A href="/wiki/Anomalous_monism" title="Anomalous monism">anomalous monism</A><SUP id="cite_ref-Davidson_26-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Davidson-26">[26]</A></SUP> is an attempt to formulate such a physicalism. He "thinks that when one runs across what are traditionally seen as absurdities of Reason, such as akrasia or self-deception, the personal psychology framework is not to be given up in favor of the subpersonal one, but rather must be enlarged or extended so that the rationality set out by the principle of charity can be found elsewhere."<SUP id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-64">[64]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Davidson uses the thesis of <A href="/wiki/Supervenience" title="Supervenience">supervenience</A>: mental states supervene on physical states, but are not reducible to them. "Supervenience" therefore describes a functional dependence: there can be no change in the mental without some change in the physical–causal reducibility between the mental and physical without ontological reducibility.<SUP id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-65">[65]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Because non-reductive physicalist theories attempt to both retain the ontological distinction between mind and body and to try to solve the "surfeit of explanations puzzle" in some way; critics often see this as a paradox and point out the similarities to <A href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">epiphenomenalism</A>, in that it is the brain that is seen as the root "cause" not the mind, and the mind seems to be rendered inert.</P>
<P>Epiphenomenalism regards one or more mental states as the byproduct of physical brain states, having no influence on physical states. The interaction is one-way (solving the "surfeit of explanations puzzle") but leaving us with non-reducible mental states (as a byproduct of brain states) – causally reducible, but ontologically irreducible to physical states. Pain would be seen by epiphenomenaliasts as being caused by the brain state but as not having effects on other brain states, though it might have effects on other mental states (i.e. cause distress).</P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Weak_emergentism">Weak emergentism</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Weak emergentism">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</A></DIV>
<P>Weak emergentism is a form of "non-reductive physicalism" that involves a layered view of nature, with the layers arranged in terms of increasing complexity and each corresponding to its own special science. Some philosophers hold that emergent properties causally interact with more fundamental levels, while others maintain that higher-order properties simply supervene over lower levels without direct causal interaction. The latter group therefore holds a less strict, or "weaker", definition of emergentism, which can be rigorously stated as follows: a property P of composite object O is emergent if it is metaphysically impossible for another object to lack property P if that object is composed of parts with intrinsic properties identical to those in O and has those parts in an identical configuration.</P>
<P>Sometimes emergentists use the example of water having a new property when Hydrogen H and Oxygen O combine to form H<SUB>2</SUB>O (water). In this example there "emerges" a new property of a transparent liquid that would not have been predicted by understanding hydrogen and oxygen as gases. This is analogous to physical properties of the brain giving rise to a mental state. Emergentists try to solve the notorious mind–body gap this way. One problem for emergentism is the idea of "causal closure" in the world that does not allow for a mind-to-body causation.<SUP id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-66">[66]</A></SUP></P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Eliminative_materialism">Eliminative materialism</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Eliminative materialism">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminative materialism</A></DIV>
<P>If one is a materialist and believes that all aspects of our common-sense psychology will find reduction to a mature <A href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">cognitive neuroscience</A>, and that non-reductive materialism is mistaken, then one can adopt a final, more radical position: eliminative materialism.</P>
<P>There are several varieties of eliminative materialism, but all maintain that our common-sense "<A href="/wiki/Folk_psychology" title="Folk psychology">folk psychology</A>" badly misrepresents the nature of some aspect of cognition. Eliminativists such as <A href="/wiki/Patricia_Churchland" title="Patricia Churchland">Patricia</A> and <A href="/wiki/Paul_Churchland" title="Paul Churchland">Paul Churchland</A> argue that while folk psychology treats cognition as fundamentally sentence-like, the non-linguistic vector/matrix model of neural network theory or <A href="/wiki/Connectionism" title="Connectionism">connectionism</A> will prove to be a much more accurate account of how the brain works.<SUP id="cite_ref-Pat_23-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Pat-23">[23]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The Churchlands often invoke the fate of other, erroneous popular theories and <A href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontologies</A> that have arisen in the course of history.<SUP id="cite_ref-Pat_23-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Pat-23">[23]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Paul_24-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Paul-24">[24]</A></SUP> For example, Ptolemaic astronomy served to explain and roughly predict the motions of the planets for centuries, but eventually this model of the solar system was eliminated in favor of the Copernican model. The Churchlands believe the same eliminative fate awaits the "sentence-cruncher" model of the mind in which thought and behavior are the result of manipulating sentence-like states called "<A href="/wiki/Propositional_attitude" title="Propositional attitude">propositional attitudes</A>".</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Non-physicalist_monisms">Non-physicalist monisms</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Non-physicalist monisms">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Idealism">Idealism</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Idealism">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<P><A href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</A> is the form of monism that sees the world as consisting of minds, mental contents and or consciousness. Idealists are not faced with explaining how minds arise from bodies: rather, the world, bodies and objects are regarded as mere appearances held by minds. However, accounting for the mind–body problem is not usually the main motivation for idealism; rather, idealists tend to be motivated by <A href="/wiki/Skepticism" title="Skepticism">skepticism</A>, intentionality, and the unique nature of ideas. Idealism is prominent in Eastern religious and philosophical thought. It has gone through several cycles of popularity and neglect in the history of Western philosophy.</P>
<P>Different varieties of idealism may hold that there are</P>
<UL>
<LI>multiple minds (<A href="/wiki/Pluralistic_idealism" class="mw-redirect" title="Pluralistic idealism">pluralistic idealism</A>)</LI>
<LI>only one human mind (<A href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">solipsism</A>)</LI>
<LI>or a single <A href="/wiki/Absolute_(philosophy)" title="Absolute (philosophy)">Absolute</A>, <A href="/wiki/Anima_Mundi" class="mw-redirect" title="Anima Mundi">Anima Mundi</A>, <A href="/wiki/Plotinus#One" title="Plotinus">One</A> or <A href="/wiki/Over-soul" class="mw-redirect" title="Over-soul">Over-soul</A>.</LI>
</UL>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Neutral_monism">Neutral monism</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Neutral monism">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<P><A href="/wiki/Neutral_monism" title="Neutral monism">Neutral monism</A>, in <A href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</A>, is the <A href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</A> view that the mental and the physical are two ways of organizing or describing the same elements, which are themselves "neutral", that is, neither physical nor mental. This view denies that the mental and the physical are two fundamentally different things. Rather, neutral monism claims the universe consists of only one kind of stuff, in the form of neutral elements that are in themselves neither mental nor physical. These neutral elements might have the properties of color and shape, just as we experience those properties. But these shaped and colored elements do not exist in a mind (considered as a substantial entity, whether dualistically or physicalistically); they exist on their own.</P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Mysterianism">Mysterianism</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Mysterianism">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/New_mysterianism" title="New mysterianism">New mysterianism</A></DIV>
<P>Some philosophers take an epistemic approach and argue that the mind–body problem is currently unsolvable, and perhaps will always remain unsolvable to human beings. This is usually termed <A href="/wiki/New_mysterianism" title="New mysterianism">New mysterianism</A>. <A href="/wiki/Colin_McGinn" title="Colin McGinn">Colin McGinn</A> holds that human beings are <A href="/wiki/Cognitive_closure_(philosophy)" title="Cognitive closure (philosophy)">cognitively closed</A> in regards to their own minds. According to McGinn human minds lack the concept-forming procedures to fully grasp how mental properties such as <A href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</A> arise from their causal basis.<SUP id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-67">[67]</A></SUP> An example would be how an elephant is cognitively closed in regards to particle physics.</P>
<P>A more moderate conception has been expounded by <A href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Thomas Nagel</A>, which holds that the mind–body problem is currently unsolvable at the present stage of scientific development and that it might take a future scientific <A href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">paradigm shift</A> or revolution to bridge the <A href="/wiki/Explanatory_gap" title="Explanatory gap">explanatory gap</A>. Nagel posits that in the future a sort of "objective <A href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenology</A>" might be able to bridge the gap between subjective conscious experience and its physical basis.<SUP id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-68">[68]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN id="Linguistic_criticism_of_the_mind.E2.80.93body_problem"></SPAN><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Linguistic_criticism_of_the_mind–body_problem">Linguistic criticism of the mind–body problem</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Linguistic criticism of the mind–body problem">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>Each attempt to answer the mind–body problem encounters substantial problems. Some philosophers argue that this is because there is an underlying conceptual confusion.<SUP id="cite_ref-Hacker_69-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Hacker-69">[69]</A></SUP> These philosophers, such as <A href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</A> and his followers in the tradition of linguistic criticism, therefore reject the problem as illusory.<SUP id="cite_ref-Witt_70-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Witt-70">[70]</A></SUP> They argue that it is an error to ask how mental and biological states fit together. Rather it should simply be accepted that human experience can be described in different ways—for instance, in a mental and in a biological vocabulary. Illusory problems arise if one tries to describe the one in terms of the other's vocabulary or if the mental vocabulary is used in the wrong contexts.<SUP id="cite_ref-Witt_70-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Witt-70">[70]</A></SUP> This is the case, for instance, if one searches for mental states of the brain. The brain is simply the wrong context for the use of mental vocabulary—the search for mental states of the brain is therefore a <A href="/wiki/Category_error" class="mw-redirect" title="Category error">category error</A> or a sort of fallacy of reasoning.<SUP id="cite_ref-Witt_70-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Witt-70">[70]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Today, such a position is often adopted by interpreters of Wittgenstein such as <A href="/wiki/Peter_Hacker" title="Peter Hacker">Peter Hacker</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Hacker_69-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Hacker-69">[69]</A></SUP> However, <A href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</A>, the originator of functionalism, has also adopted the position that the mind–body problem is an illusory problem which should be dissolved according to the manner of Wittgenstein.<SUP id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-71">[71]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Externalism_and_internalism">Externalism and internalism</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Externalism and internalism">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>Where is the mind located? If the mind is a physical phenomenon of some kind, it has to be located somewhere. According to some, there are two possible options: either the mind is internal to the body (<A href="/wiki/Internalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Internalism">internalism</A>) or the mind is external to it (<A href="/wiki/Externalism" title="Externalism">externalism</A>). More generally, either the mind depends only on events and properties taking place inside the subject's body or it depends also on factors external to it.</P>
<P>Proponents of internalism are committed to the view that neural activity is sufficient to produce the mind. Proponents of externalism maintain that the surrounding world is in some sense constitutive of the mind.</P>
<P>Externalism differentiates into several versions. The main ones are <A href="/wiki/Semantic_externalism" title="Semantic externalism">semantic externalism</A>, <A href="/w/index.php?title=Cognitive_externalism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cognitive externalism (page does not exist)">cognitive externalism</A> and <A href="/w/index.php?title=Phenomenal_externalism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phenomenal externalism (page does not exist)">phenomenal externalism</A>. Each of these versions of externalism can further be divided into whether they refer only to the content or to the vehicles of the mind.</P>
<P>Semantic externalism holds that the semantic content of the mind is totally or partially defined by a state of affairs external to the body of the subject. <A href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</A>'s <A href="/wiki/Twin_Earth_thought_experiment" title="Twin Earth thought experiment">Twin Earth thought experiment</A> is a good example.</P>
<P>Cognitive externalism is a very broad collection of views that suggests the role of the environment, of tools, of development, and of the body in fleshing out cognition. <A href="/wiki/Embodied_cognition" title="Embodied cognition">Embodied cognition</A>, the <A href="/wiki/Extended_mind" class="mw-redirect" title="Extended mind">extended mind</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Enactivism" title="Enactivism">enactivism</A> are good examples.</P>
<P>Phenomenal externalism suggests that the phenomenal aspects of the mind are external to the body. Authors who addressed this possibility are Ted Honderich, Edwin Holt, Francois Tonneau, Kevin O'Regan, Riccardo Manzotti, Teed Rockwell and Max Velmans.</P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Naturalism_and_its_problems">Naturalism and its problems</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Naturalism and its problems">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>The thesis of physicalism is that the mind is part of the material (or physical) world. Such a position faces the problem that the mind has certain properties that no other material thing seems to possess. Physicalism must therefore explain how it is possible that these properties can nonetheless emerge from a material thing. The project of providing such an explanation is often referred to as the "<A href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">naturalization</A> of the mental".<SUP id="cite_ref-Stol_53-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Stol-53">[53]</A></SUP> Some of the crucial problems that this project attempts to resolve include the existence of qualia and the nature of intentionality.<SUP id="cite_ref-Stol_53-6" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Stol-53">[53]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Qualia">Qualia</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Qualia">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</A></DIV>
<P>Many mental states seem to be experienced subjectively in different ways by different individuals.<SUP id="cite_ref-Nagel_32-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Nagel-32">[32]</A></SUP> And it is characteristic of a mental state that it has some experiential <I>quality</I>, e.g. of pain, that it hurts. However, the sensation of pain between two individuals may not be identical, since no one has a perfect way to measure how much something hurts or of describing exactly how it feels to hurt. Philosophers and scientists therefore ask where these experiences come from. The existence of cerebral events, in and of themselves, cannot explain why they are accompanied by these corresponding qualitative experiences. The puzzle of why many cerebral processes occur with an accompanying experiential aspect in consciousness seems impossible to explain.<SUP id="cite_ref-Ja_31-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Ja-31">[31]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Yet it also seems to many that science will eventually have to explain such experiences.<SUP id="cite_ref-Stol_53-7" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Stol-53">[53]</A></SUP> This <A href="/wiki/Logical_consequence" title="Logical consequence">follows from</A> an assumption about the possibility of <A href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">reductive explanations</A>. According to this view, if an attempt can be successfully made to explain a phenomenon reductively (e.g., water), then it can be explained why the phenomenon has all of its properties (e.g., fluidity, transparency).<SUP id="cite_ref-Stol_53-8" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Stol-53">[53]</A></SUP> In the case of mental states, this means that there needs to be an explanation of why they have the property of being experienced in a certain way.</P>
<P>The 20th-century German philosopher <A href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</A> criticized the <A href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontological</A> assumptions underpinning such a reductive model, and claimed that it was impossible to make sense of experience in these terms. This is because, according to Heidegger, the nature of our subjective experience and its <I>qualities</I> is impossible to understand in terms of <A href="/wiki/Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes">Cartesian</A> "substances" that bear "properties". Another way to put this is that the very concept of qualitative experience is incoherent in terms of—or is semantically <A href="/wiki/Commensurability_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Commensurability (philosophy of science)">incommensurable</A> with the concept of—substances that bear properties.<SUP id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-72">[72]</A></SUP></P>
<P>This problem of explaining introspective first-person aspects of mental states and consciousness in general in terms of third-person quantitative neuroscience is called the <A href="/wiki/Explanatory_gap" title="Explanatory gap">explanatory gap</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-73">[73]</A></SUP> There are several different views of the nature of this gap among contemporary philosophers of mind. <A href="/wiki/David_Chalmers" title="David Chalmers">David Chalmers</A> and the early <A href="/wiki/Frank_Cameron_Jackson" title="Frank Cameron Jackson">Frank Jackson</A> interpret the gap as <A href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontological</A> in nature; that is, they maintain that qualia can never be explained by science because <A href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">physicalism</A> is false. There are two separate categories involved and one cannot be reduced to the other.<SUP id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-74">[74]</A></SUP> An alternative view is taken by philosophers such as <A href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Thomas Nagel</A> and <A href="/wiki/Colin_McGinn" title="Colin McGinn">Colin McGinn</A>. According to them, the gap is <A href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemological</A> in nature. For Nagel, science is not yet able to explain subjective experience because it has not yet arrived at the level or kind of knowledge that is required. We are not even able to formulate the problem coherently.<SUP id="cite_ref-Nagel_32-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Nagel-32">[32]</A></SUP> For McGinn, on other hand, the problem is one of permanent and inherent biological limitations. We are not able to resolve the explanatory gap because the realm of subjective experiences is cognitively closed to us in the same manner that quantum physics is cognitively closed to elephants.<SUP id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-75">[75]</A></SUP> Other philosophers liquidate the gap as purely a semantic problem. This semantic problem, of course, led to the famous "<I>Qualia Question</I>", which is: <I>Does Red cause Redness</I>?</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Intentionality">Intentionality</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Intentionality">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Intentionality" title="Intentionality">Intentionality</A></DIV>
