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<TITLE>John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry - Wikipedia</TITLE>

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<H1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry</H1>			<DIV id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content">
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<TBODY><TR>
<TH class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#B0C4DE;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">John Brown's Raid on Harper's Ferry</TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of pre-<A href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</A> conflicts</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><A href="/wiki/File:HWFireHouseBrown.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="HWFireHouseBrown.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/HWFireHouseBrown.jpg/300px-HWFireHouseBrown.jpg" width="300" height="203" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/HWFireHouseBrown.jpg/450px-HWFireHouseBrown.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/HWFireHouseBrown.jpg/600px-HWFireHouseBrown.jpg 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="420" /></A><BR />
<I><A href="/wiki/Harper%27s_Weekly" title="Harper's Weekly">Harper's Weekly</A></I> illustration of U.S. Marines attacking John Brown's "Fort"</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="2">
<TABLE style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH style="padding-right:1em">Date</TH>
<TD>October 16–18, 1859</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH style="padding-right:1em">Location</TH>
<TD><SPAN class="location"><A href="/wiki/Harpers_Ferry" class="mw-redirect" title="Harpers Ferry">Harpers Ferry</A>, <A href="/wiki/West_Virginia" title="West Virginia">(West) Virginia</A></SPAN></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH style="padding-right:1em">Result</TH>
<TD>U.S. victory</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH colspan="2" style="background-color:#B0C4DE;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"><SPAN class="flagicon"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281858-1859%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281858-1859%29.svg.png" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281858-1859%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281858-1859%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281858-1859%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281858-1859%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="539" /> </SPAN><A href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</A></TD>
<TD style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"><A href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionist Insurgents</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH colspan="2" style="background-color:#B0C4DE;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"><A href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee" title="Robert E. Lee">Robert E. Lee</A><BR />
<A href="/wiki/Israel_Greene" title="Israel Greene">Israel Greene</A><BR />
<A href="/wiki/Jeb_Stuart" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeb Stuart">Jeb Stuart</A></TD>
<TD style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"><A href="/wiki/John_Brown_(abolitionist)" title="John Brown (abolitionist)">John Brown</A> <A href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><IMG alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Skull_and_crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_crossbones.svg.png" width="14" height="13" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Skull_and_crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Skull_and_crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH colspan="2" style="background-color:#B0C4DE;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Strength</TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;">88 <A href="/wiki/U.S._Marines" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Marines">U.S. Marines</A><BR />
Unknown number of Virginia Militia and Maryland Militia</TD>
<TD style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em">8 white men<BR />
12 free black men<BR />
1 freed slave<BR />
1 fugitive slave<SUP id="cite_ref-history.com_1-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-history.com-1">[1]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH colspan="2" style="background-color:#B0C4DE;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;">U.S. Marines:<BR />
1 killed<BR />
1 wounded<BR />
Virginia and Maryland Militia:<BR />
Unknown</TD>
<TD style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em">10 killed<BR />
7 captured<BR />
5 escaped</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-top:1px dotted #aaa;"><B>Civilians:</B><BR />
6 killed<BR />
9 wounded</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
<P><B>John Brown's raid on Harper's Ferry</B> (also known as <B>John Brown's raid</B> or <B>The raid on Harper's Ferry</B>)<SUP id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-2">[2]</A></SUP> was an effort by armed <A href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">abolitionist</A> <A href="/wiki/John_Brown_(abolitionist)" title="John Brown (abolitionist)">John Brown</A> to initiate an armed <A href="/wiki/Slave_revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave revolt">slave revolt</A> in 1859 by taking over a <A href="/wiki/Harpers_Ferry_Armory" title="Harpers Ferry Armory">United States arsenal at Harpers Ferry</A>, <A href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</A>. Brown's party of 22<SUP id="cite_ref-history.com_1-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-history.com-1">[1]</A></SUP> was defeated by a company of <A href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">U.S. Marines</A>, led by First Lieutenant Israel Greene.<SUP id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-3">[3]</A></SUP> Colonel <A href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee" title="Robert E. Lee">Robert E. Lee</A> was in overall command of the operation to retake the arsenal. John Brown had originally asked <A href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</A> and <A href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</A>, both of whom he had met in his transformative years as an abolitionist in <A href="/wiki/Springfield,_Massachusetts" title="Springfield, Massachusetts">Springfield, Massachusetts</A>, to join him in his raid, but Tubman was prevented by illness and Douglass declined, as he believed Brown's plan would fail.<SUP id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-4">[4]</A></SUP></P>
<P></P>
<DIV id="toc" class="toc">
<DIV class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr">
<H2>Contents</H2>
<SPAN class="toctoggle"> [<A role="button" tabindex="0" class="togglelink">hide</A>] </SPAN></DIV>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><A href="#Brown's_preparation"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Brown's preparation</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><A href="#Advance_knowledge_of_raid"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Advance knowledge of raid</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><A href="#The_raid"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">The raid</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><A href="#October_16"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">October 16</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><A href="#October_17"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">October 17</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><A href="#October_18"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">October 18</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><A href="#October_19"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">October 19</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><A href="#Aftermath"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Aftermath</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><A href="#Casualties"><SPAN class="tocnumber">5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Casualties</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><A href="#John_Brown's_raiders"><SPAN class="tocnumber">5.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">John Brown's raiders</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><A href="#Others"><SPAN class="tocnumber">5.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Others</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><A href="#Liberated_slaves"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Liberated slaves</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><A href="#See_also"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">See also</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><A href="#Notes"><SPAN class="tocnumber">8</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Notes</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><A href="#Citations"><SPAN class="tocnumber">8.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Citations</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><A href="#Bibliography"><SPAN class="tocnumber">8.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Bibliography</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><A href="#External_links"><SPAN class="tocnumber">9</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">External links</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<P></P>
