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<H1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Thunderstorm</H1>			<DIV id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content">
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				<DIV id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><DIV class="mw-parser-output"><DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Electrical storm" redirects here. For other uses, see <A href="/wiki/Electrical_storm_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Electrical storm (disambiguation)">Electrical storm (disambiguation)</A>.</DIV>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"TSTM" redirects here. For the musical ensemble, see <A href="/wiki/Thirty_Seconds_to_Mars" title="Thirty Seconds to Mars">Thirty Seconds to Mars</A>.</DIV>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <A href="/wiki/Thunderstorm_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Thunderstorm (disambiguation)">Thunderstorm (disambiguation)</A>.</DIV>
<TABLE class="infobox" style="width:22em">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH colspan="2" style="text-align:center;font-size:125%;font-weight:bold">Thunderstorm</TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center"><A href="/wiki/File:Thunderstorm_over_Corfu.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Thunderstorm over Corfu.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Thunderstorm_over_Corfu.jpg/220px-Thunderstorm_over_Corfu.jpg" width="220" height="146" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Thunderstorm_over_Corfu.jpg/330px-Thunderstorm_over_Corfu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Thunderstorm_over_Corfu.jpg/440px-Thunderstorm_over_Corfu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1360" /></A>
<DIV>A thunderstorm over <A href="/wiki/Corfu" title="Corfu">Corfu</A>.</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row">Sign</TH>
<TD>A large <A href="/wiki/Cumulonimbus_cloud" title="Cumulonimbus cloud">cumulonimbus cloud</A> with <A href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">lightning</A> and <A href="/wiki/Thunder" title="Thunder">thunder</A>.</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row">Type</TH>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Severe_weather" title="Severe weather">Severe</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row"><A href="/wiki/Cloud" title="Cloud">Cloud</A> of origin</TH>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Cumulonimbus_cloud" title="Cumulonimbus cloud">Cumulonimbus</A>.</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
<TABLE class="vertical-navbox nowraplinks hlist" style="float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%">
<TBODY><TR>
<TD style="padding-top:0.4em;line-height:1.2em">Part of the <A href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</A> series</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;padding-top:0;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em"><A href="/wiki/Weather" title="Weather">Weather</A></TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH style="padding:0.1em;border-top:#ccc 1px solid;"><A href="/wiki/Season" title="Season">Calendar seasons</A></TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Winter" title="Winter">Winter</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Spring_(season)" title="Spring (season)">Spring</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Summer" title="Summer">Summer</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Autumn" title="Autumn">Autumn</A></LI>
</UL>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH style="padding:0.1em;border-top:#ccc 1px solid;"><A href="/wiki/Tropics" title="Tropics">Tropical seasons</A></TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Dry_season" title="Dry season">Dry season</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wet_season" title="Wet season">Wet season</A></LI>
</UL>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH style="padding:0.1em;border-top:#ccc 1px solid;"><A href="/wiki/Storm" title="Storm">Storms</A></TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cloud" title="Cloud">Cloud</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cumulonimbus_cloud" title="Cumulonimbus cloud">Cumulonimbus cloud</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Arcus_cloud" title="Arcus cloud">Arcus cloud</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Downburst" title="Downburst">Downburst</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Microburst" title="Microburst">Microburst</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Heat_burst" title="Heat burst">Heat burst</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Dust_storm" title="Dust storm">Dust storm</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Simoom" title="Simoom">Simoom</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Haboob" title="Haboob">Haboob</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Monsoon" title="Monsoon">Monsoon</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Gale" title="Gale">Gale</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sirocco" title="Sirocco">Sirocco</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Firestorm" title="Firestorm">Firestorm</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">Lightning</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Supercell" title="Supercell">Supercell</A></LI>
