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<H1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Haber process</H1>			<DIV id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content">
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Fritz_Haber.png" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Fritz_Haber.png/220px-Fritz_Haber.png" width="220" height="311" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Fritz_Haber.png 1.5x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="396" /></A>
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<A href="/wiki/Fritz_Haber" title="Fritz Haber">Fritz Haber</A>, 1918</DIV>
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<P>The <B>Haber process</B>, also called the <B>Haber–Bosch process</B>, is an artificial <A href="/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation">nitrogen fixation</A> process and is the main industrial procedure for the production of <A href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</A> today.<SUP id="cite_ref-Appl_1-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Appl-1">[1]</A></SUP> It is named after its inventors, the German chemists <A href="/wiki/Fritz_Haber" title="Fritz Haber">Fritz Haber</A> and <A href="/wiki/Carl_Bosch" title="Carl Bosch">Carl Bosch</A>, who developed it in the first half of the 20th century. The process converts atmospheric <A href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</A> (N<SUB>2</SUB>) to ammonia (NH<SUB>3</SUB>) by a reaction with <A href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</A> (H<SUB>2</SUB>) using a metal catalyst under high temperatures and pressures:</P>
<DL>
<DD>N<SUB>2</SUB> + 3 H<SUB>2</SUB> → 2 NH<SUB>3</SUB><SPAN class="nowrap">     </SPAN>(Δ<I>H°</I> = −91.8 kJ) => (Δ<I>H°</I> = −45.8 kJ·<A href="/wiki/Mole_(unit)" title="Mole (unit)">mol</A><SUP>−1</SUP>)</DD>
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<P>Before the development of the Haber process, ammonia had been difficult to produce on an industrial scale<SUP id="cite_ref-Smil_2004_Enriching_2-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Smil_2004_Enriching-2">[2]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-hager_3-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-hager-3">[3]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-4">[4]</A></SUP> with early methods such as the <A href="/wiki/Birkeland%E2%80%93Eyde_process" title="Birkeland–Eyde process">Birkeland–Eyde process</A> and <A href="/wiki/Frank%E2%80%93Caro_process" title="Frank–Caro process">Frank–Caro process</A> all being highly inefficient.</P>
<P>Although the Haber process is mainly used to produce <A href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">fertilizer</A> today, during <A href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</A> it provided <A href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</A> with a source of ammonia for the production of explosives, compensating for the Allied trade blockade on <A href="/wiki/Nitratine" title="Nitratine">Chilean saltpeter</A>.</P>
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<H2>Contents</H2>
<SPAN class="toctoggle"> [<A role="button" tabindex="0" class="togglelink">hide</A>] </SPAN></DIV>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><A href="#History"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">History</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><A href="#Process"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Process</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><A href="#Sources_of_hydrogen"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Sources of hydrogen</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><A href="#Reaction_rate_and_equilibrium"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Reaction rate and equilibrium</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><A href="#Catalysts"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Catalysts</SPAN></A></LI>
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</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><A href="#Economic_and_environmental_aspects"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Economic and environmental aspects</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><A href="#See_also"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">See also</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><A href="#References"><SPAN class="tocnumber">5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">References</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><A href="#External_links"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">External links</SPAN></A></LI>
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<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="History">History</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Haber_process&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/History_of_the_Haber_process" title="History of the Haber process">History of the Haber process</A></DIV>
<P>Throughout the 19th century the demand for nitrates and ammonia for use as fertilizers and industrial feedstocks had been steadily increasing. The main source was mining <A href="/wiki/Niter" title="Niter">niter</A> deposits. At the beginning of the 20th century it was being predicted that these reserves could not satisfy future demand<SUP id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-5">[5]</A></SUP> and research into new potential sources of ammonia became more important. The obvious source was atmospheric nitrogen (N<SUB>2</SUB>), comprising nearly 80% of the air, however N<SUB>2</SUB> is exceptionally stable and will not readily react with other chemicals. Converting N<SUB>2</SUB> into ammonia posed a challenge for chemists globally.</P>
<P>Haber, with his assistant <A href="/wiki/Robert_Le_Rossignol" title="Robert Le Rossignol">Robert Le Rossignol</A>, developed the high-pressure devices and <A href="/wiki/Catalysts" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalysts">catalysts</A> needed to demonstrate the Haber process at laboratory scale.<SUP id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-6">[6]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-7">[7]</A></SUP> They demonstrated their process in the summer of 1909 by producing ammonia from air, drop by drop, at the rate of about 125 ml (4 US fl oz) per hour. The process was purchased by the German chemical company <A href="/wiki/BASF" title="BASF">BASF</A>, which assigned <A href="/wiki/Carl_Bosch" title="Carl Bosch">Carl Bosch</A> the task of scaling up Haber's tabletop machine to industrial-level production.<SUP id="cite_ref-hager_3-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-hager-3">[3]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-8">[8]</A></SUP> He succeeded in 1910. Haber and Bosch were later awarded <A href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel prizes</A>, in 1918 and 1931 respectively, for their work in overcoming the chemical and engineering problems of large-scale, continuous-flow, high-pressure technology.<SUP id="cite_ref-Hager_9-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Hager-9">[9]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Ammonia was first manufactured using the Haber process on an industrial scale in 1913 in BASF's <A href="/wiki/Ludwigshafen#Oppau" title="Ludwigshafen">Oppau</A> plant in Germany, reaching 20 tonnes per day the following year.