<H2><SPAN id="Brown.27s_preparation"></SPAN><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Brown's_preparation">Brown's preparation</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Brown's preparation">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>John Brown rented the <A href="/wiki/Kennedy_Farm" title="Kennedy Farm">Kennedy Farmhouse</A>, with a small cabin nearby, 4 miles (6.4 km) north of Harpers Ferry near the community of <A href="/wiki/Dargan,_Maryland" title="Dargan, Maryland">Dargan</A> in <A href="/wiki/Washington_County,_Maryland" title="Washington County, Maryland">Washington County, Maryland</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-5">[5]</A></SUP> and took up residence under the name Isaac Smith. Brown came with a small group of men minimally trained for military action. His group included 18 men besides himself (13 white men, 5 black men). Northern abolitionist groups sent 198 <A href="/wiki/Breech-loading" class="mw-redirect" title="Breech-loading">breech-loading</A> .52 caliber <A href="/wiki/Sharps_carbines" class="mw-redirect" title="Sharps carbines">Sharps carbines</A> ("<A href="/wiki/Beecher%27s_Bibles" title="Beecher's Bibles">Beecher's Bibles</A>") and 950 <A href="/wiki/Pike_(weapon)" title="Pike (weapon)">pikes</A> (obtained in late September from Charles Blair of Collinsville Axe Co., Collinsville, CT), in preparation for the raid. The United States Armory was a huge complex of buildings that manufactured small arms for the U.S. Army (1801–1861), with an Arsenal (storehouse) that was thought to contain 100,000 muskets and rifles at the time.<SUP id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-6">[6]</A></SUP></P>
<DIV class="thumb tleft">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Douglass_argued_against_John_Brown%27s_plan_to_attack_the_arsenal_at_Harpers_Ferry_-_NARA_-_559102.tif" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Douglass_argued_against_John_Brown%27s_plan_to_attack_the_arsenal_at_Harpers_Ferry_-_NARA_-_559102.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Douglass_argued_against_John_Brown%27s_plan_to_attack_the_arsenal_at_Harpers_Ferry_-_NARA_-_559102.tif.jpg" width="220" height="143" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Douglass_argued_against_John_Brown%27s_plan_to_attack_the_arsenal_at_Harpers_Ferry_-_NARA_-_559102.tif/lossy-page1-330px-Douglass_argued_against_John_Brown%27s_plan_to_attack_the_arsenal_at_Harpers_Ferry_-_NARA_-_559102.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Douglass_argued_against_John_Brown%27s_plan_to_attack_the_arsenal_at_Harpers_Ferry_-_NARA_-_559102.tif/lossy-page1-440px-Douglass_argued_against_John_Brown%27s_plan_to_attack_the_arsenal_at_Harpers_Ferry_-_NARA_-_559102.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1949" /></A>
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<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:Douglass_argued_against_John_Brown%27s_plan_to_attack_the_arsenal_at_Harpers_Ferry_-_NARA_-_559102.tif" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
An illustration of Brown trying to persuade abolitionist <A href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</A> to join him in the raid on Harpers Ferry. Douglass refused.</DIV>
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<P>Brown attempted to attract more black recruits. He tried recruiting <A href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</A> as a liaison officer to the slaves in a meeting held in a quarry at Chambersburg, Pa. It was at this meeting that ex-slave "Emperor" <A href="/wiki/Shields_Green" title="Shields Green">Shields Green</A> consented to join with John Brown on his attack on the United States Armory, Green stating to Douglass "I believe I will go with the old man". Douglass declined, indicating to Brown that he believed the raid was a suicide mission. The plan was "an attack on the federal government" that "would array the whole country against us ... You will never get out alive", he warned.<SUP id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-7">[7]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The Kennedy Farmhouse served as <I>"barracks, arsenal, supply depot, mess hall, debate club, and home"</I>. It was very crowded and life there was tedious. Brown was worried about arousing neighbors' suspicions. As a result, the raiders had to stay indoors during the daytime, without much to do but study, drill, argue politics, discuss religion, and play cards and checkers. Brown's daughter-in-law Martha served as cook and housekeeper. His daughter Annie served as lookout. Brown wanted women at the farm, to prevent suspicions of a large all-male group. The raiders went outside at night to drill and get fresh air. Thunderstorms were welcome since they concealed noise from Brown's neighbors.<SUP id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-8">[8]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Brown did not plan to have a sudden raid and escape to the mountains. Rather, he intended to use those rifles and pikes he captured at the arsenal, in addition to those he brought along, to arm rebellious slaves with the aim of striking terror in the slaveholders in Virginia. He believed that on the first night of action, 200-500 black slaves would join his line. He ridiculed the militia and regular army that might oppose him. He planned to send agents to nearby plantations, rallying the slaves. He planned to hold Harpers Ferry for a short time, expecting that as many volunteers, white and black, would join him as would form against him. He would move rapidly southward, sending out armed bands along the way. They would free more slaves, obtain food, horses and hostages, and destroy slaveholders' morale. Brown planned to follow the <A href="/wiki/Appalachian_Mountains" title="Appalachian Mountains">Appalachian Mountains</A> south into <A href="/wiki/Tennessee" title="Tennessee">Tennessee</A> and even <A href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</A>, the heart of the <A href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">South</A>, making forays into the plains on either side.<SUP id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-9">[9]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Advance_knowledge_of_raid">Advance knowledge of raid</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Advance knowledge of raid">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><A href="/wiki/File:John_Brown_portrait,_1859.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/John_Brown_portrait%2C_1859.jpg/170px-John_Brown_portrait%2C_1859.jpg" width="170" height="235" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/John_Brown_portrait%2C_1859.jpg/255px-John_Brown_portrait%2C_1859.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/John_Brown_portrait%2C_1859.jpg/340px-John_Brown_portrait%2C_1859.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3095" data-file-height="4278" /></A>
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John Brown in 1859</DIV>
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<P>Brown paid Hugh Forbes $600 to be his drillmaster. Forbes was an English mercenary who served <A href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Giuseppe Garibaldi</A> in <A href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</A>. Forbes' <I>Manual for the Patriotic Volunteer</I> was found in Brown's papers after the raid. Brown and Forbes argued over strategy and money. Forbes wanted more money so that his family in Europe could join him.<SUP id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-10">[10]</A></SUP> Forbes sent threatening letters to Brown's backers in an attempt to get money. Failing in this effort, Forbes traveled to Washington, DC, and met with <A href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">U.S. Senators</A> <A href="/wiki/William_H._Seward" title="William H. Seward">William H. Seward</A> and <A href="/wiki/Henry_Wilson" title="Henry Wilson">Henry Wilson</A>. He denounced Brown to Seward as a "vicious man" who needed to be restrained, but did not disclose any plans for the raid. Forbes partially exposed the plan to Senator Wilson and others. Wilson wrote to <A href="/wiki/Samuel_Gridley_Howe" title="Samuel Gridley Howe">Samuel Gridley Howe</A>, a Brown backer, advising him to get Brown's backers to retrieve the weapons intended for use in Kansas. Brown's backers told him that the weapons should not be used "for other purposes, as rumor says they may be."<SUP id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-11">[11]</A></SUP> In response to warnings, Brown had to return to Kansas to shore up support and discredit Forbes. Some historians believe that this trip cost Brown valuable time and momentum.<SUP id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-12">[12]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Estimates are that at least eighty people knew about Brown's planned raid in advance. Many others had reasons to believe that Brown was contemplating a move against the South. One of those who knew was David J. Gue of <A href="/wiki/Springdale,_Iowa" title="Springdale, Iowa">Springdale, Iowa</A>. Gue was a <A href="/wiki/Quaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Quaker">Quaker</A> who believed that Brown and his men would be killed. Gue, his brother, and another man decided to warn the government "to protect Brown from the consequences of his own rashness." Gue sent an anonymous letter dated August 20, 1859 to <A href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_War" title="United States Secretary of War">Secretary of War</A> <A href="/wiki/John_B._Floyd" title="John B. Floyd">John B. Floyd</A>. The letter said that "<I>old John Brown,'</I> late of Kansas," was planning to organize a slave uprising in the South. It said that Brown had a secret agent "in an armory" in Maryland. The letter said that Brown was stockpiling weapons at a secret location in Maryland. Gue warned that Brown planned to leave Maryland and enter Virginia at Harpers Ferry. Gue acknowledged that he was afraid to disclose his identity but asked Floyd not to ignore his warning "on that account." He was hoping that Floyd would send soldiers to Harpers Ferry. He hoped that the extra security would motivate Brown to call off his plans.