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<H1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Uralic languages</H1>			<DIV id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content">
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<DIV class="mbox-text-span">This article <B>needs additional citations for <A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</A></B>. <SPAN class="hide-when-compact">Please help <A class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Uralic_languages&action=edit">improve this article</A> by <A href="/wiki/Help:Introduction_to_referencing_with_Wiki_Markup/1" title="Help:Introduction to referencing with Wiki Markup/1">adding citations to reliable sources</A>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</SPAN> <SMALL><I>(July 2017)</I></SMALL> <SMALL class="hide-when-compact"><I>(<A href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this template message</A>)</I></SMALL></DIV>
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<TH colspan="2" style="text-align:center;font-size:125%;font-weight:bold;background-color: lime;">Uralic</TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center;background-color: lime;">Uralian languages</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row">Geographic<BR />
distribution</TH>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central</A>, <A href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Northern_Europe" title="Northern Europe">Northern Europe</A>, <A href="/wiki/North_Asia" title="North Asia">North Asia</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row"><A href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Linguistic classification</A></TH>
<TD>One of the world's primary <A href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">language families</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row">Proto-language</TH>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Proto-Uralic_language" title="Proto-Uralic language">Proto-Uralic</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR class="plainlist">
<TH scope="row">Subdivisions</TH>
<TD>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Finnic_languages" title="Finnic languages">Finnic</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Hungarian</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Khanty_language" title="Khanty language">Khanty</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mansi_language" title="Mansi language">Mansi</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mari_language" title="Mari language">Mari</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mordvinic_languages" title="Mordvinic languages">Mordvinic</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Permic_languages" title="Permic languages">Permic</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sami_languages" title="Sami languages">Sami</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Samoyedic_languages" title="Samoyedic languages">Samoyedic</A></LI>
</UL>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row"><A href="/wiki/ISO_639-5" title="ISO 639-5">ISO 639-5</A></TH>
<TD><SAMP><A href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/urj" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:urj">urj</A></SAMP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row"><A href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</A></TH>
<TD><SAMP><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/ural1272">ural1272</A></SAMP><SUP id="cite_ref-Glottolog_1-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Glottolog-1">[1]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center"><A href="/wiki/File:Linguistic_map_of_the_Uralic_languages_(en).png" class="image" title="{{{mapalt}}}"><IMG alt="{{{mapalt}}}" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Linguistic_map_of_the_Uralic_languages_%28en%29.png/300px-Linguistic_map_of_the_Uralic_languages_%28en%29.png" width="300" height="225" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Linguistic_map_of_the_Uralic_languages_%28en%29.png/450px-Linguistic_map_of_the_Uralic_languages_%28en%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Linguistic_map_of_the_Uralic_languages_%28en%29.png/600px-Linguistic_map_of_the_Uralic_languages_%28en%29.png 2x" data-file-width="2065" data-file-height="1548" /></A>
<DIV style="text-align:left;">Geographical distribution of the Uralic languages</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
<P>The <B>Uralic languages</B> (<SPAN class="nowrap"><SPAN class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt"><A href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<SPAN style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><SPAN title="/j/: 'y' in 'yes'">j</SPAN><SPAN title="/ʊəˈr/: 'ur' in 'plurality'">ʊəˈr</SPAN><SPAN title="/æ/: 'a' in 'bad'">æ</SPAN><SPAN title="'l' in 'lie'">l</SPAN><SPAN title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</SPAN><SPAN title="'k' in 'kind'">k</SPAN></SPAN>/</A></SPAN></SPAN>; sometimes called <B>Uralian languages</B> <SPAN class="nowrap"><SPAN class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt"><A href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<SPAN style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><SPAN title="/j/: 'y' in 'yes'">j</SPAN><SPAN title="/ʊəˈr/: 'ur' in 'plurality'">ʊəˈr</SPAN><SPAN title="/eɪ/: 'a' in 'face'">eɪ</SPAN><SPAN title="'l' in 'lie'">l</SPAN><SPAN title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</SPAN><SPAN title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</SPAN><SPAN title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</SPAN></SPAN>/</A></SPAN></SPAN>) form a <A href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">language family</A> of 38<SUP id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-2">[2]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">languages</A> spoken by approximately 25<SPAN class="nowrap"> </SPAN>million people, predominantly in Northern <A href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</A>. The Uralic languages with the most native speakers are <A href="/wiki/Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Hungarian</A>, <A href="/wiki/Finnish_language" title="Finnish language">Finnish</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Estonian_language" title="Estonian language">Estonian</A>, which are the official languages of <A href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</A>, <A href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</A>, respectively, and of the <A href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</A>. Other Uralic languages with significant numbers of speakers are <A href="/wiki/Erzya_language" title="Erzya language">Erzya</A>, <A href="/wiki/Moksha_language" title="Moksha language">Moksha</A>, <A href="/wiki/Mari_language" title="Mari language">Mari</A>, <A href="/wiki/Udmurt_language" title="Udmurt language">Udmurt</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Komi_language" title="Komi language">Komi</A>, which are <A href="/wiki/Languages_of_Russia" title="Languages of Russia">officially recognized languages</A> in various regions of <A href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</A>.</P>
<P>The name "Uralic" derives from the fact that the areas where the languages are spoken are found on both sides of the <A href="/wiki/Ural_Mountains" title="Ural Mountains">Ural Mountains</A>. Also, the original homeland (<A href="/wiki/Urheimat" title="Urheimat">Urheimat</A>) is commonly <A href="/wiki/Proto-Uralic_homeland_hypotheses" title="Proto-Uralic homeland hypotheses">hypothesized</A> to be in the vicinity of the Urals.</P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Finno-Ugric_languages" title="Finno-Ugric languages">Finno-Ugric</A> is sometimes used as a synonym for Uralic, though Finno-Ugric is widely understood to exclude the <A href="/wiki/Samoyedic_languages" title="Samoyedic languages">Samoyedic languages</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-3">[3]</A></SUP> Scholars who do not accept the traditional notion that Samoyedic split first from the rest of the Uralic family may treat the terms as synonymous.</P>
<P></P>
<DIV id="toc" class="toc">
<DIV class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr" xml:lang="en">
<H2>Contents</H2>
<SPAN class="toctoggle"> [<A role="button" tabindex="0" class="togglelink">hide</A>] </SPAN></DIV>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><A href="#History"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">History</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><A href="#Homeland"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Homeland</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><A href="#Early_attestations"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Early attestations</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><A href="#Uralic_studies"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Uralic studies</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><A href="#Classification"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Classification</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><A href="#Traditional_classification"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Traditional classification</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><A href="#Lexical_isoglosses"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Lexical isoglosses</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><A href="#Phonological_isoglosses"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Phonological isoglosses</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><A href="#Typology"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Typology</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><A href="#Grammar"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Grammar</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><A href="#Phonology"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Phonology</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><A href="#Lexicography"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Lexicography</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-13"><A href="#Selected_cognates"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.3.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Selected cognates</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-14"><A href="#Mutual_intelligibility"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.3.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Mutual intelligibility</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><A href="#Comparison"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Comparison</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><A href="#Possible_relations_with_other_families"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Possible relations with other families</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><A href="#Indo-Uralic"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Indo-Uralic</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><A href="#Uralic–Yukaghir"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Uralic–Yukaghir</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><A href="#Eskimo–Uralic"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Eskimo–Uralic</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><A href="#Uralo-Siberian"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Uralo-Siberian</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><A href="#Ural–Altaic"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Ural–Altaic</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><A href="#Nostratic"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.6</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Nostratic</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><A href="#Eurasiatic"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.7</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Eurasiatic</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><A href="#Uralo-Dravidian"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.8</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Uralo-Dravidian</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><A href="#Uralic_skepticism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.9</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Uralic skepticism</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><A href="#Other_comparisons"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.10</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Other comparisons</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-27"><A href="#See_also"><SPAN class="tocnumber">5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">See also</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28"><A href="#Notes"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Notes</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><A href="#References"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">References</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-30"><A href="#External_classification"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">External classification</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-31"><A href="#Linguistic_issues"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Linguistic issues</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-32"><A href="#External_links"><SPAN class="tocnumber">8</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">External links</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-33"><A href="#"Rebel"_Uralists"><SPAN class="tocnumber">8.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">"Rebel" Uralists</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<P></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="History">History</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Uralic_languages&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <A href="/wiki/Proto-Uralic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Uralic">Proto-Uralic</A></DIV>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Homeland">Homeland</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Uralic_languages&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Homeland">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <A href="/wiki/Proto-Uralic_homeland_hypotheses" title="Proto-Uralic homeland hypotheses">Proto-Uralic homeland hypotheses</A></DIV>
<P>In recent times, linguists often place the <A href="/wiki/Urheimat" title="Urheimat">Urheimat</A> (original homeland) of the <A href="/wiki/Proto-Uralic_language" title="Proto-Uralic language">Proto-Uralic language</A> in the vicinity of the <A href="/wiki/Volga_River" title="Volga River">Volga River</A>, west of the Urals, close to the Urheimat of the <A href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</A>, or to the east and southeast of the Urals. Historian <A href="/wiki/Gyula_L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3" title="Gyula László">Gyula László</A> places its origin in the forest zone between the <A href="/wiki/Oka_River" title="Oka River">Oka River</A> and central <A href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</A>. E. N. Setälä and M. Zsirai place it between the <A href="/wiki/Volga_River" title="Volga River">Volga</A> and <A href="/wiki/Kama_River" title="Kama River">Kama Rivers</A>. According to E. Itkonen, the ancestral area extended to the <A href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</A>. P. Hajdu has suggested a homeland in western and northwestern <A href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-4">[4]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Early_attestations">Early attestations</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Uralic_languages&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early attestations">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>The first plausible mention of a Uralic people is in <A href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</A>'s <I><A href="/wiki/Germania_(book)" title="Germania (book)">Germania</A></I> (c. 98 AD),<SUP id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-5">[5]</A></SUP> mentioning the <I><A href="/wiki/Fenni" title="Fenni">Fenni</A></I> (usually interpreted as referring to the <A href="/wiki/Sami_people" title="Sami people">Sami</A>) and two other possibly Uralic tribes living in the farthest reaches of Scandinavia. There are many possible earlier mentions, including the <A href="/wiki/Iyrcae" title="Iyrcae">Iyrcae</A> (perhaps related to Yugra) described by <A href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</A> living in what is now European Russia, and the <A href="/wiki/Budini" title="Budini">Budini</A>, described by Herodotus as notably red-haired (a characteristic feature of the <A href="/wiki/Udmurt_people" title="Udmurt people">Udmurts</A>) and living in northeast Ukraine and/or adjacent parts of Russia. In the late 15th century, European scholars noted the resemblance of the names <I>Hungaria</I> and <I><A href="/wiki/Yugra" title="Yugra">Yugria</A></I>, the names of settlements east of the Ural. They assumed a connection but did not seek linguistic evidence.<SUP id="cite_ref-Sebeok-2002_6-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Sebeok-2002-6">[6]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Uralic_studies">Uralic studies</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Uralic_languages&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Uralic studies">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Herberstein-Moscovia-NE.png" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Herberstein-Moscovia-NE.png/220px-Herberstein-Moscovia-NE.png" width="220" height="133" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Herberstein-Moscovia-NE.png/330px-Herberstein-Moscovia-NE.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Herberstein-Moscovia-NE.png/440px-Herberstein-Moscovia-NE.png 2x" data-file-width="880" data-file-height="530" /></A>
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<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:Herberstein-Moscovia-NE.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
The Siberian origin of Hungarians was long hypothesized by European scholars. Here, <A href="/wiki/Sigismund_von_Herberstein" title="Sigismund von Herberstein">Sigismund von Herberstein</A>'s 1549 map of <A href="/wiki/Moscovia" class="mw-redirect" title="Moscovia">Moscovia</A> shows "<A href="/wiki/Yugra" title="Yugra">Yugra</A> from where the <A href="/wiki/Hungarians" title="Hungarians">Hungarians</A> originated" (<I>Iuhra inde ungaroru origo</I>), east of the <A href="/wiki/Ob_River" title="Ob River">Ob River</A>. The Ural Mountains in the middle of the maps are labeled <I>Montes dicti Cingulus Terræ</I> ("The mountains called the Girdle of the Earth")</DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<P>The affinity of Hungarian and Finnish was first proposed in the late 17th century. Two of the more important contributors were the <A href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">German</A> scholar <A href="/w/index.php?title=Martin_Vogel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Martin Vogel (page does not exist)">Martin Vogel</A>, who established several <A href="/wiki/Grammatical" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammatical">grammatical</A> and <A href="/wiki/Lexical_analysis" title="Lexical analysis">lexical</A> parallels between <A href="/wiki/Finnish_language" title="Finnish language">Finnish</A> and <A href="/wiki/Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Hungarian</A>, and the <A href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Swedish</A> scholar <A href="/wiki/Georg_Stiernhielm" title="Georg Stiernhielm">Georg Stiernhielm</A>, who commented on the similarities of Sami, Estonian and Finnish, and also on a few similar words between Finnish and Hungarian.<SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWickman1988793–794_7-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWickman1988793–794-7">[7]</A></SUP> These two authors were the first to outline what was to become the classification of the Finno-Ugric, and later Uralic family. This proposal received some of its initial impetus from the fact that these languages, unlike most of the other languages spoken in Europe, are not part of what is now known as the <A href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</A> family.</P>
<P>In 1717, Swedish professor <A href="/wiki/Olaus_Rudbeckius,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Olaus Rudbeckius, Jr.">Olof Rudbeck</A> proposed about 100 etymologies connecting Finnish and Hungarian, of which about 40 are still considered valid.<SUP id="cite_ref-:0_8-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-:0-8">[8]</A></SUP> In the same year, the German scholar <A href="/wiki/Johann_Georg_von_Eckhart" title="Johann Georg von Eckhart">Johann Georg von Eckhart</A>, in an essay published in <A href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Leibniz</A>'s <I>Collectanea Etymologica</I>, proposed for the first time a relation to the <A href="/wiki/Samoyedic_languages" title="Samoyedic languages">Samoyedic languages</A>.<SUP class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><SPAN title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2014)">citation needed</SPAN></A></I>]</SUP></P>
<P>In 1730, <A href="/wiki/Philip_Johan_von_Strahlenberg" title="Philip Johan von Strahlenberg">Philip Johan von Strahlenberg</A> published his book <I><SPAN lang="de" title="German language text" xml:lang="de">Das Nord- und Ostliche Theil von Europa und Asia</SPAN></I> (<I>The North and East Parts of Europe and Asia</I>), surveying the geography, peoples and languages of Russia. All the main groups of the Uralic languages were already identified here.<SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWickman1988795–796_9-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWickman1988795–796-9">[9]</A></SUP> Nonetheless, these relationships were not widely accepted. Hungarian intellectuals especially were not interested in the theory and preferred to assume connections with <A href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkic</A> tribes, an attitude characterized by Merritt Ruhlen as due to "the wild unfettered <A href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</A> of the epoch".<SUP id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-10">[10]</A></SUP> Still, in spite of this hostile climate, the Hungarian <A href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" title="Society of Jesus">Jesuit</A> <A href="/wiki/J%C3%A1nos_Sajnovics" title="János Sajnovics">János Sajnovics</A> travelled with <A href="/wiki/Maximilian_Hell" title="Maximilian Hell">Maximilian Hell</A> to survey the alleged relationship between Hungarian and Sami. Sajnovics published his results in 1770, arguing for a relationship based on several grammatical features.<SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWickman1988796-798_11-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWickman1988796-798-11">[11]</A></SUP> In 1799, the Hungarian <A href="/wiki/Samuel_Gyarmathi" class="mw-redirect" title="Samuel Gyarmathi">Sámuel Gyarmathi</A> published the most complete work on Finno-Ugric to that date.<SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWickman1988798_12-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWickman1988798-12">[12]</A></SUP></P>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Uralic_languages_in_the_Russian_Empire_(1897).svg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Uralic_languages_in_the_Russian_Empire_%281897%29.svg/300px-Uralic_languages_in_the_Russian_Empire_%281897%29.svg.png" width="300" height="177" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Uralic_languages_in_the_Russian_Empire_%281897%29.svg/450px-Uralic_languages_in_the_Russian_Empire_%281897%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Uralic_languages_in_the_Russian_Empire_%281897%29.svg/600px-Uralic_languages_in_the_Russian_Empire_%281897%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="4648" data-file-height="2744" /></A>
<DIV class="thumbcaption">
<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:Uralic_languages_in_the_Russian_Empire_(1897).svg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
Uralic languages in the Russian Empire (Russian Census of 1897; the census was not held in Finland because it was an autonomous area)</DIV>
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<P>Progress resumed after a number of decades, with the first major field research expeditions on the Uralic languages spoken in the more eastern parts of Russia. These were made in the 1840s by <A href="/wiki/Matthias_Castr%C3%A9n" title="Matthias Castrén">Matthias Castrén</A> (1813–1852) and <A href="/wiki/Antal_Reguly" title="Antal Reguly">Antal Reguly</A> (1819–1858), who focused especially on the Samoyedic and the <A href="/wiki/Ob-Ugric_languages" title="Ob-Ugric languages">Ob-Ugric languages</A>, respectively. Reguly's materials were worked on by the Hungarian linguist Pál Hunfalvy (1810–1891) and German Josef Budenz (1836–1892), who both supported the Uralic affinity of Hungarian.<SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWickman1988801-803_13-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWickman1988801-803-13">[13]</A></SUP> Budenz was the first scholar to bring this result to popular consciousness in Hungary, and to attempt a reconstruction of the Proto-Finno-Ugric grammar and lexicon.<SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWickman1988803–804_14-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWickman1988803–804-14">[14]</A></SUP> Another late-19th-century Hungarian contribution is that of Ignácz Halász (1855–1901), who published extensive comparative material of Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic in the 1890s,<SUP id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-15">[15]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-16">[16]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-17">[17]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-18">[18]</A></SUP> and whose work is at the base of today's wide acceptance of the inclusion of Samoyedic as a part of Uralic.<SUP id="cite_ref-Szabo69_19-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Szabo69-19">[19]</A></SUP> Meanwhile, in the autonomous <A href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Finland" title="Grand Duchy of Finland">Grand Duchy of Finland</A>, a chair for Finnish language and linguistics at the <A href="/wiki/University_of_Helsinki" title="University of Helsinki">University of Helsinki</A> was created in 1850, first held by Castrén.<SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWickman1988799–800_20-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWickman1988799–800-20">[20]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In 1883, the <A href="/wiki/Finno-Ugrian_Society" title="Finno-Ugrian Society">Finno-Ugrian Society</A> was founded in Helsinki on the proposal of <A href="/wiki/Otto_Donner" title="Otto Donner">Otto Donner</A>, and during the late 19th and early 20th century (until the separation of Finland from Russia following the <A href="/wiki/Russian_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian revolution">Russian revolution</A>), a large number of <A href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/stipendiate" class="extiw" title="wikt:stipendiate">stipendiates</A> were sent by the Society to survey the less known Uralic languages. Major researchers of this period included Heikki Paasonen (studying especially the <A href="/wiki/Mordvinic_languages" title="Mordvinic languages">Mordvinic languages</A>), Yrjö Wichmann (studying <A href="/wiki/Permic_languages" title="Permic languages">Permic</A>), Artturi Kannisto (<A href="/wiki/Mansi_language" title="Mansi language">Mansi</A>), Kustaa Fredrik Karjalainen (<A href="/wiki/Khanty_language" title="Khanty language">Khanty</A>), Toivo Lehtisalo (<A href="/wiki/Nenets_languages" title="Nenets languages">Nenets</A>), and <A href="/wiki/Kai_Donner" title="Kai Donner">Kai Donner</A> (<A href="/wiki/Kamassian_language" title="Kamassian language">Kamass</A>).<SUP id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWickman1988810–811_21-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWickman1988810–811-21">[21]</A></SUP> The vast amounts of data collected on these expeditions would provide edition work for later generations of Finnish Uralicists for more than a century.<SUP id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-22">[22]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Classification">Classification</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Uralic_languages&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Classification">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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<TH style="text-align:center;" colspan="5">Relative numbers of speakers of Uralic languages</TH>