<SUP id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-10">[10]</A></SUP> During <A href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</A>, the production of <A href="/wiki/Munitions" class="mw-redirect" title="Munitions">munitions</A> required large amounts of nitrate. The Allies had access to large <A href="/wiki/Sodium_nitrate" title="Sodium nitrate">sodium nitrate</A> deposits in <A href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</A> (Chile saltpetre) controlled by British companies. Germany had no such resources, so the Haber process proved essential to the German war effort.<SUP id="cite_ref-Hager_9-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Hager-9">[9]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-ny_times_11-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-ny_times-11">[11]</A></SUP> Synthetic ammonia from the Haber process was used for the production of <A href="/wiki/Nitric_acid" title="Nitric acid">nitric acid</A>, a precursor to the nitrates used in explosives.</P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Process">Process</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Haber_process&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Process">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Ammoniak_Reaktor_BASF.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Ammoniak_Reaktor_BASF.jpg/170px-Ammoniak_Reaktor_BASF.jpg" width="170" height="227" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Ammoniak_Reaktor_BASF.jpg/255px-Ammoniak_Reaktor_BASF.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Ammoniak_Reaktor_BASF.jpg/340px-Ammoniak_Reaktor_BASF.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1999" /></A>
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A historical (1921) high-pressure steel reactor for production of ammonia via the Haber process is displayed at the <A href="/wiki/Karlsruhe_Institute_of_Technology" title="Karlsruhe Institute of Technology">Karlsruhe Institute of Technology</A>, Germany.</DIV>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Ammoniakreaktor_MS.svg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Ammoniakreaktor_MS.svg/170px-Ammoniakreaktor_MS.svg.png" width="170" height="227" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Ammoniakreaktor_MS.svg/255px-Ammoniakreaktor_MS.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Ammoniakreaktor_MS.svg/340px-Ammoniakreaktor_MS.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="683" /></A>
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scheme of ammoniac reactor</DIV>
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<P>This conversion is typically conducted at 15–25 <A href="/wiki/Pascal_(unit)" title="Pascal (unit)">MPa</A> (150–250 <A href="/wiki/Atmosphere_(unit)" title="Atmosphere (unit)">atm</A>; 2,200–3,600 <A href="/wiki/Pounds_per_square_inch" title="Pounds per square inch">psi</A>) and between 400–500 °C (752–932 °F), as the gases (nitrogen and hydrogen) are passed over four beds of <A href="/wiki/Catalyst" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalyst">catalyst</A>, with cooling between each pass so as to maintain a reasonable <A href="/wiki/Equilibrium_constant" title="Equilibrium constant">equilibrium constant</A>. On each pass only about 15% conversion occurs, but any unreacted gases are recycled, and eventually an overall conversion of 97% is achieved.<SUP id="cite_ref-Appl_1-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Appl-1">[1]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The steam reforming, shift conversion, carbon dioxide removal, and methanation steps each operate at pressures of about 2.5–3.5 MPa (25–35 bar; 360–510 psi), and the ammonia synthesis loop operates at pressures ranging from 6–18 MPa (60–180 bar; 870–2,610 psi), depending upon which proprietary process is used.<SUP id="cite_ref-Appl_1-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Appl-1">[1]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Sources_of_hydrogen">Sources of hydrogen</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Haber_process&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Sources of hydrogen">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>The major source of hydrogen is <A href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</A> from <A href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</A>. The conversion, <A href="/wiki/Steam_reforming" title="Steam reforming">steam reforming</A>, is conducted with steam in a high temperature and pressure tube inside a reformer with a nickel catalyst, separating the carbon and hydrogen atoms in the natural gas.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Reaction_rate_and_equilibrium">Reaction rate and equilibrium</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Haber_process&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Reaction rate and equilibrium">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>Nitrogen (N<SUB>2</SUB>) is very unreactive because the <A href="/wiki/Molecules" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecules">molecules</A> are held together by strong <A href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">triple bonds</A>. The Haber process relies on catalysts that accelerate the scission of this triple bond.</P>
<P>Two opposing considerations are relevant to this synthesis: the position of the equilibrium and the <A href="/wiki/Reaction_rate" title="Reaction rate">rate of reaction</A>. At room temperature, the equilibrium is strongly in favor of ammonia, but the reaction doesn't proceed at a detectable rate. The obvious solution is to raise the temperature, but because the reaction is <A href="/wiki/Exothermic_reaction" title="Exothermic reaction">exothermic</A>, the equilibrium constant (using bar or <A href="/wiki/Atmosphere_(unit)" title="Atmosphere (unit)">atm</A> units) becomes 1 around 150–200 °C (302–392 °F). (See <A href="/wiki/Le_Ch%C3%A2telier%27s_principle" class="mw-redirect" title="Le Châtelier's principle">Le Châtelier's principle</A>.)</P>
<TABLE style="clear:right; float:right; margin-left: 1em;" border="3" class="wikitable">
<CAPTION><SPAN style="white-space: nowrap"><I>K</I><SUB>p</SUB>(<I>T</I>) for</SPAN> <SPAN style="white-space:nowrap;"><SPAN class="chemf nowrap">N<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><BR />
2</SPAN></SPAN> + 3 <SPAN class="chemf nowrap">H<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><BR />
2</SPAN></SPAN> ⇌ 2 <SPAN class="chemf nowrap">NH<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><BR />
3</SPAN></SPAN></SPAN><SUP id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-12">[12]</A></SUP></CAPTION>
<TBODY><TR>
<TH>Temperature (°C)</TH>
<TH><I>K</I><SUB>p</SUB></TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD align="center">300</TD>
<TD>4.34 × 10<SUP>−3</SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD align="center">400</TD>
<TD>1.64 × 10<SUP>−4</SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD align="center">450</TD>
<TD>4.51 × 10<SUP>−5</SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD align="center">500</TD>
<TD>1.45 × 10<SUP>−5</SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD align="center">550</TD>