<LI><A class="mw-selflink selflink">Thunderstorm</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Severe_thunderstorm" class="mw-redirect" title="Severe thunderstorm">Severe thunderstorm</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Thundersnow" title="Thundersnow">Thundersnow</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Storm_surge" title="Storm surge">Storm surge</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado">Tornado</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cyclone" title="Cyclone">Cyclone</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mesocyclone" title="Mesocyclone">Mesocyclone</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Anticyclone" title="Anticyclone">Anticyclone</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone" title="Tropical cyclone">Tropical cyclone (Hurricane)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Extratropical_cyclone" title="Extratropical cyclone">Extratropical cyclone</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/European_windstorm" title="European windstorm">European windstorm</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Atlantic_Hurricane" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic Hurricane">Atlantic Hurricane</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Typhoon" title="Typhoon">Typhoon</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Derecho" title="Derecho">Derecho</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Landspout" title="Landspout">Landspout</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Dust_devil" title="Dust devil">Dust devil</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fire_whirl" title="Fire whirl">Fire whirl</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Waterspout" title="Waterspout">Waterspout</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Winter_storm" title="Winter storm">Winter storm</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ice_storm" title="Ice storm">Ice storm</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Blizzard" title="Blizzard">Blizzard</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ground_blizzard" title="Ground blizzard">Ground blizzard</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Snowsquall" title="Snowsquall">Snowsquall</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH style="padding:0.1em;border-top:#ccc 1px solid;"><A href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">Precipitation</A></TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Drizzle" title="Drizzle">Drizzle</A> (<A href="/wiki/Freezing_drizzle" title="Freezing drizzle">Freezing drizzle</A>)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Graupel" title="Graupel">Graupel</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hail" title="Hail">Hail</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ice_pellets" title="Ice pellets">Ice pellets</A> (<A href="/wiki/Diamond_dust" title="Diamond dust">Diamond dust</A>)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">Rain</A> (<A href="/wiki/Freezing_rain" title="Freezing rain">Freezing rain</A>)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cloudburst" title="Cloudburst">Cloudburst</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Snow" title="Snow">Snow</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Rain_and_snow_mixed" title="Rain and snow mixed">Rain and snow mixed</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Snow_grains" title="Snow grains">Snow grains</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Snow_roller" title="Snow roller">Snow roller</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Slush" title="Slush">Slush</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH style="padding:0.1em;border-top:#ccc 1px solid;"><A href="/wiki/Index_of_meteorology_articles" title="Index of meteorology articles">Topics</A></TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Atmospheric_river" title="Atmospheric river">Atmospheric river</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Atmospheric_convection" title="Atmospheric convection">Atmospheric convection</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Air pollution</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">Climate</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cloud" title="Cloud">Cloud</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fog" title="Fog">Fog</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cold_wave" title="Cold wave">Cold wave</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Heat_wave" title="Heat wave">Heat wave</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Jet_stream" title="Jet stream">Jet stream</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">Meteorology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Severe_weather" title="Severe weather">Severe weather</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Weather_forecasting" title="Weather forecasting">Weather forecasting</A></LI>
</UL>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD style="padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;border-top:#ccc 1px solid; border-bottom:#ccc 1px solid;"><A href="/wiki/File:Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg" class="image"><IMG alt="Cumulus clouds in fair weather.jpeg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg/16px-Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg" width="16" height="12" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg/24px-Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg/32px-Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></A> <A href="/wiki/Portal:Weather" title="Portal:Weather">Weather portal</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD style="text-align:right;font-size:115%">
<DIV class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
<UL>
<LI class="nv-view"><A href="/wiki/Template:Weather" title="Template:Weather"><ABBR title="View this template">v</ABBR></A></LI>
<LI class="nv-talk"><A href="/wiki/Template_talk:Weather" title="Template talk:Weather"><ABBR title="Discuss this template">t</ABBR></A></LI>
<LI class="nv-edit"><A class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Weather&action=edit"><ABBR title="Edit this template">e</ABBR></A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><A href="/wiki/File:FoggDam-NT.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/FoggDam-NT.jpg/300px-FoggDam-NT.jpg" width="300" height="200" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/FoggDam-NT.jpg/450px-FoggDam-NT.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/FoggDam-NT.jpg/600px-FoggDam-NT.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="665" /></A>
<DIV class="thumbcaption">
<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:FoggDam-NT.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