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<TR style="font-size:88%; height:4px;">
<TD style="padding:0 4px; text-align:left;"></TD>
<TD style="padding:0 4px; text-align:right;"></TD>
<TD style="width:100px; text-align:left;"></TD>
<TD style="padding:0 4px; width:1em; text-align:right;"></TD>
<TD style="padding:0 4px; text-align:right;"></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.4em; padding-right: 0.4em; min-width: 8em;"><A href="/wiki/Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Hungarian</A></TD>
<TD style="width: 100px; border-left: solid 1px silver; border-right: solid 1px silver;">
<DIV style="background:#008751; width:56%; overflow: hidden;"> </DIV>
</TD>
<TD colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.4em; padding-right: 0.4em; text-align: right;">56%</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.4em; padding-right: 0.4em; min-width: 8em;"><A href="/wiki/Finnish_language" title="Finnish language">Finnish</A></TD>
<TD style="width: 100px; border-left: solid 1px silver; border-right: solid 1px silver;">
<DIV style="background:#003580; width:20%; overflow: hidden;"> </DIV>
</TD>
<TD colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.4em; padding-right: 0.4em; text-align: right;">20%</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.4em; padding-right: 0.4em; min-width: 8em;"><A href="/wiki/Estonian_language" title="Estonian language">Estonian</A></TD>
<TD style="width: 100px; border-left: solid 1px silver; border-right: solid 1px silver;">
<DIV style="background:#4891D9; width:4.2%; overflow: hidden;"> </DIV>
</TD>
<TD colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.4em; padding-right: 0.4em; text-align: right;">4.2%</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.4em; padding-right: 0.4em; min-width: 8em;"><A href="/wiki/Erzya_language" title="Erzya language">Erzya</A></TD>
<TD style="width: 100px; border-left: solid 1px silver; border-right: solid 1px silver;">
<DIV style="background:Red; width:2.8%; overflow: hidden;"> </DIV>
</TD>
<TD colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.4em; padding-right: 0.4em; text-align: right;">2.8%</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.4em; padding-right: 0.4em; min-width: 8em;"><A href="/wiki/Moksha_language" title="Moksha language">Moksha</A></TD>
<TD style="width: 100px; border-left: solid 1px silver; border-right: solid 1px silver;">
<DIV style="background:DeepPink; width:2.5%; overflow: hidden;"> </DIV>
</TD>
<TD colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.4em; padding-right: 0.4em; text-align: right;">2.5%</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.4em; padding-right: 0.4em; min-width: 8em;"><A href="/wiki/Mari_language" title="Mari language">Mari</A></TD>
<TD style="width: 100px; border-left: solid 1px silver; border-right: solid 1px silver;">
<DIV style="background:Purple; width:2%; overflow: hidden;"> </DIV>
</TD>
<TD colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.4em; padding-right: 0.4em; text-align: right;">2%</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.4em; padding-right: 0.4em; min-width: 8em;"><A href="/wiki/Udmurt_language" title="Udmurt language">Udmurt</A></TD>
<TD style="width: 100px; border-left: solid 1px silver; border-right: solid 1px silver;">
<DIV style="background:Black; width:1.9%; overflow: hidden;"> </DIV>
</TD>
<TD colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.4em; padding-right: 0.4em; text-align: right;">1.9%</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.4em; padding-right: 0.4em; min-width: 8em;"><A href="/wiki/Komi_language" title="Komi language">Komi</A></TD>
<TD style="width: 100px; border-left: solid 1px silver; border-right: solid 1px silver;">
<DIV style="background:#008000; width:1.6%; overflow: hidden;"> </DIV>
</TD>
<TD colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.4em; padding-right: 0.4em; text-align: right;">1.6%</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.4em; padding-right: 0.4em; min-width: 8em;">Other</TD>
<TD style="width: 100px; border-left: solid 1px silver; border-right: solid 1px silver;">
<DIV style="background:grey; width:8.9%; overflow: hidden;"> </DIV>
</TD>
<TD colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.4em; padding-right: 0.4em; text-align: right;">8.9%</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</DIV>
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</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
<P>The Uralic family comprises nine undisputed groups with no consensus classification between them. (Some of the proposals are listed in the next section.) An agnostic approach treats them as separate branches.<SUP id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-23">[23]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Obsolete or native names are displayed in italics.</P>
<UL>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Finnic_languages" title="Finnic languages">Finnic</A></B> (Fennic, Baltic Finnic, Balto-Finnic, Balto-Fennic)</LI>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Hungarian</A></B> (Magyar)</LI>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Khanty_language" title="Khanty language">Khanty</A></B> (<I>Ostyak, Handi, Hantõ</I>)</LI>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Mansi_language" title="Mansi language">Mansi</A></B> (<I>Vogul</I>)</LI>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Mari_language" title="Mari language">Mari</A></B> (<I>Cheremis</I>)</LI>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Mordvinic_languages" title="Mordvinic languages">Mordvinic</A></B> (Mordvin, Mordvinian)</LI>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Permic_languages" title="Permic languages">Permic</A></B> (Permian)</LI>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Sami_languages" title="Sami languages">Sami</A></B> (Saami, Samic, Saamic, <I>Lappic, Lappish</I>)</LI>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Samoyedic_languages" title="Samoyedic languages">Samoyedic</A></B> (Samoyed)</LI>
</UL>
<P>There is also historical evidence of a number of extinct languages of uncertain affiliation:</P>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Merya_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Merya language">Merya</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Muromian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Muromian language">Muromian</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Meshcherian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Meshcherian language">Meshcherian</A> (until 16th century?)</LI>
</UL>
<P>Traces of Finno-Ugric substrata, especially in toponymy, in the northern part of European Russia have been proposed as evidence for even more extinct Uralic languages.<SUP id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-24">[24]</A></SUP></P>
<P><A href="/wiki/File:UralicTree.svg" class="image" title="800x800"><IMG alt="800x800" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/UralicTree.svg/900px-UralicTree.svg.png" width="900" height="700" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/UralicTree.svg/1350px-UralicTree.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/UralicTree.svg/1800px-UralicTree.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="700" /></A></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Traditional_classification">Traditional classification</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Uralic_languages&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Traditional classification">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>All Uralic languages are thought to have descended, through independent processes of <A href="/wiki/Language_change" title="Language change">language change</A>, from <A href="/wiki/Proto-Uralic_language" title="Proto-Uralic language">Proto-Uralic</A>. The internal structure of the Uralic family has been debated since the family was first proposed.<SUP id="cite_ref-Marcantonio-p55-68_25-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Marcantonio-p55-68-25">[25]</A></SUP> Doubts about the validity of most of the proposed higher-order branchings (grouping the nine undisputed families) are becoming more common.<SUP id="cite_ref-Marcantonio-p55-68_25-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Marcantonio-p55-68-25">[25]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-SalmTax_26-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-SalmTax-26">[26]</A></SUP></P>
<P>A traditional classification of the Uralic languages has existed since the late 19th century.<SUP id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-27">[27]</A></SUP> It has enjoyed frequent adaptation in whole or in part in encyclopedias, handbooks, and overviews of the Uralic family. Donner's model is as follows:</P>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ugric_languages" title="Ugric languages">Ugric</A> (Ugrian)
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Hungarian</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ob-Ugric_languages" title="Ob-Ugric languages">Ob-Ugric</A> (Ob Ugrian)
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Khanty_language" title="Khanty language">Khanty</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mansi_language" title="Mansi language">Mansi</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Finno-Permic_languages" title="Finno-Permic languages">Finno-Permic</A> (Permian-Finnic)
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Permic_languages" title="Permic languages">Permic</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Finno-Volgaic_languages" title="Finno-Volgaic languages">Finno-Volgaic</A> (Finno-Cheremisic, Finno-Mari)
<UL>
<LI>Volga-Finnic
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mari_language" title="Mari language">Mari</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mordvinic_languages" title="Mordvinic languages">Mordvinic</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Finno-Lappic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Finno-Lappic languages">Finno-Lappic</A> (Finno-Saamic, Finno-Samic)
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sami_languages" title="Sami languages">Sami</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Finnic_languages" title="Finnic languages">Finnic</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
<P>At Donner's time, the <A href="/wiki/Samoyedic_languages" title="Samoyedic languages">Samoyedic languages</A> were still poorly known, and he was not able to address their position. As they became better known in the early 20th century, they were found to be quite divergent, and they were assumed to have separated already early on. The terminology adopted for this was "Uralic" for the entire family, "<A href="/wiki/Finno-Ugric_languages" title="Finno-Ugric languages">Finno-Ugric</A>" for the non-Samoyedic languages (though "Finno-Ugric" has, to this day, remained in use also as a synonym for the whole family). <A href="/wiki/Finno-Ugric_languages" title="Finno-Ugric languages">Finno-Ugric</A> and Samoyedic are listed in <A href="/wiki/ISO_639-5" title="ISO 639-5">ISO 639-5</A> as primary branches of Uralic.</P>
<P>Nodes of the traditional family tree recognized in some overview sources:</P>
<TABLE class="wikitable sortable jquery-tablesorter">
<THEAD><TR>
<TH class="headerSort" tabindex="0" role="columnheader button" title="Sort ascending">Year</TH>
<TH class="headerSort" tabindex="0" role="columnheader button" title="Sort ascending">Author(s)</TH>
<TH class="headerSort" tabindex="0" role="columnheader button" title="Sort ascending">Finno-<BR />
Ugric</TH>
<TH class="headerSort" tabindex="0" role="columnheader button" title="Sort ascending">Ugric</TH>
<TH class="headerSort" tabindex="0" role="columnheader button" title="Sort ascending">Ob-Ugric</TH>
<TH class="headerSort" tabindex="0" role="columnheader button" title="Sort ascending">Finno-<BR />
Permic</TH>
<TH class="headerSort" tabindex="0" role="columnheader button" title="Sort ascending">Finno-<BR />
Volgaic</TH>
<TH class="headerSort" tabindex="0" role="columnheader button" title="Sort ascending">Volga-<BR />
Finnic</TH>
<TH class="headerSort" tabindex="0" role="columnheader button" title="Sort ascending">Finno-<BR />
Samic</TH>
</TR></THEAD><TBODY>
<TR>
<TH>1910</TH>
<TH>Szinnyei<SUP id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-28">[28]</A></SUP></TH>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:red;" title="Red X">✗</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH>1921</TH>
<TH>T. I. Itkonen<SUP id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-29">[29]</A></SUP></TH>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:red;" title="Red X">✗</SPAN></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH>1926</TH>
<TH>Setälä<SUP id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-30">[30]</A></SUP></TH>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:red;" title="Red X">✗</SPAN></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH>1962</TH>
<TH>Hajdú<SUP id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-31">[31]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-32">[32]</A></SUP></TH>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:red;" title="Red X">✗</SPAN><SUP class="reference" id="ref_hajdu"><A href="#endnote_hajdu">[a]</A></SUP></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:red;" title="Red X">✗</SPAN><SUP>1</SUP></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:red;" title="Red X">✗</SPAN></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH>1965</TH>
<TH>Collinder<SUP id="cite_ref-:0_8-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-:0-8">[8]</A></SUP></TH>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:red;" title="Red X">✗</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:red;" title="Red X">✗</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:red;" title="Red X">✗</SPAN></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH>1966</TH>
<TH>E. Itkonen<SUP id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-33">[33]</A></SUP></TH>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH>1968</TH>
<TH>Austerlitz<SUP id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-34">[34]</A></SUP></TH>
<TD><SPAN style="color:red;" title="Red X">✗</SPAN><SUP class="reference" id="ref_austerlitz"><A href="#endnote_austerlitz">[b]</A></SUP></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:red;" title="Red X">✗</SPAN> <SUP>2</SUP></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:red;" title="Red X">✗</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:red;" title="Red X">✗</SPAN></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH>1977</TH>
<TH>Voegelin & Voegelin<SUP id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-35">[35]</A></SUP></TH>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH>2002</TH>
<TH>Kulonen<SUP id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-36">[36]</A></SUP></TH>
<TD><SPAN style="color:red;" title="Red X">✗</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:red;" title="Red X">✗</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:red;" title="Red X">✗</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH>2007</TH>
<TH>Lehtinen<SUP id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-37">[37]</A></SUP></TH>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:red;" title="Red X">✗</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH>2009</TH>
<TH>Janhunen<SUP id="cite_ref-PUWhat/_38-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-PUWhat/-38">[38]</A></SUP></TH>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:red;" title="Red X">✗</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:red;" title="Red X">✗</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:green;" title="Green tick">✓</SPAN></TD>
<TD><SPAN style="color:red;" title="Red X">✗</SPAN></TD>
<TD></TD>
</TR>
</TBODY><TFOOT></TFOOT></TABLE>
<P><SPAN class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_hajdu"><SUP>a. Hajdú describes the Ugric and Volgaic groups as areal units.</SUP></SPAN></P>
<P><SPAN class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_austerlitz"><SUP>b. Austerlitz accepts narrower-than-traditional Finno-Ugric and Finno-Permic groups that exclude Samic</SUP></SPAN></P>
<P>Little explicit evidence has however been presented in favour of Donner's model since his original proposal, and numerous alternate schemes have been proposed. Especially in Finland, there has been a growing tendency to reject the Finno-Ugric intermediate protolanguage.<SUP id="cite_ref-SalmTax_26-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-SalmTax-26">[26]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-39">[39]</A></SUP> A recent competing proposal instead unites Ugric and Samoyedic in an "East Uralic" group for which shared innovations can be noted.<SUP id="cite_ref-EastUralic_40-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-EastUralic-40">[40]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The Finno-Permic grouping still holds some support, though the arrangement of its subgroups is a matter of some dispute. Mordvinic is commonly seen as particularly closely related to or part of Finno-Samic.<SUP id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-41">[41]</A></SUP> The term <I><A href="/wiki/Volga_Finns" title="Volga Finns">Volgaic</A></I> (or <I>Volga-Finnic</I>) was used to denote a branch previously believed to include Mari, Mordvinic and a number of the extinct languages, but it is now obsolete<SUP id="cite_ref-SalmTax_26-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-SalmTax-26">[26]</A></SUP> and considered a geographic classification rather than a linguistic one.</P>
<P>Within Ugric, uniting Mansi with Hungarian rather than Khanty has been a competing hypothesis to Ob-Ugric.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Lexical_isoglosses">Lexical isoglosses</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Uralic_languages&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Lexical isoglosses">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P><A href="/wiki/Lexicostatistics" title="Lexicostatistics">Lexicostatistics</A> has been used in defense of the traditional family tree. A recent re-evaluation of the evidence<SUP id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-42">[42]</A></SUP> however fails to find support for Finno-Ugric and Ugric, suggesting four lexically distinct branches (Finno-Permic, Hungarian, Ob-Ugric and Samoyedic).</P>
<P>One alternate proposal for a family tree, with emphasis on the development of numerals, is as follows:<SUP id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-43">[43]</A></SUP></P>
<UL>
<LI>Uralic (*kektä "2", *wixti "5" / "10")
<UL>
<LI>Samoyedic (*op "1", *ketä "2", *näkur "3", *tettə "4", *səmpəleŋkə "5", *məktut "6", *sejtwə "7", *wiət "10")</LI>
<LI>Finno-Ugric (*üki/*ükti "1", *kormi "3", *ńeljä "4", *wiiti "5", *kuuti "6", *luki "10")
<UL>
<LI>Mansic
<UL>
<LI>Mansi</LI>
<LI>Hungarian (<I>hét</I> "7"; replacement <I>egy</I> "1")</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI>Finno-Khantic (reshaping *kolmi "3" on the analogy of "4")
<UL>
<LI>Khanty</LI>
<LI>Finno-Permic (reshaping *kektä > *kakta)
<UL>
<LI>Permic</LI>
<LI>Finno-Volgaic (*śećem "7")
<UL>
<LI>Mari</LI>
<LI>Finno-Saamic (*kakteksa, *ükteksa "8, 9")
<UL>
<LI>Saamic</LI>
<LI>Finno-Mordvinic (replacement *kümmen "10" (*luki- "to count", "to read out"))
<UL>
<LI>Mordvinic</LI>
<LI>Finnic</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Phonological_isoglosses">Phonological isoglosses</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Uralic_languages&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Phonological isoglosses">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>Another proposed tree, more divergent from the standard, focusing on consonant isoglosses (which does not consider the position of the Samoyedic languages) is presented by Viitso (1997),<SUP id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-44">[44]</A></SUP> and refined in Viitso (2000):<SUP id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-45">[45]</A></SUP></P>
<UL>
<LI>Finno-Ugric
<UL>
<LI>Saamic–Fennic (<A href="/wiki/Consonant_gradation" title="Consonant gradation">consonant gradation</A>)
<UL>
<LI>Saamic</LI>
<LI>Fennic</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI>Eastern Finno-Ugric
<UL>
<LI>Mordva</LI>
<LI>(node)
<UL>
<LI>Mari</LI>
<LI>Permian–Ugric (*δ > *l)
<UL>
<LI>Permian</LI>
<LI>Ugric (*s *š *ś > *ɬ *ɬ *s)
<UL>
<LI>Hungarian</LI>
<LI>Khanty</LI>
<LI>Mansi</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
<P>The grouping of the four bottom-level branches remains to some degree open to interpretation, with competing models of Finno-Saamic vs. Eastern Finno-Ugric (Mari, Mordvinic, Permic-Ugric; *k > ɣ between vowels, degemination of stops) and Finno-Volgaic (Finno-Saamic, Mari, Mordvinic; *δ́ > δ between vowels) vs. Permic-Ugric. Viitso finds no evidence for a Finno-Permic grouping.</P>
<P>Extending this approach to cover the Samoyedic languages suggests affinity with Ugric, resulting in the aforementioned East Uralic grouping, as it also shares the same sibilant developments. A further non-trivial Ugric-Samoyedic isogloss is the reduction *k, *x, *w > ɣ when before *i, and after a vowel (cf. *k > ɣ above), or adjacent to *t, *s, *š, or *ś.<SUP id="cite_ref-EastUralic_40-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-EastUralic-40">[40]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Finno-Ugric consonant developments after Viitso (2000); Samoyedic changes after Sammallahti (1988)<SUP id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-46">[46]</A></SUP></P>
<TABLE class="wikitable" border="1">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH colspan="2"></TH>
<TH>Saamic</TH>
<TH>Finnic</TH>
<TH>Mordvinic</TH>
<TH>Mari</TH>
<TH>Permic</TH>
<TH>Hungarian</TH>
<TH>Mansi</TH>
<TH>Khanty</TH>
<TH>Samoyedic</TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH colspan="2">Medial lenition of <SPAN title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA">*k</SPAN></TH>
<TD>no</TD>
<TD>no</TD>
<TD>yes</TD>
<TD>yes</TD>
<TD>yes</TD>
<TD>yes</TD>
<TD>yes</TD>
<TD>yes</TD>
<TD>yes</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH colspan="2">Medial lenition of <SPAN title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA">*p, *t</SPAN></TH>
<TD>no</TD>
<TD>no</TD>
<TD>yes</TD>
<TD>yes</TD>
<TD>yes</TD>
<TD>yes</TD>
<TD>no</TD>
<TD>no</TD>
<TD>no</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH colspan="2">Degemination</TH>
<TD>no</TD>
<TD>no</TD>
<TD>yes</TD>
<TD>yes</TD>
<TD>yes</TD>
<TD>yes</TD>
<TD>yes</TD>
<TD>yes</TD>
<TD>yes</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH colspan="2">Consonant gradation</TH>
<TD>yes</TD>
<TD>yes</TD>
<TD>no</TD>
<TD>no</TD>
<TD>no</TD>
<TD>no</TD>
<TD>no</TD>
<TD>no</TD>
<TD>yes</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH rowspan="6">Development of</TH>
<TH>*δ</TH>
<TD rowspan="2">*δ</TD>
<TD rowspan="2">*t</TD>
<TD rowspan="2">*t</TD>
<TD>∅</TD>
<TD>*l</TD>
<TD>l</TD>
<TD>*l</TD>
<TD>*l</TD>
<TD>*r</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH>*δ́</TH>
<TD>*δ</TD>
<TD>*ĺ</TD>
<TD>ď ⟨gy⟩, j</TD>
<TD>*ĺ</TD>
<TD>*j</TD>
<TD>*j</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH>*s</TH>
<TD rowspan="2">*s</TD>
<TD>*s</TD>
<TD>*s</TD>
<TD rowspan="4">*š</TD>
<TD>*s</TD>
<TD rowspan="2">∅</TD>
<TD rowspan="2">*t</TD>
<TD rowspan="2">*ɬ</TD>
<TD rowspan="2">*t</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH>*š</TH>
<TD>*h</TD>
<TD>*š</TD>
<TD>*š</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH>*ś</TH>
<TD rowspan="2">*ć</TD>
<TD rowspan="2">*s</TD>
<TD rowspan="2">*ś</TD>
<TD>*ś</TD>
<TD>s ⟨sz⟩</TD>
<TD>*š</TD>
<TD>*s</TD>
<TD rowspan="2">*s</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH>*ć</TH>
<TD>*ć</TD>
<TD>č ⟨cs⟩</TD>
<TD>*ć ~ *š</TD>
<TD>*ć</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
<UL>
<LI>Note: Proto-Khanty *ɬ in many of the dialects yields *t; it is assumed this also happened in Mansi and Samoyedic.</LI>
</UL>
<P>The inverse relationship between consonant gradation and medial lenition of stops (the pattern also continuing within the three families where gradation <I>is</I> found) is noted by <A href="/wiki/Eugene_Helimski" title="Eugene Helimski">Helimski</A> (1995): an original allophonic gradation system between voiceless and voiced stops would have been easily disrupted by a spreading of voicing to previously unvoiced stops as well.<SUP id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-47">[47]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Based on phonological isoglosses, Häkkinen (2007)<SUP id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-48">[48]</A></SUP> proposes the following tree:</P>
<UL>
<LI>Uralic
<UL>
<LI>West Uralic
<UL>
<LI>Saamic</LI>
<LI>Finnic</LI>
<LI>Mordvinic</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI>Central Uralic (?)