<TD>5.38 × 10<SUP>−6</SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD align="center">600</TD>
<TD>2.25 × 10<SUP>−6</SUP></TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
<P>Above this temperature, the equilibrium quickly becomes quite unfavorable at atmospheric pressure, according to the <A href="/wiki/Van_%27t_Hoff_equation" title="Van 't Hoff equation">Van 't Hoff equation</A>. Thus one might suppose that a low temperature is to be used and some other means to increase rate. However, the catalyst itself requires a temperature of at least 400 °C to be efficient.</P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">Pressure</A> is the obvious choice to favor the forward reaction because there are 4 moles of reactant for every 2 moles of product (see <A href="/wiki/Entropy" title="Entropy">entropy</A>), and the pressure used (15–25 MPa (150–250 bar; 2,200–3,600 psi)) alters the equilibrium concentrations to give a profitable yield.<SUP class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><SPAN title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2012)">citation needed</SPAN></A></I>]</SUP></P>
<P>Economically, pressure is an expensive commodity. Pipes, valves, and reaction vessels need to be strengthened, and there are safety considerations of working at 20 MPa. In addition, running pumps and compressors takes considerable energy. Thus the compromise used gives a single pass yield of around 15%.<SUP class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><SPAN title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2012)">citation needed</SPAN></A></I>]</SUP></P>
<P>Another way to increase the yield of the reaction would be to remove the product (i.e. ammonia gas) from the system. In practice, gaseous ammonia is not removed from the reactor itself, since the temperature is too high; it is removed from the equilibrium mixture of gases leaving the reaction vessel. The hot gases are cooled enough, whilst maintaining a high pressure, for the ammonia to condense and be removed as liquid. Unreacted hydrogen and nitrogen gases are then returned to the reaction vessel to undergo further reaction.<SUP class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><SPAN title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2012)">citation needed</SPAN></A></I>]</SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Catalysts">Catalysts</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Haber_process&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Catalysts">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>The most popular catalysts are based on iron promoted with K<SUB>2</SUB>O, CaO, SiO<SUB>2</SUB>, and Al<SUB>2</SUB>O<SUB>3</SUB>. The original Haber–Bosch reaction chambers used <A href="/wiki/Osmium" title="Osmium">osmium</A> as the catalyst, but it was available in extremely small quantities. Haber noted <A href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</A> was almost as effective and easier to obtain than osmium. Under Bosch's direction in 1909, the BASF researcher <A href="/wiki/Alwin_Mittasch" title="Alwin Mittasch">Alwin Mittasch</A> discovered a much less expensive <A href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</A>-based catalyst, which is still used today. Some ammonia production utilizes <A href="/wiki/Ruthenium" title="Ruthenium">ruthenium</A>-based catalysts (the KAAP process). Ruthenium forms more active catalysts that allows milder operating pressures. Such catalysts are prepared by decomposition of <A href="/wiki/Triruthenium_dodecacarbonyl" title="Triruthenium dodecacarbonyl">triruthenium dodecacarbonyl</A> on <A href="/wiki/Graphite" title="Graphite">graphite</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Appl_1-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Appl-1">[1]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In industrial practice, the iron catalyst is obtained from finely ground iron powder, which is usually obtained by reduction of high purity <A href="/wiki/Magnetite" title="Magnetite">magnetite</A> (Fe<SUB>3</SUB>O<SUB>4</SUB>). The pulverized iron metal is burnt (oxidized) to give magnetite of a defined particle size. The magnetite particles are then partially reduced, removing some of the <A href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</A> in the process. The resulting catalyst particles consist of a core of magnetite, encased in a shell of <A href="/wiki/W%C3%BCstite" title="Wüstite">wüstite</A> (FeO), which in turn is surrounded by an outer shell of iron metal. The catalyst maintains most of its bulk volume during the reduction, resulting in a highly porous high surface area material, which enhances its effectiveness as a catalyst. Other minor components of the catalyst include <A href="/wiki/Calcium_oxide" title="Calcium oxide">calcium</A> and <A href="/wiki/Aluminium_oxide" title="Aluminium oxide">aluminium oxides</A>, which support the iron catalyst and help it maintain its surface area. These oxides of Ca, Al, K, and Si are unreactive to reduction by the hydrogen.<SUP id="cite_ref-Appl_1-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Appl-1">[1]</A></SUP></P>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:332px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Potential_energy_diagram_for_ammonia_synthesis.svg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Potential_energy_diagram_for_ammonia_synthesis.svg/330px-Potential_energy_diagram_for_ammonia_synthesis.svg.png" width="330" height="258" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Potential_energy_diagram_for_ammonia_synthesis.svg/495px-Potential_energy_diagram_for_ammonia_synthesis.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Potential_energy_diagram_for_ammonia_synthesis.svg/660px-Potential_energy_diagram_for_ammonia_synthesis.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="983" data-file-height="768" /></A>
<DIV class="thumbcaption">
<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:Potential_energy_diagram_for_ammonia_synthesis.svg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
energy diagram</DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/Reaction_mechanism" title="Reaction mechanism">reaction mechanism</A>, involving the heterogeneous catalyst, is believed to involve the following steps:<SUP id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-13">[13]</A></SUP></P>
<OL>
<LI>N<SUB>2</SUB> (g) → N<SUB>2</SUB> (adsorbed)</LI>
<LI>N<SUB>2</SUB> (adsorbed) → 2 N (adsorbed)</LI>
<LI>H<SUB>2</SUB> (g) → H<SUB>2</SUB> (adsorbed)</LI>
<LI>H<SUB>2</SUB> (adsorbed) → 2 H (adsorbed)</LI>
<LI>N (adsorbed) + 3 H(adsorbed)→ NH<SUB>3</SUB> (adsorbed)</LI>
<LI>NH<SUB>3</SUB> (adsorbed) → NH<SUB>3</SUB> (g)</LI>
</OL>
<P>Reaction 5 occurs in three steps, forming NH, NH<SUB>2</SUB>, and then NH<SUB>3</SUB>. Experimental evidence points to reaction 2 as being the slow, <A href="/wiki/Rate-determining_step" title="Rate-determining step">rate-determining step</A>. This is not unexpected since the bond broken, the nitrogen triple bond, is the strongest of the bonds that must be broken.</P>