A typical thunderstorm over a field</DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<P>A <B>thunderstorm</B>, also known as an <B>electrical storm</B>, <B>lightning storm</B>, or <B>thundershower</B>, is a <A href="/wiki/Storm" title="Storm">storm</A> characterized by the presence of <A href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">lightning</A> and its <A href="/wiki/Acoustics" title="Acoustics">acoustic</A> effect on the <A href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">Earth's atmosphere</A>, known as <A href="/wiki/Thunder" title="Thunder">thunder</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-1">[1]</A></SUP> Thunderstorms occur in association with a type of <A href="/wiki/Cloud" title="Cloud">cloud</A> known as a <A href="/wiki/Cumulonimbus" class="mw-redirect" title="Cumulonimbus">cumulonimbus</A>. They are usually accompanied by <A href="/wiki/Wind" title="Wind">strong winds</A>, <A href="/wiki/Heavy_rain_(meteorology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy rain (meteorology)">heavy rain</A>, and sometimes <A href="/wiki/Thundersnow" title="Thundersnow">snow</A>, <A href="/wiki/Ice_pellets" title="Ice pellets">sleet</A>, <A href="/wiki/Hail" title="Hail">hail</A>, or, in contrast, <A href="/wiki/Dry_thunderstorm" title="Dry thunderstorm">no precipitation</A> at all. Thunderstorms may <A href="/wiki/Thunderstorm_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Thunderstorm training">line up in a series</A> or become a <A href="/wiki/Rainband" title="Rainband">rainband</A>, known as a <A href="/wiki/Squall_line" title="Squall line">squall line</A>. Strong or <A href="/wiki/Severe_thunderstorm" class="mw-redirect" title="Severe thunderstorm">severe thunderstorms</A>, known as <A href="/wiki/Supercell" title="Supercell">supercells</A>, rotate as do cyclones. While most thunderstorms move with the mean wind flow through the layer of the <A href="/wiki/Troposphere" title="Troposphere">troposphere</A> that they occupy, vertical <A href="/wiki/Wind_shear" title="Wind shear">wind shear</A> sometimes causes a deviation in their course at a right angle to the wind shear direction.</P>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Thunderstorm_Updraft.JPG" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Thunderstorm_Updraft.JPG/220px-Thunderstorm_Updraft.JPG" width="220" height="330" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Thunderstorm_Updraft.JPG/330px-Thunderstorm_Updraft.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Thunderstorm_Updraft.JPG/440px-Thunderstorm_Updraft.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="3456" /></A>
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Warm, moist <A href="/wiki/Updraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Updraft">updraft</A> from a thunderstorm associated with a southward-moving frontal boundary – taken from <A href="/wiki/Texarkana,_Texas" title="Texarkana, Texas">Texarkana, Texas</A> looking north.</DIV>
</DIV>
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<P>Thunderstorms result from the rapid upward movement of warm, moist air, sometimes along a <A href="/wiki/Weather_front" title="Weather front">front</A>. As the warm, moist air moves upward, it cools, <A href="/wiki/Condense" class="mw-redirect" title="Condense">condenses</A>, and forms a cumulonimbus cloud that can reach heights of over 20 kilometres (12 mi). As the rising air reaches its <A href="/wiki/Dew_point" title="Dew point">dew point</A> temperature, water vapor condenses into water droplets or ice, reducing pressure locally within the thunderstorm cell. Any precipitation falls the long distance through the clouds towards the Earth's surface. As the droplets fall, they collide with other droplets and become larger. The falling droplets create a <A href="/wiki/Downdraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Downdraft">downdraft</A> as it pulls cold air with it, and this cold air spreads out at the Earth's surface, occasionally causing strong winds that are commonly associated with thunderstorms.</P>
<P>Thunderstorms can form and develop in any geographic location but most frequently within the <A href="/wiki/Mid-latitudes" class="mw-redirect" title="Mid-latitudes">mid-latitude</A>, where warm, moist air from tropical latitudes collides with cooler air from polar latitudes.<SUP id="cite_ref-nssl.noaa.gov_2-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-nssl.noaa.gov-2">[2]</A></SUP> Thunderstorms are responsible for the development and formation of many severe weather phenomena. Thunderstorms, and the phenomena that occur along with them, pose great hazards. Damage that results from thunderstorms is mainly inflicted by <A href="/wiki/Downburst" title="Downburst">downburst</A> winds, large hailstones, and <A href="/wiki/Flash_flooding" class="mw-redirect" title="Flash flooding">flash flooding</A> caused by heavy <A href="/wiki/Precipitation_(meteorology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Precipitation (meteorology)">precipitation</A>. Stronger thunderstorm cells are capable of producing <A href="/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado">tornadoes</A> and <A href="/wiki/Waterspout" title="Waterspout">waterspouts</A>.</P>
<P>There are four types of thunderstorms: <A href="/wiki/Air-mass_thunderstorm" title="Air-mass thunderstorm">single-cell</A>, <A href="/wiki/Multicellular_thunderstorm" title="Multicellular thunderstorm">multi-cell cluster</A>, multi-cell lines, and supercells. Supercell thunderstorms are the strongest and most severe. <A href="/wiki/Mesoscale_convective_system" title="Mesoscale convective system">Mesoscale convective systems</A> formed by favorable vertical wind shear within the <A href="/wiki/Tropics" title="Tropics">tropics</A> and <A href="/wiki/Subtropics" title="Subtropics">subtropics</A> can be responsible for the development of <A href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone" title="Tropical cyclone">hurricanes</A>. <A href="/wiki/Dry_thunderstorm" title="Dry thunderstorm">Dry thunderstorms</A>, with no precipitation, can cause the outbreak of <A href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">wildfires</A> from the heat generated from the <A href="/wiki/Cloud-to-ground_lightning" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloud-to-ground lightning">cloud-to-ground lightning</A> that accompanies them. Several means are used to study thunderstorms: <A href="/wiki/Weather_radar" title="Weather radar">weather radar</A>, <A href="/wiki/Weather_station" title="Weather station">weather stations</A>, and video photography. Past civilizations held various myths concerning thunderstorms and their development as late as the <A href="/wiki/18th_century" title="18th century">18th century</A>. Beyond the Earth's atmosphere, thunderstorms have also been observed on the planets of <A href="/wiki/Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</A>, <A href="/wiki/Saturn" title="Saturn">Saturn</A>, <A href="/wiki/Neptune" title="Neptune">Neptune</A>, and, probably, <A href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</A>.</P>