<UL>
<LI>Mari</LI>
<LI>Permic</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI>East Uralic
<UL>
<LI>Hungarian</LI>
<LI>Ob-Ugric
<UL>
<LI>Mansi</LI>
<LI>Khanty</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI>Samoyedic</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Typology">Typology</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Uralic_languages&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Typology">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>Structural characteristics generally said to be typical of Uralic languages include:</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Grammar">Grammar</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Uralic_languages&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Grammar">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<UL>
<LI>extensive use of independent <A href="/wiki/Suffix" title="Suffix">suffixes</A> (<A href="/wiki/Agglutination" title="Agglutination">agglutination</A>)</LI>
<LI>a large set of <A href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">grammatical cases</A> marked with agglutinative suffixes (13–14 cases on average; mainly later developments: Proto-Uralic is reconstructed with 6 cases), e.g.:
<UL>
<LI>Erzya: 12 cases</LI>
<LI>Estonian: 14 cases (15 cases with instructive)</LI>
<LI>Finnish: 15 cases</LI>
<LI>Hungarian: 18 cases (together 34 grammatical cases and case-like suffixes)</LI>
<LI>Inari Sami: 9 cases</LI>
<LI>Komi: in certain dialects as many as 27 cases</LI>
<LI>Moksha: 13 cases</LI>
<LI>Nenets: 7 cases</LI>
<LI>North Sami: 6 cases</LI>
<LI>Udmurt: 16 cases</LI>
<LI>Veps: 24 cases</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI>unique Uralic case system, from which all modern Uralic languages derive their case systems.
<UL>
<LI>nominative singular has no case suffix.</LI>
<LI>accusative and genitive suffixes are nasal sounds (<I>-n</I>, <I>-m</I>, etc.)</LI>
<LI>three-way distinction in the local case system, with each set of local cases being divided into forms corresponding roughly to "from", "to", and "in/at"; especially evident, e.g. in Hungarian, Finnish and Estonian, which have several sets of local cases, such as the "inner", "outer" and "on top" systems in Hungarian, while in Finnish the "on top" forms have merged to the "outer" forms.</LI>
<LI>the Uralic locative suffix exists in all Uralic languages in various cases, e.g. Hungarian <A href="/wiki/Superessive_case" title="Superessive case">superessive</A>, Finnish <A href="/wiki/Essive_case" title="Essive case">essive</A> (<I>-na</I>), North Sami <A href="/wiki/Essive_case" title="Essive case">essive</A>, Erzyan <A href="/wiki/Inessive_case" title="Inessive case">inessive</A>, and Nenets <A href="/wiki/Locative_case" title="Locative case">locative</A>.</LI>
<LI>the Uralic <A href="/wiki/Lative_case" title="Lative case">lative</A> suffix exists in various cases in many Uralic languages, e.g. Hungarian <A href="/wiki/Illative_case" title="Illative case">illative</A>, Finnish <A href="/wiki/Lative_case" title="Lative case">lative</A> (<I>-s</I> as in <I>rannemmas</I>), Erzyan <A href="/wiki/Illative_case" title="Illative case">illative</A>, Komi <A href="/w/index.php?title=Approximative_case&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Approximative case (page does not exist)">approximative</A>, and Northern Sami <A href="/wiki/Locative_case" title="Locative case">locative</A>.</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI>a lack of <A href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">grammatical gender</A>, including one pronoun for both <I>he</I> and <I>she</I>; for example, <I>hän</I> in Finnish, <I>tämä</I> in Votic, <I>tema</I> in Estonian, <I>sijə</I> in Komi, <I>ő</I> in Hungarian.</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Negative_verb" title="Negative verb">negative verb</A>, which exists in almost all Uralic languages (notably absent in Hungarian)</LI>
<LI>use of postpositions as opposed to prepositions (prepositions are uncommon).</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Possessive_suffix" class="mw-redirect" title="Possessive suffix">possessive suffixes</A>
<UL>
<LI>the <A href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">genitive</A> is also used to express possession in some languages, e.g. <A href="/wiki/Estonian_language" title="Estonian language">Estonian</A> <I>mu koer</I>, <A href="/wiki/Spoken_Finnish" class="mw-redirect" title="Spoken Finnish">colloquial Finnish</A> <I>mun koira</I>, <A href="/wiki/Northern_Sami_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Sami language">Northern Sami</A> <I>mu beana</I> 'my dog' (literally 'dog of me'). Separate <A href="/wiki/Possessive_adjective" class="mw-redirect" title="Possessive adjective">possessive adjectives</A> and <A href="/wiki/Possessive_pronoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Possessive pronoun">possessive pronouns</A>, such as <I>my</I> and <I>your</I>, are rare.</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Dual_(grammatical_number)" title="Dual (grammatical number)">dual</A>, in the Samoyedic, Ob-Ugric and Samic languages and reconstructed for Proto-Uralic</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Plural" title="Plural">plural</A> markers -j (i) and -t (-d, -q) have a common origin (e.g. in Finnish, Estonian, Võro, Erzya, Samic languages, Samoyedic languages). Hungarian, however, has -i- before the possessive suffixes and -k elsewhere. In the old orthographies, the plural marker -k was also used in the Samic languages.</LI>
<LI>Possessions are expressed by a possessor in the adessive or dative case, the verb "be" (the <A href="/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">copula</A>, instead of the verb "have") and the possessed with or without a possessive suffix. The grammatical subject of the sentence is thus the possessed. In Finnish, for example, the possessor is in the <A href="/wiki/Adessive_case" title="Adessive case">adessive case</A>: "Minulla on kala", literally "At me is fish", i.e. "I have a fish", whereas in Hungarian, the possessor is in the <A href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">dative case</A>, but appears overtly only if it is contrastive, while the possessed has a possessive ending indicating the number and person of the possessor: "(Nekem) van egy halam", literally "(To me [dative]) is a fish-my", i.e. "(As for me,) I have a fish".</LI>
<LI>expressions that include a <A href="/wiki/Numeral_(linguistics)" title="Numeral (linguistics)">numeral</A> are singular if they refer to things which form a single group, e.g. "négy csomó" in Hungarian, "njeallje čuolmma" in Northern Sami, "neli sõlme" in Estonian, and "neljä solmua" in Finnish, each of which means "four knots", but the literal approximation is "four knot". (This approximation is inaccurate for Finnish and Estonian, where the singular is in the <A href="/wiki/Partitive" title="Partitive">partitive</A> case, such that the number points to a part of a larger mass, like "four of knot(s)".)</LI>
</UL>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Phonology">Phonology</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Uralic_languages&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Phonology">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Vowel_harmony" title="Vowel harmony">Vowel harmony</A>: this is present in many but by no means all Uralic languages. It exists in Hungarian and various <A href="/wiki/Baltic-Finnic" class="mw-redirect" title="Baltic-Finnic">Baltic-Finnic</A> languages, and is present to some degree elsewhere, such as in Mordvinic, Mari, Eastern Khanty, and Samoyedic. It is lacking in Sami, Permic and standard Estonian, while it does exist in <A href="/wiki/V%C3%B5ro_language" title="Võro language">Võro</A> and elsewhere in <A href="/wiki/South_Estonian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="South Estonian language">South Estonian</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-49">[49]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-50">[50]</A></SUP> (Although umlaut letters are used in writing Uralic languages, the languages do not exhibit <A href="/wiki/Germanic_umlaut" title="Germanic umlaut">Germanic umlaut</A>; front and back values are intrinsic features of words and modify suffixes, not vice versa as in umlaut.)</LI>
<LI>Large vowel inventories. For example, some <A href="/wiki/Selkup_language" title="Selkup language">Selkup</A> varieties have over twenty different <A href="/wiki/Monophthong" title="Monophthong">monophthongs</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Estonian_language" title="Estonian language">Estonian</A> has over twenty different <A href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">diphthongs</A>.</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">Palatalization</A> of consonants; in this context, palatalization means a secondary articulation, where the middle of the tongue is tense. For example, pairs like <SPAN title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA">[ɲ]</SPAN> – [n], or [c] – [t] are contrasted in Hungarian, as in <I>hattyú</I> <SPAN title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA">[hɒcːuː]</SPAN> "swan". Some Sami languages, for example <A href="/wiki/Skolt_Sami_language" title="Skolt Sami language">Skolt Sami</A>, distinguish three degrees: plain ⟨l⟩ [l], palatalized ⟨'l⟩ <SPAN title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA">[lʲ]</SPAN>, and palatal ⟨lj⟩ <SPAN title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA">[ʎ]</SPAN>, where ⟨'l⟩ has a primary alveolar articulation, while ⟨lj⟩ has a primary palatal articulation. Original Uralic palatalization is phonemic, independent of the following vowel and traceable to the millennia-old <A href="/wiki/Proto-Uralic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Uralic">Proto-Uralic</A>. It is different from Slavic palatalization, which is of more recent origin. The <A href="/wiki/Finnic_languages" title="Finnic languages">Finnic languages</A> have lost palatalization, but the eastern varieties have reacquired it, so Finnic palatalization (where extant) was originally dependent on the following vowel and does not correlate to palatalization elsewhere in Uralic.</LI>
<LI>Lack of phonologically contrastive <A href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tone</A>.</LI>
<LI>In many Uralic languages, the stress is always on the first syllable, though Nganasan shows (essentially) penultimate stress, and a number of languages of the central region (Erzya, Mari, Udmurt and Komi-Permyak) synchronically exhibit a lexical accent. The Erzya language can vary its stress in words to give specific nuances to sentential meaning.</LI>
</UL>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Lexicography">Lexicography</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Uralic_languages&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Lexicography">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>Basic vocabulary of about 200 words, including body parts (e.g. eye, heart, head, foot, mouth), family members (e.g. father, mother-in-law), animals (e.g. viper, partridge, fish), nature objects (e.g. tree, stone, nest, water), basic verbs (e.g. live, fall, run, make, see, suck, go, die, swim, know), basic pronouns (e.g. who, what, we, you, I), numerals (e.g. two, five); derivatives increase the number of common words.</P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Selected_cognates">Selected cognates</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Uralic_languages&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Selected cognates">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<P>The following is a very brief selection of cognates in basic vocabulary across the Uralic family, which may serve to give an idea of the sound changes involved. This is not a list of translations: cognates have a common origin, but their meaning may be shifted and loanwords may have replaced them.</P>
<TABLE border="1" style="border-collapse: collapse" cellpadding="3">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH rowspan="2" style="background-color: #EFEFFF"><A href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</A></TH>
<TH rowspan="2" style="background-color: #E0E0FF"><A href="/wiki/Proto-Uralic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Uralic">Proto-Uralic</A></TH>
<TH colspan="3" style="background-color: #EFEFFF"><A href="/wiki/Baltic-Finnic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Baltic-Finnic languages">Finnic</A></TH>
<TH colspan="3" style="background-color: #EFEFFF"><A href="/wiki/Sami_languages" title="Sami languages">Sami</A></TH>
<TH style="background-color: #EFEFFF"><A href="/wiki/Mordvinic_languages" title="Mordvinic languages">Mordvin</A></TH>
<TH style="background-color: #EFEFFF"><A href="/wiki/Mari_language" title="Mari language">Mari</A></TH>
<TH colspan="2" style="background-color: #EFEFFF"><A href="/wiki/Permic_languages" title="Permic languages">Permic</A></TH>
<TH rowspan="2" style="background-color: #EFEFFF"><A href="/wiki/Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Hungarian</A></TH>
<TH colspan="1" style="background-color: #EFEFFF"><A href="/wiki/Mansi_language" title="Mansi language">Mansi</A></TH>
<TH colspan="2" style="background-color: #EFEFFF"><A href="/wiki/Khanty_language" title="Khanty language">Khanty</A></TH>
<TH style="background-color: #EFEFFF"><A href="/wiki/Samoyedic_languages" title="Samoyedic languages">Samoyed</A></TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH style="background-color: #EFEFFF"><A href="/wiki/Finnish_language" title="Finnish language">Finnish</A></TH>
<TH style="background-color: #EFEFFF"><A href="/wiki/Estonian_language" title="Estonian language">Estonian</A></TH>
<TH style="background-color: #EFEFFF"><A href="/wiki/V%C3%B5ro_language" title="Võro language">Võro</A></TH>
<TH style="background-color: #EFEFFF"><A href="/wiki/Southern_Sami" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Sami">South</A></TH>
<TH style="background-color: #EFEFFF"><A href="/wiki/Northern_Sami" title="Northern Sami">North</A></TH>
<TH style="background-color: #EFEFFF"><A href="/wiki/Kildin_Sami_language" title="Kildin Sami language">Kildin</A></TH>
<TH style="background-color: #EFEFFF"><A href="/wiki/Erzya_language" title="Erzya language">Erzya</A></TH>
<TH style="background-color: #EFEFFF"><A href="/wiki/Meadow_Mari_language" title="Meadow Mari language">Meadow</A></TH>
<TH style="background-color: #EFEFFF"><A href="/wiki/Komi_language" title="Komi language">Komi</A></TH>
<TH style="background-color: #EFEFFF"><A href="/wiki/Udmurt_language" title="Udmurt language">Udmurt</A></TH>
<TH style="background-color: #EFEFFF">Northern</TH>
<TH style="background-color: #EFEFFF">Kazym</TH>
<TH style="background-color: #EFEFFF">Vakh</TH>
<TH style="background-color: #EFEFFF"><A href="/wiki/Tundra_Nenets_language" title="Tundra Nenets language">Tundra Nenets</A></TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>'fire'</TD>
<TH style="background-color: #E0E0FF"><B><A href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/tule" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/tule">*tuli</A></B></TH>
<TD>tuli<BR />
(tule-)</TD>
<TD>tuli<BR />
(tule-)</TD>
<TD>tuli<BR />
(tulõ-)</TD>
<TD>dålle<BR />
<SPAN title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA">[tollə]</SPAN></TD>
<TD>dolla</TD>
<TD>tōll</TD>
<TD>tol</TD>
<TD>tul</TD>
<TD>tɨl-</TD>
<TD>tɨl</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>tuu</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>'water'</TD>
<TH style="background-color: #E0E0FF"><B><A href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/wete" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/wete">*weti</A></B></TH>
<TD>vesi<BR />
(vete-)</TD>
<TD>vesi<BR />
(vee-)</TD>
<TD>vesi<BR />
(vii-)</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>ved´</TD>
<TD>wüt</TD>
<TD>va</TD>
<TD>vu</TD>
<TD>víz</TD>
<TD>wit</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>jiʔ</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>'ice'</TD>
<TH style="background-color: #E0E0FF"><B><A href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/j%C3%A4%C5%8Be" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/jäŋe">*jäŋi</A></B></TH>
<TD>jää</TD>
<TD>jää</TD>
<TD>ijä</TD>
<TD>jïenge<BR />
<SPAN title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA">[jɨeŋə]</SPAN></TD>
<TD>jiekŋa</TD>
<TD>īŋŋ</TD>
<TD>ej</TD>
<TD>i</TD>
<TD>ji</TD>
<TD>jə</TD>
<TD>jég</TD>
<TD>jaaŋk</TD>
<TD>jeŋk</TD>
<TD>jeŋk</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>'fish'</TD>
<TH style="background-color: #E0E0FF"><B><A href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/kala" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/kala">*kala</A></B></TH>
<TD>kala</TD>
<TD>kala</TD>
<TD>kala</TD>
<TD>guelie<BR />
<SPAN title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA">[kʉelie]</SPAN></TD>
<TD>guolli</TD>
<TD>kūll’</TD>
<TD>kal</TD>
<TD>kol</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>hal</TD>
<TD>xuul</TD>
<TD>xŭɬ</TD>
<TD>kul</TD>
<TD>xalʲa</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>'nest'</TD>
<TH style="background-color: #E0E0FF"><B><A href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/pes%C3%A4" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/pesä">*pesä</A></B></TH>
<TD>pesä</TD>
<TD>pesa</TD>
<TD>pesä</TD>
<TD>biesie<BR />
<SPAN title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA">[piesie]</SPAN></TD>
<TD>beassi</TD>
<TD>piess’</TD>
<TD>pize</TD>
<TD>pəžaš</TD>
<TD>poz</TD>
<TD>puz</TD>
<TD>fészek</TD>
<TD>pitʲi</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>pĕl</TD>
<TD>pʲidʲa</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>'hand, arm'</TD>
<TH style="background-color: #E0E0FF"><B><A href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/k%C3%A4te" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/käte">*käti</A></B></TH>
<TD>käsi<BR />
(käte-)</TD>
<TD>käsi<BR />
(käe-)</TD>
<TD>käsi<BR />
(käe-)</TD>
<TD>gïete<BR />
<SPAN title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA">[kɨedə]</SPAN></TD>
<TD>giehta</TD>
<TD>kīdt</TD>
<TD>ked´</TD>
<TD>kit</TD>
<TD>ki</TD>
<TD>ki</TD>
<TD>kéz</TD>
<TD>kaat</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>köt</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>'eye'</TD>
<TH style="background-color: #E0E0FF"><B><A href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/%C5%9Bilm%C3%A4" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/śilmä">*śilmä</A></B></TH>
<TD>silmä</TD>
<TD>silm<BR />
(silma-)</TD>
<TD>silm<BR />
(silmä-)</TD>
<TD>tjelmie<BR />
<SPAN title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA">[t͡ʃɛlmie]</SPAN></TD>
<TD>čalbmi</TD>
<TD>čall’m</TD>
<TD>śeĺme</TD>
<TD>šinča</TD>
<TD>śin<BR />
(śinm-)</TD>
<TD>śin<BR />
(śinm-)</TD>
<TD>szem</TD>
<TD>sam</TD>
<TD>sem</TD>
<TD>sem</TD>
<TD>sæwə</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>'fathom'</TD>
<TH style="background-color: #E0E0FF"><B><A href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/s%C3%BCle" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/süle">*süli</A></B></TH>
<TD>syli<BR />
(syle-)</TD>
<TD>süli<BR />
(süle-)</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>sïlle<BR />
<SPAN title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA">[sʲɨllə]</SPAN></TD>
<TD>salla</TD>
<TD>sē̮ll</TD>
<TD>seĺ</TD>
<TD>šülö</TD>
<TD>sɨl</TD>
<TD>sul</TD>
<TD>öl(el)</TD>
<TD>tal</TD>
<TD>ɬăɬ</TD>
<TD>lö̆l</TD>
<TD>tʲíbʲa</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>'vein / sinew'</TD>
<TH style="background-color: #E0E0FF"><B><A href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/s%C3%ABne" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/sëne">*sï(x)ni</A></B></TH>
<TD>suoni<BR />
(suone-)</TD>
<TD>soon<BR />
(soone-)</TD>
<TD>suuń<BR />
(soonõ-)</TD>
<TD>soene<BR />
<SPAN title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA">[suonə]</SPAN></TD>
<TD>suotna</TD>
<TD>sūnn</TD>
<TD>san</TD>
<TD>šün</TD>
<TD>sən</TD>
<TD>sən</TD>
<TD>ín</TD>
<TD>taan</TD>
<TD>ɬɔn</TD>
<TD>lan</TD>
<TD>teʔ</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>'bone'</TD>
<TH style="background-color: #E0E0FF"><B><A href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/luwe" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/luwe">*luwi</A></B></TH>
<TD>luu</TD>
<TD>luu</TD>
<TD>luu</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>lovaža</TD>
<TD>lu</TD>
<TD>lɨ</TD>
<TD>lɨ</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>luw</TD>
<TD>ɬŭw</TD>
<TD>lŏγ</TD>
<TD>le</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>'blood'</TD>
<TH style="background-color: #E0E0FF"><B><A href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/were" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/were">*weri</A></B></TH>
<TD>veri</TD>
<TD>veri</TD>
<TD>veri</TD>
<TD>vïrre<BR />
<SPAN title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA">[vʲɨrrə]</SPAN></TD>
<TD>varra</TD>
<TD>vē̮rr</TD>
<TD>veŕ</TD>
<TD>wür</TD>
<TD>vur</TD>
<TD>vir</TD>
<TD>vér</TD>
<TD>wiɣr</TD>
<TD>wŭr</TD>
<TD>wər</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>'liver'</TD>
<TH style="background-color: #E0E0FF"><B><A href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/m%C3%ABksa" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/mëksa">*mïksa</A></B></TH>
<TD>maksa</TD>
<TD>maks<BR />
(maksa-)</TD>
<TD>mass<BR />
(massa-)</TD>
<TD>mueksie<BR />
<SPAN title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA">[mʉeksie]</SPAN></TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>makso</TD>
<TD>mokš</TD>
<TD>mus</TD>
<TD>mus<BR />
(musk-)</TD>
<TD>máj</TD>
<TD>maat</TD>
<TD>mŏxəɬ</TD>
<TD>muγəl</TD>
<TD>mudə</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>'urine' /<BR />
'to urinate'</TD>
<TH style="background-color: #E0E0FF"><B><A href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/ku%C5%84%C5%9Be" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/kuńśe">*kunśi</A></B></TH>
<TD>kusi<BR />
(kuse-)</TD>
<TD>kusi<BR />
(kuse-)</TD>
<TD>kusi<BR />
(kusõ-)</TD>
<TD>gadtjedh<BR />
(gadtje-)<BR />
<SPAN title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA">[kɑdd͡ʒə]</SPAN>-</TD>
<TD>gožžat<BR />
(gožža-)</TD>
<TD>kōnnče</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>kəž</TD>
<TD>kudź</TD>
<TD>kɨź</TD>
<TD>húgy</TD>
<TD>xuńś-</TD>
<TD>xŏs-</TD>
<TD>kŏs-</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>'to go'</TD>
<TH style="background-color: #E0E0FF"><B><A href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/mene-" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/mene-">*meni-</A></B></TH>
<TD>mennä<BR />
(men-)</TD>
<TD>minema</TD>
<TD>minemä</TD>
<TD>mïnnedh<BR />
<SPAN title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA">[mʲɨnnə]</SPAN>-</TD>
<TD>mannat</TD>
<TD>mē̮nne</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>mija-</TD>
<TD>mun-</TD>
<TD>mɨn-</TD>
<TD>menni</TD>
<TD>men-</TD>
<TD>măn-</TD>
<TD>mĕn-</TD>
<TD>mʲin-</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>'to live'</TD>
<TH style="background-color: #E0E0FF"><B><A href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/el%C3%A4-" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/elä-">*elä-</A></B></TH>
<TD>elää<BR />
(elä-)</TD>
<TD>elama<BR />
(ela-)</TD>
<TD>elämä<BR />
(elä-)</TD>
<TD>jieledh<BR />
<SPAN title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA">[jielə]</SPAN>-</TD>
<TD>eallit</TD>
<TD>jēll’e</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>ila-</TD>
<TD>ol-</TD>
<TD>ul-</TD>
<TD>él-</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>jilʲe-</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>'to die'</TD>
<TH style="background-color: #E0E0FF"><B><A href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/kale-" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/kale-">*ka(x)li-</A></B></TH>
<TD>kuolla<BR />
(kuol-)</TD>
<TD>koolma</TD>
<TD>kuulma<BR />
(kool-)</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>kulo-</TD>
<TD>kola-</TD>
<TD>kul-</TD>
<TD>kul-</TD>
<TD>hal-</TD>
<TD>xool-</TD>
<TD>xăɬ-</TD>
<TD>kăla-</TD>
<TD>xa-</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>'to wash'</TD>
<TH style="background-color: #E0E0FF"><B><A href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/mo%C5%9Bke-" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/mośke-">*mośki-</A></B></TH>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>mõskma</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>muśke-</TD>
<TD>muška-</TD>
<TD>mɨśkɨ-</TD>
<TD>mɨśk-</TD>
<TD>mos-</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>–</TD>
<TD>masø-</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
<P>Orthographical notes: The hacek denotes postalveolar articulation (⟨ž⟩ <SPAN title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA">[ʒ]</SPAN>, ⟨š⟩ <SPAN title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA">[ʃ]</SPAN>, ⟨č⟩ <SPAN title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA">[t͡ʃ]</SPAN>) (In Northern Sami, (⟨ž⟩ <SPAN title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA">[dʒ]</SPAN>), while the acute denotes a secondary palatal articulation (⟨ś⟩ <SPAN title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA">[sʲ ~ ɕ]</SPAN>, ⟨ć⟩ <SPAN title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA">[tsʲ ~ tɕ]</SPAN>, ⟨l⟩ <SPAN title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA">[lʲ]</SPAN>) or, in Hungarian, vowel length. The Finnish letter ⟨y⟩ and the letter ⟨ü⟩ in other languages represent the high rounded vowel <SPAN title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA">[y]</SPAN>; the letters ⟨ä⟩ and ⟨ö⟩ are the front vowels <SPAN title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA">[æ]</SPAN> and <SPAN title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA">[ø]</SPAN>.</P>