<P>A major contributor to the elucidation of this mechanism is <A href="/wiki/Gerhard_Ertl" title="Gerhard Ertl">Gerhard Ertl</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-14">[14]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Economic_and_environmental_aspects">Economic and environmental aspects</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Haber_process&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Economic and environmental aspects">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <A href="/wiki/Ammonia_production#Sustainable_ammonia_production" title="Ammonia production">Ammonia production § Sustainable ammonia production</A></DIV>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Severnside_fertilizer_works_-_geograph.org.uk_-_189990.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Severnside_fertilizer_works_-_geograph.org.uk_-_189990.jpg/220px-Severnside_fertilizer_works_-_geograph.org.uk_-_189990.jpg" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Severnside_fertilizer_works_-_geograph.org.uk_-_189990.jpg/330px-Severnside_fertilizer_works_-_geograph.org.uk_-_189990.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Severnside_fertilizer_works_-_geograph.org.uk_-_189990.jpg/440px-Severnside_fertilizer_works_-_geograph.org.uk_-_189990.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></A>
<DIV class="thumbcaption">
<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:Severnside_fertilizer_works_-_geograph.org.uk_-_189990.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
Industrial fertilizer plant</DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<P>When it was first invented, the Haber process needed to compete against another industrial process, the <A href="/wiki/Frank%E2%80%93Caro_process" title="Frank–Caro process">Cyanamide process</A>. However, the Cyanamide process consumed large amounts of electrical power and was more labor-intensive than the Haber process.<SUP id="cite_ref-Hager_9-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Hager-9">[9]</A></SUP><SUP class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<SPAN>137–143</SPAN></SUP></P>
<P>The Haber process now produces 450 million tonnes of nitrogen <A href="/wiki/Fertilizers" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertilizers">fertilizer</A> per year, mostly in the form of anhydrous <A href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</A>, <A href="/wiki/Ammonium_nitrate" title="Ammonium nitrate">ammonium nitrate</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Urea" title="Urea">urea</A>. Three to five percent of the world's natural gas production is consumed in the Haber process (around 1–2% of the world's annual energy supply).<SUP id="cite_ref-Smil_2004_15-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Smil_2004-15">[15]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-16">[16]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-17">[17]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-18">[18]</A></SUP> In combination with pesticides, these fertilizers have quadrupled the productivity of agricultural land:</P>
<BLOCKQUOTE class="templatequote">
<P>With average crop yields remaining at the 1900 level the crop harvest in the year 2000 would have required nearly four times more land and the cultivated area would have claimed nearly half of all ice-free continents, rather than under 15% of the total land area that is required today.<SUP id="cite_ref-Smil_2011_19-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Smil_2011-19">[19]</A></SUP></P>
</BLOCKQUOTE>
<P>Due to its dramatic impact on the human ability to grow food, the Haber process served as the "detonator of the population explosion", enabling the global population to increase from 1.6 billion in 1900 to today's 7 billion.<SUP id="cite_ref-Smil_1999_20-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Smil_1999-20">[20]</A></SUP> Nearly 80% of the nitrogen found in human tissues originated from the Haber-Bosch process.<SUP id="cite_ref-Howarth_2008_21-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Howarth_2008-21">[21]</A></SUP> Since nitrogen use efficiency is typically less than 50%,<SUP id="cite_ref-Oenema_2009_22-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Oenema_2009-22">[22]</A></SUP> farm runoff from heavy use of fixed industrial nitrogen disrupts biological habitats.<SUP id="cite_ref-Howarth_2008_21-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Howarth_2008-21">[21]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Smil_2004_Enriching_23-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Smil_2004_Enriching-23">[23]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Haber_process&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: See also">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">Ammonia</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ammonia_production" title="Ammonia production">Ammonia production</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hydrogen_production" title="Hydrogen production">Hydrogen production</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Industrial_gas" title="Industrial gas">Industrial gas</A></LI>
</UL>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="References">References</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Haber_process&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<OL class="references">
<LI id="cite_note-Appl-1"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Appl_1-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Appl_1-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Appl_1-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Appl_1-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Appl_1-4"><SUP><I><B>e</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE id="CITEREFAppl2005" class="citation">Appl, Max (2005), "Ammonia", <I><A href="/wiki/Ullmann%27s_Encyclopedia_of_Industrial_Chemistry" title="Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry">Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry</A></I>, Weinheim: Wiley-VCH</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ammonia&rft.btitle=Ullmann%27s+Encyclopedia+of+Industrial+Chemistry&rft.place=Weinheim&rft.pub=Wiley-VCH&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Appl&rft.aufirst=Max&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHaber+process" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Smil_2004_Enriching-2"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Smil_2004_Enriching_2-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Smil, Vaclav (2004). <I>Enriching the Earth: Fritz Haber, Carl Bosch, and the Transformation of World Food Production</I> (1st ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780262693134" title="Special:BookSources/9780262693134">9780262693134</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Enriching+the+Earth%3A+Fritz+Haber%2C+Carl+Bosch%2C+and+the+Transformation+of+World+Food+Production&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=MIT&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780262693134&rft.aulast=Smil&rft.aufirst=Vaclav&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHaber+process" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-hager-3"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-hager_3-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-hager_3-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Hager, Thomas (2008). <I>The Alchemy of Air: A Jewish genius, a doomed tycoon, and the scientific discovery that fed the world but fueled the rise of Hitler</I> (1st ed.). New York, NY: Harmony Books. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-35178-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-307-35178-4">978-0-307-35178-4</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Alchemy+of+Air%3A+A+Jewish+genius%2C+a+doomed+tycoon%2C+and+the+scientific+discovery+that+fed+the+world+but+fueled+the+rise+of+Hitler&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Harmony+Books&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-307-35178-4&rft.aulast=Hager&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHaber+process" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-4"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-4"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Sittig, Marshall (1979). <I>Fertilizer Industry: Processes, Pollution Control, and Energy Conservation</I>. Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Data Corp. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8155-0734-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8155-0734-8">0-8155-0734-8</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fertilizer+Industry%3A+Processes%2C+Pollution+Control%2C+and+Energy+Conservation&rft.place=Park+Ridge%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Noyes+Data+Corp.&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=0-8155-0734-8&rft.aulast=Sittig&rft.aufirst=Marshall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHaber+process" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-5"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-5"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">James, Laylin K. (1993). <I>Nobel Laureates in Chemistry 1901–1992</I> (3rd ed.). Washington,DC: American Chemical Society. p. 118. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8412-2690-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8412-2690-3">0-8412-2690-3</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nobel+Laureates+in+Chemistry+1901%E2%80%931992&rft.place=Washington%2CDC&rft.pages=118&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=American+Chemical+Society&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-8412-2690-3&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=Laylin+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHaber+process" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-6"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-6"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Haber, Fritz (2012). <I>Thermodynamik technischer Gasreaktionen</I> (in German) (1st ed.). Paderborn: Salzwasser Verlag. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783864448423" title="Special:BookSources/9783864448423">9783864448423</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thermodynamik+technischer+Gasreaktionen&rft.place=Paderborn&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Salzwasser+Verlag&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9783864448423&rft.aulast=Haber&rft.aufirst=Fritz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHaber+process" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-7"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-7"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110113022251/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/chemistry/alumni/documents/A5booklet_020909.pdf">"Robert Le Rossignol, 1884–1976: Professional Chemist"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>, <I>ChemUCL Newsletter</I>, UCL Department of Chemistry: 8, 2009, archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/chemistry/alumni/documents/A5booklet_020909.pdf">the original</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN> on 2011-01-13</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ChemUCL+Newsletter&rft.atitle=Robert+Le+Rossignol%2C+1884%E2%80%931976%3A+Professional+Chemist&rft.pages=8&rft.date=2009&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucl.ac.uk%2Fchemistry%2Falumni%2Fdocuments%2FA5booklet_020909.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHaber+process" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-8"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-8"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Patent <SPAN class="citation patent"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US990191">US 990191</A></SPAN><SPAN class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Apatent&rft.number=990191&rft.cc=US&rft.title="><SPAN style="display: none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Hager-9"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Hager_9-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Hager_9-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Hager_9-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Hager, T. (2008). <I>he Alchemy of Air</I>. New York, NY: Harmony Books. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-35178-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-307-35178-4">978-0-307-35178-4</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=he+Alchemy+of+Air&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Harmony+Books&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-307-35178-4&rft.aulast=Hager&rft.aufirst=T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHaber+process" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-10"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-10"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Philip & Phyllis Morris, <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.americanscientist.org/bookshelf/pub/from-fertile-minds">"From Fertile Minds" (review)</A> <I>American Scientist</I>, 2001</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-ny_times-11"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-ny_times_11-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=9807EEDA133BEE32A25750C0A9649C946195D6CF&oref=slogin">"Nobel Award to Haber"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/New_York_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times">New York Times</A></I>. 3 February 1920<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">11 October</SPAN> 2010</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Nobel+Award+to+Haber&rft.date=1920-02-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fquery.nytimes.com%2Fmem%2Farchive-free%2Fpdf%3F_r%3D1%26res%3D9807EEDA133BEE32A25750C0A9649C946195D6CF%26oref%3Dslogin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHaber+process" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-12"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-12"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Brown, Theodore L.; LeMay, H. Eugene, Jr; Bursten, Bruce E (2006). "Table 15.2". <I>Chemistry: The Central Science</I> (10th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-109686-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-109686-9">0-13-109686-9</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Table+15.2&rft.btitle=Chemistry%3A+The+Central+Science&rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+NJ&rft.edition=10th&rft.pub=Pearson&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-13-109686-9&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Theodore+L.&rft.au=LeMay%2C+H.