<P></P>
<DIV id="toc" class="toc">
<DIV class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr" xml:lang="en">
<H2>Contents</H2>
<SPAN class="toctoggle"> [<A role="button" tabindex="0" class="togglelink">hide</A>] </SPAN></DIV>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><A href="#Life_cycle"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Life cycle</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><A href="#Cumulus_stage"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Cumulus stage</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><A href="#Mature_stage"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Mature stage</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><A href="#Dissipating_stage"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Dissipating stage</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><A href="#Classification"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Classification</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><A href="#Single-cell"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Single-cell</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><A href="#Multi-cell_clusters"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Multi-cell clusters</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><A href="#Multicell_lines"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Multicell lines</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><A href="#Supercells"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Supercells</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><A href="#Severe_thunderstorms"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Severe thunderstorms</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><A href="#Mesoscale_convective_systems"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.6</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Mesoscale convective systems</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><A href="#Motion"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Motion</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><A href="#Back-building_thunderstorm"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Back-building thunderstorm</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><A href="#Hazards"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Hazards</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><A href="#Cloud-to-ground_lightning"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Cloud-to-ground lightning</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><A href="#Hail"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Hail</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><A href="#Tornadoes_and_waterspouts"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Tornadoes and waterspouts</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><A href="#Flash_flood"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Flash flood</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><A href="#Downburst"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Downburst</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><A href="#Thunderstorm_asthma"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.6</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Thunderstorm asthma</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><A href="#Safety_precautions"><SPAN class="tocnumber">5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Safety precautions</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><A href="#Preparedness"><SPAN class="tocnumber">5.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Preparedness</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><A href="#Safety"><SPAN class="tocnumber">5.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Safety</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><A href="#Frequent_occurrences"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Frequent occurrences</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><A href="#Energy"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Energy</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><A href="#Studies"><SPAN class="tocnumber">8</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Studies</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-27"><A href="#Mythology_and_religion"><SPAN class="tocnumber">9</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Mythology and religion</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28"><A href="#Outside_of_Earth"><SPAN class="tocnumber">10</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Outside of Earth</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><A href="#See_also"><SPAN class="tocnumber">11</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">See also</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30"><A href="#References"><SPAN class="tocnumber">12</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">References</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-31"><A href="#Further_reading"><SPAN class="tocnumber">13</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Further reading</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-32"><A href="#External_links"><SPAN class="tocnumber">14</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">External links</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<P></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Life_cycle">Life cycle</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Thunderstorm&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Life cycle">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:502px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Thunderstorm_formation.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Thunderstorm_formation.jpg/500px-Thunderstorm_formation.jpg" width="500" height="255" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Thunderstorm_formation.jpg/750px-Thunderstorm_formation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Thunderstorm_formation.jpg/1000px-Thunderstorm_formation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1087" data-file-height="554" /></A>