<SUP id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-13">[13]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Even though <A href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</A> Buchanan offered a $250 reward for Brown, Floyd did not connect the John Brown of Gue's letter to the John Brown of <A href="/wiki/Pottawatomie_County,_Kansas" title="Pottawatomie County, Kansas">Pottawatomie, Kansas</A> fame. He knew that Maryland did not have an armory (Harpers Ferry is just across the river from Maryland). Floyd figured that the letter writer was a crank and forgot about it. He later said that "a scheme of such wickedness and outrage could not be entertained by any citizen of the United States."<SUP id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-14">[14]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="The_raid">The raid</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: The raid">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="October_16">October 16</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: October 16">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<TABLE class="infobox" style="text-align:center;">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH style="text-align:center;">North American slave revolts<BR /></TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD style="text-align: center"><A href="/wiki/File:G%C3%A9n%C3%A9ral_Toussaint_Louverture.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Général Toussaint Louverture.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/G%C3%A9n%C3%A9ral_Toussaint_Louverture.jpg/140px-G%C3%A9n%C3%A9ral_Toussaint_Louverture.jpg" width="140" height="233" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/G%C3%A9n%C3%A9ral_Toussaint_Louverture.jpg/210px-G%C3%A9n%C3%A9ral_Toussaint_Louverture.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/G%C3%A9n%C3%A9ral_Toussaint_Louverture.jpg/280px-G%C3%A9n%C3%A9ral_Toussaint_Louverture.jpg 2x" data-file-width="457" data-file-height="760" /></A><BR />
<A href="/wiki/Toussaint_Louverture" title="Toussaint Louverture">Toussaint Louverture</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD style="text-align:left; font-size: 90%;" class="plainlist">
<UL>
<LI><B>1526</B> <A href="/wiki/San_Miguel_de_Guadalupe" title="San Miguel de Guadalupe">San Miguel de Guadalupe</A><BR />
(<A href="/wiki/Sapelo_Island" title="Sapelo Island">Spanish Florida</A>, Victorious)</LI>
<LI><B>c. 1570</B> <A href="/wiki/Gaspar_Yanga" title="Gaspar Yanga">Gaspar Yanga</A>'s Revolt<BR />
(<A href="/wiki/Yanga,_Veracruz" title="Yanga, Veracruz">Veracruz</A>, <A href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</A>, Victorious)</LI>
<LI><B>1712 <A href="/wiki/New_York_Slave_Revolt_of_1712" title="New York Slave Revolt of 1712">New York Slave Revolt</A></B><BR />
(<A href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">British</A> <A href="/wiki/Province_of_New_York" title="Province of New York">Province of New York</A>, Suppressed)</LI>
<LI><B>1730 <A href="/wiki/First_Maroon_War" title="First Maroon War">First Maroon War</A></B><BR />
(British <A href="/wiki/Jamaica" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</A>, Victorious)</LI>
<LI><B>1733 <A href="/wiki/1733_slave_insurrection_on_St._John" title="1733 slave insurrection on St. John">St. John Slave Revolt</A></B><BR />
(<A href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Danish</A> <A href="/wiki/Saint_John,_U.S._Virgin_Islands" title="Saint John, U.S. Virgin Islands">Saint John</A>, Suppressed)</LI>
<LI><B>1739 <A href="/wiki/Stono_Rebellion" title="Stono Rebellion">Stono Rebellion</A></B><BR />
(British <A href="/wiki/Province_of_South_Carolina" title="Province of South Carolina">Province of South Carolina</A>, Suppressed)</LI>
<LI><B>1741 <A href="/wiki/New_York_Conspiracy_of_1741" title="New York Conspiracy of 1741">New York Conspiracy</A></B><BR />
(Province of New York, Suppressed)</LI>
<LI><B>1760 <A href="/wiki/Tacky%27s_War" title="Tacky's War">Tacky's War</A></B><BR />
(British <A href="/wiki/Jamaica" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</A>, Suppressed)</LI>
<LI><B>1787 <A href="/wiki/Abaco_Slave_Revolt" title="Abaco Slave Revolt">Abaco Slave Revolt</A></B><BR />
(British <A href="/wiki/Bahamas" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahamas">Bahamas</A>, Suppressed)</LI>
<LI><B>1791 <A href="/wiki/Mina_(Louisiana)" title="Mina (Louisiana)">Mina Conspiracy</A></B><BR />
(<A href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_Spain)" title="Louisiana (New Spain)">Louisiana (New Spain)</A>, Suppressed)</LI>
<LI><B>1795 <A href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Louisiana#Pointe_Coupée_conspiracy" title="History of slavery in Louisiana">Pointe Coupée Conspiracy</A></B><BR />
(Louisiana (New Spain), Suppressed)</LI>
<LI><B>1791–1804 <A href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haitian Revolution</A></B><BR />
(<A href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">French</A> <A href="/wiki/Saint-Domingue" title="Saint-Domingue">Saint-Domingue</A>, Victorious)</LI>
<LI><B>1800 <A href="/wiki/Gabriel_Prosser" title="Gabriel Prosser">Gabriel's Rebellion</A></B><BR />
(<A href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</A>, Suppressed)</LI>
<LI><B>1803 <A href="/wiki/Igbo_Landing" title="Igbo Landing">Igbo Landing</A></B><BR />
(<A href="/wiki/St._Simons_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Simons Island">St. Simons Island</A>, <A href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</A>, Suppressed)</LI>
<LI><B>1805 <A href="/wiki/Chatham_Manor" title="Chatham Manor">Chatham Manor</A></B><BR />
(Virginia, Suppressed)</LI>
<LI><B>1811 <A href="/wiki/1811_German_Coast_Uprising" title="1811 German Coast Uprising">German Coast Uprising</A></B><BR />
(<A href="/wiki/Territory_of_Orleans" title="Territory of Orleans">Territory of Orleans</A>, Suppressed)</LI>
<LI><B>1815 <A href="/wiki/George_Boxley" title="George Boxley">George Boxley</A></B><BR />
(Virginia, Suppressed)</LI>
<LI><B>1816 <A href="/wiki/Bussa%27s_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Bussa's Rebellion">Bussa's Rebellion</A></B><BR />
(British <A href="/wiki/Barbados" title="Barbados">Barbados</A>, Suppressed)</LI>
<LI><B>1822 <A href="/wiki/Denmark_Vesey" title="Denmark Vesey">Denmark Vesey</A></B><BR />
(<A href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</A>, Suppressed)</LI>
<LI><B>1831 <A href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner's rebellion</A></B><BR />
(Virginia, Suppressed)</LI>
<LI><B>1831–1832 <A href="/wiki/Baptist_War" title="Baptist War">Baptist War</A></B><BR />
(British Jamaica, Suppressed)</LI>
<LI><B>1839 <I><A href="/wiki/United_States_v._The_Amistad" title="United States v. The Amistad">Amistad</A></I>, ship rebellion</B><BR />
(Off the <A href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuban</A> coast, Victorious)</LI>
<LI><B>1841 <I><A href="/wiki/Creole_case" title="Creole case">Creole</A></I> case, ship rebellion</B><BR />
(Off the <A href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern U.S.</A> coast, Victorious)</LI>
<LI><B>1842 <A href="/wiki/1842_Slave_Revolt_in_the_Cherokee_Nation" title="1842 Slave Revolt in the Cherokee Nation">Slave Revolt in the Cherokee Nation</A></B><BR />
(<A href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</A>, Suppressed)</LI>
<LI><B>1859 <A class="mw-selflink selflink">John Brown's Raid</A></B><BR />
(Virginia, Suppressed)</LI>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><A href="/wiki/File:JohnBrownFort2007.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/JohnBrownFort2007.jpg/170px-JohnBrownFort2007.jpg" width="170" height="113" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/JohnBrownFort2007.jpg/255px-JohnBrownFort2007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/JohnBrownFort2007.jpg/340px-JohnBrownFort2007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></A>
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A modern reproduction of the 1848 fire engine house that became known as <A href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_Fort" title="John Brown's Fort">John Brown's Fort</A>, c. 2007</DIV>
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<P>On Sunday night, October 16, 1859, Brown left four of his men behind as a rear-guard: his son, <A href="/wiki/Owen_Brown_(abolitionist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Owen Brown (abolitionist)">Owen Brown</A>, <A href="/wiki/Barclay_Coppock" title="Barclay Coppock">Barclay Coppock</A>, and Frank Meriam; he led the rest into the town of Harpers Ferry, Virginia. Brown detached a party under John Cook Jr. to capture Colonel <A href="/wiki/Lewis_Washington" title="Lewis Washington">Lewis Washington</A>, great-grandnephew of <A href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</A>, at his nearby <A href="/wiki/Beall-Air" title="Beall-Air">Beall-Air</A> estate, some of his slaves, and two relics of George Washington: a sword allegedly presented to Washington by <A href="/wiki/Frederick_the_Great" title="Frederick the Great">Frederick the Great</A> and two pistols given by <A href="/wiki/Gilbert_du_Motier,_Marquis_de_Lafayette" title="Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette">Marquis de Lafayette</A>, which Brown considered <A href="/wiki/Talisman" title="Talisman">talismans</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-nrhpinv1_15-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-nrhpinv1-15">[15]</A></SUP> The party carried out its mission and returned via the <A href="/wiki/Allstadt_House_and_Ordinary" title="Allstadt House and Ordinary">Allstadt House</A>, where they took more hostages.<SUP id="cite_ref-nrhpinv2_16-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-nrhpinv2-16">[16]</A></SUP> Brown's main party captured several watchmen and townspeople in Harpers Ferry.</P>