<P>As is apparent from the list, Finnish is the most conservative of the Uralic languages presented here, with nearly half the words on the list below identical to their Proto-Uralic reconstructions and most of the remainder only having minor changes, such as the conflation of *ś into /s/, or widespread changes such as the loss of *x and alteration of *ï. Finnish has even preserved old Indo-European borrowings relatively unchanged as well. (An example is <I>porsas</I> ("pig"), loaned from <A href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</A> <I>*porḱos</I> or pre-<A href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_language" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian language">Proto-Indo-Iranian</A> <I>*porśos</I>, unchanged since loaning save for loss of <A href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">palatalization</A>, *ś > s.)</P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Mutual_intelligibility">Mutual intelligibility</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Uralic_languages&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Mutual intelligibility">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<P>The Estonian philologist <A href="/w/index.php?title=Mall_Hellam&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mall Hellam (page does not exist)">Mall Hellam</A> proposed cognate sentences that she asserted to be mutually intelligible among the three most widely spoken Uralic languages: Finnish, Estonian, and Hungarian:<SUP id="cite_ref-Economist_51-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Economist-51">[51]</A></SUP></P>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Estonian_language" title="Estonian language">Estonian</A>: <I><SPAN lang="et" xml:lang="et">Elav kala ujub vee all</SPAN></I>.</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Finnish_language" title="Finnish language">Finnish</A>: <I><SPAN lang="fi" xml:lang="fi">Elävä kala ui veden alla</SPAN></I>.</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Hungarian</A>: <I><SPAN lang="hu" xml:lang="hu">Eleven hal úszik a víz alatt</SPAN></I>.</LI>
<LI>English: A live fish is swimming underwater.</LI>
</UL>
<P>However, linguist <A href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Pullum" class="mw-redirect" title="Geoffrey Pullum">Geoffrey Pullum</A> reports that neither Finns nor Hungarians could understand the other language's version of the sentence.<SUP id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-52">[52]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Comparison">Comparison</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Uralic_languages&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Comparison">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>No Uralic language has exactly the idealized typological profile of the family. Typological features with varying presence among the modern Uralic language groups include:<SUP id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-53">[53]</A></SUP></P>
<TABLE class="wikitable">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH>Feature</TH>
<TH>Samoyedic</TH>
<TH>Ob-Ugric</TH>
<TH>Hungarian</TH>
<TH>Permic</TH>
<TH>Mari</TH>
<TH>Mordvin</TH>
<TH>Finnic</TH>
<TH>Samic</TH>
</TR>
<TR align="center">
<TH>Palatalization</TH>
<TD>+</TD>
<TD>+</TD>
<TD>+</TD>
<TD>+</TD>
<TD>−</TD>
<TD>+</TD>
<TD>−</TD>
<TD>+</TD>
</TR>
<TR align="center">
<TH>Consonant length</TH>
<TD>−</TD>
<TD>−</TD>
<TD>+</TD>
<TD>−</TD>
<TD>−</TD>
<TD>−</TD>
<TD>+</TD>
<TD>+</TD>
</TR>
<TR align="center">
<TH>Consonant gradation</TH>
<TD>−<SUP style="position: absolute">1</SUP></TD>
<TD>−</TD>
<TD>−</TD>
<TD>−</TD>
<TD>−</TD>
<TD>−</TD>
<TD>+</TD>
<TD>+</TD>
</TR>
<TR align="center">
<TH>Vowel harmony</TH>
<TD>−<SUP style="position: absolute">2</SUP></TD>
<TD>−<SUP style="position: absolute">2</SUP></TD>
<TD>+</TD>
<TD>−</TD>
<TD>+</TD>
<TD>+</TD>
<TD>+</TD>
<TD>−</TD>
</TR>
<TR align="center">
<TH>Grammatical vowel alternation<BR />
(<A href="/wiki/Ablaut" class="mw-redirect" title="Ablaut">ablaut</A> or <A href="/wiki/Umlaut_(linguistics)" title="Umlaut (linguistics)">umlaut</A>)</TH>
<TD>+</TD>
<TD>+</TD>
<TD>−</TD>
<TD>−</TD>
<TD>−</TD>
<TD>−</TD>
<TD>−<SUP style="position: absolute">3</SUP></TD>
<TD>+</TD>
</TR>
<TR align="center">
<TH>Dual number</TH>
<TD>+</TD>
<TD>+</TD>
<TD>−</TD>
<TD>−</TD>
<TD>−</TD>
<TD>−</TD>
<TD>−</TD>
<TD>+</TD>
</TR>
<TR align="center">
<TH>Distinction between<BR />
inner and outer local cases</TH>
<TD>−</TD>
<TD>−</TD>
<TD>+</TD>
<TD>+</TD>
<TD>+</TD>
<TD>+</TD>
<TD>+</TD>
<TD>−</TD>
</TR>
<TR align="center">
<TH>Determinative inflection<BR />
(verbal marking of <A href="/wiki/Definiteness" title="Definiteness">definiteness</A>)</TH>
<TD>+</TD>
<TD>+</TD>
<TD>+</TD>
<TD>−</TD>
<TD>−</TD>
<TD>+</TD>
<TD>−</TD>
<TD>−</TD>
</TR>
<TR align="center">
<TH><A href="/wiki/Passive_voice" title="Passive voice">Passive voice</A></TH>
<TD>−</TD>
<TD>+</TD>
<TD>+</TD>
<TD>−</TD>
<TD>−</TD>
<TD>+</TD>
<TD>+</TD>
<TD>+</TD>
</TR>
<TR align="center">
<TH>Negative verb</TH>
<TD>+</TD>
<TD>−</TD>
<TD>−</TD>
<TD>+</TD>
<TD>+</TD>
<TD>±</TD>
<TD>+</TD>
<TD>+</TD>
</TR>
<TR align="center">
<TH><A href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object" title="Subject–verb–object">SVO</A> word order</TH>
<TD>−</TD>
<TD>−</TD>
<TD>−</TD>
<TD>±<SUP style="position: absolute">4</SUP></TD>
<TD>−</TD>
<TD>+</TD>
<TD>+</TD>
<TD>+</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
<P>Notes:</P>
<OL>
<LI>Clearly present only in <A href="/wiki/Nganasan_language" title="Nganasan language">Nganasan</A>.</LI>
<LI>Vowel harmony is present in the Uralic languages of Siberia only in some marginal archaic varieties: <A href="/wiki/Nganasan_language" title="Nganasan language">Nganasan</A>, <A href="/w/index.php?title=Southern_Mansi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Southern Mansi (page does not exist)">Southern Mansi</A> and <A href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_Khanty&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eastern Khanty (page does not exist)">Eastern Khanty</A>.</LI>
<LI>A number of umlaut processes are found in <A href="/wiki/Livonian_language" title="Livonian language">Livonian</A>.</LI>
<LI>In <A href="/wiki/Komi_language" title="Komi language">Komi</A>, but not in <A href="/wiki/Udmurt_language" title="Udmurt language">Udmurt</A>.</LI>
</OL>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Possible_relations_with_other_families">Possible relations with other families</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Uralic_languages&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Possible relations with other families">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>Many relationships between Uralic and other language families have been suggested, but none of these are generally accepted by linguists at the present time.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Indo-Uralic">Indo-Uralic</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Uralic_languages&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Indo-Uralic">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Indo-Uralic_languages" title="Indo-Uralic languages">Indo-Uralic languages</A></DIV>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/Indo-Uralic_languages" title="Indo-Uralic languages">Indo-Uralic</A> (or Uralo-Indo-European) hypothesis suggests that Uralic and <A href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</A> are related at a fairly close level or, in its stronger form, that they are more closely related than either is to any other language family.</P>
<H3><SPAN id="Uralic.E2.80.93Yukaghir"></SPAN><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Uralic–Yukaghir">Uralic–Yukaghir</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Uralic_languages&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Uralic–Yukaghir">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Uralic%E2%80%93Yukaghir_languages" title="Uralic–Yukaghir languages">Uralic–Yukaghir languages</A></DIV>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/Uralic%E2%80%93Yukaghir_languages" title="Uralic–Yukaghir languages">Uralic–Yukaghir</A> hypothesis identifies Uralic and <A href="/wiki/Yukaghir_languages" title="Yukaghir languages">Yukaghir</A> as independent members of a single language family. It is currently widely accepted that the similarities between Uralic and Yukaghir languages are due to ancient contacts.<SUP id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-54">[54]</A></SUP> Regardless, the hypothesis is accepted by a few linguists and viewed as attractive by a somewhat larger number.</P>
<H3><SPAN id="Eskimo.E2.80.93Uralic"></SPAN><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Eskimo–Uralic">Eskimo–Uralic</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Uralic_languages&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Eskimo–Uralic">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Eskimo%E2%80%93Uralic_languages" title="Eskimo–Uralic languages">Eskimo–Uralic languages</A></DIV>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/Eskimo%E2%80%93Uralic_languages" title="Eskimo–Uralic languages">Eskimo–Uralic</A> hypothesis associates Uralic with the <A href="/wiki/Eskimo%E2%80%93Aleut_languages" title="Eskimo–Aleut languages">Eskimo–Aleut languages</A>. This is an old thesis whose antecedents go back to the 18th century. An important restatement of it is <A href="/wiki/Knut_Bergsland" title="Knut Bergsland">Bergsland</A> 1959.<SUP id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-55">[55]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Uralo-Siberian">Uralo-Siberian</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Uralic_languages&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Uralo-Siberian">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Uralo-Siberian_languages" title="Uralo-Siberian languages">Uralo-Siberian languages</A></DIV>
<P><A href="/wiki/Uralo-Siberian_languages" title="Uralo-Siberian languages">Uralo-Siberian</A> is an expanded form of the Eskimo–Uralic hypothesis. It associates Uralic with Yukaghir, <A href="/wiki/Chukotko-Kamchatkan_languages" title="Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages">Chukotko-Kamchatkan</A>, and Eskimo–Aleut. It was propounded by <A href="/wiki/Michael_Fortescue" title="Michael Fortescue">Michael Fortescue</A> in 1998.<SUP id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-56">[56]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN id="Ural.E2.80.93Altaic"></SPAN><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Ural–Altaic">Ural–Altaic</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Uralic_languages&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Ural–Altaic">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Ural%E2%80%93Altaic_languages" title="Ural–Altaic languages">Ural–Altaic languages</A></DIV>
<P>Theories proposing a close relationship with the <A href="/wiki/Altaic_languages" title="Altaic languages">Altaic languages</A> were formerly popular, based on similarities in vocabulary as well as in grammatical and phonological features, in particular the similarities in the Uralic and Altaic pronouns and the presence of <A href="/wiki/Agglutination" title="Agglutination">agglutination</A> in both sets of languages, as well as <A href="/wiki/Vowel_harmony" title="Vowel harmony">vowel harmony</A> in some. For example, the word for "language" is similar in <A href="/wiki/Estonian_language" title="Estonian language">Estonian</A> (<I>keel</I>) and <A href="/wiki/Mongolian_language" title="Mongolian language">Mongolian</A> (<I>хэл</I> (<I>hel</I>)). These theories are now generally rejected<SUP id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-57">[57]</A></SUP> and most such similarities are attributed to <A href="/wiki/Language_contact" title="Language contact">language contact</A> or coincidence.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Nostratic">Nostratic</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Uralic_languages&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Nostratic">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Nostratic_languages" title="Nostratic languages">Nostratic languages</A></DIV>
<P><A href="/wiki/Nostratic_languages" title="Nostratic languages">Nostratic</A> associates Uralic, Indo-European, Altaic, Dravidian, and various other language families of Asia. The Nostratic hypothesis was first propounded by <A href="/wiki/Holger_Pedersen_(linguist)" title="Holger Pedersen (linguist)">Holger Pedersen</A> in 1903<SUP id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-58">[58]</A></SUP> and subsequently revived by <A href="/wiki/Vladislav_Illich-Svitych" title="Vladislav Illich-Svitych">Vladislav Illich-Svitych</A> and <A href="/wiki/Aharon_Dolgopolsky" title="Aharon Dolgopolsky">Aharon Dolgopolsky</A> in the 1960s.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Eurasiatic">Eurasiatic</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Uralic_languages&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Eurasiatic">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Eurasiatic_languages" title="Eurasiatic languages">Eurasiatic languages</A></DIV>
<P><A href="/wiki/Eurasiatic_languages" title="Eurasiatic languages">Eurasiatic</A> resembles Nostratic in including Uralic, Indo-European, and Altaic, but differs from it in excluding the South Caucasian languages, Dravidian, and Afroasiatic and including Chukotko-Kamchatkan, <A href="/wiki/Nivkh_language" title="Nivkh language">Nivkh</A>, <A href="/wiki/Ainu_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Ainu languages">Ainu</A>, and Eskimo–Aleut. It was propounded by <A href="/wiki/Joseph_Greenberg" title="Joseph Greenberg">Joseph Greenberg</A> in 2000–2002.<SUP id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-59">[59]</A></SUP> Similar ideas had earlier been expressed by Heinrich Koppelmann in 1933 and by <A href="/wiki/Bj%C3%B6rn_Collinder" title="Björn Collinder">Björn Collinder</A> in 1965.<SUP id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-60">[60]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-61">[61]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Uralo-Dravidian">Uralo-Dravidian</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Uralic_languages&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Uralo-Dravidian">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>The hypothesis that the <A href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian languages</A> display similarities with the Uralic language group, suggesting a prolonged period of contact in the past,<SUP id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-62">[62]</A></SUP> is popular amongst Dravidian linguists and has been supported by a number of scholars, including <A href="/wiki/Robert_Caldwell" title="Robert Caldwell">Robert Caldwell</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-63">[63]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Thomas_Burrow" title="Thomas Burrow">Thomas Burrow</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-64">[64]</A></SUP> Kamil Zvelebil,<SUP id="cite_ref-britannica_65-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-britannica-65">[65]</A></SUP> and Mikhail Andronov.<SUP id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-66">[66]</A></SUP> This hypothesis has, however, been rejected by some specialists in Uralic languages,<SUP id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-67">[67]</A></SUP> and has in recent times also been criticised by other Dravidian linguists, such as <A href="/wiki/Bhadriraju_Krishnamurti" title="Bhadriraju Krishnamurti">Bhadriraju Krishnamurti</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-68">[68]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Uralic_skepticism">Uralic skepticism</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Uralic_languages&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Uralic skepticism">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>In her book, <I>The Uralic language family: facts, myths, and statistics</I>, linguist Angela Marcantonio argues against the existence of the Uralic family, claiming that the languages are no more closely related to each other than they are to various other Eurasian languages.<SUP id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-69">[69]</A></SUP></P>
<P>All of these hypotheses are minority views at the present time in Uralic studies.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Other_comparisons">Other comparisons</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Uralic_languages&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Other comparisons">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <A href="/wiki/Alternative_theories_of_the_Hungarian_language_relations" title="Alternative theories of the Hungarian language relations">Alternative theories of the Hungarian language relations</A></DIV>
<P>Various unorthodox comparisons have been advanced such as Finno-<A href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque</A><SUP id="cite_ref-Trask_70-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Trask-70">[70]</A></SUP>, Hungarian-Etruscan<SUP id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-71">[71]</A></SUP>, and <A href="/wiki/Cal-Ugrian_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Cal-Ugrian theory">Cal-Ugrian</A>. These are considered at best spurious fringe-theories by specialists.</P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Uralic_languages&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: See also">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Uralic_languages&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="reflist" style="list-style-type: decimal;">
<DIV class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns">
<OL class="references">
<LI id="cite_note-Glottolog-1"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Glottolog_1-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/ural1272">"Uralic"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog 3.0</A></I>. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Uralic&rft.btitle=Glottolog+3.0&rft.place=Jena%2C+Germany&rft.pub=Max+Planck+Institute+for+the+Science+of+Human+History&rft.date=2017&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fglottolog.org%2Fresource%2Flanguoid%2Fid%2Fural1272&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-2"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-2"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Simons, Gary F.; Fenning, Charles F. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/subgroups/uralic">"Uralic"</A>. <I>Ethnologue</I>. SIL International<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">14 February</SPAN> 2018</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ethnologue&rft.atitle=Uralic&rft.aulast=Simons&rft.aufirst=Gary+F.&rft.au=Fenning%2C+Charles+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ethnologue.com%2Fsubgroups%2Furalic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-3"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-3"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Tommola, Hannu (2010). "Finnish among the Finno-Ugrian languages". <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o3L8oKcbZtoC&pg=PA511&dq"><I>Mood in the Languages of Europe</I></A>. John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 155. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-272-0587-6" title="Special:BookSources/90-272-0587-6">90-272-0587-6</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Finnish+among+the+Finno-Ugrian+languages&rft.btitle=Mood+in+the+Languages+of+Europe&rft.pages=155&rft.pub=John+Benjamins+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=90-272-0587-6&rft.aulast=Tommola&rft.aufirst=Hannu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Do3L8oKcbZtoC%26pg%3DPA511%26dq&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-4"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-4"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><I>The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia</I>, p. 231.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-5"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-5"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Anderson, J.G.C. (ed.) (1938). <I>Germania</I>. Oxford: Clarendon Press.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Germania&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1938&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=J.G.C.+%28ed.%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN><SPAN class="citation-comment" style="display:none; color:#33aa33; margin-left:0.3em">CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (<A href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_Extra_text:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list">link</A>)</SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Sebeok-2002-6"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Sebeok-2002_6-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Sebeok, Thomas A. (15 August 2002). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9wxjDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA58"><I>Portrait Of Linguists</I></A>. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 58. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-5874-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-5874-1">978-1-4411-5874-1</A>. <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/956101732">956101732</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Portrait+Of+Linguists&rft.pages=58&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2002-08-15&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F956101732&rft.isbn=978-1-4411-5874-1&rft.aulast=Sebeok&rft.aufirst=Thomas+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9wxjDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA58&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWickman1988793–794-7"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWickman1988793–794_7-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFWickman1988">Wickman 1988</A>, pp. 793–794.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-:0-8"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-:0_8-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-:0_8-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book"><A href="/wiki/Bj%C3%B6rn_Collinder" title="Björn Collinder">Collinder, Björn</A>. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WubvXTkjoLUC&pg=PA7"><I>An Introduction to the Uralic languages</I></A>. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 8–27, 34.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+the+Uralic+languages&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pages=8-27%2C+34&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.aulast=Collinder&rft.aufirst=Bj%C3%B6rn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWubvXTkjoLUC%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWickman1988795–796-9"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWickman1988795–796_9-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFWickman1988">Wickman 1988</A>, pp. 795–796.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-10"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-10"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE id="CITEREFRuhlen1987" class="citation book">Ruhlen, Merritt (1987). <I>A Guide to the World's Languages</I>. Stanford: Stanford University Press. pp. 64–71. <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/923421379">923421379</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Guide+to+the+World%27s+Languages&rft.place=Stanford&rft.pages=64-71&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F923421379&rft.aulast=Ruhlen&rft.aufirst=Merritt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWickman1988796-798-11"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWickman1988796-798_11-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFWickman1988">Wickman 1988</A>, pp. 796-798.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWickman1988798-12"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWickman1988798_12-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFWickman1988">Wickman 1988</A>, p. 798.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWickman1988801-803-13"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWickman1988801-803_13-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFWickman1988">Wickman 1988</A>, pp. 801-803.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWickman1988803–804-14"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWickman1988803–804_14-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFWickman1988">Wickman 1988</A>, pp. 803–804.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-15"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-15"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Halász, Ignácz (1893). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nytud.hu/nyk/reg/023.pdf">"Az ugor-szamojéd nyelvrokonság kérdése"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>Nyelvtudományi Közlemények</I> (in Hungarian). <B>23:1</B>: 14–34.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nyelvtudom%C3%A1nyi+K%C3%B6zlem%C3%A9nyek&rft.atitle=Az+ugor-szamoj%C3%A9d+nyelvrokons%C3%A1g+k%C3%A9rd%C3%A9se&rft.volume=23%3A1&rft.pages=14-34&rft.date=1893&rft.aulast=Hal%C3%A1sz&rft.aufirst=Ign%C3%A1cz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytud.hu%2Fnyk%2Freg%2F023.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-16"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-16"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Halász, Ignácz (1893). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nytud.hu/nyk/reg/023.pdf">"Az ugor-szamojéd nyelvrokonság kérdése II"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>Nyelvtudományi Közlemények</I> (in Hungarian). <B>23:3</B>: 260–278.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nyelvtudom%C3%A1nyi+K%C3%B6zlem%C3%A9nyek&rft.atitle=Az+ugor-szamoj%C3%A9d+nyelvrokons%C3%A1g+k%C3%A9rd%C3%A9se+II&rft.volume=23%3A3&rft.pages=260-278&rft.date=1893&rft.aulast=Hal%C3%A1sz&rft.aufirst=Ign%C3%A1cz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytud.hu%2Fnyk%2Freg%2F023.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-17"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-17"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Halász, Ignácz (1893). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nytud.hu/nyk/reg/023.pdf">"Az ugor-szamojéd nyelvrokonság kérdése III"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>Nyelvtudományi Közlemények</I> (in Hungarian). <B>23:4</B>: 436–447.