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Stages of a thunderstorm's life.</DIV>
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<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <A href="/wiki/Cloud" title="Cloud">Cloud</A></DIV>
<P>Warm air has a lower <A href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">density</A> than cool air, so warmer air rises upwards and cooler air will settle at the bottom<SUP id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-3">[3]</A></SUP> (this effect can be seen with a <A href="/wiki/Hot_air_balloon" title="Hot air balloon">hot air balloon</A>).<SUP id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-4">[4]</A></SUP> Clouds form as relatively warmer air, carrying moisture, rises within cooler air. The moist air rises, and, as it does so, it cools and some of the <A href="/wiki/Water_vapor" title="Water vapor">water vapor</A> in that rising air <A href="/wiki/Condensation" title="Condensation">condenses</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-5">[5]</A></SUP> When the moisture condenses, it releases energy known as <A href="/wiki/Latent_heat" title="Latent heat">latent heat</A> of vaporization, which allows the rising packet of air to cool less than the cooler surrounding air<SUP id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-6">[6]</A></SUP> continuing the cloud's ascension. If enough <A href="/wiki/Convective_available_potential_energy" title="Convective available potential energy">instability</A> is present in the atmosphere, this process will continue long enough for <A href="/wiki/Cumulonimbus" class="mw-redirect" title="Cumulonimbus">cumulonimbus</A> clouds to form and produce <A href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">lightning</A> and <A href="/wiki/Thunder" title="Thunder">thunder</A>. Meteorological indices such as <A href="/wiki/Convective_available_potential_energy" title="Convective available potential energy">convective available potential energy</A> (CAPE) and the <A href="/wiki/Lifted_index" title="Lifted index">lifted index</A> can be used to assist in determining potential upward vertical development of clouds.<SUP id="cite_ref-CAPE_7-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-CAPE-7">[7]</A></SUP> Generally, thunderstorms require three conditions to form:</P>
<OL>
<LI>Moisture</LI>
<LI>An unstable airmass</LI>
<LI>A lifting force (heat)</LI>
</OL>
<P>All thunderstorms, regardless of type, go through three stages: the <B>developing stage</B>, the <B>mature stage</B>, and the <B>dissipation stage</B>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Extreme_Weather_8-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Extreme_Weather-8">[8]</A></SUP> The average thunderstorm has a 24 km (15 mi) diameter. Depending on the conditions present in the atmosphere, each of these three stages take an average of 30 minutes.<SUP id="cite_ref-tsbasics_9-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tsbasics-9">[9]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Cumulus_stage">Cumulus stage</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Thunderstorm&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Cumulus stage">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>The first stage of a thunderstorm is the cumulus stage or developing stage. During this stage, masses of moisture are lifted upwards into the atmosphere. The trigger for this lift can be <A href="/wiki/Insolation" class="mw-redirect" title="Insolation">solar illumination</A>, where the heating of the ground produces <A href="/wiki/Thermals" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermals">thermals</A>, or where two winds converge forcing air upwards, or where winds blow over terrain of increasing elevation. The moisture carried upward cools into liquid drops of water due to lower temperatures at high altitude, which appear as <I><A href="/wiki/Cumulus_cloud" title="Cumulus cloud">cumulus</A></I> clouds. As the water vapor condenses into liquid, <A href="/wiki/Latent_heat" title="Latent heat">latent heat</A> is released, which warms the air, causing it to become less dense than the surrounding, drier air. The air tends to rise in an <I><A href="/wiki/Updraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Updraft">updraft</A></I> through the process of <A href="/wiki/Atmospheric_convection" title="Atmospheric convection">convection</A> (hence the term <A href="/wiki/Precipitation_(meteorology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Precipitation (meteorology)">convective precipitation</A>). This process creates a <A href="/wiki/Low_pressure_area" class="mw-redirect" title="Low pressure area">low-pressure zone</A> within and beneath the forming thunderstorm. In a typical thunderstorm, approximately 500 million kilograms of water vapor are lifted into the <A href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">Earth's atmosphere</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-condensationenergy_10-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-condensationenergy-10">[10]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Mature_stage">Mature stage</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Thunderstorm&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Mature stage">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Anvil_shaped_cumulus_panorama_edit_crop.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Anvil_shaped_cumulus_panorama_edit_crop.jpg/220px-Anvil_shaped_cumulus_panorama_edit_crop.jpg" width="220" height="90" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Anvil_shaped_cumulus_panorama_edit_crop.jpg/330px-Anvil_shaped_cumulus_panorama_edit_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Anvil_shaped_cumulus_panorama_edit_crop.jpg/440px-Anvil_shaped_cumulus_panorama_edit_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2348" data-file-height="965" /></A>
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Anvil-shaped thundercloud in the mature stage over <A href="/wiki/Swifts_Creek,_Victoria" class="mw-redirect" title="Swifts Creek, Victoria">Swifts Creek, Victoria</A></DIV>