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<A href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</A>—one of the most influential philosophers of mind, proponent of <A href="/wiki/Biological_naturalism" title="Biological naturalism">biological naturalism</A> (Berkeley 2002)</DIV>
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<P><A href="/wiki/Intentionality" title="Intentionality">Intentionality</A> is the capacity of mental states to be directed towards (<I>about</I>) or be in relation with something in the external world.<SUP id="cite_ref-Searleint_29-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Searleint-29">[29]</A></SUP> This property of mental states entails that they have <A href="/wiki/Mental_content" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental content">contents</A> and <A href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">semantic referents</A> and can therefore be assigned <A href="/wiki/Truth_value" title="Truth value">truth values</A>. When one tries to reduce these states to natural processes there arises a problem: natural processes are not true or false, they simply happen.<SUP id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-76">[76]</A></SUP> It would not make any sense to say that a natural process is true or false. But mental ideas or judgments are true or false, so how then can mental states (ideas or judgments) be natural processes? The possibility of assigning semantic value to ideas must mean that such ideas are about facts. Thus, for example, the idea that <A href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</A> was a historian refers to Herodotus and to the fact that he was a historian. If the fact is true, then the idea is true; otherwise, it is false. But where does this relation come from? In the brain, there are only electrochemical processes and these seem not to have anything to do with Herodotus.<SUP id="cite_ref-Int_28-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Int-28">[28]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Philosophy_of_perception">Philosophy of perception</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Philosophy of perception">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Philosophy of perception</A></DIV>
<P><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Philosophy of perception</A> is concerned with the nature of <A href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perceptual experience</A> and the status of perceptual objects, in particular how perceptual experience relates to appearances and beliefs about the world. The main contemporary views within philosophy of perception include naive realism, enactivism and representional views.<SUP id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_3-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-3">[3]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Macpherson,_F._2008_4-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Macpherson,_F._2008-4">[4]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-77">[77]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Philosophy_of_mind_and_science">Philosophy of mind and science</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Philosophy of mind and science">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>Humans are corporeal beings and, as such, they are subject to examination and description by the natural sciences. Since mental processes are intimately related to bodily processes, the descriptions that the natural sciences furnish of human beings play an important role in the philosophy of mind.<SUP id="cite_ref-Kim1_2-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Kim1-2">[2]</A></SUP> There are many scientific disciplines that study processes related to the mental. The list of such sciences includes: <A href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</A>, <A href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</A>, <A href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive science</A>, <A href="/wiki/Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">cybernetics</A>, <A href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</A>, <A href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</A>, <A href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">pharmacology</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Pinker_78-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Pinker-78">[78]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Neurobiology">Neurobiology</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Neurobiology">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</A></DIV>
<P>The theoretical background of biology, as is the case with modern <A href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural sciences</A> in general, is fundamentally materialistic. The objects of study are, in the first place, physical processes, which are considered to be the foundations of mental activity and behavior.<SUP id="cite_ref-Bear_79-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Bear-79">[79]</A></SUP> The increasing success of biology in the explanation of mental phenomena can be seen by the absence of any empirical refutation of its fundamental presupposition: "there can be no change in the mental states of a person without a change in brain states."<SUP id="cite_ref-Pinker_78-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Pinker-78">[78]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Within the field of neurobiology, there are many subdisciplines that are concerned with the relations between mental and physical states and processes:<SUP id="cite_ref-Bear_79-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Bear-79">[79]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Neurophysiology" title="Neurophysiology">Sensory neurophysiology</A> investigates the relation between the processes of <A href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</A> and <A href="/wiki/Stimulation" title="Stimulation">stimulation</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Pinel_80-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Pinel-80">[80]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">Cognitive neuroscience</A> studies the correlations between mental processes and neural processes.<SUP id="cite_ref-Pinel_80-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Pinel-80">[80]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</A> describes the dependence of mental faculties on specific anatomical regions of the brain.<SUP id="cite_ref-Pinel_80-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Pinel-80">[80]</A></SUP> Lastly, <A href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">evolutionary biology</A> studies the origins and development of the human nervous system and, in as much as this is the basis of the mind, also describes the <A href="/wiki/Ontogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontogenesis">ontogenetic</A> and <A href="/wiki/Phylogenesis" title="Phylogenesis">phylogenetic</A> development of mental phenomena beginning from their most primitive stages.<SUP id="cite_ref-Pinker_78-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Pinker-78">[78]</A></SUP> Evolutionary biology furthermore places tight constraints on any philosophical theory of the mind, as the <A href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">gene</A>-based mechanism of <A href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</A> does not allow any giant leaps in the development of neural complexity or neural software but only incremental steps over long time periods.<SUP id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-81">[81]</A></SUP></P>
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Since the 1980s, sophisticated <A href="/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">neuroimaging</A> procedures, such as <A href="/wiki/FMRI" class="mw-redirect" title="FMRI">fMRI</A> (above), have furnished increasing knowledge about the workings of the human brain, shedding light on ancient philosophical problems.</DIV>
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<P>The <A href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">methodological</A> breakthroughs of the neurosciences, in particular the introduction of high-tech neuroimaging procedures, has propelled scientists toward the elaboration of increasingly ambitious research programs: one of the main goals is to describe and comprehend the neural processes which correspond to mental functions (see: <A href="/wiki/Neural_correlate" title="Neural correlate">neural correlate</A>).<SUP id="cite_ref-Bear_79-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Bear-79">[79]</A></SUP> Several groups are inspired by these advances.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Computer_science">Computer science</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Computer science">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">Computer science</A></DIV>
<P>Computer science concerns itself with the automatic processing of <A href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">information</A> (or at least with physical systems of symbols to which information is assigned) by means of such things as <A href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computers</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-82">[82]</A></SUP> From the beginning, <A href="/wiki/Computer_programmer" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer programmer">computer programmers</A> have been able to develop programs that permit computers to carry out tasks for which organic beings need a mind. A simple example is multiplication. It is not clear whether computers could be said to have a mind. Could they, someday, come to have what we call a mind? This question has been propelled into the forefront of much philosophical debate because of investigations in the field of <A href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</A> (AI).</P>
<P>Within AI, it is common to distinguish between a modest research program and a more ambitious one: this distinction was coined by <A href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</A> in terms of a <A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence#Strong_AI_vs._weak_AI" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">weak AI and strong AI</A>. The exclusive objective of "weak AI", according to Searle, is the successful simulation of mental states, with no attempt to make computers become conscious or aware, etc. The objective of strong AI, on the contrary, is a computer with consciousness similar to that of human beings.<SUP id="cite_ref-Searle_83-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Searle-83">[83]</A></SUP> The program of strong AI goes back to one of the pioneers of computation <A href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</A>. As an answer to the question "Can computers think?", he formulated the famous <A href="/wiki/Turing_test" title="Turing test">Turing test</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-84">[84]</A></SUP> Turing believed that a computer could be said to "think" when, if placed in a room by itself next to another room that contained a human being and with the same questions being asked of both the computer and the human being by a third party human being, the computer's responses turned out to be indistinguishable from those of the human. Essentially, Turing's view of machine intelligence followed the behaviourist model of the mind—intelligence is as intelligence does. The Turing test has received many criticisms, among which the most famous is probably the <A href="/wiki/Chinese_room" title="Chinese room">Chinese room</A> <A href="/wiki/Thought_experiment" title="Thought experiment">thought experiment</A> formulated by Searle.<SUP id="cite_ref-Searle_83-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Searle-83">[83]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The question about the possible sensitivity (<A href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">qualia</A>) of computers or robots still remains open. Some computer scientists believe that the specialty of AI can still make new contributions to the resolution of the "mind–body problem". They suggest that based on the reciprocal influences between software and hardware that takes place in all computers, it is possible that someday theories can be discovered that help us to understand the reciprocal influences between the human mind and the brain (<A href="/wiki/Wetware_(brain)" title="Wetware (brain)">wetware</A>).<SUP id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-85">[85]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Psychology">Psychology</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Psychology">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</A></DIV>
<P>Psychology is the science that investigates mental states directly. It uses generally empirical methods to investigate concrete mental states like <A href="/wiki/Joy" title="Joy">joy</A>, <A href="/wiki/Fear" title="Fear">fear</A> or <A href="/wiki/Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_disorder" title="Obsessive–compulsive disorder">obsessions</A>. Psychology investigates the laws that bind these mental states to each other or with inputs and outputs to the human organism.<SUP id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-86">[86]</A></SUP></P>
<P>An example of this is the <A href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">psychology of perception</A>. Scientists working in this field have discovered general principles of the <A href="/wiki/Form_perception" title="Form perception">perception of forms</A>. A law of the psychology of forms says that objects that move in the same direction are perceived as related to each other.<SUP id="cite_ref-Pinker_78-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Pinker-78">[78]</A></SUP> This law describes a relation between visual input and mental perceptual states. However, it does not suggest anything about the nature of perceptual states. The laws discovered by psychology are compatible with all the answers to the mind–body problem already described.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Cognitive_science">Cognitive science</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Cognitive science">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P><A href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</A> is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the mind and its processes. It examines what <A href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognition</A> is, what it does, and how it works. It includes research on intelligence and behavior, especially focusing on how information is represented, processed, and transformed (in faculties such as perception, language, memory, reasoning, and emotion) within nervous systems (human or other animal) and machines (e.g. computers). Cognitive science consists of multiple research disciplines, including <A href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</A>, <A href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</A>, <A href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</A>, <A href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neuroscience</A>, <A href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</A>, <A href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</A>, <A href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-87">[87]</A></SUP> It spans many levels of analysis, from low-level learning and decision mechanisms to high-level logic and planning; from neural circuitry to modular brain organisation. <A href="/wiki/Mark_Rowlands" title="Mark Rowlands">Rowlands</A> argues that cognition is enactive, embodied, embedded, affective and (potentially) extended. The position is taken that the "classical sandwich" of cognition sandwiched between perception and action is artificial; cognition has to be seen as a product of a strongly coupled interaction that cannot be divided this way.<SUP id="cite_ref-Rowlands_88-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Rowlands-88">[88]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Ward_89-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Ward-89">[89]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Philosophy_of_mind_in_the_continental_tradition">Philosophy of mind in the continental tradition</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Philosophy of mind in the continental tradition">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>Most of the discussion in this article has focused on one style or tradition of philosophy in modern Western culture, usually called <A href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic philosophy</A> (sometimes described as Anglo-American philosophy).<SUP id="cite_ref-Dummett_90-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Dummett-90">[90]</A></SUP> Many other schools of thought exist, however, which are sometimes subsumed under the broad (and vague) label of <A href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">continental philosophy</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Dummett_90-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Dummett-90">[90]</A></SUP> In any case, though topics and methods here are numerous, in relation to the philosophy of mind the various schools that fall under this label (<A href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenology</A>, <A href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialism</A>, etc.) can globally be seen to differ from the analytic school in that they focus less on language and logical analysis alone but also take in other forms of understanding human existence and experience. With reference specifically to the discussion of the mind, this tends to translate into attempts to grasp the concepts of <A href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">thought</A> and <A href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">perceptual experience</A> in some sense that does not merely involve the analysis of linguistic forms.<SUP id="cite_ref-Dummett_90-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Dummett-90">[90]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Immanuel Kant's <I><A href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</A></I>, first published in 1781 and presented again with major revisions in 1787, represents a significant intervention into what will later become known as the philosophy of mind. Kant's first <A href="/wiki/Critique" title="Critique">critique</A> is generally recognized as among the most significant works of <A href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">modern philosophy</A> in the West. Kant is a figure whose influence is marked in both <A href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">continental</A> and analytic/Anglo-American philosophy. Kant's work develops an in-depth study of <A href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">transcendental</A> consciousness, or the life of the mind as conceived through universal <A href="/wiki/Category_(Kant)" title="Category (Kant)">categories</A> of consciousness.</P>
<P>In <A href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</A>'s <I>Philosophy of Mind</I> (frequently translated as <I>Philosophy of Spirit</I> or <A href="/wiki/Geist" title="Geist">Geist</A>),<SUP id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-91">[91]</A></SUP> the third part of his <I><A href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_the_Philosophical_Sciences" title="Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences">Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences</A></I>, Hegel discusses three distinct types of mind: the "subjective mind/spirit", the mind of an individual; the "objective mind/spirit", the mind of society and of the State; and the "Absolute mind/spirit", the position of religion, art, and philosophy. See also Hegel's <I><A href="/wiki/The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit" title="The Phenomenology of Spirit">The Phenomenology of Spirit</A></I>. Nonetheless, Hegel's work differs radically from the style of <A href="/wiki/Anglosphere" title="Anglosphere">Anglo-American</A> philosophy of mind.</P>
<P>In 1896, <A href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</A> made in <I><A href="/wiki/Matter_and_Memory" title="Matter and Memory">Matter and Memory</A></I> "Essay on the relation of body and spirit" a forceful case for the ontological difference of body and mind by reducing the problem to the more definite one of memory, thus allowing for a solution built on the <I>empirical test case</I> of <A href="/wiki/Aphasia" title="Aphasia">aphasia</A>.</P>