<P>Brown's men needed to capture the weapons and escape before word could be sent to Washington. The raid was going well for Brown's men. They cut the telegraph wire and seized a <A href="/wiki/Baltimore_and_Ohio_Railroad" title="Baltimore and Ohio Railroad">Baltimore & Ohio</A> train passing through. A free black man was the first casualty of the raid. <A href="/wiki/Hayward_Shepherd" class="mw-redirect" title="Hayward Shepherd">Hayward Shepherd</A>, an African-American baggage handler on the train, confronted the raiders; they shot and killed him.<SUP id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-17">[17]</A></SUP> For some reason, Brown let the train continue, and the conductor alerted the authorities down the line. Brown had been sure that he would win the support of local slaves in joining the rebellion, but a massive uprising did not occur, because word had not been spread about the uprising, so the slaves nearby did not know about it. Although the white townspeople soon began to fight back against the raiders, Brown's men succeeded in capturing the armory that evening.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="October_17">October 17</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: October 17">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>Army workers discovered Brown's men early on the morning of October 17. Local militia, farmers and shopkeepers surrounded the armory. When a company of militia captured the bridge across the <A href="/wiki/Potomac_River" title="Potomac River">Potomac River</A>, any route of escape for the raiders was cut off. During the day, four townspeople were killed, including the mayor. Realizing his escape was cut, Brown took nine of his captives and moved into the smaller engine house, which would come to be known as <A href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_Fort" title="John Brown's Fort">John Brown's Fort</A>. The raiders blocked entry of the windows and doors and traded sporadic gunfire with surrounding forces. At one point Brown sent out his son, Watson, and <A href="/wiki/Aaron_Dwight_Stevens" title="Aaron Dwight Stevens">Aaron Dwight Stevens</A> with a white flag, but Watson was mortally wounded and Stevens was shot and captured. The raid was rapidly failing. One of Brown's men, William H. Leeman, panicked and made an attempt to flee by swimming across the Potomac River, but he was shot and fatally injured while doing so. During the intermittent shooting, Brown's other son, Oliver, was also hit; he died after a brief period.<SUP id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-18">[18]</A></SUP></P>
<P>At around 3:00 p.m. a militia company led by Captain E.G. Alburtis arrived by train from <A href="/wiki/Martinsburg,_West_Virginia" title="Martinsburg, West Virginia">Martinsburg, Virginia</A>. Most of the militia members were Baltimore & Ohio Railroad employees. The militia forced the raiders inside the engine house. They broke into the guardroom and freed over two dozen prisoners. Eight militiamen were wounded. Alburtis said that he could have ended the raid with help from other citizens.<SUP id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-19">[19]</A></SUP></P>
<P>By 3:30 that afternoon, President <A href="/wiki/James_Buchanan" title="James Buchanan">James Buchanan</A> ordered a company of U.S. Marines (the only government troops in the immediate area) to march on Harpers Ferry under the command of <A href="/wiki/Brevet_(military)" title="Brevet (military)">Brevet Colonel</A> <A href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee" title="Robert E. Lee">Robert E. Lee</A>, <A href="/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel_(United_States)" title="Lieutenant colonel (United States)">lieutenant colonel</A> of the <A href="/wiki/5th_Cavalry_Regiment" title="5th Cavalry Regiment">2nd U.S. Cavalry Regiment</A>. Lee had been on leave from his regiment, stationed in Texas, when he was hastily called to lead the detachment and had to command it while wearing his civilian clothes.<SUP id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-20">[20]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="October_18">October 18</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: October 18">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
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<P>Lee first offered the role of attacking the engine house to the local militia units on the spot. Both militia commanders declined, and Lee turned to the Marines. On the morning of October 18, Colonel Lee sent Lt. <A href="/wiki/J._E._B._Stuart" title="J. E. B. Stuart">J. E. B. Stuart</A>, serving as a volunteer <A href="/wiki/Aide-de-camp" title="Aide-de-camp">aide-de-camp</A>, under a white flag of truce to negotiate a surrender of John Brown and his followers. Colonel Lee informed Lt. <A href="/wiki/Israel_Greene" title="Israel Greene">Israel Greene</A> that if Brown did not surrender, he was to direct the Marines in attacking the engine house. Stuart walked towards the front of the engine house where he told Brown that his men would be spared if they surrendered. Brown refused and as Stuart walked away, he signaled a "thumbs down" to Lt. Greene and his men standing nearby.</P>
<P>Soon after, Greene led a detachment of Marines to attack the engine house. Marines equipped with sledgehammers tried to break through the door, but their efforts were unsuccessful. Greene found a wooden ladder, and he and about 10 Marines used it as a battering ram to force the front doors open. Greene was the first through the door and with the assistance of <A href="/wiki/Lewis_Washington" title="Lewis Washington">Lewis Washington</A>, identified and singled out John Brown. Greene later recounted what events occurred next:</P>
<BLOCKQUOTE>
<P>Quicker than thought I brought my saber down with all my strength upon [Brown's] head. He was moving as the blow fell, and I suppose I did not strike him where I intended, for he received a deep saber cut in the back of the neck. He fell senseless on his side, then rolled over on his back. He had in his hand a short Sharpe's cavalry carbine. I think he had just fired as I reached Colonel Washington, for the Marine who followed me into the aperture made by the ladder received a bullet in the abdomen, from which he died in a few minutes. The shot might have been fired by someone else in the insurgent party, but I think it was from Brown. Instinctively as Brown fell I gave him a saber thrust in the left breast. The sword I carried was a light uniform weapon, and, either not having a point or striking something hard in Brown's accouterments, did not penetrate. The blade bent double.<SUP id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-21">[21]</A></SUP></P>
</BLOCKQUOTE>
<P>In three minutes, all of the raiders still alive were taken prisoner and the action was over.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="October_19">October 19</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: October 19">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P><A href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee" title="Robert E. Lee">Robert E. Lee</A> made a synopsis of the events that took place at <A href="/wiki/Harpers_Ferry" class="mw-redirect" title="Harpers Ferry">Harpers Ferry</A>. According to Lee's notes, Lee believed John Brown was a madman, "...the plan [raiding the Harpers Ferry Arsenal] was the attempt of a fanatic or madman." Lee also believed that the blacks in the raid were forced by Brown. "The blacks, whom he [John Brown] forced from their homes in this neighborhood, as far as I could learn, gave him no voluntary assistance." Lee attributed John Brown's "temporary success" by creating panic and confusion and by "magnifying" the number of participants involved in the raid.<SUP id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-22">[22]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Aftermath">Aftermath</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Aftermath">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <A href="/wiki/Virginia_v._John_Brown" title="Virginia v. John Brown">Virginia v. John Brown</A></DIV>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:John_brown_interior_engine_house.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/John_brown_interior_engine_house.jpg/220px-John_brown_interior_engine_house.jpg" width="220" height="178" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/John_brown_interior_engine_house.jpg/330px-John_brown_interior_engine_house.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/John_brown_interior_engine_house.jpg/440px-John_brown_interior_engine_house.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="827" /></A>
<DIV class="thumbcaption">
<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:John_brown_interior_engine_house.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
A contemporary newspaper illustration showing the interior of the engine house immediately before the door is broken down by <A href="/wiki/U.S._Marines" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Marines">U.S. Marines</A></DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:T-john-brown-last-prophecy.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="John Brown's last prophecy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/T-john-brown-last-prophecy.jpg/220px-T-john-brown-last-prophecy.jpg" width="220" height="89" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/T-john-brown-last-prophecy.jpg/330px-T-john-brown-last-prophecy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/T-john-brown-last-prophecy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="162" /></A>