+Eugene%2C+Jr&rft.au=Bursten%2C+Bruce+E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHaber+process" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-13"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-13"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Wennerström, Håkan; Lidin, Sven. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/2007/advanced-chemistryprize2007.pdf">"Scientific Background on the Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2007 Chemical Processes on Solid Surfaces"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>NobelPrize.org</I>. Swedish Academy of Sciences<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2015-09-17</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NobelPrize.org&rft.atitle=Scientific+Background+on+the+Nobel+Prize+in+Chemistry+2007+Chemical+Processes+on+Solid+Surfaces&rft.aulast=Wennerstr%C3%B6m&rft.aufirst=H%C3%A5kan&rft.au=Lidin%2C+Sven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fchemistry%2Flaureates%2F2007%2Fadvanced-chemistryprize2007.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHaber+process" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-14"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-14"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Bozso, F.; Ertl, G.; Grunze, M.; Weiss, M. (1977). "Interaction of nitrogen with iron surfaces: I. Fe(100) and Fe(111)". <I><A href="/wiki/Journal_of_Catalysis" title="Journal of Catalysis">J. Catal.</A></I> <B>49</B> (1): 18–41. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2F0021-9517%2877%2990237-8">10.1016/0021-9517(77)90237-8</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J.+Catal.&rft.atitle=Interaction+of+nitrogen+with+iron+surfaces%3A+I.+Fe%28100%29+and+Fe%28111%29&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=18-41&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0021-9517%2877%2990237-8&rft.aulast=Bozso&rft.aufirst=F.&rft.au=Ertl%2C+G.&rft.au=Grunze%2C+M.&rft.au=Weiss%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHaber+process" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN>. <CITE class="citation journal">Imbihl, R.; Behm, R. J.; Ertl, G.; Moritz, W. (1982). "The structure of atomic nitrogen adsorbed on Fe(100)". <I><A href="/wiki/Surface_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface Science">Surf. Sci.</A></I> <B>123</B> (1): 129–140. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1982SurSc.123..129I">1982SurSc.123..129I</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2F0039-6028%2882%2990135-2">10.1016/0039-6028(82)90135-2</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Surf.+Sci.&rft.atitle=The+structure+of+atomic+nitrogen+adsorbed+on+Fe%28100%29&rft.volume=123&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=129-140&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0039-6028%2882%2990135-2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1982SurSc.123..129I&rft.aulast=Imbihl&rft.aufirst=R.&rft.au=Behm%2C+R.+J.&rft.au=Ertl%2C+G.&rft.au=Moritz%2C+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHaber+process" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN>. <CITE class="citation journal">Ertl, G.; Lee, S. B.; Weiss, M. (1982). "Kinetics of nitrogen adsorption on Fe(111)". <I><A href="/wiki/Surface_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface Science">Surf. Sci.</A></I> <B>114</B> (2–3): 515–526. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1982SurSc.114..515E">1982SurSc.114..515E</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2F0039-6028%2882%2990702-6">10.1016/0039-6028(82)90702-6</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Surf.+Sci.&rft.atitle=Kinetics+of+nitrogen+adsorption+on+Fe%28111%29&rft.volume=114&rft.issue=2%E2%80%933&rft.pages=515-526&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0039-6028%2882%2990702-6&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1982SurSc.114..515E&rft.aulast=Ertl&rft.aufirst=G.&rft.au=Lee%2C+S.+B.&rft.au=Weiss%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHaber+process" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN>. <CITE class="citation journal">Ertl, G. (1983). "Primary steps in catalytic synthesis of ammonia". <I><A href="/wiki/Journal_of_Vacuum_Science_and_Technology_A" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology A">J. Vac. Sci. Tech. A</A></I>. <B>1</B> (2): 1247–1253. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1116%2F1.572299">10.1116/1.572299</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J.+Vac.+Sci.+Tech.+A&rft.atitle=Primary+steps+in+catalytic+synthesis+of+ammonia&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=1247-1253&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1116%2F1.572299&rft.aulast=Ertl&rft.aufirst=G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHaber+process" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Smil_2004-15"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Smil_2004_15-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Smil, Vaclav (2004). <I>Enriching the Earth: Fritz Haber, Carl Bosch, and the Transformation of World Food Production</I>. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780262693134" title="Special:BookSources/9780262693134">9780262693134</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Enriching+the+Earth%3A+Fritz+Haber%2C+Carl+Bosch%2C+and+the+Transformation+of+World+Food+Production&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780262693134&rft.aulast=Smil&rft.aufirst=Vaclav&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHaber+process" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-16"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-16"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/nat_gas.html">"International Energy Outlook 2007"</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=International+Energy+Outlook+2007&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eia.doe.gov%2Foiaf%2Fieo%2Fnat_gas.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHaber+process" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-17"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-17"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Fertilizer statistics. <CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080424083111/http://www.fertilizer.org/ifa/statistics/indicators/ind_reserves.asp">"?"</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fertilizer.org/ifa/statistics/indicators/ind_reserves.asp">the original</A> on 2008-04-24.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fertilizer.org%2Fifa%2Fstatistics%2Findicators%2Find_reserves.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHaber+process" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-18"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-18"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Smith, Barry E. (September 2002). "Structure. Nitrogenase reveals its inner secrets". <I><A href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</A></I>. <B>297</B> (5587): 1654–5. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1076659">10.1126/science.1076659</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12215632">12215632</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Structure.