<P>In modern times, the two main schools that have developed in response or opposition to this Hegelian tradition are phenomenology and existentialism. Phenomenology, founded by <A href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</A>, focuses on the contents of the human mind (see <A href="/wiki/Noema" title="Noema">noema</A>) and how processes shape our experiences.<SUP id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-92">[92]</A></SUP> Existentialism, a school of thought founded upon the work of <A href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</A>, focuses on Human predicament and how people deal with the situation of being alive. Existential-phenomenology represents a major branch of continental philosophy (they are not contradictory), rooted in the work of Husserl but expressed in its fullest forms in the work of <A href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</A>, <A href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</A>, <A href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">Simone de Beauvoir</A> and <A href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Maurice Merleau-Ponty</A>. See Heidegger's <I><A href="/wiki/Being_and_Time" title="Being and Time">Being and Time</A></I>, Merleau-Ponty's <I><A href="/wiki/Phenomenology_of_Perception" title="Phenomenology of Perception">Phenomenology of Perception</A></I>, Sartre's <I><A href="/wiki/Being_and_Nothingness" title="Being and Nothingness">Being and Nothingness</A></I>, and Simone de Beauvoir's <I><A href="/wiki/The_Second_Sex" title="The Second Sex">The Second Sex</A></I>.</P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Mind_in_Eastern_philosophy">Mind in Eastern philosophy</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Mind in Eastern philosophy">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Mind_in_Hindu_philosophy">Mind in Hindu philosophy</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Mind in Hindu philosophy">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Dualism">Dualism</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Dualism">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<P><A href="/wiki/Cartesian_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartesian dualism">Substance Dualism</A> is a common feature of several <A href="/wiki/%C4%80stika_and_n%C4%81stika#Āstika" title="Āstika and nāstika">orthodox Hindu schools</A> including the <A href="/wiki/S%C4%81%E1%B9%85khya" class="mw-redirect" title="Sāṅkhya">Sāṅkhya</A>, <A href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya" class="mw-redirect" title="Nyāya">Nyāya</A>, <A href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</A> and <A href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita Vedanta</A>. In these schools a clear difference is drawn between matter and a non-material soul, which is eternal and undergoes <A href="/wiki/Samsara" class="mw-redirect" title="Samsara">samsara</A>, a cycle of death and rebirth. The <A href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya" class="mw-redirect" title="Nyāya">Nyāya</A> school argued that qualities such as cognition and desire are inherent qualities which are not possessed by anything solely material, and therefore by process of elimination must belong to a non-material self, the <A href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">atman</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-93">[93]</A></SUP> Many of these schools see their spiritual goal as <A href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">moksha</A>, liberation from the cycle of reincarnation.</P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Vedanta_monistic_idealism">Vedanta monistic idealism</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Vedanta monistic idealism">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
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Śaṅkara</DIV>
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<P>In the <A href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita Vedanta</A> of the 8th century Indian philosopher <A href="/wiki/%C5%9Aa%E1%B9%85kara" class="mw-redirect" title="Śaṅkara">Śaṅkara</A>, the mind, body and world are all held to be the same unchanging eternal conscious entity called <A href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</A>. Advaita, which means non-dualism, holds the view that all that exists is pure absolute <A href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</A>. The fact that the world seems to be made up of changing entities is an illusion, or <A href="/wiki/Maya_(illusion)" class="mw-redirect" title="Maya (illusion)">Maya</A>. The only thing that exists is <A href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</A>, which is described as <A href="/wiki/Satchitananda" class="mw-redirect" title="Satchitananda">Satchitananda</A> (Being, consciousness and bliss). Advaita Vedanta is best described by a verse which states "Brahman is alone True, and this world of plurality is an error; the individual self is not different from Brahman."<SUP id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-94">[94]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Another form of monistic Vedanta is <A href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</A> (qualified non-dualism) as posited by the eleventh century philosopher <A href="/wiki/Ramanuja" title="Ramanuja">Ramanuja</A>. Ramanuja criticized Advaita Vedanta by arguing that consciousness is always <A href="/wiki/Intentionality" title="Intentionality">intentional</A> and that it is also always a property of something. Ramanuja's Brahman is defined by a multiplicity of qualities and properties in a single monistic entity. This doctrine is called "<A href="/wiki/Samanadhikaranya" title="Samanadhikaranya">samanadhikaranya</A>" (several things in a common substrate).<SUP id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-95">[95]</A></SUP></P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Materialism">Materialism</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Materialism">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<P>Arguably the first exposition of <A href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empirical</A> <A href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialism</A> in the history of philosophy is in the <A href="/wiki/C%C4%81rv%C4%81ka" class="mw-redirect" title="Cārvāka">Cārvāka</A> school (also called Lokāyata). The Cārvāka school rejected the existence of anything but matter (which they defined as being made up of the <A href="/wiki/Four_elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Four elements">four elements</A>), including God and the soul. Therefore, they held that even consciousness was nothing but a construct made up of atoms. A section of the Cārvāka school believed in a material soul made up of air or breath, but since this also was a form of matter, it was not said to survive death.<SUP id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-96">[96]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Buddhist_philosophy_of_mind">Buddhist philosophy of mind</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Buddhist philosophy of mind">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<TABLE style="float:right; clear: right; margin:0.1em 0 0.1em 1em; background:Azure; border:1px solid DarkGray; font-size:85%; text-align:center;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TD colspan="5" style="border-bottom:1px solid DarkGray; background:WhiteSmoke; text-align:center; color:RoyalBlue"> <FONT size="2">The <B><A href="/wiki/Skandha" title="Skandha">Five Aggregates</A></B> (<I>pañca khandha</I>)</FONT><BR />
according to the <A href="/wiki/Pali_Canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Pali Canon">Pali Canon</A>.</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="5"> </TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD rowspan="1"> </TD>
<TD>
<TABLE cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2">
<TBODY><TR>
<TD colspan="4" style="background:Lime"><A href="/wiki/R%C5%ABpa" title="Rūpa"><B>form</B> (<I>rūpa</I>)</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="1" style="background:Lime"> </TD>
<TD colspan="2" style="background:white; border:1px dotted Blue"><SMALL><A href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81bh%C5%ABta" title="Mahābhūta">4 elements<BR />
(<I>mahābhūta</I>)</A></SMALL></TD>
<TD colspan="1" style="background:Lime"> </TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="4" style="background:Lime"> </TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="1" style="background:Azure"> </TD>
<TD colspan="1" style="background:Azure; border-left:1px solid Green"> </TD>
<TD colspan="2" style="background:Azure; color:LimeGreen"><FONT size="5">↓</FONT></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="1" style="background:Azure"> </TD>
<TD colspan="1" style="background:Azure; border-left:1px solid Green"> </TD>
<TD colspan="2" style="background:White; border:1px dotted Gainsboro"><SMALL><A href="/wiki/Spar%C5%9Ba" title="Sparśa">contact<BR />
(<I>phassa</I>)</A></SMALL></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="background:Azure; color:Green; text-align:left">    <FONT size="5">↓</FONT></TD>
<TD colspan="2" style="background:Azure; color:LightSkyBlue"><FONT size="5">↑</FONT></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="4" style="background:LightSkyBlue"> <BR />
<A href="/wiki/Vijnana" class="mw-redirect" title="Vijnana"><B>consciousness</B><BR />
(<I>viññāna</I>)</A><BR />
 </TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
<TD> <BR />
 <BR />
 <BR />
 <BR />
<FONT color="DarkBlue" size="5">→</FONT><BR />
<FONT color="Orange" size="5">←</FONT><BR />
 <BR />
 <BR />
 <BR />
<FONT color="red" size="5">←</FONT></TD>
<TD>
<TABLE cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="background:white">
<TBODY><TR>
<TD rowspan="8" style="border-left:1px dotted Red; border-top:1px dotted Red; border-bottom:1px dotted Red"> </TD>
<TD style="color:RoyalBlue; border-top:1px dotted Red"><SMALL><A href="/wiki/Mental_factors_(Buddhism)" title="Mental factors (Buddhism)">mental factors (<I>cetasika</I>)</A></SMALL></TD>
<TD rowspan="8" style="border-right:1px dotted Red; border-top:1px dotted Red; border-bottom:1px dotted Red"> </TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD style="background:Orange"> <BR />
<A href="/wiki/Vedana" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedana"><B>feeling</B><BR />
(<I>vedanā</I>)</A><BR />
 </TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD> </TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD style="background:OrangeRed"> <BR />
<A href="/wiki/Samjna" class="mw-redirect" title="Samjna"><B>perception</B><BR />
(<I>sañña</I>)</A><BR />
 </TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD> </TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD style="background:Red"> <BR />
<A href="/wiki/Sankhara" class="mw-redirect" title="Sankhara"><B>formation</B><BR />
(<I><SPAN title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration" class="Unicode" style="white-space:normal; text-decoration: none">saṅkhāra</SPAN></I>)</A><BR />
 </TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="3" style="border-bottom:1px dotted Red"> </TD>
</TR>
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</TD>
<TD rowspan="1"> </TD>
</TR>
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<TD colspan="5"> </TD>
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<DD>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/R%C5%ABpa" title="Rūpa">Form</A> is derived from the <A href="/wiki/Mahabhuta" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahabhuta">Four Great Elements</A>.</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Vinnana" class="mw-redirect" title="Vinnana">Consciousness</A> arises from <A href="/wiki/Namarupa" title="Namarupa">other aggregates</A>.</LI>
<LI>Mental Factors arise from the <A href="/wiki/Phassa" class="mw-redirect" title="Phassa">Contact</A> of<BR />
<A href="/wiki/Vinnana" class="mw-redirect" title="Vinnana">Consciousness</A> and <A href="/wiki/Namarupa" title="Namarupa">other aggregates</A>.</LI>
</UL>
</DD>
</DL>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="5" style="background:WhiteSmoke; text-align:left; color:RoyalBlue"> <SMALL><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.109.than.html">Source: MN 109 (Thanissaro, 2001)</A></SMALL>  <FONT color="DarkGray">|</FONT>  <SMALL><A href="/wiki/Template:PancaKhandha" title="Template:PancaKhandha">diagram details</A></SMALL></TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
<P>Buddhist teachings describe that the mind manifests moment-to-moment as sense impressions and mental phenomena that are continuously changing.<SUP id="cite_ref-Aggregates_97-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Aggregates-97">[97]</A></SUP> The moment-by-moment manifestation of the mind-stream has been described as happening in every person all the time, even in a scientist who analyses various phenomena in the world, or analyses the material body including the organ brain.<SUP id="cite_ref-Aggregates_97-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Aggregates-97">[97]</A></SUP> The manifestation of the mind-stream is also described as being influenced by physical laws, biological laws, psychological laws, volitional laws, and universal laws.<SUP id="cite_ref-Aggregates_97-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Aggregates-97">[97]</A></SUP></P>
<P>A salient feature of <A href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist philosophy</A> which sets it apart from Indian orthodoxy is the centrality of the doctrine of <A href="/wiki/Anatta" title="Anatta">not-self</A> (<A href="/wiki/P%C4%81li" class="mw-redirect" title="Pāli">Pāli</A>. anatta, Skt. anātman). The Buddha's not-self doctrine sees humans as an impermanent composite of five psychological and physical aspects instead of a single fixed self. In this sense, what is called ego or the self is merely a convenient fiction, an illusion that does not apply to anything real but to an erroneous way of looking at the ever changing stream of <A href="/wiki/Five_aggregates" class="mw-redirect" title="Five aggregates">five interconnected aggregate factors</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Coseru_98-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Coseru-98">[98]</A></SUP> The relationship between these aggregates is said to be one of dependent-arising (<A href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">pratītyasamutpāda</A>). This means that all things, including mental events, arise co-dependently from a plurality of other causes and conditions. This seems to reject both <A href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">causal determinist</A> and <A href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">epiphenomenalist</A> conceptions of mind.<SUP id="cite_ref-Coseru_98-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Coseru-98">[98]</A></SUP></P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Abhidharma_theories_of_mind">Abhidharma theories of mind</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Abhidharma theories of mind">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<P>Three centuries after the death of the Buddha (c. 150 BCE) saw the growth of a large body of literature called the <A href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</A> in several contending <A href="/wiki/Buddhist_schools" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist schools">Buddhist schools</A>. In the Abhidharmic analysis of mind, the ordinary thought is defined as <A href="/wiki/Prapa%C3%B1ca" class="mw-redirect" title="Prapañca">prapañca</A> ('conceptual proliferation'). According to this theory, perceptual experience is bound up in multiple conceptualizations (expectations, judgments and desires). This proliferation of conceptualizations form our illusory superimposition of concepts like <A href="/wiki/Self" title="Self">self</A> and <A href="/wiki/Other_(philosophy)" title="Other (philosophy)">other</A> upon an ever changing stream of aggregate phenomena.<SUP id="cite_ref-Coseru_98-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Coseru-98">[98]</A></SUP> In this conception of mind no strict distinction is made between the conscious faculty and the actual sense perception of various phenomena. Consciousness is instead said to be divided into six sense modalities, five for the <A href="/wiki/Five_senses" class="mw-redirect" title="Five senses">five senses</A> and sixth for perception of mental phenomena.<SUP id="cite_ref-Coseru_98-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Coseru-98">[98]</A></SUP> The arising of cognitive awareness is said to depend on sense perception, awareness of the mental faculty itself which is termed mental or 'introspective awareness' (<I>manovijñāna</I>) and attention (<I>āvartana</I>), the picking out of objects out of the constantly changing stream of sensory impressions.</P>
<P>Rejection of a permanent agent eventually led to the philosophical problems of the seeming continuity of mind and also of explaining how <A href="/wiki/Rebirth_(Buddhism)" title="Rebirth (Buddhism)">rebirth</A> and <A href="/wiki/Karma_in_Buddhism" title="Karma in Buddhism">karma</A> continue to be relevant doctrines without an eternal mind. This challenge was met by the <A href="/wiki/Therav%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Theravāda">Theravāda</A> school by introducing the concept of mind as a factor of existence. This "life-stream" (<A href="/wiki/Bhavanga" title="Bhavanga">Bhavanga</A>-sota) is an undercurrent forming the condition of being. The continuity of a karmic "person" is therefore assured in the form of a <A href="/wiki/Mindstream" class="mw-redirect" title="Mindstream">mindstream</A> (citta-santana), a series of flowing mental moments arising from the subliminal life-continuum mind (<A href="/wiki/Bhavanga" title="Bhavanga">Bhavanga</A>-citta), mental content, and attention.<SUP id="cite_ref-Coseru_98-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Coseru-98">[98]</A></SUP></P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Indian_Mahayana">Indian Mahayana</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Indian Mahayana">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</A> school held a form of <A href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">phenomenalism</A> that saw the world as imperceptible. It held that external objects exist only as a support for cognition, which can only apprehend mental representations. This influenced the later <A href="/wiki/Yog%C4%81c%C4%81ra" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogācāra">Yogācāra</A> school of <A href="/wiki/Mahayana_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahayana Buddhism">Mahayana Buddhism</A>. The Yogācāra school is often called the mind-only school because of its <A href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism#Philosophy_of_mind" title="Internalism and externalism">internalist</A> stance that consciousness is the ultimate existing reality. The works of <A href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</A> have often been interpreted as arguing for some form of <A href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</A>. Vasubandhu uses the <A href="/wiki/Dream_argument" title="Dream argument">dream argument</A> and a <A href="/wiki/Mereology" title="Mereology">mereological</A> refutation of atomism to attack the reality of external objects as anything other than mental entities.<SUP id="cite_ref-Gold_99-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Gold-99">[99]</A></SUP> Scholarly interpretations of Vasubandhu's philosophy vary widely, and include phenomenalism, <A href="/wiki/Neutral_monism" title="Neutral monism">neutral monism</A> and <A href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)#Realist_phenomenology" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">realist phenomenology</A>.</P>