<DIV class="thumbcaption">
<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:T-john-brown-last-prophecy.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
<A href="/wiki/John_Brown_(abolitionist)" title="John Brown (abolitionist)">John Brown</A> wrote his last prophecy on December 2 of 1859.</DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<P>Colonel Lee and John Stuart searched the surrounding country for fugitives who had participated in the attack. Few of Brown's associates escaped, and among those who did, some were sheltered by abolitionists in the north, including <A href="/wiki/William_Still" title="William Still">William Still</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Simmons1887_23-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Simmons1887-23">[23]</A></SUP> Brown was taken to the court house in nearby <A href="/wiki/Charles_Town,_West_Virginia" title="Charles Town, West Virginia">Charles Town</A> for trial. He was found guilty of <A href="/wiki/Treason" title="Treason">treason</A> against the Commonwealth of Virginia and was hanged on December 2. (This execution was witnessed by the actor <A href="/wiki/John_Wilkes_Booth" title="John Wilkes Booth">John Wilkes Booth</A>, who would later assassinate President <A href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</A>.) On the day of his execution, Brown wrote his last testament, which said,</P>
<BLOCKQUOTE>
<P>'I John Brown am now quite <I>certain</I> that the crimes of this <I>guilty, land: will</I> never be purged <I>away;</I> but with Blood. I had <I>as I now think: vainly</I> flattered myself that without <I>very much</I> bloodshed; it might be done.'<SUP id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-24">[24]</A></SUP></P>
</BLOCKQUOTE>
<P>Four other raiders were executed on December 16 and two more on March 16, 1860. In his last speech, at his trial, he said to the court:</P>
<BLOCKQUOTE>
<P>'...had I so interfered in behalf of the rich, the powerful, the intelligent, the so-called great, or in behalf of any of their friends, either father, mother, brother, sister, wife, or children, or any of that class, and suffered and sacrificed what I have in this interference, it would have been all right; and every man in this court would have deemed it an act worthy of reward rather than punishment.'<SUP id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-25">[25]</A></SUP></P>
</BLOCKQUOTE>
<P>Southerners had a mixed attitude towards their slaves. Many southern whites lived in fear of a slave insurrection. Paradoxically, whites claimed that slaves were well treated and content in bondage. After the raid southerners initially lived in fear of slave uprisings and invasion by armed abolitionists. The South's reaction entered the second phase at around the time of Brown's execution. Southerners were relieved that no slaves had volunteered to help Brown. Southerners felt vindicated in their claims that slaves were content. After Northerners had expressed admiration for Brown's motives, with some treating him as a martyr, Southern opinion evolved into what <A href="/wiki/James_M._McPherson" title="James M. McPherson">James M. McPherson</A> called "unreasoning fury."<SUP id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-26">[26]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The first Northern reaction among antislavery advocates to Brown's Raid was one of baffled reproach. <A href="/wiki/William_Lloyd_Garrison" title="William Lloyd Garrison">William Lloyd Garrison</A> called the raid "misguided, wild, and apparently insane." But through the trial and his execution, Brown was transformed into a <A href="/wiki/Martyr" title="Martyr">martyr</A>. <A href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Henry David Thoreau</A>, in <I><A href="/wiki/A_Plea_for_Captain_John_Brown" title="A Plea for Captain John Brown">A Plea for Captain John Brown</A></I>, said, "I think that for once the Sharp's rifles and the revolvers were employed in a righteous cause. The tools were in the hands of one who could use them," and said of Brown, "He has a spark of divinity in him."<SUP id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-27">[27]</A></SUP> Though "Harper's Ferry was insane," wrote the religious weekly the <I>Independent,</I> "the controlling motive of his demonstration was sublime." To the South, Brown was a murderer who wanted to deprive them of their property. The North "has sanctioned and applauded theft, murder, and treason," said <I>De Bow's Review.</I><SUP id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-28">[28]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-29">[29]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Casualties">Casualties</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Casualties">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<H3><SPAN id="John_Brown.27s_raiders"></SPAN><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="John_Brown's_raiders">John Brown's raiders</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: John Brown's raiders">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
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<CAPTION style="padding-bottom:0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold"><A href="/wiki/Timeline_of_events_leading_to_the_American_Civil_War" title="Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War">Events leading to<BR />
the American Civil War</A></CAPTION>
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<TD style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Northwest_Ordinance" title="Northwest Ordinance">Northwest Ordinance</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kentucky_and_Virginia_Resolutions" title="Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions">Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Battle_of_Negro_Fort" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Negro Fort">Battle of Negro Fort</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Missouri_Compromise" title="Missouri Compromise">Missouri Compromise</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tariff_of_Abominations" title="Tariff of Abominations">Tariff of 1828</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner's slave rebellion</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Nullification_Crisis" title="Nullification Crisis">Nullification Crisis</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_v._The_Amistad" title="United States v. The Amistad">The <I>Amistad</I></A></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Prigg_v._Pennsylvania" title="Prigg v. Pennsylvania">Prigg v. Pennsylvania</A></I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Texas_annexation" title="Texas annexation">Texas annexation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wilmot_Proviso" title="Wilmot Proviso">Wilmot Proviso</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Manifest destiny</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Nashville_Convention" title="Nashville Convention">Nashville Convention</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1850" title="Compromise of 1850">Compromise of 1850</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">Fugitive Slave Act of 1850</A></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Uncle_Tom%27s_Cabin" title="Uncle Tom's Cabin">Uncle Tom's Cabin</A></I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kansas%E2%80%93Nebraska_Act" title="Kansas–Nebraska Act">Kansas–Nebraska Act</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ostend_Manifesto" title="Ostend Manifesto">Ostend Manifesto</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Caning_of_Charles_Sumner" title="Caning of Charles Sumner">Caning of Charles Sumner</A></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</A></I></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/The_Impending_Crisis_of_the_South" title="The Impending Crisis of the South">The Impending Crisis of the South</A></I></LI>
<LI><A class="mw-selflink selflink">Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_election,_1860" title="United States presidential election, 1860">1860 presidential election</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Crittenden_Compromise" title="Crittenden Compromise">Crittenden Compromise</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America#Seceding_states" title="Confederate States of America">Secession of Southern States</A></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Star_of_the_West" title="Star of the West">Star of the West</A></I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Corwin_Amendment" title="Corwin Amendment">Corwin Amendment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Sumter" title="Battle of Fort Sumter">Battle of Fort Sumter</A></LI>
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<P><B>Killed</B></P>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/John_Henry_Kagi" title="John Henry Kagi">John Henry Kagi</A> (Shot and killed while crossing a river. First buried in common grave at Harpers Ferry; reburied 1899 in a common grave near John Brown at <A href="/wiki/North_Elba,_New_York" title="North Elba, New York">North Elba, New York</A>.)</LI>
<LI>Jeremiah G. Anderson (At age 26, was mortally wounded and killed by a Marine's bayonet during the final assault on the engine house. Body claimed by Winchester Medical College as a teaching cadaver; last resting place unknown.)</LI>
<LI>William Thompson (First buried in common grave at Harpers Ferry; reburied 1899 in a common grave near John Brown at North Elba, New York.)</LI>
<LI>Dauphin Thompson (Killed in the storming of the engine house. First buried in common grave at Harpers Ferry; reburied 1899 in a common grave near John Brown at North Elba, New York.)</LI>