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nyelvtudom%C3%A1nyi+K%C3%B6zlem%C3%A9nyek&rft.atitle=Az+ugor-szamoj%C3%A9d+nyelvrokons%C3%A1g+k%C3%A9rd%C3%A9se+III&rft.volume=23%3A4&rft.pages=436-447&rft.date=1893&rft.aulast=Hal%C3%A1sz&rft.aufirst=Ign%C3%A1cz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytud.hu%2Fnyk%2Freg%2F023.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-18"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-18"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Halász, Ignácz (1894). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nytud.hu/nyk/reg/024.pdf">"Az ugor-szamojéd nyelvrokonság kérdése IV"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>Nyelvtudományi Közlemények</I> (in Hungarian). <B>24:4</B>: 443–469.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nyelvtudom%C3%A1nyi+K%C3%B6zlem%C3%A9nyek&rft.atitle=Az+ugor-szamoj%C3%A9d+nyelvrokons%C3%A1g+k%C3%A9rd%C3%A9se+IV&rft.volume=24%3A4&rft.pages=443-469&rft.date=1894&rft.aulast=Hal%C3%A1sz&rft.aufirst=Ign%C3%A1cz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytud.hu%2Fnyk%2Freg%2F024.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Szabo69-19"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Szabo69_19-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Szabó, László (1969). "Die Erforschung der Verhältnisses Finnougrisch–Samojedisch". <I>Ural-Altaische Jahrbücher</I> (in German). <B>41</B>: 317–322.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ural-Altaische+Jahrb%C3%BCcher&rft.atitle=Die+Erforschung+der+Verh%C3%A4ltnisses+Finnougrisch%E2%80%93Samojedisch&rft.volume=41&rft.pages=317-322&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=Szab%C3%B3&rft.aufirst=L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWickman1988799–800-20"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWickman1988799–800_20-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFWickman1988">Wickman 1988</A>, pp. 799–800.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWickman1988810–811-21"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWickman1988810–811_21-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="#CITEREFWickman1988">Wickman 1988</A>, pp. 810–811.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-22"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-22"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sgr.fi/lexica/lexicaxxxv.html">"Lexica Societatis Fenno-Ugricae XXXV"</A>. <I>Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura</I> (in Hungarian).</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Suomalais-Ugrilainen+Seura&rft.atitle=Lexica+Societatis+Fenno-Ugricae+XXXV&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sgr.fi%2Flexica%2Flexicaxxxv.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-23"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-23"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Salminen, Tapani (2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.helsinki.fi/~tasalmin/fu.html">"Uralic (Finno-Ugrian) languages"</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Uralic+%28Finno-Ugrian%29+languages&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Salminen&rft.aufirst=Tapani&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.helsinki.fi%2F~tasalmin%2Ffu.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-24"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-24"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book"><A href="/wiki/Eugene_Helimski" title="Eugene Helimski">Helimski, Eugene</A> (2006). "The «Northwestern» group of Finno-Ugric languages and its heritage in the place names and substratum vocabulary of the Russian North". In Nuorluoto, Juhani. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.helsinki.fi/venaja/nwrussia/eng/Conference/pdf/Helimski.pdf"><I>The Slavicization of the Russian North (Slavica Helsingiensia 27)</I></A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. Helsinki: Department of Slavonic and Baltic Languages and Literatures. pp. 109–127. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-952-10-2852-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-952-10-2852-6">978-952-10-2852-6</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+%C2%ABNorthwestern%C2%BB+group+of+Finno-Ugric+languages+and+its+heritage+in+the+place+names+and+substratum+vocabulary+of+the+Russian+North&rft.btitle=The+Slavicization+of+the+Russian+North+%28Slavica+Helsingiensia+27%29&rft.place=Helsinki&rft.pages=109-127&rft.pub=Department+of+Slavonic+and+Baltic+Languages+and+Literatures&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-952-10-2852-6&rft.aulast=Helimski&rft.aufirst=Eugene&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.helsinki.fi%2Fvenaja%2Fnwrussia%2Feng%2FConference%2Fpdf%2FHelimski.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Marcantonio-p55-68-25"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Marcantonio-p55-68_25-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Marcantonio-p55-68_25-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE id="CITEREFMarcantonio2002" class="citation book">Marcantonio, Angela (2002). <I>The Uralic Language Family: Facts, Myths and Statistics</I>. Publications of the Philological Society. <B>35</B>. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 55–68. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-23170-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-23170-7">978-0-631-23170-7</A>. <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/803186861">803186861</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Uralic+Language+Family%3A+Facts%2C+Myths+and+Statistics&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=Publications+of+the+Philological+Society&rft.pages=55-68&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F803186861&rft.isbn=978-0-631-23170-7&rft.aulast=Marcantonio&rft.aufirst=Angela&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-SalmTax-26"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-SalmTax_26-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-SalmTax_26-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-SalmTax_26-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Salminen, Tapani (2002). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.helsinki.fi/~tasalmin/kuzn.html">"Problems in the taxonomy of the Uralic languages in the light of modern comparative studies"</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Problems+in+the+taxonomy+of+the+Uralic+languages+in+the+light+of+modern+comparative+studies&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Salminen&rft.aufirst=Tapani&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.helsinki.fi%2F~tasalmin%2Fkuzn.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-27"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-27"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book"><A href="/wiki/Otto_Donner" title="Otto Donner">Donner, Otto</A> (1879). <I>Die gegenseitige Verwandtschaft der Finnisch-ugrischen sprachen</I> (in German). Helsinki. <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/1014980747">1014980747</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+gegenseitige+Verwandtschaft+der+Finnisch-ugrischen+sprachen&rft.place=Helsinki&rft.date=1879&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1014980747&rft.aulast=Donner&rft.aufirst=Otto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-28"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-28"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Szinnyei, Josef (1910). <I>Finnisch-ugrische Sprachwissenschaft</I> (in German). Leipzig: G. J. Göschen'sche Verlagshandlung. pp. 9–21.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Finnisch-ugrische+Sprachwissenschaft&rft.place=Leipzig&rft.pages=9-21&rft.pub=G.+J.+G%C3%B6schen%27sche+Verlagshandlung&rft.date=1910&rft.aulast=Szinnyei&rft.aufirst=Josef&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-29"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-29"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Itkonen, T. I. (1921). <I>Suomensukuiset kansat</I> (in Finnish). Helsinki: Tietosanakirjaosakeyhtiö. pp. 7–12.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Suomensukuiset+kansat&rft.place=Helsinki&rft.pages=7-12&rft.pub=Tietosanakirjaosakeyhti%C3%B6&rft.date=1921&rft.aulast=Itkonen&rft.aufirst=T.+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-30"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-30"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Setälä, E. N. (1926). "Kielisukulaisuus ja rotu". <I>Suomen suku</I> (in Finnish). Helsinki: Otava.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Kielisukulaisuus+ja+rotu&rft.btitle=Suomen+suku&rft.place=Helsinki&rft.pub=Otava&rft.date=1926&rft.aulast=Set%C3%A4l%C3%A4&rft.aufirst=E.+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-31"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-31"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Hájdu, Péter (1962). <I>Finnugor népek és nyelvek</I> (in Hungarian). Budapest.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Finnugor+n%C3%A9pek+%C3%A9s+nyelvek&rft.place=Budapest&rft.date=1962&rft.aulast=H%C3%A1jdu&rft.aufirst=P%C3%A9ter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-32"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-32"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Hajdu, Peter (1975). <I>Finno-Ugric Languages and Peoples</I>. Translated by G. F. Cushing. London: André Deutch Ltd.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Finno-Ugric+Languages+and+Peoples&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Andr%C3%A9+Deutch+Ltd.&rft.date=1975&rft.aulast=Hajdu&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN>. English translation of Hajdú (1962).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-33"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-33"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Itkonen, Erkki (1966). <I>Suomalais-ugrilaisen kielen- ja historiantutkimuksen alalta</I>. Tietolipas (in Finnish). <B>20</B>. Suomalaisen kirjallisuuden seura. pp. 5–8.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Suomalais-ugrilaisen+kielen-+ja+historiantutkimuksen+alalta&rft.series=Tietolipas&rft.pages=5-8&rft.pub=Suomalaisen+kirjallisuuden+seura&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Itkonen&rft.aufirst=Erkki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-34"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-34"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation encyclopaedia"><A href="/wiki/Robert_Austerlitz" title="Robert Austerlitz">Austerlitz, Robert</A> (1968). "L'ouralien". In <A href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Martinet" title="André Martinet">Martinet, André</A>. <I>Le langage</I>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=L%27ouralien&rft.btitle=Le+langage&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Austerlitz&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-35"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-35"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Voegelin, C. F.; Voegelin, F. M. (1977). <I>Classification and Index of the World's Languages</I>. New York/Oxford/Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp. 341–343.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classification+and+Index+of+the+World%27s+Languages&rft.place=New+York%2FOxford%2FAmsterdam&rft.pages=341-343&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Voegelin&rft.aufirst=C.+F.&rft.au=Voegelin%2C+F.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-36"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-36"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Kulonen, Ulla-Maija (2002). "Kielitiede ja suomen väestön juuret". In Grünthal, Riho. <I>Ennen, muinoin. Miten menneisyyttämme tutkitaan</I>. Tietolipas. <B>180</B>. <A href="/wiki/Suomalaisen_Kirjallisuuden_Seura" class="mw-redirect" title="Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura">Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura</A>. pp. 104–108. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/951-746-332-4" title="Special:BookSources/951-746-332-4">951-746-332-4</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Kielitiede+ja+suomen+v%C3%A4est%C3%B6n+juuret&rft.btitle=Ennen%2C+muinoin.+Miten+menneisyytt%C3%A4mme+tutkitaan&rft.series=Tietolipas&rft.pages=104-108&rft.pub=Suomalaisen+Kirjallisuuden+Seura&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=951-746-332-4&rft.aulast=Kulonen&rft.aufirst=Ulla-Maija&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-37"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-37"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Lehtinen, Tapani (2007). <I>Kielen vuosituhannet</I>. Tietolipas. <B>215</B>. <A href="/wiki/Suomalaisen_Kirjallisuuden_Seura" class="mw-redirect" title="Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura">Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura</A>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-951-746-896-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-951-746-896-1">978-951-746-896-1</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kielen+vuosituhannet&rft.series=Tietolipas&rft.pub=Suomalaisen+Kirjallisuuden+Seura&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-951-746-896-1&rft.aulast=Lehtinen&rft.aufirst=Tapani&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-PUWhat/-38"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-PUWhat/_38-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Janhunen, Juha (2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sgr.fi/sust/sust258/sust258_janhunen.pdf">"Proto-Uralic – what, where and when?"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(pdf)</SPAN>. <I>Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran toimituksia</I>. <B>258</B>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-952-5667-11-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-952-5667-11-0">978-952-5667-11-0</A>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0355-0230">0355-0230</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Suomalais-Ugrilaisen+Seuran+toimituksia&rft.atitle=Proto-Uralic+%E2%80%93+what%2C+where+and+when%3F&rft.volume=258&rft.date=2009&rft.issn=0355-0230&rft.isbn=978-952-5667-11-0&rft.aulast=Janhunen&rft.aufirst=Juha&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sgr.fi%2Fsust%2Fsust258%2Fsust258_janhunen.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-39"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-39"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Häkkinen, Kaisa 1984: Wäre es schon an der Zeit, den Stammbaum zu fällen? – Ural-Altaische Jahrbücher, Neue Folge 4.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-EastUralic-40"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-EastUralic_40-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-EastUralic_40-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Häkkinen, Jaakko 2009: <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sgr.fi/susa/92/hakkinen.pdf">Kantauralin ajoitus ja paikannus: perustelut puntarissa</A>. – Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran Aikakauskirja 92.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-41"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-41"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Bartens, Raija (1999). <I>Mordvalaiskielten rakenne ja kehitys</I> (in Finnish). Helsinki: Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura. p. 13. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/952-5150-22-4" title="Special:BookSources/952-5150-22-4">952-5150-22-4</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mordvalaiskielten+rakenne+ja+kehitys&rft.place=Helsinki&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Suomalais-Ugrilainen+Seura&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=952-5150-22-4&rft.aulast=Bartens&rft.aufirst=Raija&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-42"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-42"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Michalove, Peter A. (2002) The Classification of the Uralic Languages: Lexical Evidence from Finno-Ugric. In: Finnisch-Ugrische Forschungen, vol. 57</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-43"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-43"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE id="CITEREFJanhunen2009" class="citation">Janhunen, Juha (2009), <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sgr.fi/sust/sust258/sust258_janhunen.pdf">"Proto-Uralic – what, where and when?"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(pdf)</SPAN>, <I>Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran toimituksia</I>, <B>258</B>, <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-952-5667-11-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-952-5667-11-0">978-952-5667-11-0</A>, <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0355-0230">0355-0230</A></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Suomalais-Ugrilaisen+Seuran+toimituksia&rft.atitle=Proto-Uralic+%E2%80%93+what%2C+where+and+when%3F&rft.volume=258&rft.date=2009&rft.issn=0355-0230&rft.isbn=978-952-5667-11-0&rft.aulast=Janhunen&rft.aufirst=Juha&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sgr.fi%2Fsust%2Fsust258%2Fsust258_janhunen.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-44"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-44"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Viitso, Tiit-Rein. Keelesugulus ja soome-ugri keelepuu. Akadeemia 9/5 (1997)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-45"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-45"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Viitso, Tiit-Rein. Finnic Affinity. Congressus Nonus Internationalis Fenno-Ugristarum I: Orationes plenariae & Orationes publicae. (2000)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-46"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-46"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE id="CITEREFSammallahti1988" class="citation book">Sammallahti, Pekka (1988). "Historical phonology of the Uralic Languages". In Sinor, Denis. <I>The Uralic Languages: Description, History and Foreign Influences</I>. Leiden: E.J. Brill. pp. 478–554. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07741-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07741-6">978-90-04-07741-6</A>. <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/466103653">466103653</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Historical+phonology+of+the+Uralic+Languages&rft.btitle=The+Uralic+Languages%3A+Description%2C+History+and+Foreign+Influences&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=478-554&rft.pub=E.J.+Brill&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F466103653&rft.isbn=978-90-04-07741-6&rft.aulast=Sammallahti&rft.aufirst=Pekka&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-47"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-47"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="/wiki/Eugene_Helimski" title="Eugene Helimski">Helimski, Eugen</A>. Proto-Uralic gradation: Continuation and traces. In <I>Congressus Octavus Internationalis Fenno-Ugristarum.</I> Pars I: Orationes plenariae et conspectus quinquennales. Jyväskylä, 1995. <CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111002150529/http://helimski.com/2.140.PDF">"Archived copy"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://helimski.com/2.140.PDF">the original</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN> on 2011-10-02<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2012-02-24</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhelimski.com%2F2.140.PDF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-48"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-48"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Häkkinen, Jaakko 2007: <I>Kantauralin murteutuminen vokaalivastaavuuksien valossa.</I> Pro gradu -työ, Helsingin yliopiston Suomalais-ugrilainen laitos.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-49"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-49"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Austerlitz, Robert (1990). "Uralic Languages" (pp. 567–576) in Comrie, Bernard, editor. <I>The World's Major Languages</I>. Oxford University Press, Oxford (p. 573).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-50"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-50"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.utlib.ee/liber2012/tekstid/eestikeel.pdf">"Estonian Language"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. Estonian Institute. p. 14<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2013-04-16</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Estonian+Language&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=Estonian+Institute&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.utlib.ee%2Fliber2012%2Ftekstid%2Feestikeel.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Economist-51"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Economist_51-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.economist.com/node/5323735">"The Finno-Ugrics: The dying fish swims in water"</A>, <I><A href="/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</A></I>, pp. 73–74, December 24, 2005 – January 6, 2006<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2013-01-19</SPAN></SPAN></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=The+Finno-Ugrics%3A+The+dying+fish+swims+in+water&rft.pages=73-74&rft.date=2005-12-24%2F2006-01-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fnode%2F5323735&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-52"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-52"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE id="CITEREFPullum2005" class="citation"><A href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Pullum" class="mw-redirect" title="Geoffrey Pullum">Pullum, Geoffrey K.</A> (2005-12-26), <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/002729.html">"The Udmurtian code: saving Finno-Ugric in Russia"</A>, <I><A href="/wiki/Language_Log" title="Language Log">Language Log</A></I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-12-21</SPAN></SPAN></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language+Log&rft.atitle=The+Udmurtian+code%3A+saving+Finno-Ugric+in+Russia&rft.date=2005-12-26&rft.aulast=Pullum&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey+K.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fitre.cis.upenn.edu%2F~myl%2Flanguagelog%2Farchives%2F002729.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-53"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-53"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Hájdu, Péter (1975). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nytud.hu/nyk/reg/077.pdf">"Arealógia és urálisztika"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(pdf)</SPAN>. <I>Nyelvtudományi Közlemények</I> (in Hungarian). <B>77</B>: 147–152. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0029-6791">0029-6791</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nyelvtudom%C3%A1nyi+K%C3%B6zlem%C3%A9nyek&rft.atitle=Areal%C3%B3gia+%C3%A9s+ur%C3%A1lisztika&rft.volume=77&rft.pages=147-152&rft.date=1975&rft.issn=0029-6791&rft.aulast=H%C3%A1jdu&rft.aufirst=P%C3%A9ter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytud.hu%2Fnyk%2Freg%2F077.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-54"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-54"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Rédei, Károly 1999: Zu den uralisch-jukagirischen Sprachkontakten. – Finnisch-Ugrische Forschungen 55.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-55"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-55"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE id="CITEREFBergsland1959" class="citation journal">Bergsland, Knut (1959). "The Eskimo-Uralic hypothesis". <I>Journal De La Société Finno-Ougrienne</I>. <B>61</B>: 1–29.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+De+La+Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9+Finno-Ougrienne&rft.atitle=The+Eskimo-Uralic+hypothesis&rft.volume=61&rft.pages=1-29&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Bergsland&rft.aufirst=Knut&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-56"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-56"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE id="CITEREFFortescue1998" class="citation book">Fortescue, Michael D (1998). <I>Language Relations Across Bering Strait: Reappraising the Archaeological and Linguistic Evidence</I>. Open linguistics series. London: Cassell. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-304-70330-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-304-70330-2">978-0-304-70330-2</A>. <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/237319639">237319639</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+Relations+Across+Bering+Strait%3A+Reappraising+the+Archaeological+and+Linguistic+Evidence&rft.place=London&rft.series=Open+linguistics+series&rft.pub=Cassell&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F237319639&rft.isbn=978-0-304-70330-2&rft.aulast=Fortescue&rft.aufirst=Michael+D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-57"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-57"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE id="CITEREFGeorgMichaloveRamerSidwell1999" class="citation journal">Georg, Stefan; Michalove, Peter A.; Ramer, Alexis Manaster; Sidwell, Paul J. (March 1999). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Stefan_Georg/publication/231787164_Telling_general_linguists_about_Altaic/links/59b113d9aca2728472d0f8bb/Telling-general-linguists-about-Altaic.pdf">"Telling general linguists about Altaic"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>Journal of Linguistics</I>. <B>35</B> (1): 65–98. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1469-7742">1469-7742</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Telling+general+linguists+about+Altaic&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=65-98&rft.date=1999-03&rft.issn=1469-7742&rft.aulast=Georg&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rft.au=Michalove%2C+Peter+A.&rft.au=Ramer%2C+Alexis+Manaster&rft.au=Sidwell%2C+Paul+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fprofile%2FStefan_Georg%2Fpublication%2F231787164_Telling_general_linguists_about_Altaic%2Flinks%2F59b113d9aca2728472d0f8bb%2FTelling-general-linguists-about-Altaic.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-58"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-58"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE id="CITEREFPedersen1903" class="citation journal">Pedersen, Holger (1903). "Türkische Lautgesetze" [Turkish Phonetic Laws]. <I>Zeitschrift Der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft</I> (in German). <B>57</B> (3): 535–561. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0341-0137">0341-0137</A>. <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/5919317968">5919317968</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+Der+Deutschen+Morgenl%C3%A4ndischen+Gesellschaft&rft.atitle=T%C3%BCrkische+Lautgesetze&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=535-561&rft.date=1903&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F5919317968&rft.issn=0341-0137&rft.aulast=Pedersen&rft.aufirst=Holger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-59"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-59"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE id="CITEREFGreenberg2000" class="citation book">Greenberg, Joseph Harold (2000). <I>Indo-European and Its Closest Relatives: The Eurasiatic Language Family. Volume 1: Grammar</I>. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-3812-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-3812-5">978-0-8047-3812-5</A>. <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/491123067">491123067</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indo-European+and+Its+Closest+Relatives%3A+The+Eurasiatic+Language+Family.+Volume+1%3A+Grammar&rft.place=Stanford%2C+Calif.&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F491123067&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-3812-5&rft.aulast=Greenberg&rft.aufirst=Joseph+Harold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN>