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<P>In the mature stage of a thunderstorm, the warmed air continues to rise until it reaches an area of warmer air and can rise no farther. Often this 'cap' is the <A href="/wiki/Tropopause" title="Tropopause">tropopause</A>. The air is instead forced to spread out, giving the storm a characteristic <A href="/wiki/Anvil" title="Anvil">anvil</A> shape. The resulting cloud is called <I><A href="/wiki/Cumulonimbus_incus" title="Cumulonimbus incus">cumulonimbus incus</A></I>. The water droplets <A href="/wiki/Coalescence_(meteorology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Coalescence (meteorology)">coalesce</A> into larger and heavier droplets and freeze to become ice particles. As these fall, they melt to become <A href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">rain</A>. If the updraft is strong enough, the droplets are held aloft long enough to become so large that they do not melt completely but fall as <A href="/wiki/Hail" title="Hail">hail</A>. While updrafts are still present, the falling rain drags the surrounding air with it, creating <I><A href="/wiki/Downdrafts" class="mw-redirect" title="Downdrafts">downdrafts</A></I> as well. The simultaneous presence of both an updraft and a downdraft marks the mature stage of the storm and produces cumulonimbus clouds. During this stage, considerable internal <A href="/wiki/Turbulence" title="Turbulence">turbulence</A> can occur within, which manifests as strong winds, severe lightning, and even <A href="/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado">tornadoes</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-11">[11]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Typically, if there is little <A href="/wiki/Wind_shear" title="Wind shear">wind shear</A>, the storm will rapidly enter the dissipating stage and 'rain itself out',<SUP id="cite_ref-Extreme_Weather_8-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Extreme_Weather-8">[8]</A></SUP> but, if there is sufficient change in wind speed or direction, the downdraft will be separated from the updraft, and the storm may become a <A href="/wiki/Supercell" title="Supercell">supercell</A>, where the mature stage can sustain itself for several hours.<SUP id="cite_ref-motion_12-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-motion-12">[12]</A></SUP></P>
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<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Dissipating_stage">Dissipating stage</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Thunderstorm&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Dissipating stage">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Single-cell_Thunderstorm_in_a_No-shear_Environment..jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Single-cell_Thunderstorm_in_a_No-shear_Environment..jpg/220px-Single-cell_Thunderstorm_in_a_No-shear_Environment..jpg" width="220" height="124" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Single-cell_Thunderstorm_in_a_No-shear_Environment..jpg/330px-Single-cell_Thunderstorm_in_a_No-shear_Environment..jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Single-cell_Thunderstorm_in_a_No-shear_Environment..jpg/440px-Single-cell_Thunderstorm_in_a_No-shear_Environment..jpg 2x" data-file-width="4320" data-file-height="2432" /></A>
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A thunderstorm in an environment with no winds to shear the storm or blow the anvil in any one direction</DIV>
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<P>In the dissipation stage, the thunderstorm is dominated by the downdraft. If atmospheric conditions do not support super cellular development, this stage occurs rather quickly, approximately 20–30 minutes into the life of the thunderstorm. The downdraft will push down out of the thunderstorm, hit the ground and spread out. This phenomenon is known as a <A href="/wiki/Downburst" title="Downburst">downburst</A>. The cool air carried to the ground by the downdraft cuts off the inflow of the thunderstorm, the updraft disappears and the thunderstorm will dissipate. Thunderstorms in an atmosphere with virtually no vertical wind shear weaken as soon as they send out an outflow boundary in all directions, which then quickly cuts off its <A href="/wiki/Inflow_(meteorology)" title="Inflow (meteorology)">inflow</A> of relatively warm, moist air, and kills the thunderstorm's further growth.<SUP id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-13">[13]</A></SUP> The downdraft hitting the ground creates an <A href="/wiki/Outflow_boundary" title="Outflow boundary">outflow boundary</A>. This can cause downbursts, a potential hazardous condition for aircraft to fly through, as a substantial change in wind speed and direction occurs, resulting in a decrease of airspeed and the subsequent reduction in lift for the aircraft. The stronger the <A href="/wiki/Outflow_boundary" title="Outflow boundary">outflow boundary</A> is, the stronger the resultant vertical wind shear becomes.<SUP id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-14">[14]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Classification">Classification</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Thunderstorm&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Classification">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:CAPE_vs_SHEAR.png" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/CAPE_vs_SHEAR.png/220px-CAPE_vs_SHEAR.png" width="220" height="129" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/CAPE_vs_SHEAR.png/330px-CAPE_vs_SHEAR.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/CAPE_vs_SHEAR.png/440px-CAPE_vs_SHEAR.png 2x" data-file-width="777" data-file-height="456" /></A>
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Conditions favorable for thunderstorm types and complexes</DIV>
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<P>There are four main types of thunderstorms: single-cell, multi-cell, squall line (also called multi-cell line) and supercell. Which type forms depends on the instability and relative wind conditions at different layers of the atmosphere ("<A href="/wiki/Wind_shear" title="Wind shear">wind shear</A>"). Single-cell thunderstorms form in environments of low vertical wind shear and last only 20–30 minutes.</P>