<LI>Oliver Brown (At age 21, the youngest of John Brown’s three sons to participate in the action, he was mortally wounded on the 17th inside the engine house and died the next day. He was first buried in common grave at Harpers Ferry; and reburied in 1899 in a common grave near John Brown at North Elba, New York.)</LI>
<LI>Watson Brown (At age 24, was mortally wounded outside the engine house while carrying a white flag to negotiate with the opposing militia; he died two days later. As his body was claimed by Winchester Medical College as a teaching cadaver, Union troops burned the college in an attack during the Civil War. Brown was reburied in 1882 in a grave near his father's in North Elba, New York.)</LI>
<LI>Stewart Taylor. Uxbridge, Ontario, Canada (First buried in common grave at Harpers Ferry; reburied 1899 in a common grave near John Brown at North Elba, New York.)</LI>
<LI>William Leeman (Shot while trying to escape across the Potomac River. First buried in common grave at Harpers Ferry; reburied 1899 in a common grave near John Brown at North Elba, New York.)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lewis_Sheridan_Leary" title="Lewis Sheridan Leary">Lewis Sheridan Leary</A> (A 24-year-old free black, he was mortally wounded while trying to escape across the <A href="/wiki/Shenandoah_River" title="Shenandoah River">Shenandoah River</A>. He was stationed in the rifle factory with Kagi. Alleged to be buried at John Brown gravesite at North Elba, New York. <A href="/wiki/Cenotaph" title="Cenotaph">Cenotaph</A> memorial in <A href="/wiki/Oberlin,_Ohio" title="Oberlin, Ohio">Oberlin, Ohio</A>.)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Dangerfield_Newby" title="Dangerfield Newby">Dangerfield Newby</A> (At about 35, he was born into slavery, with a white father who was not his master. He was given permission to move to <A href="/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</A> along with his mother and siblings, but when he tried to gain freedom for his wife and children, their master refused. This inspired Newby to join Brown’s raid. He was the first raider killed. (His body was mutilated; for example, his ears were cut off by someone in the crowd as souvenirs.) First he was buried at Harpers Ferry; reburied in 1899 in a common grave near John Brown at North Elba, New York.)</LI>
</UL>
<P><B>Captured</B></P>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/John_Brown_(abolitionist)" title="John Brown (abolitionist)">John Brown</A> (also wounded) Tried, convicted and executed by hanging December 2, 1859, in nearby <A href="/wiki/Charles_Town,_West_Virginia" title="Charles Town, West Virginia">Charles Town</A>.</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Aaron_Dwight_Stevens" title="Aaron Dwight Stevens">Aaron Dwight Stevens</A> (shot and captured October 18. Hanged March 16, 1860 in Charles Town. First buried at <A href="/wiki/Eagleswood_Mansion" class="mw-redirect" title="Eagleswood Mansion">Eagleswood Mansion</A> <A href="/wiki/New_Jersey" title="New Jersey">New Jersey</A>; reburied 1899 in a common grave near John Brown at <A href="/wiki/North_Elba,_New_York" title="North Elba, New York">North Elba, New York</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-NYT1899_30-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-NYT1899-30">[30]</A></SUP>)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Edwin_Coppock" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwin Coppock">Edwin Coppock</A> (At age 24, he shot and killed the mayor of Harpers Ferry, <A href="/w/index.php?title=Fontaine_Beckham&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fontaine Beckham (page does not exist)">Fontaine Beckham</A>, during the raid. He was later executed at Charles Town on December 16, 1859 and was buried in <A href="/wiki/Salem,_Ohio" title="Salem, Ohio">Salem, Ohio</A>.)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/John_Anthony_Copeland,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="John Anthony Copeland, Jr.">John Anthony Copeland, Jr.</A> (A 25-year-old free black, he joined the raiders along with his uncle <A href="/wiki/Lewis_Leary" class="mw-redirect" title="Lewis Leary">Lewis Leary</A>. He was captured during the raid and executed on December 16, 1859, in Charles Town. The body was claimed by Winchester Medical College as a teaching cadaver. The last resting place is unknown. Cenotaph memorial in Oberlin, Ohio.)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Shields_Green" title="Shields Green">Shields Green</A> (At about age 23, Green was an escaped slave from <A href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</A>; captured in the engine house on October 18, 1859 and hanged December 16, 1859 in Charles Town. The body was claimed by Winchester Medical College as a teaching cadaver. The last resting place is unknown. Cenotaph memorial in Oberlin, Ohio.)</LI>
<LI>John Edwin Cook (Escaped into <A href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</A> but soon captured. Hanged December 16, 1859 in Charles Town. Body sent to New York.)</LI>
<LI>Albert E. Hazlett (Escaped into Pennsylvania but soon captured. Hanged March 16, 1860. Buried at <A href="/wiki/Eagleswood_Mansion" class="mw-redirect" title="Eagleswood Mansion">Eagleswood Mansion</A> in <A href="/wiki/Perth_Amboy,_New_Jersey" title="Perth Amboy, New Jersey">Perth Amboy, New Jersey</A>;<SUP id="cite_ref-NYT1899_30-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-NYT1899-30">[30]</A></SUP> reburied 1899 in a common grave near John Brown at North Elba, New York.)</LI>
</UL>
<P>Four raiders escaped and were captured about six months later.</P>
<P><B>Escaped and never captured</B></P>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Barclay_Coppock" title="Barclay Coppock">Barclay Coppock</A> (Died during US Civil War.)</LI>
<LI>Charles Plummer Tidd (Died during US Civil War.)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Osborne_Perry_Anderson" title="Osborne Perry Anderson">Osborne Perry Anderson</A> (Served as a soldier in Union Army, and wrote a memoir about the raid. Died 1870)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Owen_Brown_(abolitionist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Owen Brown (abolitionist)">Owen Brown</A> (Served as an officer in Union Army. Died January 8, 1889. Pasadena, California (Brown's Mountain))</LI>
<LI>Francis Jackson Meriam (Served in the army as a captain in the 3rd South Carolina Colored Infantry.)</LI>
</UL>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Others">Others</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Others">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P><B>Civilians</B></P>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Shepherd_Heyward" title="Shepherd Heyward">Shepherd Heyward</A> (Free African-American B&O baggage master; killed. Buried in African-American Cemetery on Rt. 11 in Winchester, Va., grave is unmarked)<SUP id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-31">[31]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI>Thomas Boerly (Townsperson; killed.)</LI>
<LI>George W. Turner (Townsperson; killed.)</LI>
<LI>Fontaine Beckham (Town mayor; killed.)</LI>
<LI>A slave belonging to Col. Washington was killed.</LI>
<LI>A slave belonging to hostage John Allstad was killed.</LI>
</UL>
<P>(Some claim the two slaves voluntarily joined Brown's raiders, others say Brown forced them to fight. Regardless, one was killed trying to escape across the Potomac River, the other was wounded and later died in the Charles Town jail.)</P>
<P>9 other civilians were wounded.</P>
<P><B>Marines</B></P>
<UL>
<LI>Private Luke Quinn (Killed during the storming of the engine house.) Buried in Harpers Ferry Catholic Cemetery on Rte. 340.</LI>
<LI>Private Matthew Ruppert (Shot in the face during the storming of the engine house; survived.)</LI>
</UL>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Liberated_slaves">Liberated slaves</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Liberated slaves">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>Mayor Beckham's Will Book called for the liberation of Isaac Gilbert, his wife, and three children upon his death. When Edwin Coppock killed Beckham the five slaves were free.<SUP id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-32">[32]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_incidents_of_civil_unrest_in_the_United_States" title="List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States">List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States</A></LI>
</UL>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Citations">Citations</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 25em; -webkit-column-width: 25em; column-width: 25em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<OL class="references">