<P>The Indian <A href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism#Mahāyāna_schools" title="Schools of Buddhism">Mahayana schools</A> were divided on the issue of the possibility of reflexive awareness (<I><A href="/wiki/Svasa%E1%B9%83vedana" title="Svasaṃvedana">svasaṃvedana</A></I>). <A href="/wiki/Dharmak%C4%ABrti" class="mw-redirect" title="Dharmakīrti">Dharmakīrti</A> accepted the idea of reflexive awareness as expounded by the Yogācāra school, comparing it to a lamp that illuminates itself while also illuminating other objects. This was strictly rejected by <A href="/wiki/M%C4%81dhyamika" class="mw-redirect" title="Mādhyamika">Mādhyamika</A> scholars like <A href="/wiki/Candrak%C4%ABrti" class="mw-redirect" title="Candrakīrti">Candrakīrti</A>. Since in the philosophy of the Mādhyamika all things and mental events are characterized by <A href="/wiki/Shunyata" class="mw-redirect" title="Shunyata">emptiness</A>, they argued that consciousness could not be an inherently reflexive ultimate reality since that would mean it was self-validating and therefore not characterized by emptiness.<SUP id="cite_ref-Coseru_98-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Coseru-98">[98]</A></SUP> These views were ultimately reconciled by the 8th century thinker <A href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81ntarak%E1%B9%A3ita" title="Śāntarakṣita">Śāntarakṣita</A>. In Śāntarakṣita's synthesis he adopts the idealist Yogācāra views of reflexive awareness as a conventional truth into the structure of the <A href="/wiki/Two_truths_doctrine" title="Two truths doctrine">two truths doctrine</A>. Thus he states: "By relying on the Mind-Only system, know that external entities do not exist. And by relying on this Middle Way system, know that no self exists at all, even in that [mind]." <SUP id="cite_ref-Blumenthal_100-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Blumenthal-100">[100]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The Yogācāra school also developed the theory of the <A href="/wiki/Vij%C3%B1%C4%81na#Eight_vijñānas" title="Vijñāna">repository consciousness</A> (<I>ālayavijñāna</I>) to explain continuity of mind in <A href="/wiki/Rebirth_(Buddhism)" title="Rebirth (Buddhism)">rebirth</A> and accumulation of <A href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">karma</A>. This repository consciousness acts as a storehouse for karmic seeds (<A href="/wiki/B%C4%ABja" title="Bīja">bija</A>) when all other senses are absent during the process of death and rebirth as well as being the causal potentiality of <A href="/wiki/Dharma_(Buddhism)#Dharmas_in_Buddhist_phenomenology" class="mw-redirect" title="Dharma (Buddhism)">dharmic phenomena</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Coseru_98-6" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Coseru-98">[98]</A></SUP> Thus according to <A href="/wiki/B._Alan_Wallace" title="B. Alan Wallace">B. Alan Wallace</A>:</P>
<BLOCKQUOTE>
<P>No constituents of the body—in the brain or elsewhere—transform into mental states and processes. Such subjective experiences do not emerge from the body, but neither do they emerge from nothing. Rather, all objective mental appearances arise from the substrate, and all subjective mental states and processes arise from the substrate consciousness.<SUP id="cite_ref-Wallace_101-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Wallace-101">[101]</A></SUP></P>
</BLOCKQUOTE>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Tibetan_Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Tibetan Buddhism">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<P><A href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Tibetan Buddhist">Tibetan Buddhist</A> theories of mind evolved directly from the Indian Mahayana views. Thus the founder of the <A href="/wiki/Gelug" title="Gelug">Gelug</A> school, <A href="/wiki/Je_Tsongkhapa" title="Je Tsongkhapa">Je Tsongkhapa</A> discusses the Yogācāra system of the <A href="/wiki/Eight_Consciousnesses" title="Eight Consciousnesses">Eight Consciousnesses</A> in his <I>Explanation of the Difficult Points</I>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Sparham_102-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Sparham-102">[102]</A></SUP> He would later come to repudiate <A href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81ntarak%E1%B9%A3ita" title="Śāntarakṣita">Śāntarakṣita</A>'s pragmatic <A href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">idealism</A>. According to the <A href="/wiki/14th_Dalai_Lama" title="14th Dalai Lama">14th Dalai Lama</A> the mind can be defined "as an entity that has the nature of mere experience, that is, 'clarity and knowing'. It is the knowing nature, or agency, that is called mind, and this is non-material."<SUP id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-103">[103]</A></SUP> The simultaneously dual nature of mind is as follows:</P>
<DL>
<DD>
<DL>
<DD>1. <B>Clarity</B> (<I>gsal</I>) – The mental activity which produces cognitive phenomena (<I>snang-ba</I>).</DD>
<DD>2. <B>Knowing</B> (<I>rig</I>) – The mental activity of perceiving cognitive phenomena.</DD>
</DL>
</DD>
</DL>
<P>The 14th Dalai Lama has also explicitly laid out his theory of mind as <B>experiential dualism</B> which is described above under the different types of dualism.<SUP id="cite_ref-:0_52-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-:0-52">[52]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Because Tibetan philosophy of mind is ultimately <A href="/wiki/Soteriology" title="Soteriology">soteriological</A>, it focuses on meditative practices such as <A href="/wiki/Dzogchen" title="Dzogchen">Dzogchen</A> and <A href="/wiki/Mahamudra" title="Mahamudra">Mahamudra</A> that allow a practitioner to experience the true reflexive nature of their mind directly. This unobstructed knowledge of one's primordial, empty and non-dual <A href="/wiki/Buddha_nature" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddha nature">Buddha nature</A> is called <A href="/wiki/Rigpa" title="Rigpa">rigpa</A>. The mind's innermost nature is described among various schools as pure luminosity or "clear light" (<A href="/wiki/%C3%96sel_(yoga)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ösel (yoga)">'od gsal</A>) and is often compared to a crystal ball or a mirror. <A href="/wiki/Sogyal_Rinpoche" title="Sogyal Rinpoche">Sogyal Rinpoche</A> speaks of mind thus: "Imagine a sky, empty, spacious, and pure from the beginning; its essence is like this. Imagine a sun, luminous, clear, unobstructed, and spontaneously present; its nature is like this."</P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Zen_Buddhism">Zen Buddhism</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Zen Buddhism">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<P>The central issue in Chinese Zen philosophy of mind is in the difference between the pure and awakened mind and the defiled mind. Chinese Chan master <A href="/wiki/Huangbo_Xiyun" title="Huangbo Xiyun">Huangpo</A> described the mind as without beginning and without form or limit while the defiled mind was that which was obscured by attachment to form and concepts.<SUP id="cite_ref-Zeuschner_104-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Zeuschner-104">[104]</A></SUP> The pure Buddha-mind is thus able to see things "as they truly are", as absolute and non-dual "thusness" (<A href="/wiki/Tathat%C4%81/Dharmat%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Tathatā/Dharmatā">Tathatā</A>). This non-conceptual seeing also includes the paradoxical fact that there is no difference between a defiled and a pure mind, as well as no difference between <A href="/wiki/Samsara" class="mw-redirect" title="Samsara">samsara</A> and <A href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">nirvana</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Zeuschner_104-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Zeuschner-104">[104]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In the <A href="/wiki/Shobogenzo" class="mw-redirect" title="Shobogenzo">Shobogenzo</A>, the Japanese philosopher <A href="/wiki/Dogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Dogen">Dogen</A> argued that body and mind are neither ontologically nor phenomenologically distinct but are characterized by a oneness called <I>shin jin</I> (bodymind). According to Dogen, "casting off body and mind" (<I>Shinjin datsuraku</I>) in <A href="/wiki/Zazen" title="Zazen">zazen</A> will allow one to experience things-as-they-are (<I>genjokoan</I>) which is the nature of original enlightenment (<I><A href="/wiki/Hongaku" title="Hongaku">hongaku</A></I>).<SUP id="cite_ref-Shaner_105-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Shaner-105">[105]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Topics_related_to_philosophy_of_mind">Topics related to philosophy of mind</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Topics related to philosophy of mind">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>There are countless subjects that are affected by the ideas developed in the philosophy of mind. Clear examples of this are the nature of <A href="/wiki/Death" title="Death">death</A> and its definitive character, the nature of <A href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">emotion</A>, of <A href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</A> and of <A href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">memory</A>. Questions about what a <A href="/wiki/Person" title="Person">person</A> is and what his or her <A href="/wiki/Personal_identity" title="Personal identity">identity</A> consists of also have much to do with the philosophy of mind. There are two subjects that, in connection with the philosophy of the mind, have aroused special attention: <A href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">free will</A> and the <A href="/wiki/Self_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Self (philosophy)">self</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Kim1_2-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Kim1-2">[2]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Free_will">Free will</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Free will">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</A></DIV>
<P>In the context of philosophy of mind, the problem of free will takes on renewed intensity. This is certainly the case, at least, for materialistic <A href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">determinists</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Kim1_2-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Kim1-2">[2]</A></SUP> According to this position, natural laws completely determine the course of the material world. Mental states, and therefore the will as well, would be material states, which means human behavior and decisions would be completely determined by natural laws. Some take this reasoning a step further: people cannot determine by themselves what they want and what they do. Consequently, they are not free.<SUP id="cite_ref-Hond_106-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Hond-106">[106]</A></SUP></P>
<P>This argumentation is rejected, on the one hand, by the <A href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">compatibilists</A>. Those who adopt this position suggest that the question "Are we free?" can only be answered once we have determined what the term "free" means. The opposite of "free" is not "caused" but "compelled" or "coerced". It is not appropriate to identify freedom with indetermination. A free act is one where the agent could have done otherwise if it had chosen otherwise. In this sense a person can be free even though determinism is true.<SUP id="cite_ref-Hond_106-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Hond-106">[106]</A></SUP> The most important compatibilist in the history of the philosophy was <A href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-107">[107]</A></SUP> More recently, this position is defended, for example, by <A href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-108">[108]</A></SUP></P>
<P>On the other hand, there are also many <A href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">incompatibilists</A> who reject the argument because they believe that the will is free in a stronger sense called <A href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">libertarianism</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Hond_106-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Hond-106">[106]</A></SUP> These philosophers affirm the course of the world is either a) not completely determined by natural law where natural law is intercepted by physically independent agency,<SUP id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-109">[109]</A></SUP> b) determined by indeterministic natural law only, or c) determined by indeterministic natural law in line with the subjective effort of physically non-reducible agency.<SUP id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-110">[110]</A></SUP> Under Libertarianism, the will does not have to be deterministic and, therefore, it is potentially free. Critics of the second proposition (b) accuse the incompatibilists of using an incoherent concept of freedom. They argue as follows: if our will is not determined by anything, then we desire what we desire by pure chance. And if what we desire is purely accidental, we are not free. So if our will is not determined by anything, we are not free.<SUP id="cite_ref-Hond_106-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Hond-106">[106]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Self">Self</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Self">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_self" title="Philosophy of self">Philosophy of self</A></DIV>
<P>The philosophy of mind also has important consequences for the concept of "self". If by "self" or "I" one refers to an essential, immutable nucleus of the <I>person</I>, some modern philosophers of mind, such as <A href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</A> believe that no such thing exists. According to Dennett and other contemporaries, the self is considered an illusion.<SUP id="cite_ref-DHof_111-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-DHof-111">[111]</A></SUP> The idea of a self as an immutable essential nucleus derives from the idea of an <A href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">immaterial soul</A>. Such an idea is unacceptable to modern philosophers with physicalist orientations and their general skepticism of the concept of "self" as postulated by <A href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</A>, who could never catch himself <I>not</I> doing, thinking or feeling anything.<SUP id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-112">[112]</A></SUP> However, in the light of empirical results from <A href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">developmental psychology</A>, <A href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">developmental biology</A> and <A href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neuroscience</A>, the idea of an essential inconstant, material nucleus—an integrated representational system distributed over changing patterns of synaptic connections—seems reasonable.<SUP id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-113">[113]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: See also">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Animal_consciousness" title="Animal consciousness">Animal consciousness</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Artificial_consciousness" title="Artificial consciousness">Artificial consciousness</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Collective_intentionality" title="Collective intentionality">Collective intentionality</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Outline_of_human_intelligence" title="Outline of human intelligence">Outline of human intelligence</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Outline_of_thought" title="Outline of thought">Outline of thought</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Theory_of_mind_in_animals" title="Theory of mind in animals">Theory of mind in animals</A></LI>
</UL>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="References">References</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: References">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 20em; -webkit-column-width: 20em; column-width: 20em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<OL class="references">
<LI id="cite_note-1"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-1"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Oliver Elbs, <I>Neuro-Esthetics: Mapological foundations and applications (Map 2003)</I>, (Munich 2005)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Kim1-2"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Kim1_2-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Kim1_2-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Kim1_2-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Kim1_2-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Kim1_2-4"><SUP><I><B>e</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Kim1_2-5"><SUP><I><B>f</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Kim, J. (1995). Honderich, Ted, ed. <I>Problems in the Philosophy of Mind. Oxford Companion to Philosophy</I>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Problems+in+the+Philosophy+of+Mind.+Oxford+Companion+to+Philosophy&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
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<LI id="cite_note-Schneider2013-10"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Schneider2013_10-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Schneider, Susan (2013). "Non-Reductive Physicalism and the Mind Problem1". <I>Noûs</I>. <B>47</B> (1): 135–153. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-0068.2011.00847.x">10.1111/j.1468-0068.2011.00847.x</A>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0029-4624">0029-4624</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=No%C3%BBs&rft.atitle=Non-Reductive+Physicalism+and+the+Mind+Problem1&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=135-153&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1468-0068.2011.00847.x&rft.issn=0029-4624&rft.aulast=Schneider&rft.aufirst=Susan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-DePaulBaltimore2013-11"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-DePaulBaltimore2013_11-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">DePaul, Michael; Baltimore, Joseph A. (2013). "Type Physicalism and Causal Exclusion". <I>Journal of Philosophical Research</I>. <B>38</B>: 405–418. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.5840%2Fjpr20133821">10.5840/jpr20133821</A>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1053-8364">1053-8364</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Philosophical+Research&rft.atitle=Type+Physicalism+and+Causal+Exclusion&rft.volume=38&rft.pages=405-418&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5840%2Fjpr20133821&rft.issn=1053-8364&rft.aulast=DePaul&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Baltimore%2C+Joseph+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-GibbLowe2013-12"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-GibbLowe2013_12-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">S. C. Gibb; E. J. Lowe; R. D. Ingthorsson (21 March 2013). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-sBoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA58"><I>Mental Causation and Ontology</I></A>. OUP Oxford. p. 58. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-165255-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-165255-4">978-0-19-165255-4</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mental+Causation+and+Ontology&rft.pages=58&rft.pub=OUP+Oxford&rft.date=2013-03-21&rft.isbn=978-0-19-165255-4&rft.au=S.+C.+Gibb&rft.au=E.+J.+Lowe&rft.au=R.+D.+Ingthorsson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-sBoAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA58&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Demircioglu2011-13"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Demircioglu2011_13-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Demircioglu, Erhan (2011). "Supervenience And Reductive Physicalism". <I>European Journal of Analytic Philosophy</I>. <B>7</B> (1): 25–35.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Analytic+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Supervenience+And+Reductive+Physicalism&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=25-35&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Demircioglu&rft.aufirst=Erhan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Francescotti-14"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Francescotti_14-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Francescotti_14-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Francescotti, Robert. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/supermin/">"Supervenience and Mind"</A>. <I>The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</I>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/2161-0002">2161-0002</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2014-08-10</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Supervenience+and+Mind&rft.issn=2161-0002&rft.aulast=Francescotti&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fsupermin%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Gibb2010-15"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Gibb2010_15-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Gibb, Sophie (2010). "Closure Principles and the Laws of Conservation of Energy and Momentum". <I>Dialectica</I>. <B>64</B> (3): 363–384. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1746-8361.2010.01237.x">10.1111/j.1746-8361.2010.01237.x</A>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0012-2017">0012-2017</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dialectica&rft.atitle=Closure+Principles+and+the+Laws+of+Conservation+of+Energy+and+Momentum&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=363-384&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1746-8361.2010.01237.x&rft.issn=0012-2017&rft.aulast=Gibb&rft.aufirst=Sophie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN> See also <CITE class="citation journal">Dempsey, L. P. (2012). "Consciousness, Supervenience, and Identity: Marras and Kim on the Efficacy of Conscious Experience". <I>Dialogue</I>. <B>51</B> (3): 373–395. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0012217312000662">10.1017/s0012217312000662</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dialogue&rft.atitle=Consciousness%2C+Supervenience%2C+and+Identity%3A+Marras+and+Kim+on+the+Efficacy+of+Conscious+Experience&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=373-395&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0012217312000662&rft.aulast=Dempsey&rft.aufirst=L.