<UL>
<LI><CITE id="CITEREFGreenberg2002" class="citation book">Greenberg, Joseph H (2002). <I>Indo-European and Its Closest Relatives: The Eurasiatic Language Family. Vol. 2: Lexicon</I>. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4624-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4624-3">978-0-8047-4624-3</A>. <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/895918332">895918332</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indo-European+and+Its+Closest+Relatives%3A+The+Eurasiatic+Language+Family.+Vol.+2%3A+Lexicon&rft.place=Stanford%2C+Calif.&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F895918332&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-4624-3&rft.aulast=Greenberg&rft.aufirst=Joseph+H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI id="cite_note-60"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-60"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE id="CITEREFKoppelmann1933" class="citation book">Koppelmann, Heinrich L. (1933). <I>Die Eurasische Sprachfamilie : Indogermanisch, Koreanisch U. Verwandtes</I> (in German). Heidelberg: Carl Winter.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Eurasische+Sprachfamilie+%3A+Indogermanisch%2C+Koreanisch+U.+Verwandtes&rft.place=Heidelberg&rft.pub=Carl+Winter&rft.date=1933&rft.aulast=Koppelmann&rft.aufirst=Heinrich+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-61"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-61"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE id="CITEREFCollinder1965" class="citation book">Collinder, Björn (1965). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WubvXTkjoLUC&pg=PA30"><I>An Introduction to the Uralic Languages</I></A>. University of California Press. pp. 30–34.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+the+Uralic+Languages&rft.pages=30-34&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Collinder&rft.aufirst=Bj%C3%B6rn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWubvXTkjoLUC%26pg%3DPA30&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-62"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-62"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Tyler, Stephen (1968), "Dravidian and Uralian: the lexical evidence". <I>Language</I> 44:4. 798–812</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-63"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-63"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Webb, Edward (1860). "Evidences of the Scythian Affinities of the Dravidian Languages, Condensed and Arranged from Rev. R. Caldwell's Comparative Dravidian Grammar". <I>Journal of the American Oriental Society</I>. <B>7</B>: 271–298. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.2307%2F592159">10.2307/592159</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Oriental+Society&rft.atitle=Evidences+of+the+Scythian+Affinities+of+the+Dravidian+Languages%2C+Condensed+and+Arranged+from+Rev.+R.+Caldwell%27s+Comparative+Dravidian+Grammar&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=271-298&rft.date=1860&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F592159&rft.aulast=Webb&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-64"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-64"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Burrow, T. (1944). "Dravidian Studies IV: The Body in Dravidian and Uralian". <I>Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies</I>. <B>11</B> (2): 328–356. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0041977x00072517">10.1017/s0041977x00072517</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+School+of+Oriental+and+African+Studies&rft.atitle=Dravidian+Studies+IV%3A+The+Body+in+Dravidian+and+Uralian&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=328-356&rft.date=1944&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0041977x00072517&rft.aulast=Burrow&rft.aufirst=T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-britannica-65"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-britannica_65-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Zvelebil, Kamal (2006). Dravidian Languages. In <I>Encyclopædia Britannica</I> (DVD edition).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-66"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-66"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Andronov, Mikhail S. (1971), "Comparative Studies on the Nature of Dravidian-Uralian Parallels: A Peep into the Prehistory of Language Families". <I>Proceedings of the Second International Conference of Tamil Studies</I> Madras. 267–277.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-67"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-67"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Zvelebil, Kamal (1970), <I>Comparative Dravidian Phonology</I> Mouton, The Hauge. at p. 22 contains a bibliography of articles supporting and opposing the hypothesis</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-68"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-68"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju (2003) <I>The Dravidian Languages</I> Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-77111-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-77111-0">0-521-77111-0</A> at p. 43.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-69"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-69"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.safarmer.com/Indo-Eurasian/Vajda.review.pdf">"The Uralic language family: facts, myths, and statistics review by Dr. Edward Vajda"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>Dr. Edward Vajda</I>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Dr.+Edward+Vajda&rft.atitle=The+Uralic+language+family%3A+facts%2C+myths%2C+and+statistics+review+by+Dr.+Edward+Vajda&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.safarmer.com%2FIndo-Eurasian%2FVajda.review.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Trask-70"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Trask_70-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="/wiki/Larry_Trask" title="Larry Trask">Trask, R.L.</A> <I>The History of Basque</I> Routledge: 1997 <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-13116-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-13116-2">0-415-13116-2</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-71"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-71"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Alinei, Mario (2003), Etrusco: una forma arcaica di ungherese, Bologna, Il Mulino.</SPAN></LI>
</OL>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="References">References</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Uralic_languages&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: References">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<UL>
<LI><I>Abondolo, Daniel M.</I> (editor). 1998. <I>The Uralic Languages</I>. London and New York: Routledge. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-08198-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-08198-X">0-415-08198-X</A>.</LI>
<LI><I>Collinder, Björn</I>. 1955. <I>Fenno-Ugric Vocabulary: An Etymological Dictionary of the Uralic Languages.</I> (Collective work.) Stockholm: Almqvist & Viksell. (Second, revised edition: Hamburg: Helmut Buske Verlag, 1977.)</LI>
<LI><I>Collinder, Björn</I>. 1957. <I>Survey of the Uralic Languages.</I> Stockholm.</LI>
<LI><I>Collinder, Björn</I>. 1960. <I>Comparative Grammar of the Uralic Languages.</I> Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell</LI>
<LI><I>Comrie, Bernhard</I>. 1988. "General Features of the Uralic Languages." In <I>The Uralic Languages</I>, edited by Denis Sinor, pp. 451–477. Leiden: Brill.</LI>
<LI><I>Décsy, Gyula</I>. 1990. <I>The Uralic Protolanguage: A Comprehensive Reconstruction.</I> Bloomington, Indiana.</LI>
<LI><I>Hajdu, Péter</I>. 1963. <I>Finnugor népek és nyelvek.</I> Budapest: Gondolat kiadó.</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Eugene_Helimski" title="Eugene Helimski">Helimski, Eugene</A></I>. Comparative Linguistics, Uralic Studies. Lectures and Articles. Moscow. 2000. (Russian: <SPAN lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">Хелимский Е.А. Компаративистика, уралистика. Лекции и статьи. М., 2000.</SPAN>)</LI>
<LI><I>Laakso, Johanna</I>. 1992. <I>Uralilaiset kansat</I> ('Uralic Peoples'). Porvoo – Helsinki – Juva. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/951-0-16485-2" title="Special:BookSources/951-0-16485-2">951-0-16485-2</A>.</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Vladimir_Napolskikh" title="Vladimir Napolskikh">Napolskikh, Vladimir</A></I>. The First Stages of Origin of People of Uralic Language Family: Material of Mythological Reconstruction. Moscow, 1991. (Russian: <SPAN lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">Напольских В. В. Древнейшие этапы происхождения народов уральской языковой семьи: данные мифологической реконструкции. М., 1991.</SPAN>)</LI>
<LI><I>Rédei, Károly</I> (editor). 1986–88. <I>Uralisches etymologisches Wörterbuch</I> ('Uralic Etymological Dictionary'). Budapest.</LI>
<LI><CITE id="CITEREFWickman1988" class="citation book">Wickman, Bo (1988). "The History of Uralic Languages". In Sinor, Denis. <I>The Uralic Languages: Description, History, and Foreign Influences</I>. Leiden: Brill. pp. 792–818. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07741-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07741-6">978-90-04-07741-6</A>. <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/16580570">16580570</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+History+of+Uralic+Languages&rft.btitle=The+Uralic+Languages%3A+Description%2C+History%2C+and+Foreign+Influences&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=792-818&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F16580570&rft.isbn=978-90-04-07741-6&rft.aulast=Wickman&rft.aufirst=Bo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUralic+languages" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
</UL>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="External_classification">External classification</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Uralic_languages&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: External classification">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<UL>
<LI><I>Sauvageot, Aurélien</I>. 1930. <I>Recherches sur le vocabulaire des langues ouralo-altaïques</I> ('Research on the Vocabulary of the Uralo-Altaic Languages'). Paris.</LI>
</UL>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Linguistic_issues">Linguistic issues</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Uralic_languages&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Linguistic issues">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<UL>
<LI><I>Künnap, A.</I> 2000. <I>Contact-induced Perspectives in Uralic Linguistics.</I> LINCOM Studies in Asian Linguistics 39. München: LINCOM Europa. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-89586-964-3" title="Special:BookSources/3-89586-964-3">3-89586-964-3</A>.</LI>
<LI><I>Wickman, Bo.</I> 1955. <I>The Form of the Object in the Uralic Languages.</I> Uppsala: Lundequistska bokhandeln.</LI>
</UL>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Uralic_languages&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: External links">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<UL>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=E1_VPNPSPV&CFID=72928126&CFTOKEN=1edc457-a1c37f7b-638d-4c28-b9b4-6ca56946f851">"The Finno-Ugrics"</A> <I>The Economist</I>, December 20, 2005</LI>
<LI>Kulonen, Ulla-Maija: <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091218022542/http://finland.fi/Public/default.aspx?contentid=160054&nodeid=41807&culture=en-US">Origin of Finnish and related languages.</A> <I>thisisFINLAND</I>, Finland Promotion Board. Cited 30.10.2009.</LI>
</UL>
<H3><SPAN id=".22Rebel.22_Uralists"></SPAN><SPAN class="mw-headline" id=""Rebel"_Uralists">"Rebel" Uralists</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Uralic_languages&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: "Rebel" Uralists">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<UL>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.magtudin.org/Maracz%20L.%20Untenability%20of%20Finno-Ugric%20Theory.htm">"The untenability of the Finno-Ugrian theory from a linguistic point of view"</A> by Dr. László Marácz, a minority opinion on the language family</LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kirj.ee/public/va_lu/l37-2-1.pdf">"The 'Ugric-Turkic battle': a critical review"</A> by Angela Marcantonio, Pirjo Nummenaho, and Michela Salvagni</LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://homepage.univie.ac.at/Johanna.Laakso/am_rev.html">"Linguistic shadow-boxing"</A> by Johanna Laakso – a book review of Angela Marcantonio’s <I>The Uralic Language Family: Facts, Myths and Statistics</I></LI>
</UL>
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<DIV id="Uralic_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><A class="mw-selflink selflink">Uralic languages</A></DIV>
</TH>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Finnic_languages" title="Finnic languages">Finnic</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Estonian_language" title="Estonian language">Estonian</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Northeastern_coastal_Estonian" title="Northeastern coastal Estonian">Northeastern coastal</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/South_Estonian" title="South Estonian">South Estonian</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/V%C3%B5ro_language" title="Võro language">Võro</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Seto_dialect" title="Seto dialect">Seto</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Finnish_language" title="Finnish language">Finnish</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kven_language" title="Kven language">Kven</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Me%C3%A4nkieli_dialects" title="Meänkieli dialects">Meänkieli</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ingrian_language" title="Ingrian language">Ingrian</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Karelian_language" title="Karelian language">Karelian</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Karelian_language" title="Karelian language">Karelian proper</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Livvi-Karelian_language" title="Livvi-Karelian language">Livvi</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ludic_language" title="Ludic language">Ludic</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Livonian_language" title="Livonian language">Livonian</A> †</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Veps_language" title="Veps language">Veps</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Votic_language" title="Votic language">Votic</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Sami_languages" title="Sami languages">Sami</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Akkala_Sami_language" title="Akkala Sami language">Akkala</A> †</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Inari_Sami_language" title="Inari Sami language">Inari</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kainuu_Sami_language" title="Kainuu Sami language">Kainuu</A> †</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kemi_Sami_language" title="Kemi Sami language">Kemi</A> †</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kildin_Sami_language" title="Kildin Sami language">Kildin</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lule_Sami_language" title="Lule Sami language">Lule</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Northern_Sami" title="Northern Sami">Northern</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pite_Sami_language" title="Pite Sami language">Pite</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Skolt_Sami_language" title="Skolt Sami language">Skolt</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Southern_Sami_language" title="Southern Sami language">Southern</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ter_Sami_language" title="Ter Sami language">Ter</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ume_Sami_language" title="Ume Sami language">Ume</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Mordvinic_languages" title="Mordvinic languages">Mordvinic</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Erzya_language" title="Erzya language">Erzya</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Moksha_language" title="Moksha language">Moksha</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Mari_language" title="Mari language">Mari</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hill_Mari_language" title="Hill Mari language">Hill Mari</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Meadow_Mari_language" title="Meadow Mari language">Meadow Mari</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Permic_languages" title="Permic languages">Permic</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Komi_language" title="Komi language">Komi</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Komi-Zyrian_language" title="Komi-Zyrian language">Zyrian</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Komi-Permyak_language" title="Komi-Permyak language">Permyak</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Komi-Yodzyak_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Komi-Yodzyak language">Yodzyak</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Udmurt_language" title="Udmurt language">Udmurt</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Ugric_languages" title="Ugric languages">Ugric</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Hungarian</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Khanty_language" title="Khanty language">Khanty</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mansi_language" title="Mansi language">Mansi</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Samoyedic_languages" title="Samoyedic languages">Samoyedic</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Enets_language" title="Enets language">Enets</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Yurats_language" title="Yurats language">Yurats</A> †</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Nenets_languages" title="Nenets languages">Nenets</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Forest_Nenets_language" title="Forest Nenets language">Forest Nenets</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tundra_Nenets_language" title="Tundra Nenets language">Tundra Nenets</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Nganasan_language" title="Nganasan language">Nganasan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kamassian_language" title="Kamassian language">Kamassian</A> †</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mator_language" title="Mator language">Mator</A> †</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Selkup_language" title="Selkup language">Selkup</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Merya_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Merya language">Merya</A> †</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Meshcherian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Meshcherian language">Meshcherian</A> †</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Muromian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Muromian language">Muromian</A> †</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TD class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2">
<DIV>† indicate <A href="/wiki/Extinct_language" title="Extinct language">extinct languages</A></DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
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<DIV id="List_of_primary_language_families" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><A href="/wiki/List_of_language_families" title="List of language families">List of primary language families</A></DIV>
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<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Languages_of_Africa" title="Languages of Africa">Africa</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afro-Asiatic</A></B></LI>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</A></B></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Khoe_languages" title="Khoe languages">Khoe</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kx%27a_languages" title="Kx'a languages">Kx'a</A></LI>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Niger–Congo languages">Niger–Congo</A></B></LI>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Nilo-Saharan_languages" title="Nilo-Saharan languages">Nilo-Saharan</A></B>?</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tuu_languages" title="Tuu languages">Tuu</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mande_languages" title="Mande languages">Mande</A>?</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Songhay_languages" title="Songhay languages">Songhay</A>?</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ijaw_languages" title="Ijaw languages">Ijaw</A>?</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ubangian_languages" title="Ubangian languages">Ubangian</A>?</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kadu_languages" title="Kadu languages">Kadu</A>?</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bangime_language" title="Bangime language">Bangime</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hadza_language" title="Hadza language">Hadza</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Jalaa_language" title="Jalaa language">Jalaa</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sandawe_language" title="Sandawe language">Sandawe</A></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Kwadi_language" title="Kwadi language">Kwadi</A></I>?</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Laal_language" title="Laal language">Laal</A>?</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Shabo_language" title="Shabo language">Shabo</A>?</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sign languages</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Arab_sign-language_family" title="Arab sign-language family">Arab</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/BANZSL" title="BANZSL">BANZSL</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/French_Sign_Language_family" title="French Sign Language family">French</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bamako_Sign_Language" title="Bamako Sign Language">Lasima</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tanzanian_sign_languages" title="Tanzanian sign languages">Tanzanian</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_sign_languages#Africa" title="List of sign languages">Others</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">Europe</A><BR />