+Nitrogenase+reveals+its+inner+secrets&rft.volume=297&rft.issue=5587&rft.pages=1654-5&rft.date=2002-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1076659&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12215632&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Barry+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHaber+process" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Smil_2011-19"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Smil_2011_19-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Smil, Vaclav (2011). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vaclavsmil.com/wp-content/uploads/docs/smil-article-worldagriculture.pdf">"Nitrogen cycle and world food production"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>World Agriculture</I>. <B>2</B>: 9–13.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Agriculture&rft.atitle=Nitrogen+cycle+and+world+food+production&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=9-13&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Smil&rft.aufirst=Vaclav&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.vaclavsmil.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2Fdocs%2Fsmil-article-worldagriculture.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHaber+process" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Smil_1999-20"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Smil_1999_20-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Smil, Vaclav (1999). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vaclavsmil.com/wp-content/uploads/docs/smil-article-1999-nature7.pdf">"Detonator of the population explosion"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>Nature</I>. <B>400</B>: 415. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999Natur.400..415S">1999Natur.400..415S</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2F22672">10.1038/22672</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Detonator+of+the+population+explosion&rft.volume=400&rft.pages=415&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F22672&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999Natur.400..415S&rft.aulast=Smil&rft.aufirst=Vaclav&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.vaclavsmil.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2Fdocs%2Fsmil-article-1999-nature7.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHaber+process" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Howarth_2008-21"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Howarth_2008_21-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Howarth_2008_21-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Howarth, R. W. (2008). "Coastal nitrogen pollution: a review of sources and trends globally and regionally". <I>Harmful Algae</I>. <B>8</B>: 14–20. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.hal.2008.08.015">10.1016/j.hal.2008.08.015</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harmful+Algae&rft.atitle=Coastal+nitrogen+pollution%3A+a+review+of+sources+and+trends+globally+and+regionally&rft.volume=8&rft.pages=14-20&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.hal.2008.08.015&rft.aulast=Howarth&rft.aufirst=R.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHaber+process" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Oenema_2009-22"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Oenema_2009_22-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Oenema, O.; Witzke, H.P.; Klimont, Z.; Lesschen, J.P.; Velthof, G.L. (2009). "Integrated assessment of promising measures to decrease nitrogen losses in agriculture in EU-27". <I>Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment</I>. <B>133</B>: 280–288. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.agee.2009.04.025">10.1016/j.agee.2009.04.025</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Agriculture%2C+Ecosystems+and+Environment&rft.atitle=Integrated+assessment+of+promising+measures+to+decrease+nitrogen+losses+in+agriculture+in+EU-27&rft.volume=133&rft.pages=280-288&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.agee.2009.04.025&rft.aulast=Oenema&rft.aufirst=O.&rft.au=Witzke%2C+H.P.&rft.au=Klimont%2C+Z.&rft.au=Lesschen%2C+J.P.&rft.au=Velthof%2C+G.L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHaber+process" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Smil_2004_Enriching-23"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Smil_2004_Enriching_23-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Smil, Vaclav (2004). <I>Enriching the Earth: Fritz Haber, Carl Bosch, and the Transformation of World Food Production.</I> Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780262693134" title="Special:BookSources/9780262693134">9780262693134</A>.</SPAN></LI>
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<LI><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/equilibria/haber.html">"The Haber Process"</A>. <I>Chemguide.co.uk</I>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Chemguide.co.uk&rft.atitle=The+Haber+Process&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chemguide.co.uk%2Fphysical%2Fequilibria%2Fhaber.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHaber+process" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
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<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/haberbosch.html">Haber-Bosch process</A>, most important invention of the 20th century, according to V. Smil, <A href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</A>, July 29, 1999, p 415 (by <A href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Schmidhuber" title="Jürgen Schmidhuber">Jürgen Schmidhuber</A>)</LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/nobelprize/article-9038696">Britannica guide to Nobel Prizes: Fritz Haber</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1918/haber-bio.html">Nobel e-Museum - Biography of Fritz Haber</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.is/20140210085650/http://www.basf.com/group/corporate/en/news-and-media-relations/science-around-us/ammonia/story">BASF - Fertilizer out of thin air</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ausetute.com.au/haberpro.html">Uses and Production of Ammonia</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ias.ac.in/resonance/Volumes/16/12/1159-1167.pdf">Haber Process for Ammonia Synthesis</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~hsdept/bios/docs/shapin_LRBHaber.pdf">Review of "Between Genius and Genocide: The Tragedy of Fritz Haber, Father of Chemical Warfare" by Daniel Charles</A></LI>