<LI id="cite_note-history.com-1"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-history.com_1-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-history.com_1-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/john-browns-raid-on-harpers-ferry">"John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry"</A>. <I>History.com</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">1 May</SPAN> 2015</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History.com&rft.atitle=John+Brown%E2%80%99s+raid+on+Harpers+Ferry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Fthis-day-in-history%2Fjohn-browns-raid-on-harpers-ferry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown%27s+raid+on+Harpers+Ferry" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-2"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-2"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">In many books the town is called "Harper's Ferry." For example, "Col. Robert E. Lee's Report Concerning the Attack at Harper's Ferry, October 19, 1859,"; Horace Greeley, <I>The American Conflict: A History of the Great Rebellion in the United States of America, 1860–64. Volume: 1.</I> (1866), p. 279; French Ensor Chadwick, <I>Causes of the Civil War, 1859–1861</I> (1906) p. 74; Allan Nevins, <I>The Emergence of Lincoln</I> (1950) vol 2 ch 3; James M. McPherson, <I>Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era</I> (1988), p. 201; Stephen W. Sears, <I>Landscape Turned Red: The Battle of Antietam</I> (2003) p. 116.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-3"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-3"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Hoffman, Colonel Jon T., <I>USMC: A Complete History</I>, Marine Corps Association, Quantico, Virginia, (2002), p. 84.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-4"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-4"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Taylor, Marian (2004). <I>Harriet Tubman: Antislavery Activist</I> (New ed.). Chelsea House Publishers. pp. 68–69. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7910-8340-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7910-8340-6">978-0-7910-8340-6</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Harriet+Tubman%3A+Antislavery+Activist&rft.pages=68-69&rft.edition=New&rft.pub=Chelsea+House+Publishers&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-7910-8340-6&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Marian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown%27s+raid+on+Harpers+Ferry" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-5"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-5"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.johnbrown.org">"The Kennedy Farmhouse"</A>, John Brown website</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-6"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-6"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/brown/peopleevents/pande09.html">"The Harpers Ferry Raid"</A>. pbs.org<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2014-12-09</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Harpers+Ferry+Raid&rft.pub=pbs.org&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Famex%2Fbrown%2Fpeopleevents%2Fpande09.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown%27s+raid+on+Harpers+Ferry" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-7"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-7"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">James M. McPherson, <I>Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era</I> (2003) p. 205</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-8"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-8"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">National Park Service History Series. <I>John Brown's Raid</I> (2009), pp. 22–30.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-9"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-9"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Allan Nevins, <I>The Emergence of Lincoln: Prelude to Civil War, 1859–1861</I> (1950), vol. 4, pp. 72–73</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-10"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-10"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">National Park Service History Series. <I>John Brown's Raid</I> (2009), p. 16</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-11"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-11"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Oates (1984), p. 248</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-12"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-12"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">National Park Service. <I>John Brown's Raid</I> (2009), p. 16</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-13"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-13"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Oates (1984), pp. 284–85</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-14"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-14"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Oates (1984), p. 285</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-nrhpinv1-15"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-nrhpinv1_15-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Ted McGee (April 5, 1973). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130203074855/http://www.wvculture.org/shpo/nr/pdf/jefferson/73001914.pdf">"National Register of Historic Places Nomination: Beall-Air"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. National Park Service. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wvculture.org/shpo/nr/pdf/jefferson/73001914.pdf">the original</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(pdf)</SPAN> on February 3, 2013</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=National+Register+of+Historic+Places+Nomination%3A+Beall-Air&rft.date=1973-04-05&rft.au=Ted+McGee&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wvculture.org%2Fshpo%2Fnr%2Fpdf%2Fjefferson%2F73001914.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown%27s+raid+on+Harpers+Ferry" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-nrhpinv2-16"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-nrhpinv2_16-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Frances D. Ruth (July 1984). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wvculture.org/shpo/nr/pdf/jefferson/85000767.pdf">"National Register of Historic Places Nomination: Allstadt House and Ordinary"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(pdf)</SPAN>. National Park Service</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=National+Register+of+Historic+Places+Nomination%3A+Allstadt+House+and+Ordinary&rft.date=1984-07&rft.au=Frances+D.+Ruth&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wvculture.org%2Fshpo%2Fnr%2Fpdf%2Fjefferson%2F85000767.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown%27s+raid+on+Harpers+Ferry" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-17"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-17"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Horton, James Oliver; <A href="/wiki/Lois_Horton" title="Lois Horton">Lois E. Horton</A> (2006). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uUleEW07AvgC&pg=PA162&lpg=PA162"><I>Slavery and the Making of America</I></A>. Oxford University Press USA. p. 162. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195304510" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195304510">978-0195304510</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+and+the+Making+of+America&rft.pages=162&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press+USA&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0195304510&rft.aulast=Horton&rft.aufirst=James+Oliver&rft.au=Lois+E.+Horton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuUleEW07AvgC%26pg%3DPA162%26lpg%3DPA162&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown%27s+raid+on+Harpers+Ferry" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-18"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-18"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book"><A href="/wiki/Horace_Greeley" title="Horace Greeley">Greeley, Horace</A> (1864). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=b66NS2rUMIsC&pg=PA292&lpg=PA292&dq=William+H.+Leeman#v=onepage&q=William%20H.%20Leeman&f=false"><I>The American Conflict: A History:Part One</I></A>. p. 292. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781417908288" title="Special:BookSources/9781417908288">9781417908288</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+American+Conflict%3A+A+History%3APart+One&rft.pages=292&rft.date=1864&rft.isbn=9781417908288&rft.aulast=Greeley&rft.aufirst=Horace&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3Db66NS2rUMIsC%26pg%3DPA292%26lpg%3DPA292%26dq%3DWilliam%2BH.%2BLeeman%23v%3Donepage%26q%3DWilliam%2520H.%2520Leeman%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown%27s+raid+on+Harpers+Ferry" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-19"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-19"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">National Park Service History Series. <I>John Brown's Raid</I> (2009), pp. 49–50</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-20"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-20"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Emory M. Thomas, <I>Robert E. Lee: A Biography</I> (1995) pp.180</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-21"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-21"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Israel Green, <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/jbrown/igreen.html">Eyewitness Account</A>, University of Virginia</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-22"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-22"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Col. Robert E. Lee, <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/FTRIALS/johnbrown/leereport.html">Report to the Adjutant General Concerning the Attack at Harper's Ferry</A>, University of Missouri Kansas City, Law School</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Simmons1887-23"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Simmons1887_23-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Simmons, William J., and Henry McNeal Turner. Men of Mark: Eminent, Progressive and Rising. GM Rowell & Company, 1887. p. 160</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-24"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-24"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Oates 1984, p. 351</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-25"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-25"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Horowitz 2011, p. 212</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-26"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-26"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="/wiki/James_M._McPherson" title="James M. McPherson">James M. McPherson</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/Battle_Cry_of_Freedom_(book)" title="Battle Cry of Freedom (book)">Battle Cry of Freedom</A></I>. New York: Oxford University Press (1988), pp. 207–08.