and <A href="/wiki/Languages_of_Asia" title="Languages of Asia">Asia</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afro-Asiatic</A></B></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ainu_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Ainu languages">Ainu</A></LI>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</A></B></LI>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</A></B></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Chukotko-Kamchatkan_languages" title="Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages">Chukotko-Kamchatkan</A></LI>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</A></B></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Eskimo%E2%80%93Aleut_languages" title="Eskimo–Aleut languages">Eskimo–Aleut</A></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Great_Andamanese_languages" title="Great Andamanese languages">Great Andamanese</A></I></LI>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Hmong%E2%80%93Mien_languages" title="Hmong–Mien languages">Hmong–Mien</A></B></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Hurro-Urartian_languages" title="Hurro-Urartian languages">Hurro-Urartian</A></I></LI>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</A></B></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Japonic_languages" title="Japonic languages">Japonic</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kartvelian_languages" title="Kartvelian languages">Kartvelian</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Koreanic_languages" title="Koreanic languages">Koreanic</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mongolic_languages" title="Mongolic languages">Mongolic</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Northeast_Caucasian_languages" title="Northeast Caucasian languages">Northeast Caucasian</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Northwest_Caucasian_languages" title="Northwest Caucasian languages">Northwest Caucasian</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ongan_languages" title="Ongan languages">Ongan</A></LI>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</A></B></LI>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Tai%E2%80%93Kadai_languages" title="Tai–Kadai languages">Tai–Kadai</A></B></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tungusic_languages" title="Tungusic languages">Tungusic</A></LI>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</A></B></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Tyrsenian_languages" title="Tyrsenian languages">Tyrsenian</A></I></LI>
<LI><B><A class="mw-selflink selflink">Uralic</A></B></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Yeniseian_languages" title="Yeniseian languages">Yeniseian</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Yukaghir_languages" title="Yukaghir languages">Yukaghir</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Den%C3%A9%E2%80%93Yeniseian_languages" title="Dené–Yeniseian languages">Dené–Yeniseian</A>?</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Altaic_languages" title="Altaic languages">Altaic</A>?</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Austronesian%E2%80%93Ongan_languages" title="Austronesian–Ongan languages">Austronesian–Ongan</A>?</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Austro-Tai_languages" title="Austro-Tai languages">Austro-Tai</A>?</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sino-Austronesian_languages" title="Sino-Austronesian languages">Sino-Austronesian</A>?</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Digaro_languages" title="Digaro languages">Digaro</A>?</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kho-Bwa_languages" title="Kho-Bwa languages">Kho-Bwa</A>?</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Siangic_languages" title="Siangic languages">Siangic</A>?</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Miji_languages" title="Miji languages">Miji</A>?</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Vasconic_languages" title="Vasconic languages">Vasconic</A>?</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Burushaski" title="Burushaski">Burushaski</A></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Elamite_language" title="Elamite language">Elamite</A></I></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Hattic_language" title="Hattic language">Hattic</A></I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kusunda_language" title="Kusunda language">Kusunda</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Nihali_language" title="Nihali language">Nihali</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Nivkh_language" title="Nivkh language">Nivkh</A></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</A></I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hruso_language" title="Hruso language">Hruso</A>?</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Miju_language" title="Miju language">Miju</A>?</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Puroik_language" title="Puroik language">Puroik</A>?</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sign languages</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/BANZSL" title="BANZSL">BANZSL</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/French_Sign_Language_family" title="French Sign Language family">French</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/German_Sign_Language_family" title="German Sign Language family">German</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Japanese_Sign_Language_family" title="Japanese Sign Language family">Japanese</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Swedish_Sign_Language_family" title="Swedish Sign Language family">Swedish</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Chinese_Sign_Language" title="Chinese Sign Language">Chinese</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_Sign_Language" title="Indo-Pakistani Sign Language">Indo-Pakistani</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Arab_sign-language_family" title="Arab sign-language family">Arab</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Old_Chiangmai%E2%80%93Bangkok_Sign_Language_family" title="Old Chiangmai–Bangkok Sign Language family">Chiangmai–Bangkok</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_sign_languages#Asia/Pacific" title="List of sign languages">Others</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Papuan_languages" title="Papuan languages">New Guinea</A><BR />
and<BR />
the Pacific</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Arai%E2%80%93Samaia_languages" title="Arai–Samaia languages">Arai–Samaia</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Arafundi_languages" title="Arafundi languages">Arafundi</A></LI>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</A></B></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Baining_languages" title="Baining languages">Baining</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Binanderean%E2%80%93Goilalan_languages" title="Binanderean–Goilalan languages">Binanderean–Goilalan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Border_languages_(New_Guinea)" title="Border languages (New Guinea)">Border</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bulaka_River_languages" title="Bulaka River languages">Bulaka River</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Central_Solomon_languages" title="Central Solomon languages">Central Solomons</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Chimbu%E2%80%93Wahgi_languages" title="Chimbu–Wahgi languages">Chimbu–Wahgi</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Doso%E2%80%93Turumsa_languages" title="Doso–Turumsa languages">Doso–Turumsa</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/East_Geelvink_Bay_languages" title="East Geelvink Bay languages">East Geelvink Bay</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/East_Strickland_languages" title="East Strickland languages">East Strickland</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Eleman_languages" title="Eleman languages">Eleman</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Engan_languages" title="Engan languages">Engan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fas_languages" title="Fas languages">Fas</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kaure%E2%80%93Kosare_languages" title="Kaure–Kosare languages">Kaure–Kosare</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kiwaian_languages" title="Kiwaian languages">Kiwaian</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kutubuan_languages" title="Kutubuan languages">Kutubuan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kwomtari_languages" title="Kwomtari languages">Kwomtari</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lakes_Plain_languages" title="Lakes Plain languages">Lakes Plain</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lower_Mamberamo_languages" title="Lower Mamberamo languages">Lower Mamberamo</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lower_Sepik_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower Sepik languages">Lower Sepik</A></LI>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Madang_languages" title="Madang languages">Madang</A></B></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mairasi_languages" title="Mairasi languages">Mairasi</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/North_Bougainville_languages" title="North Bougainville languages">North Bougainville</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pauwasi_languages" title="Pauwasi languages">Pauwasi</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Piawi_languages" title="Piawi languages">Piawi</A></LI>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Ramu_languages" title="Ramu languages">Ramu</A></B></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Senagi_languages" title="Senagi languages">Senagi</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sentani_languages" title="Sentani languages">Sentani</A></LI>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Sepik_languages" title="Sepik languages">Sepik</A></B></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Skou_languages" title="Skou languages">Skou</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/South_Bougainville_languages" title="South Bougainville languages">South Bougainville</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Teberan_languages" title="Teberan languages">Teberan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tor%E2%80%93Kwerba%E2%80%93Nimboran_languages" title="Tor–Kwerba–Nimboran languages">Tor–Kwerba–Nimboran</A></LI>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Torricelli_languages" title="Torricelli languages">Torricelli</A></B></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Trans-Fly_languages" title="Trans-Fly languages">Trans-Fly</A></LI>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Trans%E2%80%93New_Guinea_languages" title="Trans–New Guinea languages">Trans–New Guinea</A></B></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Turama%E2%80%93Kikorian_languages" title="Turama–Kikorian languages">Turama–Kikorian</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/West_Papuan_languages" title="West Papuan languages">West Papuan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Yam_languages" title="Yam languages">Yam</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Yawa_languages" title="Yawa languages">Yawa</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Yuat_languages" title="Yuat languages">Yuat</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/North_Papuan_languages" title="North Papuan languages">North Papuan</A>?</LI>
<LI><A href="/w/index.php?title=Northeast_New_Guinea_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Northeast New Guinea languages (page does not exist)">Northeast New Guinea</A>?</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Papuan_Gulf_languages" title="Papuan Gulf languages">Papuan Gulf</A>?</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Abinomn_language" title="Abinomn language">Abinomn</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/An%C3%AAm_language" title="Anêm language">Anêm</A>?</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ata_language" title="Ata language">Ata</A>?</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kol_language_(Papua_New_Guinea)" title="Kol language (Papua New Guinea)">Kol</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kuot_language" title="Kuot language">Kuot</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Porome_language" title="Porome language">Porome</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Taiap_language" title="Taiap language">Taiap</A>?</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pawaia_language" title="Pawaia language">Pawaia</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Porome_language" title="Porome language">Porome</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sulka_language" title="Sulka language">Sulka</A>?</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tambora_language" title="Tambora language">Tambora</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wiru_language" title="Wiru language">Wiru</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sign languages</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hawai%27i_Sign_Language" title="Hawai'i Sign Language">Hawai'i Sign Language</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_sign_languages#Asia/Pacific" title="List of sign languages">Others</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_languages" title="Australian Aboriginal languages">Australia</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Macro-Gunwinyguan_languages" title="Macro-Gunwinyguan languages">Arnhem/Macro-Gunwinyguan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bunuban_languages" title="Bunuban languages">Bunuban</A></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Darwin_Region_languages" title="Darwin Region languages">Darwin River</A></I></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Eastern_Daly_languages" title="Eastern Daly languages">Eastern Daly</A></I></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Eastern_Tasmanian_languages" title="Eastern Tasmanian languages">Eastern Tasmanian</A></I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Garawan_languages" title="Garawan languages">Garawan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Iwaidjan_languages" title="Iwaidjan languages">Iwaidjan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Jarrakan_languages" title="Jarrakan languages">Jarrakan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mirndi_languages" title="Mirndi languages">Mirndi</A></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Northern_Tasmanian_languages" title="Northern Tasmanian languages">Northern Tasmanian</A></I></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Northeastern_Tasmanian_languages" title="Northeastern Tasmanian languages">Northeastern Tasmanian</A></I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Nyulnyulan_languages" title="Nyulnyulan languages">Nyulnyulan</A></LI>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Pama%E2%80%93Nyungan_languages" title="Pama–Nyungan languages">Pama–Nyungan</A></B></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Southern_Daly_languages" title="Southern Daly languages">Southern Daly</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tangkic_languages" title="Tangkic languages">Tangkic</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wagaydyic_languages" title="Wagaydyic languages">Wagaydyic</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Western_Daly_languages" title="Western Daly languages">Western Daly</A></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Western_Tasmanian_languages" title="Western Tasmanian languages">Western Tasmanian</A></I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Worrorran_languages" title="Worrorran languages">Worrorran</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wardaman_language" title="Wardaman language">Yangmanic</A> (Wardaman)</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Giimbiyu_language" title="Giimbiyu language">Giimbiyu</A></I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Malak-Malak_language" title="Malak-Malak language">Malak-Malak</A></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Marrgu_language" title="Marrgu language">Marrgu</A></I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tiwi_language" title="Tiwi language">Tiwi</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wagiman_language" title="Wagiman language">Wagiman</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">North<BR />
America</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Algic_languages" title="Algic languages">Algic</A></B></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Alsea_language" title="Alsea language">Alsea</A></I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Caddoan_languages" title="Caddoan languages">Caddoan</A></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Chimakuan_languages" title="Chimakuan languages">Chimakuan</A></I></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Chinookan_languages" title="Chinookan languages">Chinookan</A></I></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Chumashan_languages" title="Chumashan languages">Chumashan</A></I></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Comecrudan_languages" title="Comecrudan languages">Comecrudan</A></I></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Coosan_languages" title="Coosan languages">Coosan</A></I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Eskimo%E2%80%93Aleut_languages" title="Eskimo–Aleut languages">Eskimo–Aleut</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Iroquoian_languages" title="Iroquoian languages">Iroquoian</A></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Kalapuyan_languages" title="Kalapuyan languages">Kalapuyan</A></I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Keresan_languages" title="Keresan languages">Keresan</A></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Maiduan_languages" title="Maiduan languages">Maiduan</A></I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Muskogean_languages" title="Muskogean languages">Muskogean</A></LI>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Na-Dene_languages" title="Na-Dene languages">Na-Dene</A></B></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Palaihnihan_languages" title="Palaihnihan languages">Palaihnihan</A></I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Plateau_Penutian_languages" title="Plateau Penutian languages">Plateau Penutian</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pomoan_languages" title="Pomoan languages">Pomoan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Salishan_languages" title="Salishan languages">Salishan</A></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Shastan_languages" title="Shastan languages">Shastan</A></I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Siouan_languages" title="Siouan languages">Siouan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tanoan_languages" title="Tanoan languages">Tanoan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tsimshianic_languages" title="Tsimshianic languages">Tsimshianic</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Utian_languages" title="Utian languages">Utian</A></LI>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan_languages" title="Uto-Aztecan languages">Uto-Aztecan</A></B></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wakashan_languages" title="Wakashan languages">Wakashan</A></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Wintuan_languages" title="Wintuan languages">Wintuan</A></I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Yokutsan_languages" title="Yokutsan languages">Yokutsan</A></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Yuki%E2%80%93Wappo_languages" title="Yuki–Wappo languages">Yukian</A></I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Yuman%E2%80%93Cochim%C3%AD_languages" title="Yuman–Cochimí languages">Yuman–Cochimí</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Den%C3%A9%E2%80%93Yeniseian_languages" title="Dené–Yeniseian languages">Dené–Yeniseian</A>?</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hokan_languages" title="Hokan languages">Hokan</A>?</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Penutian_languages" title="Penutian languages">Penutian</A>?</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Chimariko_language" title="Chimariko language">Chimariko</A></I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Haida_language" title="Haida language">Haida</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Karuk_language" title="Karuk language">Karuk</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kutenai_language" title="Kutenai language">Kutenai</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Seri_language" title="Seri language">Seri</A></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Siuslaw_language" title="Siuslaw language">Siuslaw</A></I></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Takelma_language" title="Takelma language">Takelma</A></I></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Timucua_language" title="Timucua language">Timucua</A></I></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Waikuri_language" title="Waikuri language">Waikuri</A></I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Washo_language" title="Washo language">Washo</A></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Yana_language" title="Yana language">Yana</A></I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Yuchi_language" title="Yuchi language">Yuchi</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Zuni_language" title="Zuni language">Zuni</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sign languages</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Inuit_Sign_Language" title="Inuit Sign Language">Inuit (Inuiuuk)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Plains_Indian_Sign_Language" title="Plains Indian Sign Language">Plains Sign Talk</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_sign_languages#America" title="List of sign languages">Others</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_languages" title="Mesoamerican languages">Mesoamerica</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Chibchan_languages" title="Chibchan languages">Chibchan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Jicaquean_languages" title="Jicaquean languages">Jicaquean</A></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Lencan_languages" title="Lencan languages">Lencan</A></I></LI>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Mayan_languages" title="Mayan languages">Mayan</A></B></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Misumalpan_languages" title="Misumalpan languages">Misumalpan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mixe%E2%80%93Zoque_languages" title="Mixe–Zoque languages">Mixe–Zoque</A></LI>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Oto-Manguean_languages" title="Oto-Manguean languages">Oto-Manguean</A></B></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tequistlatecan_languages" title="Tequistlatecan languages">Tequistlatecan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Totonacan_languages" title="Totonacan languages">Totonacan</A></LI>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan_languages" title="Uto-Aztecan languages">Uto-Aztecan</A></B></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Xincan_languages" title="Xincan languages">Xincan</A></I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Totozoquean_languages" title="Totozoquean languages">Totozoquean</A>?</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Cuitlatec_language" title="Cuitlatec language">Cuitlatec</A></I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Huave_language" title="Huave language">Huave</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pur%C3%A9pecha_language" title="Purépecha language">Tarascan/Purépecha</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sign languages</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Plains_Indian_Sign_Language" title="Plains Indian Sign Language">Plains Sign Talk</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mayan_Sign_Language" title="Mayan Sign Language">Mayan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_sign_languages#America" title="List of sign languages">Others</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">South<BR />