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN> See also <CITE class="citation journal">Baltimore, J. A. (2010). "Defending the piggyback principle against Shapiro and Sober's empirical approach". <I>Dialectica</I>. <B>175</B> (2): 151–168. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11229-009-9467-2">10.1007/s11229-009-9467-2</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dialectica&rft.atitle=Defending+the+piggyback+principle+against+Shapiro+and+Sober%27s+empirical+approach&rft.volume=175&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=151-168&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11229-009-9467-2&rft.aulast=Baltimore&rft.aufirst=J.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-McLaughlinAndBennett-16"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-McLaughlinAndBennett_16-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">McLaughlin, Brian; Bennett, Karen (2014). Edward N. Zalta (ed.), ed. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2014/entries/supervenience/">"Supervenience"</A>. <I>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2014 Edition)</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2014-08-10</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy+%28Spring+2014+Edition%29&rft.atitle=Supervenience&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=McLaughlin&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft.au=Bennett%2C+Karen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fspr2014%2Fentries%2Fsupervenience%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN><SPAN class="citation-comment" style="display:none; color:#33aa33; margin-left:0.3em">CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list (<A href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_Extra_text:_editors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list">link</A>)</SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Megill2012-17"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Megill2012_17-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Megill, Jason (2012). "A Defense of Emergence". <I>Axiomathes</I>. <B>23</B> (4): 597–615. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10516-012-9203-2">10.1007/s10516-012-9203-2</A>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1122-1151">1122-1151</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Axiomathes&rft.atitle=A+Defense+of+Emergence&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=597-615&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10516-012-9203-2&rft.issn=1122-1151&rft.aulast=Megill&rft.aufirst=Jason&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Kim-18"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Kim_18-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Kim_18-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Kim_18-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Kim_18-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Kim_18-4"><SUP><I><B>e</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Kim, J., "Mind–Body Problem", <I>Oxford Companion to Philosophy</I>. Ted Honderich (ed.). Oxford:Oxford University Press. 1995.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-PsyBio-19"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-PsyBio_19-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Pinel, J. <I>Psychobiology</I>, (1990) Prentice Hall, Inc. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/88-15-07174-1" title="Special:BookSources/88-15-07174-1">88-15-07174-1</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-LeDoux-20"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-LeDoux_20-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">LeDoux, J. (2002) <I>The Synaptic Self: How Our Brains Become Who We Are</I>, New York:Viking Penguin. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/88-7078-795-8" title="Special:BookSources/88-7078-795-8">88-7078-795-8</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-RussNor-21"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-RussNor_21-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Russell, S. and Norvig, P. <I>Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach</I>, New Jersey:Prentice Hall. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-103805-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-103805-2">0-13-103805-2</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-DawkRich-22"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-DawkRich_22-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Dawkins, R. <I>The Selfish Gene</I> (1976) Oxford:Oxford University Press. ISBN</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Pat-23"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Pat_23-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Pat_23-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Pat_23-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Churchland, Patricia (1986). <I>Neurophilosophy: Toward a Unified Science of the Mind–Brain</I>. MIT Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-03116-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-03116-7">0-262-03116-7</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neurophilosophy%3A+Toward+a+Unified+Science+of+the+Mind%E2%80%93Brain.&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-262-03116-7&rft.au=Churchland%2C+Patricia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Paul-24"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Paul_24-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Paul_24-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Churchland, Paul (1981). "Eliminative Materialism and the Propositional Attitudes". <I>Journal of Philosophy</I>. Journal of Philosophy, Inc. <B>78</B> (2): 67–90. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.2307%2F2025900">10.2307/2025900</A>. <A href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/2025900">2025900</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Eliminative+Materialism+and+the+Propositional+Attitudes&rft.volume=78&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=67-90&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2025900&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2025900&rft.au=Churchland%2C+Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Smart-25"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Smart_25-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Smart_25-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Smart_25-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Smart_25-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Smart, J.J.C. (1956). "Sensations and Brain Processes". <I>Philosophical Review</I>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Review&rft.atitle=Sensations+and+Brain+Processes&rft.date=1956&rft.au=Smart%2C+J.J.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Davidson-26"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Davidson_26-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Davidson_26-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Donald Davidson (1980). <I>Essays on Actions and Events</I>. Oxford University Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-924627-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-924627-0">0-19-924627-0</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essays+on+Actions+and+Events&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0-19-924627-0&rft.au=Donald+Davidson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Pu-27"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Pu_27-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Pu_27-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Pu_27-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Pu_27-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Putnam, Hilary (1967). "Psychological Predicates", in W. H. Capitan and D. D. Merrill, eds., <I>Art, Mind and Religion</I> (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Int-28"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Int_28-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Int_28-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Dennett, Daniel (1998). <I>The intentional stance</I>. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-54053-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-54053-3">0-262-54053-3</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+intentional+stance&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass.&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-262-54053-3&rft.au=Dennett%2C+Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Searleint-29"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Searleint_29-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Searleint_29-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Searle, John (2001). <I>Intentionality. A Paper on the Philosophy of Mind</I>. Frankfurt a. M.: Nachdr. Suhrkamp. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-518-28556-4" title="Special:BookSources/3-518-28556-4">3-518-28556-4</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Intentionality.+A+Paper+on+the+Philosophy+of+Mind&rft.place=Frankfurt+a.+M.&rft.pub=Nachdr.+Suhrkamp&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=3-518-28556-4&rft.au=Searle%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Rob-30"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Rob_30-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Robinson, H. (1983): "Aristotelian dualism", Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy 1, 123–44.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Ja-31"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Ja_31-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Ja_31-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Ja_31-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Jackson, F. (1982) "Epiphenomenal Qualia." Reprinted in Chalmers, David ed. :2002. <I>Philosophy of Mind: Classical and Contemporary Readings</I>. Oxford University Press.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Nagel-32"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Nagel_32-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Nagel_32-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Nagel_32-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Nagel, T. (1974). "What is it like to be a bat?". <I>Philosophical Review</I> (83): 435–456.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Review&rft.atitle=What+is+it+like+to+be+a+bat%3F&rft.issue=83&rft.pages=435-456&rft.date=1974&rft.au=Nagel%2C+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-33"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-33"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Lewis, C.S (1947). <I>Miracles</I>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-688-17369-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-688-17369-1">0-688-17369-1</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Miracles&rft.date=1947&rft.isbn=0-688-17369-1&rft.au=Lewis%2C+C.S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-34"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-34"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Chalmers, David (1997). <I>The Conscious Mind</I>. Oxford University Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-511789-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-511789-1">0-19-511789-1</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Conscious+Mind&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-19-511789-1&rft.au=Chalmers%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Dennett,_Daniel_1995_322–6-35"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Dennett,_Daniel_1995_322–6_35-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Dennett,_Daniel_1995_322–6_35-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Dennett, Daniel (1995). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pp.kpnet.fi/seirioa/cdenn/unzombie.htm">"The unimagined preposterousness of zombies"</A>. <I>J Consciousness Studies</I>. <B>2</B>: 322–6.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J+Consciousness+Studies&rft.atitle=The+unimagined+preposterousness+of+zombies&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=322-6&rft.date=1995&rft.au=Dennett%2C+Daniel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpp.kpnet.fi%2Fseirioa%2Fcdenn%2Funzombie.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-36"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-36"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Dennett, Daniel (1991). <I>Consciousness Explained</I>. Little, Brown and Co. p. 95. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-316-18065-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-316-18065-3">0-316-18065-3</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Consciousness+Explained&rft.pages=95&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown+and+Co.&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-316-18065-3&rft.au=Dennett%2C+Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-PopE-37"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-PopE_37-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Popper, Karl & Eccles, John (2002). <I>The Self and Its Brain</I>. Springer Verlag. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-492-21096-1" title="Special:BookSources/3-492-21096-1">3-492-21096-1</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Self+and+Its+Brain&rft.pub=Springer+Verlag&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=3-492-21096-1&rft.au=Popper%2C+Karl&rft.au=Eccles%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-CE-38"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-CE_38-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Dennett D., (1991), <I>Consciousness Explained</I>, Boston: Little, Brown & Company</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-SS-39"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-SS_39-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Stich, S., (1983), <I>From Folk Psychology to Cognitive Science</I>. Cambridge, MA: <A href="/wiki/MIT_Press" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</A> (Bradford)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-40"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-40"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Ryle, G., 1949, The Concept of Mind, New York: Barnes and Noble</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-41"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-41"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Agassi, J. (1975). <I>Privileged Access;</I> Science in Flux, Boston Stidues in the Philosophy of Science<I>, 80</I>. Dordrecht: Reidel.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Privileged+Access%3B+Science+in+Flux%2C+Boston+Stidues+in+the+Philosophy+of+Science%2C+80&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.pub=Reidel&rft.date=1975&rft.au=Agassi%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-42"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-42"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Agassi, J. (1997). <I>La Scienza in Divenire</I>. Rome: Armando.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+Scienza+in+Divenire&rft.place=Rome&rft.pub=Armando&rft.date=1997&rft.au=Agassi%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-DuSEP-43"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-DuSEP_43-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-DuSEP_43-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Robinson, Howard (2003-08-19). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2003/entries/dualism/">"Dualism"</A>. <I>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2003 Edition)</I>. Center for the Study of Language and Information, Stanford University<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2006-09-25</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy+%28Fall+2003+Edition%29&rft.atitle=Dualism&rft.date=2003-08-19&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=Howard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Ffall2003%2Fentries%2Fdualism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-44"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-44"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm (1714). <I><A href="/wiki/Monadology" title="Monadology">Monadology</A></I>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87548-030-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-87548-030-6">0-87548-030-6</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Monadology&rft.date=1714&rft.isbn=0-87548-030-6&rft.aulast=Leibniz&rft.aufirst=Gottfried+Wilhelm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-45"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-45"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Schmaltz, Tad (2002). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2002/entries/malebranche/">"Nicolas Malebranche"</A>. <I>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2002 Edition)</I>. Center for the Study of Language and Information, Stanford University<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2006-09-25</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy+%28Summer+2002+Edition%29&rft.atitle=Nicolas+Malebranche&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Schmaltz&rft.aufirst=Tad&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fsum2002%2Fentries%2Fmalebranche%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Chalmers-46"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Chalmers_46-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Chalmers_46-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book"><A href="/wiki/David_Chalmers" title="David Chalmers">Chalmers, David</A> (1996). <I>The Conscious Mind</I>. Oxford University Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511789-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511789-9">978-0-19-511789-9</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Conscious+Mind&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-19-511789-9&rft.aulast=Chalmers&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-47"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-47"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Huxley, T. H. [1874] "On the Hypothesis that Animals are Automata, and its History", <I>The Fortnightly Review</I>, n.s.16:555–580. Reprinted in <I>Method and Results: Essays by Thomas H. Huxley</I> (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1898).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-48"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-48"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Jackson, Frank (1986). "What Mary didn't know". <I>Journal of Philosophy.</I>: 291–295.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Philosophy.&rft.atitle=What+Mary+didn%27t+know&rft.pages=291-295&rft.date=1986&rft.au=Jackson%2C+Frank&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-49"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-49"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Atmanspacher, H (2012). "Dual-aspect monism a la Pauli and Jung". <I>Journal of Consciousness Studies: Special Issue on Monist Alternatives to Physicalism</I>. <B>19</B> (9-10): 96–120.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Consciousness+Studies%3A+Special+Issue+on+Monist+Alternatives+to+Physicalism&rft.atitle=Dual-aspect+monism+a+la+Pauli+and+Jung&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=9-10&rft.pages=96-120&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Atmanspacher&rft.aufirst=H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-50"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-50"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Velmans, M (2012). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/2053423/Reflexive_Monism_Psychophysical_relations_among_mind_matter_and_consciousness">"Reflexive Monism: psychophysical relations among mind, matter and consciousness"</A>. <I>Journal of Consciousness Studies: Special Issue on Monist Alternatives to Physicalism</I>. <B>19</B> (9–10): 143–165.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Consciousness+Studies%3A+Special+Issue+on+Monist+Alternatives+to+Physicalism&rft.atitle=Reflexive+Monism%3A+psychophysical+relations+among+mind%2C+matter+and+consciousness&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=9%E2%80%9310&rft.pages=143-165&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Velmans&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F2053423%2FReflexive_Monism_Psychophysical_relations_among_mind_matter_and_consciousness&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-51"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-51"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Leopold Stubenberg. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/neutral-monism/#9.4">"Neutral Monism and the Dual Aspect Theory"</A>. <I>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.</I></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-:0-52"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-:0_52-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-:0_52-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-:0_52-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-:0_52-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Wallace, Allen (1999). <I>Consciousness At The Crossroads: Conversations With The Dalai Lama On Brain Science And Buddhism</I>. Snow Lion. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780545227209" title="Special:BookSources/9780545227209">9780545227209</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Consciousness+At+The+Crossroads%3A+Conversations+With+The+Dalai+Lama+On+Brain+Science+And+Buddhism&rft.pub=Snow+Lion&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9780545227209&rft.aulast=Wallace&rft.aufirst=Allen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Stol-53"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Stol_53-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Stol_53-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Stol_53-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Stol_53-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Stol_53-4"><SUP><I><B>e</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Stol_53-5"><SUP><I><B>f</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Stol_53-6"><SUP><I><B>g</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Stol_53-7"><SUP><I><B>h</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Stol_53-8"><SUP><I><B>i</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Stoljar, Daniel (2005). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2005/entries/physicalism/">"Physicalism"</A>. <I>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2005 Edition)</I>. Center for the Study of Language and Information, Stanford University<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2006-09-24</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy+%28Winter+2005+Edition%29&rft.atitle=Physicalism&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Stoljar&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fwin2005%2Fentries%2Fphysicalism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-54"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-54"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Cf. <A href="/wiki/Michel_Weber" title="Michel Weber">Michel Weber</A> and Anderson Weekes (eds.), <I><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/279961/Process_Approaches_to_Consciousness_in_Psychology_Neuroscience_and_Philosophy_of_Mind">Process Approaches to Consciousness in Psychology, Neuroscience, and Philosophy of Mind (Whitehead Psychology Nexus Studies II)</A></I>, Albany, New York, State University of New York Press, 2009.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-55"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-55"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Russell, Bertrand (1918) <I>Mysticism and Logic and Other Essays</I>, London: Longmans, Green.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-56"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-56"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Mach, E. (1886) <I>Die Analyse der Empfindungen und das Verhältnis des Physischen zum Psychischen.</I> Fifth edition translated as <I>The Analysis of Sensations and the Relation of Physical to the Psychical</I>, New York: Dover. 1959</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-57"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-57"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Skinner, B.F. (1972). <I>Beyond Freedom & Dignity</I>. New York: Bantam/Vintage Books. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-553-14372-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-553-14372-7">0-553-14372-7</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+Freedom+%26+Dignity&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Bantam%2FVintage+Books&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=0-553-14372-7&rft.au=Skinner%2C+B.F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-58"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-58"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Ryle, Gilbert (1949). <I>The Concept of Mind</I>. Chicago: Chicago University Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-73295-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-73295-9">0-226-73295-9</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Concept+of+Mind&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=Chicago+University+Press&rft.date=1949&rft.isbn=0-226-73295-9&rft.au=Ryle%2C+Gilbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-59"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-59"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Place, Ullin (1956). "Is Consciousness a Brain Process?". <I>British Journal of Psychology</I>. <B>47</B>: 44–50. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.2044-8295.1956.tb00560.x">10.1111/j.2044-8295.1956.tb00560.x</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Journal+of+Psychology&rft.atitle=Is+Consciousness+a+Brain+Process%3F&rft.volume=47&rft.pages=44-50&rft.date=1956&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.2044-8295.1956.tb00560.x&rft.au=Place%2C+Ullin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-60"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-60"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Smart, J.J.C, <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2002/entries/malebranche">"Identity Theory"</A>, <I>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</I> (Summer 2002 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-61"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-61"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Davidson, D. (2001). <I>Subjective, Intersubjective, Objective</I>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/88-7078-832-6" title="Special:BookSources/88-7078-832-6">88-7078-832-6</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Subjective%2C+Intersubjective%2C+Objective&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=88-7078-832-6&rft.au=Davidson%2C+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Block-62"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Block_62-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Block_62-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Block, Ned. "What is functionalism" in <I>Readings in Philosophy of Psychology</I>, 2 vols. Vol 1. (Cambridge: Harvard, 1980).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-63"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-63"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Armstrong, D., 1968, <I>A Materialist Theory of the Mind</I>, Routledge.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-64"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-64"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Di Francesco M. & Marraffa M. (2013). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crossingdialogues.com/Ms-A13-01.pdf">"The Unconscious, consciousness, and the Self illusion"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>Dialogues in Philosophy, Mental and Neuro Sciences</I>. <B>6</B> (1): 10–22.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dialogues+in+Philosophy%2C+Mental+and+Neuro+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+Unconscious%2C+consciousness%2C+and+the+Self+illusion&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=10-22&rft.date=2013&rft.au=Di+Francesco+M.+%26+Marraffa+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crossingdialogues.com%2FMs-A13-01.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-65"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-65"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Stanton, W.L. (1983). "Supervenience and Psychological Law in Anomalous Monism". <I>Pacific Philosophical Quarterly</I>. <B>64</B>: 72–9.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pacific+Philosophical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Supervenience+and+Psychological+Law+in+Anomalous+Monism&rft.volume=64&rft.pages=72-9&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Stanton&rft.aufirst=W.L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-66"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-66"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Jaegwon Kim, Philosophy of Mind, Westview Press; 2 edition (July 8, 2005) <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8133-4269-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8133-4269-4">0-8133-4269-4</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-67"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-67"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">McGinn, Colin. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2254848">"Can We Solve the Mind–Body Problem?"</A>, <I>Mind</I>, New Series, Vol. 98, No. 391, July 1989 (pp. 349–366), p. 350.</SPAN>
<UL>
<LI><SPAN class="reference-text">Reprinted in O'Connor, Timothy and Robb, David. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BlSDUzfMxo0C&pg=PA438">"Colin McGinn, Can We Solve the Mind–Body Problem?"</A>, <I>Philosophy of Mind: Contemporary Readings</I>. Routledge, 2003, p. 438ff.</SPAN></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI id="cite_note-68"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-68"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/hard-con/#SH3b">"Hard problem of Consciousness"</A>, <I>The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</I>, Josh Weisberg</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Hacker-69"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Hacker_69-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Hacker_69-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Hacker, Peter (2003). <I>Philosophical Foundations of Neuroscience</I>. Blackwel Pub. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4051-0838-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-4051-0838-X">1-4051-0838-X</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophical+Foundations+of+Neuroscience&rft.pub=Blackwel+Pub.&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1-4051-0838-X&rft.au=Hacker%2C+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Witt-70"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Witt_70-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Witt_70-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Witt_70-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Wittgenstein, Ludwig (1954). <I>Philosophical Investigations</I>. New York: Macmillan. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-14660-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-14660-1">0-631-14660-1</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophical+Investigations&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1954&rft.isbn=0-631-14660-1&rft.au=Wittgenstein%2C+Ludwig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-71"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-71"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Putnam, Hilary (2000). <I>The Threefold Cord: Mind, Body, and World</I>. New York: Columbia University Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-10286-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-10286-0">0-231-10286-0</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Threefold+Cord%3A+Mind%2C+Body%2C+and+World&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-231-10286-0&rft.au=Putnam%2C+Hilary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-72"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-72"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Hubert Dreyfus, "Critique of Descartes I" (recorded lecture), University of California at Berkeley, Sept. 18, 2007.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-73"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-73"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="/wiki/Joseph_Levine_(philosopher)" title="Joseph Levine (philosopher)">Joseph Levine</A>, <I>Materialism and Qualia: The Explanatory Gap</I>, in: <I>Pacific Philosophical Quarterly</I>, vol. 64, no. 4, October, 1983, 354–361</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-74"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-74"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Jackson, F. (1986) "What Mary didn't Know", Journal of Philosophy, 83, 5, pp. 291–295.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-75"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-75"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">McGinn, C. "Can the Mind-Body Problem Be Solved", <I>Mind</I>, New Series, Volume 98, Issue 391, pp. 349–366. a <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://art-mind.org/review/IMG/pdf/McGinn_1989_Mind-body-problem_M.pdf">(online)</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070928101441/http://art-mind.org/review/IMG/pdf/McGinn_1989_Mind-body-problem_M.pdf">Archived</A> September 28, 2007, at the <A href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</A>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-76"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-76"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Fodor, Jerry (1993). <I>Psychosemantics. The problem of meaning in the philosophy of mind</I>. Cambridge: MIT Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-06106-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-06106-6">0-262-06106-6</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Psychosemantics.+The+problem+of+meaning+in+the+philosophy+of+mind&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-262-06106-6&rft.au=Fodor%2C+Jerry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-77"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-77"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Siegel, S. (2011)."The Contents of Perception", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2011 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <A rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2011/entries/perception-contents/">http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2011/entries/perception-contents/</A>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Pinker-78"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Pinker_78-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Pinker_78-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Pinker_78-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Pinker_78-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Pinker, S. (1997) <I>How the Mind Works</I>. tr. It: <I>Come Funziona la Mente</I>. Milan:Mondadori, 2000. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/88-04-49908-7" title="Special:BookSources/88-04-49908-7">88-04-49908-7</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Bear-79"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Bear_79-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Bear_79-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Bear_79-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Bear, M. F. et al. Eds. (1995). <I>Neuroscience: Exploring The Brain</I>. Baltimore, Maryland, Williams and Wilkins. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7817-3944-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7817-3944-6">0-7817-3944-6</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Pinel-80"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Pinel_80-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Pinel_80-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Pinel_80-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Pinel, J.P.J (1997). <I>Psychobiology</I>. Prentice Hall. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/88-15-07174-1" title="Special:BookSources/88-15-07174-1">88-15-07174-1</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Psychobiology&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=88-15-07174-1&rft.au=Pinel%2C+J.P.J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-81"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-81"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Metzinger, Thomas (2003). <I>Being No One – The Self Model Theory of Subjectivity</I>. Cambridge: MIT Press. pp. 349–366. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-13417-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-13417-9">0-262-13417-9</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Being+No+One+%E2%80%93+The+Self+Model+Theory+of+Subjectivity&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=349-366.&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-262-13417-9&rft.au=Metzinger%2C+Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-82"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-82"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Sipser, M. (1998). <I>Introduction to the Theory of Computation</I>. Boston, Mass.: PWS Publishing Co. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-534-94728-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-534-94728-X">0-534-94728-X</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+the+Theory+of+Computation&rft.place=Boston%2C+Mass.&rft.pub=PWS+Publishing+Co.&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-534-94728-X&rft.au=Sipser%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Searle-83"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Searle_83-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Searle_83-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Searle, John (1980). "Minds, Brains and Programs". <I>The Behavioral and Brain Sciences</I> (3): 417–424.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Behavioral+and+Brain+Sciences&rft.atitle=Minds%2C+Brains+and+Programs&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=417-424&rft.date=1980&rft.au=Searle%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-84"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-84"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE id="CITEREFTuring1950" class="citation"><A href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Turing, Alan</A> (October 1950), <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://loebner.net/Prizef/TuringArticle.html">"Computing Machinery and Intelligence"</A>, <I><A href="/wiki/Mind_(journal)" title="Mind (journal)">Mind</A></I>, <B>LIX</B> (236): 433–460, <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1093%2Fmind%2FLIX.236.433">10.1093/mind/LIX.236.433</A>, <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0026-4423">0026-4423</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2008-08-18</SPAN></SPAN></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mind&rft.atitle=Computing+Machinery+and+Intelligence&rft.volume=LIX&rft.issue=236&rft.pages=433-460&rft.date=1950-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fmind%2FLIX.236.433&rft.issn=0026-4423&rft.aulast=Turing&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Floebner.net%2FPrizef%2FTuringArticle.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-85"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-85"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Russell, S. & Norvig, R. (1995). <I>Artificial Intelligence:A Modern Approach</I>. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-103805-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-103805-2">0-13-103805-2</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Artificial+Intelligence%3AA+Modern+Approach&rft.place=New+Jersey&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-13-103805-2&rft.au=Russell%2C+S.&rft.au=Norvig%2C+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-86"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-86"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.psychology.org">"Encyclopedia of Psychology"</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Psychology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.psychology.org&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-87"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-87"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Thagard, Paul, <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2008/entries/cognitive-science/">Cognitive Science</A>, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2008 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Rowlands-88"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Rowlands_88-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book"><A href="/wiki/Mark_Rowlands" title="Mark Rowlands">Mark Rowlands</A> (2010). "Chapter 3: The mind embedded". <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AiwjpL-0hDgC&pg=PA51"><I>The new science of the mind: From extended mind to embodied phenomenology</I></A>. MIT Press. pp. 51 <I>ff</I>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0262014556" title="Special:BookSources/0262014556">0262014556</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+3%3A+The+mind+embedded&rft.btitle=The+new+science+of+the+mind%3A+From+extended+mind+to+embodied+phenomenology&rft.pages=51+%27%27ff%27%27&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=0262014556&rft.au=Mark+Rowlands&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAiwjpL-0hDgC%26pg%3DPA51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Ward-89"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Ward_89-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Dave Ward; Mog Stapleton (2012). "Es are good. Cognition as enacted, embodied, embedded, affective and extended". In Fabio Paglieri. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Y1E7FogqvJ0C&pg=PA89"><I>Consciousness in Interaction: The role of the natural and social context in shaping consciousness</I></A>. John Benjamins Publishing. pp. 89 <I>ff</I>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9027213525" title="Special:BookSources/978-9027213525">978-9027213525</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Es+are+good.+Cognition+as+enacted%2C+embodied%2C+embedded%2C+affective+and+extended&rft.btitle=Consciousness+in+Interaction%3A+The+role+of+the+natural+and+social+context+in+shaping+consciousness&rft.pages=89+%27%27ff%27%27&rft.pub=John+Benjamins+Publishing&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-9027213525&rft.au=Dave+Ward&rft.au=Mog+Stapleton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DY1E7FogqvJ0C%26pg%3DPA89&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philpapers.org/archive/WAREAG.pdf">On-line version here</A>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Dummett-90"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Dummett_90-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Dummett_90-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Dummett_90-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Dummett, M. (2001). <I>Origini della Filosofia Analitica</I>. Einaudi. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/88-06-15286-6" title="Special:BookSources/88-06-15286-6">88-06-15286-6</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Origini+della+Filosofia+Analitica&rft.pub=Einaudi&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=88-06-15286-6&rft.au=Dummett%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-91"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-91"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Hegel, G.W.F. <I>Phenomenology of Spirit</I>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-503169-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-503169-5">0-19-503169-5</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phenomenology+of+Spirit&rft.isbn=0-19-503169-5&rft.au=Hegel%2C+G.W.F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN>, translated by A.V. Miller with analysis of the text and foreword by J. N. Findlay (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977) <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-824597-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-824597-1">0-19-824597-1</A> .</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-92"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-92"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Husserl, Edmund. <I>Logische Untersuchungen</I>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-05-004391-1" title="Special:BookSources/3-05-004391-1">3-05-004391-1</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Logische+Untersuchungen&rft.isbn=3-05-004391-1&rft.au=Husserl%2C+Edmund&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN> trans.: Giovanni Piana. Milan: EST. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/88-428-0949-7" title="Special:BookSources/88-428-0949-7">88-428-0949-7</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-93"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-93"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/nyaya/#H2/"><I>The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</I></A></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fnyaya%2F%23H2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN> Nyāya, Matthew R. Dasti</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-94"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-94"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/adv-veda/"><I>The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</I></A></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fadv-veda%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN> Advaita Vedanta, Sangeetha Menon</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-95"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-95"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/ramanuja"><I>The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</I></A></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Framanuja&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN> Ramanuja, Shyam Ranganathan</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-96"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-96"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/indmat/#H1"><I>The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</I></A></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Findmat%2F%23H1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN> Lokāyata/Cārvāka – Indian Materialism, Abigail Turner-Lauck Wernicki</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Aggregates-97"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Aggregates_97-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Aggregates_97-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Aggregates_97-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Karunamuni N.D. (May 2015). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sgo.sagepub.com/content/spsgo/5/2/2158244015583860.full.pdf">"The Five-Aggregate Model of the Mind"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>SAGE open</I>. <B>5</B> (2). <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1177%2F2158244015583860">10.1177/2158244015583860</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SAGE+open&rft.atitle=The+Five-Aggregate+Model+of+the+Mind&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2015-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F2158244015583860&rft.au=Karunamuni+N.D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsgo.sagepub.com%2Fcontent%2Fspsgo%2F5%2F2%2F2158244015583860.full.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Coseru-98"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Coseru_98-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Coseru_98-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Coseru_98-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Coseru_98-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Coseru_98-4"><SUP><I><B>e</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Coseru_98-5"><SUP><I><B>f</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Coseru_98-6"><SUP><I><B>g</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mind-indian-buddhism/"><I>Coseru, Christian, "Mind in Indian Buddhist Philosophy"</I></A></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Coseru%2C+Christian%2C+%22Mind+in+Indian+Buddhist+Philosophy%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fmind-indian-buddhism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN>, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2012 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Gold-99"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Gold_99-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/vasubandhu/"><I>Gold, Jonathan C., "Vasubandhu"</I></A></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gold%2C+Jonathan+C.%2C+%22Vasubandhu%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fvasubandhu%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN>, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2012 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Blumenthal-100"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Blumenthal_100-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/saantarak-sita/"><I>Blumenthal, James, "Śāntarakṣita"</I></A></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blumenthal%2C+James%2C+%22%C5%9A%C4%81ntarak%E1%B9%A3ita%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fsaantarak-sita%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN>, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (fall 2009 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Wallace-101"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Wallace_101-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">B. Alan Wallace; Mind in the Balance: Meditation in Science, Buddhism, and Christianity, p. 95–96</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Sparham-102"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Sparham_102-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2011/entries/tsongkhapa/"><I>Sparham, Gareth, "Tsongkhapa"</I></A></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sparham%2C+Gareth%2C+%22Tsongkhapa%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Ffall2011%2Fentries%2Ftsongkhapa%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN>, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (fall 2011 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-103"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-103"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lamayeshe.com/index.php?sect=article&id=417"><I>Talk by His Holiness the Dalai Lama at Cambridge, MA USA</I></A></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Talk+by+His+Holiness+the+Dalai+Lama+at+Cambridge%2C+MA+USA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lamayeshe.com%2Findex.php%3Fsect%3Darticle%26id%3D417&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN>, From MindScience, edited by Daniel Goleman and Robert F. Thurman, first in 1991 by Wisdom Publications, Boston, USA.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Zeuschner-104"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Zeuschner_104-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Zeuschner_104-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/HistoricalZen/Understanding_mind_in_NorthernChan.htm"><I>Zeuschner, Robert B., "The Understanding of Mind in the Northern Line of Ch'an (Zen)"</I></A></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zeuschner%2C+Robert+B.%2C+%22The+Understanding+of+Mind+in+the+Northern+Line+of+Ch%27an+%28Zen%29%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thezensite.com%2FZenEssays%2FHistoricalZen%2FUnderstanding_mind_in_NorthernChan.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN>, Philosophy East and West, V. 28, No. 1 (January 1978), pp. 69–79, University of Hawaii Press, Hawaii, USA.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Shaner-105"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Shaner_105-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/HistoricalZen/Understanding_mind_in_NorthernChan.htm"><I>David E. Shaner, "The bodymind experience in Dogen's Shobogenzo: a phenomenological perspective"</I></A></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=David+E.+Shaner%2C+%22The+bodymind+experience+in+Dogen%27s+Shobogenzo%3A+a+phenomenological+perspective%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thezensite.com%2FZenEssays%2FHistoricalZen%2FUnderstanding_mind_in_NorthernChan.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN>, Philosophy East and West 35, no. 1 (January 1985), University of Hawaii Press, Hawaii, USA.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Hond-106"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Hond_106-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Hond_106-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Hond_106-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Hond_106-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~uctytho/dfwIntroIndex.htm">"Philosopher Ted Honderich's Determinism web resource"</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Philosopher+Ted+Honderich%27s+Determinism+web+resource&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucl.ac.uk%2F~uctytho%2FdfwIntroIndex.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-107"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-107"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Russell, Paul, <I>Freedom and Moral Sentiment: Hume's Way of Naturalizing Responsibility</I> Oxford University Press: New York & Oxford, 1995.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-108"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-108"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Dennett, Daniel (1984). <I>The Varieties of Free Will Worth Wanting</I>. Cambridge MA: Bradford Books–MIT Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-54042-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-54042-8">0-262-54042-8</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Varieties+of+Free+Will+Worth+Wanting&rft.place=Cambridge+MA&rft.pub=Bradford+Books%E2%80%93MIT+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=0-262-54042-8&rft.au=Dennett%2C+Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-109"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-109"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Descartes, René (1649). <I>Passions of the Soul</I>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87220-035-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-87220-035-3">0-87220-035-3</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Passions+of+the+Soul&rft.date=1649&rft.isbn=0-87220-035-3&rft.aulast=Descartes&rft.aufirst=Ren%C3%A9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-110"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-110"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Kane, Robert (2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.springerlink.com/content/g2vg712u87804766">"Libertarianism"</A>. <I>Philosophical Studies</I>. Springer Netherlands. <B>144</B> (1): 39. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11098-009-9365-y">10.1007/s11098-009-9365-y</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Studies&rft.atitle=Libertarianism&rft.volume=144&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=39&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11098-009-9365-y&rft.aulast=Kane&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.springerlink.com%2Fcontent%2Fg2vg712u87804766&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-DHof-111"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-DHof_111-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Dennett, C. & Hofstadter, D.R. (1981). <I>The Mind's I</I>. Bantam Books. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-553-01412-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-553-01412-9">0-553-01412-9</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mind%27s+I&rft.pub=Bantam+Books&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=0-553-01412-9&rft.au=Dennett%2C+C.&rft.au=Hofstadter%2C+D.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-112"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-112"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Searle, John (1 November 2004). <I>Mind: A Brief Introduction</I>. Oxford University Press Inc, USA. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-515733-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-515733-8">0-19-515733-8</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mind%3A+A+Brief+Introduction&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press+Inc%2C+USA&rft.date=2004-11-01&rft.isbn=0-19-515733-8&rft.au=Searle%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-113"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-113"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">LeDoux, Joseph (2002). <I>The Synaptic Self</I>. New York: Viking Penguin. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/88-7078-795-8" title="Special:BookSources/88-7078-795-8">88-7078-795-8</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Synaptic+Self&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Viking+Penguin&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=88-7078-795-8&rft.au=LeDoux%2C+Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
</OL>
</DIV>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<UL>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/">The London Philosophy Study Guide</A> offers many suggestions on what to read, depending on the student's familiarity with the subject: <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/Mind.htm">Philosophy of Mind</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/w/index.php?title=AL_Engleman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="AL Engleman (page does not exist)">AL Engleman</A> "Expressions: A Philosophy of Mind" (CafePress, 2005)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Richard Rorty</A>, <I><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_the_Mirror_of_Nature" title="Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature">Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature</A></I> (Princeton, 1980), p. 120, 125.</LI>
<LI>Pedro Jesús Teruel, <I>Mente, cerebro y antropología en Kant</I> (Madrid, 2008). <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-309-4688-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-309-4688-4">978-84-309-4688-4</A>.</LI>
<LI>David J. Ungs, <I>Better than one; how we each have two minds</I> (London, 2004). <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78220-173-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78220-173-1">978-1-78220-173-1</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</A> <I>Science and the Modern World</I> (1925; reprinted London, 1985), pp. 68–70.</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Edwin_Burtt" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwin Burtt">Edwin Burtt</A> <I>The Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Physical Science</I>, 2nd ed. (London, 1932), pp. 318–19.</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Felix_Deutsch" class="mw-redirect" title="Felix Deutsch">Felix Deutsch</A> (ed.) <I>On the Mysterious Leap from the Mind to the Body</I> (New York, 1959).</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Herbert_Feigl" title="Herbert Feigl">Herbert Feigl</A> <I><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ditext.com/feigl/mp/mp.html">The "Mental" and the "Physical": The Essay and a Postscript (1967)</A></I>, in H. Feigl et al., (eds.), <I>Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science</I> (Minneapolis, 1958), Vol. 2, pp. 370–497, at p. 373.</LI>
<LI>Nap Mabaquiao, Jr., <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vibebookstore.com/mind-science-and-computation.html">Mind, Science and Computation</A><SUP class="noprint Inline-Template"><SPAN style="white-space: nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><SPAN title=" Dead link since December 2017">permanent dead link</SPAN></A></I>]</SPAN></SUP> (with foreword by <A href="/wiki/Tim_Crane" title="Tim Crane">Tim Crane</A>). Manila: De La Salle University Publishing House, 2012.</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Celia_Green" title="Celia Green">Celia Green</A> <I>The Lost Cause: Causation and the Mind–Body Problem</I>. (Oxford: Oxford Forum, 2003). Applies a sceptical view on <A href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causality</A> to the problems of interactionism.</LI>
<LI>Gyatso, <A href="/wiki/Geshe_Kelsang_Gyatso" class="mw-redirect" title="Geshe Kelsang Gyatso">Geshe Kelsang Gyatso</A>, <I>Understanding the Mind</I>: The Nature and Power of the Mind, <A href="/wiki/Tharpa_Publications" title="Tharpa Publications">Tharpa Publications</A> (2nd. ed., 1997) <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-948006-78-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-948006-78-4">978-0-948006-78-4</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304105534/http://homepage.uibk.ac.at/~c720126/humanethologie/ws/medicus/block5/Medicus_engl_Cover.pdf">Gerhard Medicus. Being Human – Bridging the Gap between the Sciences of Body and Mind. Berlin (2015): VWB</A></LI>
<LI>Scott Robert Sehon, <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121011021421/http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?ttype=2&tid=10693">Teleological Realism: Mind, Agency and Explanation</A>. Cambridge: MIT University Press, 2005.</LI>
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<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/browse/philosophy-of-mind">Philosophy of mind</A> at <A href="/wiki/PhilPapers" title="PhilPapers">PhilPapers</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu/taxonomy/2183">Philosophy of mind</A> at the <A href="/wiki/Indiana_Philosophy_Ontology_Project" title="Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project">Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project</A></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation encyclopaedia"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/theomind/">"Theory of Mind"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</A></I>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Theory+of+Mind&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Ftheomind%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+mind" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://consc.net/guide.html">Guide to Philosophy of Mind</A>, compiled by David Chalmers.</LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://consc.net/mindpapers">MindPapers: A Bibliography of the Philosophy of Mind and the Science of Consciousness</A>, compiled by David Chalmers (Editor) & David Bourget (Assistant Editor).</LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130121124039/http://philosophy.uwaterloo.ca/MindDict/">Dictionary of Philosophy of Mind</A>, edited by Chris Eliasmith.</LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090208071843/http://galilean-library.org/manuscript.php?postid=43792">An Introduction to the Philosophy of Mind</A>, by Paul Newall, aimed at beginners.</LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://consc.net/online.html">A list of online papers on consciousness and philosophy of mind</A>, compiled by David Chalmers</LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://host.uniroma3.it/progetti/kant/field/">Field guide to the Philosophy of Mind</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120227135515/http://www.ahymsin.org/main/index.php/Swami-Veda-Bharati/mind-field.html">Mind Field: The Playground of Gods</A>, from the Indian Psychology series by <A href="/wiki/Swami_Veda_Bharati" title="Swami Veda Bharati">Swami Veda Bharati</A>.</LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</A> (<A href="/wiki/Radical_behaviorism" title="Radical behaviorism">Radical</A>)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Biological_naturalism" title="Biological naturalism">Biological naturalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive psychology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Mind–body dualism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminative materialism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Emergent_materialism" title="Emergent materialism">Emergent materialism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism" title="Naïve realism">Naïve realism</A>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Neurophenomenology" title="Neurophenomenology">Neurophenomenology</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Neutral_monism" title="Neutral monism">Neutral monism</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Type_physicalism" title="Type physicalism">identity theory</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract object</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophical_zombie" title="Philosophical zombie">Zombie</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Underdetermination" title="Underdetermination">Underdetermination</A></LI>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><A href="/wiki/Category:Metatheory_of_science" title="Category:Metatheory of science">Metatheory<BR />