<P>Organized thunderstorms and thunderstorm clusters/lines can have longer life cycles as they form in environments of significant vertical wind shear, normally greater than 25 knots (13 m/s) in the lowest 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) of the <A href="/wiki/Troposphere" title="Troposphere">troposphere</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-15">[15]</A></SUP> which aids the development of stronger updrafts as well as various forms of severe weather. The supercell is the strongest of the thunderstorms, most commonly associated with large hail, high winds, and tornado formation. <A href="/wiki/Precipitable_water" title="Precipitable water">Precipitable water</A> values of greater than 31.8 millimetres (1.25 in) favor the development of organized thunderstorm complexes.<SUP id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-16">[16]</A></SUP> Those with heavy rainfall normally have precipitable water values greater than 36.9 millimetres (1.45 in).<SUP id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-17">[17]</A></SUP> Upstream values of <A href="/wiki/Atmospheric_instability#CAPE_and_CIN" title="Atmospheric instability">CAPE</A> of greater than 800 J/kg are usually required for the development of organized convection.<SUP id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-18">[18]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Single-cell">Single-cell</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Thunderstorm&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Single-cell">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Air-mass_thunderstorm" title="Air-mass thunderstorm">Air-mass thunderstorm</A></DIV>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Thunderstorm_over_Wagga_Wagga.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Thunderstorm_over_Wagga_Wagga.jpg/170px-Thunderstorm_over_Wagga_Wagga.jpg" width="170" height="240" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Thunderstorm_over_Wagga_Wagga.jpg/255px-Thunderstorm_over_Wagga_Wagga.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Thunderstorm_over_Wagga_Wagga.jpg/340px-Thunderstorm_over_Wagga_Wagga.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="846" /></A>
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A single-cell thunderstorm over <A href="/wiki/Wagga_Wagga" title="Wagga Wagga">Wagga Wagga</A>.</DIV>
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<P>This term technically applies to a single thunderstorm with one main updraft. Also known as <A href="/wiki/Air-mass_thunderstorm" title="Air-mass thunderstorm">air-mass thunderstorms</A>, these are the typical summer thunderstorms in many temperate locales. They also occur in the cool unstable air that often follows the passage of a <A href="/wiki/Weather_fronts" class="mw-redirect" title="Weather fronts">cold front</A> from the sea during winter. Within a cluster of thunderstorms, the term "cell" refers to each separate principal updraft. Thunderstorm cells occasionally form in isolation, as the occurrence of one thunderstorm can develop an outflow boundary that sets up new thunderstorm development. Such storms are rarely severe and are a result of local atmospheric instability; hence the term "air mass thunderstorm". When such storms have a brief period of severe weather associated with them, it is known as a pulse severe storm. Pulse severe storms are poorly organized and occur randomly in time and space, making them difficult to forecast. Single-cell thunderstorms normally last 20–30 minutes.<SUP id="cite_ref-tsbasics_9-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tsbasics-9">[9]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Multi-cell_clusters">Multi-cell clusters</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Thunderstorm&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Multi-cell clusters">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Multicellular_thunderstorm" title="Multicellular thunderstorm">Multicellular thunderstorm</A></DIV>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:8402_STS41B_Challenger_Thunderstorms_over_Brazil.JPG" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/8402_STS41B_Challenger_Thunderstorms_over_Brazil.JPG/220px-8402_STS41B_Challenger_Thunderstorms_over_Brazil.JPG" width="220" height="220" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/8402_STS41B_Challenger_Thunderstorms_over_Brazil.JPG/330px-8402_STS41B_Challenger_Thunderstorms_over_Brazil.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/8402_STS41B_Challenger_Thunderstorms_over_Brazil.JPG/440px-8402_STS41B_Challenger_Thunderstorms_over_Brazil.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3000" /></A>
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A group of thunderstorms over <A href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</A> photographed by the <A href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Challenger" title="Space Shuttle Challenger">Space Shuttle Challenger</A>.</DIV>
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<P>This is the most common type of thunderstorm development. <I>Mature thunderstorms</I> are found near the center of the cluster, while dissipating thunderstorms exist on their downwind side. <I>Multicell storms</I> form as clusters of storms but may then evolve into one or more <A href="/wiki/Squall_line" title="Squall line">squall lines</A>. While each cell of the cluster may only last 20 minutes, the cluster itself may persist for hours at a time. They often arise from convective updrafts in or near mountain ranges and linear weather boundaries, such as strong cold fronts or troughs of low pressure. These type of storms are stronger than the single-cell storm, yet much weaker than the supercell storm. Hazards with the multicell cluster include moderate-sized hail, flash flooding, and weak tornadoes.<SUP id="cite_ref-tsbasics_9-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tsbasics-9">[9]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Multicell_lines">Multicell lines</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Thunderstorm&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Multicell lines">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Squall_line" title="Squall line">Squall line</A></DIV>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <A href="/wiki/List_of_derecho_events" title="List of derecho events">List of derecho events</A></DIV>