America</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Arawakan_languages" title="Arawakan languages">Arawakan</A></B></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Arawan_languages" title="Arawan languages">Arauan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Araucanian_languages" title="Araucanian languages">Araucanian</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Arutani%E2%80%93Sape_languages" title="Arutani–Sape languages">Arutani–Sape</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Aymaran_languages" title="Aymaran languages">Aymaran</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Barbacoan_languages" title="Barbacoan languages">Barbacoan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Boran_languages" title="Boran languages">Boran</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bor%C3%B4roan_languages" title="Borôroan languages">Borôroan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cahuapanan_languages" title="Cahuapanan languages">Cahuapanan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cariban_languages" title="Cariban languages">Cariban</A></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Catacaoan_languages" title="Catacaoan languages">Catacaoan</A></I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Chapacuran_languages" title="Chapacuran languages">Chapacuran</A></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Charruan_languages" title="Charruan languages">Charruan</A></I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Chibchan_languages" title="Chibchan languages">Chibchan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Choco_languages" title="Choco languages">Choco</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Chonan_languages" title="Chonan languages">Chonan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Guaicuruan_languages" title="Guaicuruan languages">Guaicuruan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Guajiboan_languages" title="Guajiboan languages">Guajiboan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/J%C3%AA_languages" title="Jê languages">Jê/Gê</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Har%C3%A1kmbut%E2%80%93Katukinan_languages" title="Harákmbut–Katukinan languages">Harákmbut–Katukinan</A></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Jirajaran_languages" title="Jirajaran languages">Jirajaran</A></I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Jivaroan_languages" title="Jivaroan languages">Jivaroan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kariri_languages" title="Kariri languages">Kariri</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Katembri%E2%80%93Taruma_languages" title="Katembri–Taruma languages">Katembri–Taruma</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mascoian_languages" title="Mascoian languages">Mascoian</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Matacoan_languages" title="Matacoan languages">Matacoan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Maxakal%C3%ADan_languages" title="Maxakalían languages">Maxakalian</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Nadahup_languages" title="Nadahup languages">Nadahup</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Nambikwaran_languages" title="Nambikwaran languages">Nambikwaran</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Otom%C3%A1koan_languages" title="Otomákoan languages">Otomákoan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pano-Tacanan_languages" title="Pano-Tacanan languages">Pano-Tacanan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Peba%E2%80%93Yaguan_languages" title="Peba–Yaguan languages">Peba–Yaguan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Purian_languages" title="Purian languages">Purian</A></LI>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Quechuan_languages" title="Quechuan languages">Quechuan</A></B></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Piaroa%E2%80%93Saliban_languages" title="Piaroa–Saliban languages">Piaroa–Saliban</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ticuna%E2%80%93Yuri_languages" title="Ticuna–Yuri languages">Ticuna–Yuri</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Timotean_languages" title="Timotean languages">Timotean</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tiniguan_languages" title="Tiniguan languages">Tiniguan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tucanoan_languages" title="Tucanoan languages">Tucanoan</A></LI>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Tupian_languages" title="Tupian languages">Tupian</A></B></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Uru%E2%80%93Chipaya_languages" title="Uru–Chipaya languages">Uru–Chipaya</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Witotoan_languages" title="Witotoan languages">Witotoan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Yabutian_languages" title="Yabutian languages">Yabutian</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Yanomaman_languages" title="Yanomaman languages">Yanomaman</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Zamucoan_languages" title="Zamucoan languages">Zamucoan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Zaparoan_languages" title="Zaparoan languages">Zaparoan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Chimuan_languages" title="Chimuan languages">Chimuan</A>?</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Esmeralda%E2%80%93Yaruroan_languages" title="Esmeralda–Yaruroan languages">Esmeralda–Yaruro</A>?</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hibito%E2%80%93Cholon_languages" title="Hibito–Cholon languages">Hibito–Cholón</A>?</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lule%E2%80%93Vilela_languages" title="Lule–Vilela languages">Lule–Vilela</A>?</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Macro-J%C3%AA_languages" title="Macro-Jê languages">Macro-Jê</A>?</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tequiraca%E2%80%93Canichana_languages" title="Tequiraca–Canichana languages">Tequiraca–Canichana</A>?</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates<BR />
(extant in 2000)</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Aikan%C3%A3_language" title="Aikanã language">Aikanã</A>?</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Alacalufan_languages" title="Alacalufan languages">Alacalufan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Andoque_language" title="Andoque language">Andoque</A>?</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cams%C3%A1_language" title="Camsá language">Camsá</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Candoshi-Shapra_language" title="Candoshi-Shapra language">Candoshi</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Chimane_language" title="Chimane language">Chimane</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Chiquitano_language" title="Chiquitano language">Chiquitano</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cof%C3%A1n_language" title="Cofán language">Cofán</A>?</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fulni%C3%B4_language" title="Fulniô language">Fulniô</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Guat%C3%B3_language" title="Guató language">Guató</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hod%C3%AF_language" title="Hodï language">Hodï/Joti</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Irantxe_language" title="Irantxe language">Irantxe</A>?</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Itonama_language" title="Itonama language">Itonama</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Karaj%C3%A1_language" title="Karajá language">Karajá</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Krenak_languages" title="Krenak languages">Krenak</A></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Kunza_language" title="Kunza language">Kunza</A></I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Leco_language" title="Leco language">Leco</A></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Maku-Auari_language" title="Maku-Auari language">Maku-Auari of Roraima</A></I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Movima_language" title="Movima language">Movima</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mura_language" title="Mura language">Mura-Pirahã</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Nukak_language" title="Nukak language">Nukak</A>?</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ofay%C3%A9_language" title="Ofayé language">Ofayé</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Puinave_language" title="Puinave language">Puinave</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Waorani_language" title="Waorani language">Huaorani/Waorani</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Trumai_language" title="Trumai language">Trumai</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Urarina_language" title="Urarina language">Urarina</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Warao_language" title="Warao language">Warao</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Yaghan_language" title="Yaghan language">Yamana</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Yuracar%C3%A9_language" title="Yuracaré language">Yuracaré</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">Language isolates</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Unclassified_language" title="Unclassified language">Unclassified languages</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">Creoles</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">Pidgins</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mixed_language" title="Mixed language">Mixed languages</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Constructed_language" title="Constructed language">Artificial languages</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_sign_languages" title="List of sign languages">List of sign languages</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TD colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<DIV align="left"><SMALL>Families with more than 30 languages are in <B>bold</B>. Families in <I>italics</I> have no living members.</SMALL></DIV>
</DIV>
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<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><SPAN class="nowrap"><A href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</A>: <SPAN class="uid"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.loc.gov/authorities/subjects/sh85141270">sh85141270</A></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="nowrap"><A href="/wiki/Integrated_Authority_File" title="Integrated Authority File">GND</A>: <SPAN class="uid"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4062084-0">4062084-0</A></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="nowrap"><A href="/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_universitaire_de_documentation" title="Système universitaire de documentation">SUDOC</A>: <SPAN class="uid"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027434389">027434389</A></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="nowrap"><A href="/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_nationale_de_France" title="Bibliothèque nationale de France">BNF</A>: <SPAN class="uid"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11947660w">cb11947660w</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11947660w">(data)</A></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="nowrap"><A href="/wiki/National_Diet_Library" title="National Diet Library">NDL</A>: <SPAN class="uid"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00575506">00575506</A></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="nowrap"><A href="/wiki/Biblioteca_Nacional_de_Espa%C3%B1a" title="Biblioteca Nacional de España">BNE</A>: <SPAN class="uid"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX544740">XX544740</A></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
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					<LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af" style="display: none;"><A href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oeraalse_tale" title="Oeraalse tale – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als" style="display: none;"><A href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uralische_Sprachen" title="Uralische Sprachen – Alemannisch" lang="als" hreflang="als" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am" style="display: none;"><A href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%A1%E1%88%AB%E1%88%8A%E1%8A%AD_%E1%89%8B%E1%8A%95%E1%89%8B%E1%8B%8E%E1%89%BD_%E1%89%A4%E1%89%B0%E1%88%A0%E1%89%A5" title="ኡራሊክ ቋንቋዎች ቤተሠብ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A3%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="لغات أورالية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an" style="display: none;"><A href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luengas_uralicas" title="Luengas uralicas – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lling%C3%BCes_Ur%C3%A1liques" title="Llingües Uráliques – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az" style="display: none;"><A href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ural_dill%C9%99ri" title="Ural dilləri – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb" style="display: none;"><A href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%D9%84%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="اورال دیللری – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn" style="display: none;"><A href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%B9" title="উরালীয় ভাষাসমূহ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B4%D3%99%D1%80%D0%B5" title="Урал телдәре – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be" style="display: none;"><A href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B" title="Уральскія мовы – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old" style="display: none;"><A href="https://be-x-old.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B" title="Уральскія мовы – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-x-old" hreflang="be-x-old" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg" style="display: none;"><A href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Уралски езици – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs" style="display: none;"><A href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uralski_jezici" title="Uralski jezici – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br" style="display: none;"><A href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yezho%C3%B9_ouralek" title="Yezhoù ouralek – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lleng%C3%BCes_uralianes" title="Llengües uralianes – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs" style="display: none;"><A href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uralsk%C3%A9_jazyky" title="Uralské jazyky – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy" style="display: none;"><A href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ieithoedd_Wralaidd" title="Ieithoedd Wralaidd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da" style="display: none;"><A href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uralske_sprog" title="Uralske sprog – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se" style="display: none;"><A href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ur%C3%A1lala%C5%A1_gielat" title="Urálalaš gielat – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" class="interlanguage-link-target">Davvisámegiella</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle" title="good article"><A href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uralische_Sprachen" title="Uralische Sprachen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb" style="display: none;"><A href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uralske_r%C4%9Bcy" title="Uralske rěcy – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dolnoserbski</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et"><A href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uurali_keeled" title="Uurali keeled – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el" style="display: none;"><A href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9F%CF%85%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AD%CF%82_%CE%B3%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B5%CF%82" title="Ουραλικές γλώσσες – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es"><A href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenguas_ur%C3%A1licas" title="Lenguas urálicas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo" style="display: none;"><A href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urala_lingvaro" title="Urala lingvaro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu" style="display: none;"><A href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uraldar_hizkuntzak" title="Uraldar hizkuntzak – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa" style="display: none;"><A href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C" title="زبان‌های اورالی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo" style="display: none;"><A href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uralsk_m%C3%A1l" title="Uralsk mál – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr" style="display: none;"><A href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langues_ouraliennes" title="Langues ouraliennes – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teangacha_%C3%9Aralacha" title="Teangacha Úralacha – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv" style="display: none;"><A href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87hengaghyn_Ooralagh" title="Çhengaghyn Ooralagh – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl" style="display: none;"><A href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguas_ur%C3%A1licas" title="Linguas urálicas – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9A%B0%EB%9E%84%EC%96%B4%EC%A1%B1" title="우랄어족 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi"><A href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE-%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="यूराली भाषा-परिवार – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb" style="display: none;"><A href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uralske_r%C4%9B%C4%8De" title="Uralske rěče – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr" style="display: none;"><A href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uralski_jezici" title="Uralski jezici – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io" style="display: none;"><A href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uralika_linguaro" title="Uralika linguaro – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id" style="display: none;"><A href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumpun_bahasa_Ural" title="Rumpun bahasa Ural – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is" style="display: none;"><A href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Ar%C3%B6lsk_tungum%C3%A1l" title="Úrölsk tungumál – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it" style="display: none;"><A href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingue_uraliche" title="Lingue uraliche – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he" style="display: none;"><A href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA" title="שפות אורליות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn" style="display: none;"><A href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%87%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%AD%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B7%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%B3%E0%B3%81" title="ಯುರೇಲಿಕ್ ಭಾಷೆಗಳು – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw" style="display: none;"><A href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yethow_Ouralek" title="Yethow Ouralek – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw" style="display: none;"><A href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lugha_za_Kiurali" title="Lugha za Kiurali – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la" style="display: none;"><A href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguae_Uralicae" title="Linguae Uralicae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv" style="display: none;"><A href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ur%C4%81lie%C5%A1u_valodas" title="Urāliešu valodas – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt" style="display: none;"><A href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uralo_kalbos" title="Uralo kalbos – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij" style="display: none;"><A href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengue_uraliche" title="Lengue uraliche – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li" style="display: none;"><A href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oeralische_taole" title="Oeralische taole – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu"><A href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ur%C3%A1li_nyelvcsal%C3%A1d" title="Uráli nyelvcsalád – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk" style="display: none;"><A href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Уралски јазици – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr" style="display: none;"><A href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="युरली भाषा – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa-bahasa_Ural" title="Bahasa-bahasa Ural – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl" style="display: none;"><A href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oeraalse_talen" title="Oeraalse talen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A6%E3%83%A9%E3%83%AB%E8%AA%9E%E6%97%8F" title="ウラル語族 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr" style="display: none;"><A href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uralisk_spriaken" title="Uralisk spriaken – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no" style="display: none;"><A href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uralske_spr%C3%A5k" title="Uralske språk – Norwegian" lang="no" hreflang="no" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn" style="display: none;"><A href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uralske_spr%C3%A5k" title="Uralske språk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc" style="display: none;"><A href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengas_oralicas" title="Lengas oralicas – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz" style="display: none;"><A href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ural_tillari" title="Ural tillari – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa" style="display: none;"><A href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AF%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%AD%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE-%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B0" title="ਯੂਰਾਲੀ ਭਾਸ਼ਾ-ਪਰਿਵਾਰ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms" style="display: none;"><A href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenghe_ur%C3%A0liche" title="Lenghe uràliche – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl" style="display: none;"><A href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyki_uralskie" title="Języki uralskie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt" style="display: none;"><A href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADnguas_ur%C3%A1licas" title="Línguas urálicas – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbi_uralice" title="Limbi uralice – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rmy" style="display: none;"><A href="https://rmy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uralikane_chhiba" title="Uralikane chhiba – Romani" lang="rmy" hreflang="rmy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Romani</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu" style="display: none;"><A href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ural_rimaykuna" title="Ural rimaykuna – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru"><A href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Уральские языки – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco" style="display: none;"><A href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uralic_leids" title="Uralic leids – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple" style="display: none;"><A href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages – Simple English" lang="simple" hreflang="simple" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk" style="display: none;"><A href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uralsk%C3%A9_jazyky" title="Uralské jazyky – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl" style="display: none;"><A href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uralski_jeziki" title="Uralski jeziki – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr" style="display: none;"><A href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Уралски језици – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh" style="display: none;"><A href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uralski_jezici" title="Uralski jezici – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi"><A href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uralilaiset_kielet" title="Uralilaiset kielet – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv" style="display: none;"><A href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uraliska_spr%C3%A5k" title="Uraliska språk – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D" title="யூரலிய மொழிகள் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt" style="display: none;"><A href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BB%D3%99%D1%80%D0%B5" title="Урал телләре – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча/tatarça</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th" style="display: none;"><A href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A5" title="ตระกูลภาษายูรัล – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr" style="display: none;"><A href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ural_dilleri" title="Ural dilleri – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm" style="display: none;"><A href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB_%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8A%D1%91%D1%81" title="Урал кылъёс – Udmurt" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" class="interlanguage-link-target">Удмурт</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk" style="display: none;"><A href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8" title="Уральські мови – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur"><A href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%DA%BA" title="اورالی زبانیں – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec" style="display: none;"><A href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%81%C3%A9ngoe_ura%C5%82eghe" title="Łéngoe urałeghe – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep" style="display: none;"><A href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urali%C5%BEed_keled" title="Uraližed keled – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi" style="display: none;"><A href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%E1%BB%AF_h%E1%BB%87_Ural" title="Ngữ hệ Ural – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls" style="display: none;"><A href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oeraalsche_toaln" title="Oeraalsche toaln – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" class="interlanguage-link-target">West-Vlams</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue" style="display: none;"><A href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%83%8F%E6%8B%89%E8%AA%9E%E7%B3%BB" title="烏拉語系 – Cantonese" lang="zh-yue" hreflang="zh-yue" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq" style="display: none;"><A href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C4%B1wan%C3%AA_Uralki" title="Zıwanê Uralki – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg" style="display: none;"><A href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urala_kalbas" title="Urala kalbas – Samogitian" lang="bat-smg" hreflang="bat-smg" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh"><A href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B9%8C%E6%8B%89%E5%B0%94%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="乌拉尔语系 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</A></LI>				<BUTTON class="mw-interlanguage-selector mw-ui-button" title="All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)">83 more</BUTTON></UL>
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document_title: Uralic languages

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question_text: turkish finnish and hungarian belong to which family of languages