of science</A></TH>
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<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">Constructive empiricism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Constructive_realism" title="Constructive realism">Constructive realism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist epistemology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_model" title="Hypothetico-deductive model">Hypothetico-deductive model</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Inductionism" title="Inductionism">Inductionism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" title="Epistemological anarchism">Epistemological anarchism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolutionism" title="Evolutionism">Evolutionism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Model-dependent_realism" title="Model-dependent realism">Model-dependent realism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</A> / <A href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">reductionism</A> / <A href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">determinism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</A> / <A href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Received_view_of_theories" title="Received view of theories">Received view</A> / <A href="/wiki/Semantic_view_of_theories" title="Semantic view of theories">semantic view of theories</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</A> / <A href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">anti-realism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Scientific_essentialism" title="Scientific essentialism">Scientific essentialism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Scientific_formalism" title="Scientific formalism">Scientific formalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Structuralism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Philosophy of</TH>
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<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_thermal_and_statistical_physics" title="Philosophy of thermal and statistical physics">thermal and statistical</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_motion" title="Philosophy of motion">Motion</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_environment" title="Philosophy of environment">Environment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Technology</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_engineering" title="Philosophy of engineering">Engineering</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_computer_science" title="Philosophy of computer science">Computer science</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Information</A></LI>
<LI><A class="mw-selflink selflink">Mind</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychiatry" title="Philosophy of psychiatry">Psychiatry</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Perception</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><A href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_science_articles" title="Index of philosophy of science articles">Related topics</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">History of evolutionary thought</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">Rhetoric of science</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
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<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
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<DIV id="Philosophers_of_science_by_era" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><A href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_science" title="List of philosophers of science">Philosophers of science</A> by era</DIV>
</TH>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
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<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Ancient</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureans</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Medieval</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hugh_of_Saint_Victor" title="Hugh of Saint Victor">Hugh of Saint Victor</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Dominicus_Gundissalinus" title="Dominicus Gundissalinus">Dominicus Gundissalinus</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Robert_Kilwardby" title="Robert Kilwardby">Robert Kilwardby</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Early modern</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pierre_Gassendi" title="Pierre Gassendi">Pierre Gassendi</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Classical modern</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Friedrich Schelling</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Wundt" title="Wilhelm Wundt">Wilhelm Wundt</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Windelband" title="Wilhelm Windelband">Wilhelm Windelband</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pierre_Duhem" title="Pierre Duhem">Pierre Duhem</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Late modern</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">C. D. Broad</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Gustav Hempel</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos">Imre Lakatos</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ian_Hacking" title="Ian Hacking">Ian Hacking</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Larry_Laudan" title="Larry Laudan">Larry Laudan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</A>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</A></LI>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Philosophy of</TH>
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<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Art</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Culture</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_design" title="Philosophy of design">Design</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_music" title="Philosophy of music">Music</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_film" title="Philosophy of film">Film</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_business" title="Philosophy of business">Business</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_color" title="Philosophy of color">Color</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cosmology_(philosophy)" title="Cosmology (philosophy)">Cosmos</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_dialogue" title="Philosophy of dialogue">Dialogue</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Education</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Environmental_philosophy" title="Environmental philosophy">Environment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_futility" title="Philosophy of futility">Futility</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_happiness" title="Philosophy of happiness">Happiness</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_healthcare" title="Philosophy of healthcare">Healthcare</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophical_anthropology" title="Philosophical anthropology">Human nature</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Theories_of_humor" title="Theories of humor">Humor</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Language</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_life" title="Philosophy of life">Life</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_literature" title="Philosophy and literature">Literature</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Mathematics</A></LI>
<LI><A class="mw-selflink selflink">Mind</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pain_(philosophy)" title="Pain (philosophy)">Pain</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychiatry" title="Philosophy of psychiatry">Philosophy of psychiatry</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Philosophy of perception</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Philosophy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Religion</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_sex" title="Philosophy of sex">Sexuality</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Culture</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics">Economics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" title="Philosophy of law">Law</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Politics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Society</A></LI>
</UL>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_sport" title="Philosophy of sport">Sport</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Technology</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_computer_science" title="Philosophy of computer science">Computer science</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_engineering" title="Philosophy of engineering">Engineering</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Information</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_war" title="Philosophy of war">War</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TD colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0" id="collapsibleTable5">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style=";"><SPAN class="collapseButton">[<A id="collapseButton5" href="#">show</A>]</SPAN>
<DIV id="Schools_of_thought" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><A href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">Schools of thought</A></DIV>
</TH>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TD colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><A href="/wiki/Philosophy#Historical_overview" title="Philosophy">By era</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><A href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><A href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><SPAN style="font-size:90%;"><A href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</A><A href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Roman</A></SPAN></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionian</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ephesian_school" title="Ephesian school">Ephesian</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Milesian_school" title="Milesian school">Milesian</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pluralist_school" title="Pluralist school">Pluralism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreanism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophistic</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><A href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Anekantavada#Syādvāda" title="Anekantavada">Syādvāda</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Svatantrika-Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika-Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><A href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mazdak#Mazdakism" title="Mazdak">Mazdakism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><A href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><A href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Edo_Neo-Confucianism" title="Edo Neo-Confucianism">Edo Neo-Confucianism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Dvaitadvaita" title="Dvaitadvaita">Dvaitadvaita</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><A href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Avicenna#Avicennian_philosophy" title="Avicenna">Avicennism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</A></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</A></I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><A href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><A href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo-Kantianism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hegelianism" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Spinozism" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><SPAN style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">0</SPAN></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Collectivism" title="Collectivism">Collectivism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mind-body_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mind-body dualism">Dualism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Neo-Scholasticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Scholasticism">Neo-Scholasticism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><A href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><A href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</A> / <A href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Generative_grammar" title="Generative grammar">Generative linguistics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and Externalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics#Contemporary_'aretaic_turn'" title="Virtue ethics">Neo-Aristotelian</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Skeptical_movement" title="Skeptical movement">Scientific skepticism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Twentieth-century_developments" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/New_Historicism" title="New Historicism">New Historicism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</A></LI>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><A href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</A></TH>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Theory_of_art#Institutional" title="Theory of art">Institutionalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Deontological_ethics" title="Deontological ethics">Deontology</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivism</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</A> / <A href="/wiki/Reasonism" title="Reasonism">Reasonism</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</A></LI>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><A href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</A></TH>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</A></LI>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><A href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</A></TH>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</A></LI>
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					<LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article"><A href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%82%D9%84" title="فلسفة العقل – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg"><A href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D1%8A%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE" title="Философия на съзнанието – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca"><A href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_de_la_ment" title="Filosofia de la ment – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs"><A href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie_mysli" title="Filosofie mysli – Czech" 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class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es"><A href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa_de_la_mente" title="Filosofía de la mente – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo"><A href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofio_de_menso" title="Filozofio de menso – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa"><A href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87_%D8%B0%D9%87%D9%86" title="فلسفه ذهن – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr"><A href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie_de_l%27esprit" title="Philosophie de l'esprit – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko"><A href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%AC%EB%A6%AC%EC%B2%A0%ED%95%99" title="심리철학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr"><A href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofija_uma" title="Filozofija uma – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article"><A href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat_budi" title="Filsafat budi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is"><A href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugspeki" title="Hugspeki – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it"><A href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_della_mente" title="Filosofia della mente – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he"><A href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%94%D7%A0%D7%A4%D7%A9" title="פילוסופיה של הנפש – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la"><A href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophia_mentis" title="Philosophia mentis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv"><A href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C4%81ta_filozofija" title="Prāta filozofija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt"><A href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C4%85mon%C4%97s_filosofija" title="Sąmonės filosofija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu"><A href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elmefiloz%C3%B3fia" title="Elmefilozófia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk"><A href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%82" title="Филозофија на умот – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl"><A href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie_van_de_geest" title="Filosofie van de geest – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja"><A href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BF%83%E3%81%AE%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="心の哲学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no"><A href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinnsfilosofi" title="Sinnsfilosofi – Norwegian" lang="no" hreflang="no" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl"><A href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia_umys%C5%82u" title="Filozofia umysłu – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt"><A href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_da_mente" title="Filosofia da mente – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro"><A href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia_min%C8%9Bii" title="Filozofia minții – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru"><A href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Философия сознания – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco"><A href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie_o_mynd" title="Filosofie o mynd – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq"><A href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia_e_mendjes" title="Filozofia e mendjes – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple"><A href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind – Simple English" lang="simple" hreflang="simple" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk"><A href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia_mysle" title="Filozofia mysle – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr"><A href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0" title="Филозофија духа – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh"><A href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofija_uma" title="Filozofija uma – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi"><A href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mielenfilosofia" title="Mielenfilosofia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured 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document_title: Philosophy of mind

token: Philosophy

token: of

token: mind

token: wikipedia

token: Jump

token: to

token: navigation

token: search

token: A

token: phrenological

token: mapping

token: the

token: brain

token: phrenology

token: was

token: among

token: first

token: attempts

token: correlate

token: mental

token: functions

token: with

token: specific

token: parts

token: although

token: it

token: is

token: now

token: largely

token: discredited

token: a

token: branch

token: philosophy

token: that

token: studies

token: nature

token: The

token: body

token: problem

token: paradigm

token: issue

token: in

token: other

token: issues

token: are

token: addressed

token: such

token: as

token: hard

token: consciousness

token: and

token: particular

token: states

token: Aspects

token: studied

token: include

token: events

token: properties

token: српскохрватски

question_text: who spread the theory that one is a product of the mind and body