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					<LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar"><A href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B1-%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%B4" title="عملية هابر-بوش – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn"><A href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B8_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF" title="হেবার বস পদ্ধতি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca"><A href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proc%C3%A9s_Haber-Bosch" title="Procés Haber-Bosch – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs"><A href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haber%C5%AFv%E2%80%93Bosch%C5%AFv_proces" title="Haberův–Boschův proces – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle" title="recommended article"><A href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haber-Bosch-processen" title="Haber-Bosch-processen – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article"><A href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haber-Bosch-Verfahren" title="Haber-Bosch-Verfahren – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es"><A href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proceso_de_Haber" title="Proceso de Haber – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo"><A href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procezo_Haber" title="Procezo Haber – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa"><A href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%AF_%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B1" title="فرایند هابر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr"><A href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proc%C3%A9d%C3%A9_Haber" title="Procédé Haber – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd"><A href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%B2iseas_Haber" title="Pròiseas Haber – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu"><A href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B9%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%AC%E0%AA%B0_%E0%AA%AA%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%A7%E0%AA%BF" title="હેબર પ્રવિધિ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko"><A href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%98%EB%B2%84%EB%B2%95" title="하버법 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi"><A href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE" title="हाबर प्रक्रम – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr"><A href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haber-Boschov_postupak" title="Haber-Boschov postupak – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io"><A href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haber-procedo" title="Haber-procedo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id"><A href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proses_Haber" title="Proses Haber – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it"><A href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Processo_Haber-Bosch" title="Processo Haber-Bosch – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he"><A href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%94%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9A_%D7%94%D7%91%D7%A8-%D7%91%D7%95%D7%A9" title="תהליך הבר-בוש – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml"><A href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B9%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%BC_%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF" title="ഹേബർ പ്രക്രിയ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl"><A href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haber-Boschproces" title="Haber-Boschproces – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja"><A href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%8F%E3%83%BC%E3%83%90%E3%83%BC%E3%83%BB%E3%83%9C%E3%83%83%E3%82%B7%E3%83%A5%E6%B3%95" title="ハーバー・ボッシュ法 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no"><A href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haber%E2%80%93Bosch-prosessen" title="Haber–Bosch-prosessen – Norwegian" lang="no" hreflang="no" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn"><A href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haber-Bosch-prosessen" title="Haber-Bosch-prosessen – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa"><A href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B9%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%AC%E0%A8%B0_%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%8D%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86" title="ਹੇਬਰ ਪ੍ਰਕਿਰਿਆ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds"><A href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haber-Bosch-Verfohren" title="Haber-Bosch-Verfohren – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl"><A href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metoda_Habera_i_Boscha" title="Metoda Habera i Boscha – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt"><A href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%ADntese_de_Haber-Bosch" title="Síntese de Haber-Bosch – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro"><A href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proces_Haber-Bosch" title="Proces Haber-Bosch – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru"><A href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Процесс Габера – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple"><A href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haber_process" title="Haber process – Simple English" lang="simple" hreflang="simple" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl"><A href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haber-Boschev_proces" title="Haber-Boschev proces – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr"><A href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80-%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%81" title="Хабер-Бошов процес – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh"><A href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haber-Boschov_proces" title="Haber-Boschov proces – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi"><A href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haber%E2%80%93Bosch-menetelm%C3%A4" title="Haber–Bosch-menetelmä – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv"><A href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haber%E2%80%93Bosch-processen" title="Haber–Bosch-processen – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta"><A href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B9%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%88" title="ஹேபர் செயல்முறை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th"><A href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AE%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="กระบวนการฮาเบอร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk"><A href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%81_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0_%E2%80%94_%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%B0" title="Процес Габера — Боша – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur"><A href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%81%DB%8C%D8%A8%D8%B1_%DA%A9%D8%A7_%D8%B7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%82%DB%81" title="ہیبر کا طریقہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi"><A href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph%C6%B0%C6%A1ng_ph%C3%A1p_Haber" title="Phương pháp Haber – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh"><A href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%93%88%E6%9F%8F%E6%B3%95" title="哈柏法 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</A></LI>				</UL>
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document_title: Haber process

token: Haber

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token: Jump

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token: Fritz

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token: српскохрватски

question_text: where does the nitrogen for this fertilizer come from