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-27"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-27"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><I>Norton Anthology of American Literature,</I> Volume B. p. 2057.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-28"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-28"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Reynolds, <I>John Brown</I> (2006), p. 340</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-29"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-29"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">James M. McPherson, <I>Battle cry of freedom: the Civil War era</I> (2003) p. 210</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-NYT1899-30"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-NYT1899_30-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-NYT1899_30-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">"John Brown's Men Disinterred". <I>New York Times</I>. August 29, 1899.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=John+Brown%27s+Men+Disinterred.&rft.date=1899-08-29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown%27s+raid+on+Harpers+Ferry" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN> <SPAN style="display:none;font-size:100%" class="error citation-comment"><CODE style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">|access-date=</CODE> requires <CODE style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">|url=</CODE> (<A href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#accessdate_missing_url" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</A>)</SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-31"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-31"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="/wiki/Stephen_Vincent_Benet" class="mw-redirect" title="Stephen Vincent Benet">Stephen Vincent Benet</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_Body_(poem)" title="John Brown's Body (poem)">John Brown's Body</A>.</I> New York. Rinehart & Co. (1927), p. 33</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-32"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-32"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Stephen B. Oates (1984). <I>To Purge this Land with Blood</I>, p. 296</SPAN></LI>
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<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Bibliography">Bibliography</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
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<TD style="padding-top:0.4em;line-height:1.2em"><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:LIBRARY" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:LIBRARY">Library resources</A> about<BR />
<B>John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry</B>
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<LI><A class="external text" href="//tools.wmflabs.org/ftl/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=John+Brown%26%2339%3Bs+raid+on+Harpers+Ferry&library=OLBP">Online books</A></LI>
<LI><A class="external text" href="//tools.wmflabs.org/ftl/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=John+Brown%26%2339%3Bs+raid+on+Harpers+Ferry">Resources in your library</A></LI>
<LI><A class="external text" href="//tools.wmflabs.org/ftl/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=John+Brown%26%2339%3Bs+raid+on+Harpers+Ferry&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</A></LI>
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<UL>
<LI>Earle, Jonathan. <I>John Brown's Raid on Harpers Ferry: A Brief History with Documents</I> (2008) <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RsfO24SuhcIC&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22harper%27s+ferry%22&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=1&as_miny_is=2000&as_maxm_is=12&as_maxy_is=2009&num=30&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES">excerpt and text search</A></LI>
<LI>Field, Ron. <I>Avenging Angel; John Brown's Raid on Harpers Ferry 1859</I> (2012). Osprey Raid Series #36. Osprey Publishing. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781849087575" title="Special:BookSources/9781849087575">9781849087575</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/George_MacDonald_Fraser" title="George MacDonald Fraser">Fraser, George MacDonald</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/Flashman_and_the_Angel_of_the_Lord" title="Flashman and the Angel of the Lord">Flashman and the Angel of the Lord</A></I> (1994)</LI>
<LI>Lee, Robert E. "Col. Robert E. Lee's Report Concerning the Attack at Harper's Ferry, October 19, 1859" <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/FTRIALS/johnbrown/leereport.html">online</A></LI>
<LI>Horwitz, Tony. <I>Midnight Rising: John Brown and the Raid That Sparked the Civil War</I> (2011) <A href="/wiki/Henry_Holt_and_Company" title="Henry Holt and Company">Henry Holt and Company</A></LI>
<LI>Mason, J.M. "Senate Select Committee Report on the Harper’s Ferry Invasion, June 15, 1860" <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wvculture.org/history/jbexhibit/masonreport.html">online</A></LI>
<LI>Nalty, Bernard C. <I>The United States Marines at Harpers Ferry and in the Civil War</I> (1959) <A href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_History_Division" title="United States Marine Corps History Division">History & Museums Division</A>, United States Marine Corps. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tecom.usmc.mil/HD/PDF_Files/Pubs/United%20States%20Marines%20at%20Harpers%20Ferry%20and%20in%20the%20Civil%20War%20PCN%2019000410300.pdf">online</A></LI>
<LI>National Park Service History Series. <I>John Brown's Raid</I>, Virginia Beach, VA: The Dunning Company Publishers (2009)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Allan_Nevins" title="Allan Nevins">Nevins, Allan</A>. <I>The Emergence of Lincoln: Prelude to Civil War, 1859–1861</I> (1950), vol 4 of The Ordeal of the Union, esp ch 3 pp 70–97</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Stephen_B._Oates" title="Stephen B. Oates">Oates, Stephen B.</A> <I>To Purge this Land with Blood: A Biography of John Brown</I> (1984). Amherst, MA: The University of Massachusetts Press.</LI>
<LI>Potter, David M. <I>The Impending Crisis: 1848–1861</I> (1976) pp 356–84; Pulitzer Prize winning history</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/David_S._Reynolds" title="David S. Reynolds">Reynolds, David S.</A> <I>John Brown, Abolitionist: The Man Who Killed Slavery, Sparked the Civil War, and Seeded Civil Rights</I> (2006)</LI>
<LI>Villard, Oswald Garrison. <I>John Brown, 1800–1859: A Biography Fifty Years After</I> (1910) 738 pages, <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JVZ9Xn_qY4MC&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:john+intitle:brown+inauthor:villard&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=1&as_miny_is=2009&as_maxm_is=12&as_maxy_is=2009&num=30&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES">full text online</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Emory_M._Thomas" title="Emory M. Thomas">Thomas, Emory M.</A> <I>Robert E. Lee: A Biography</I> (1995). New York: W.W. Norton & Company.</LI>
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<LI><CITE class="citation web">Michael E. Ruane (October 14, 2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/10/14/AR2009101402520.html">"150 Years Later, John Brown's Failed Slave Revolt Marches On"</A>. <I>The Washington Post</I>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=150+Years+Later%2C+John+Brown%27s+Failed+Slave+Revolt+Marches+On&rft.date=2009-10-14&rft.au=Michael+E.+Ruane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2009%2F10%2F14%2FAR2009101402520.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Brown%27s+raid+on+Harpers+Ferry" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://monthlyreview.org/091012bisson.php">John Brown – 150 Years After Harpers Ferry</A> by Terry Bisson, <I><A href="/wiki/Monthly_Review" title="Monthly Review">Monthly Review</A></I>, October 2009</LI>
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<P><SPAN style="font-size: small;"><SPAN id="coordinates"><A href="/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system" title="Geographic coordinate system">Coordinates</A>: <SPAN class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><A class="external text" href="//tools.wmflabs.org/geohack/geohack.php?pagename=John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry&params=39_19_23_N_77_43_49_W_"><SPAN class="geo-default"><SPAN class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><SPAN class="latitude">39°19′23″N</SPAN> <SPAN class="longitude">77°43′49″W</SPAN></SPAN></SPAN><SPAN class="geo-multi-punct"> / </SPAN><SPAN class="geo-nondefault"><SPAN class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">39.32306°N 77.73028°W</SPAN><SPAN style="display:none"> / <SPAN class="geo">39.32306; -77.73028</SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></A></SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></P>
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document_title: John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry

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question_text: who led the soldiers in ending the raid on the harper's ferry arsenal

question_tokens: who led the soldiers in ending the raid on the harper 's ferry arsenal