<P>A squall line is an elongated line of <A href="/wiki/Thunderstorms#Severe_thunderstorms" class="mw-redirect" title="Thunderstorms">severe thunderstorms</A> that can form along or ahead of a <A href="/wiki/Cold_front" title="Cold front">cold front</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-19">[19]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-20">[20]</A></SUP> In the early 20th century, the term was used as a synonym for <A href="/wiki/Cold_front" title="Cold front">cold front</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-OU_21-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-OU-21">[21]</A></SUP> The squall line contains heavy <A href="/wiki/Precipitation_(meteorology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Precipitation (meteorology)">precipitation</A>, <A href="/wiki/Hail" title="Hail">hail</A>, frequent <A href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">lightning</A>, strong straight line <A href="/wiki/Wind" title="Wind">winds</A>, and possibly <A href="/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado">tornadoes</A> and <A href="/wiki/Waterspouts" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterspouts">waterspouts</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-22">[22]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Severe_weather" title="Severe weather">Severe weather</A> in the form of strong straight-line winds can be expected in areas where the squall line itself is in the shape of a <A href="/wiki/Bow_echo" title="Bow echo">bow echo</A>, within the portion of the line that bows out the most.<SUP id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-23">[23]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado">Tornadoes</A> can be found along waves within a <A href="/wiki/Line_echo_wave_pattern" title="Line echo wave pattern">line echo wave pattern</A>, or LEWP, where mesoscale <A href="/wiki/Low_pressure_area" class="mw-redirect" title="Low pressure area">low pressure areas</A> are present.<SUP id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-24">[24]</A></SUP> Some bow echoes in the summer are called <A href="/wiki/Derecho" title="Derecho">derechos</A>, and move quite fast through large sections of territory.<SUP id="cite_ref-noaa_25-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-noaa-25">[25]</A></SUP> On the back edge of the rain shield associated with mature squall lines, a <A href="/wiki/Wake_low" title="Wake low">wake low</A> can form, which is a mesoscale low pressure area that forms behind the mesoscale high pressure system normally present under the rain canopy, which are sometimes associated with a <A href="/wiki/Heat_burst" title="Heat burst">heat burst</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-26">[26]</A></SUP> This kind of storm is also known as "Wind of the Stony Lake" (Traditional Chinese:石湖風 – shi2 hu2 feng1, Simplified Chinese: 石湖风) in southern China.<SUP id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-27">[27]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Supercells">Supercells</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Thunderstorm&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Supercells">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Supercell" title="Supercell">Supercell</A></DIV>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Chaparral_Supercell_2.JPG" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Chaparral_Supercell_2.JPG/220px-Chaparral_Supercell_2.JPG" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Chaparral_Supercell_2.JPG/330px-Chaparral_Supercell_2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Chaparral_Supercell_2.JPG/440px-Chaparral_Supercell_2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></A>
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A <A href="/wiki/Supercell" title="Supercell">supercell</A> thunderstorm over <A href="/wiki/Chaparral" title="Chaparral">Chaparral</A>, <A href="/wiki/New_Mexico" title="New Mexico">New Mexico</A>.</DIV>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Thunderhead.anvil.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Thunderhead.anvil.jpg/220px-Thunderhead.anvil.jpg" width="220" height="139" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Thunderhead.anvil.jpg/330px-Thunderhead.anvil.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Thunderhead.anvil.jpg/440px-Thunderhead.anvil.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2421" data-file-height="1528" /></A>
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The setting sun illuminates the top of a classic anvil-shaped thunderstorm cloud in eastern <A href="/wiki/Nebraska" title="Nebraska">Nebraska</A>, <A href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</A>.</DIV>
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<P>Supercell storms are large, usually <A href="/wiki/Severe_weather" title="Severe weather">severe</A>, quasi-steady-state storms that form in an environment where wind speed or wind direction varies with height ("<A href="/wiki/Wind_shear" title="Wind shear">wind shear</A>"), and they have separate downdrafts and updrafts (i.e., where its associated precipitation is not falling through the updraft) with a strong, rotating updraft (a "<A href="/wiki/Mesocyclone" title="Mesocyclone">mesocyclone</A>"). These storms normally have such powerful updrafts that the top of the supercell storm cloud (or anvil) can break through the <A href="/wiki/Troposphere" title="Troposphere">troposphere</A> and reach into the lower levels of the <A href="/wiki/Stratosphere" title="Stratosphere">stratosphere</A>, and supercell storms can be 24 kilometres (15 mi) wide. Research has shown that at least 90 percent of supercells cause <A href="/wiki/Severe_weather" title="Severe weather">severe weather</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-motion_12-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-motion-12">[12]</A></SUP> These storms can produce destructive <A href="/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado">tornadoes</A>, sometimes <A href="/wiki/Fujita_scale" title="Fujita scale">F3</A> or higher, extremely large <A href="/wiki/Hail" title="Hail">hailstones</A> (10 centimetres or 4 inches diameter), <A href="/wiki/Straight-line_wind" class="mw-redirect" title="Straight-line wind">straight-line winds</A> in excess of 130 km/h (81 mph), and <A href="/wiki/Flash_flood" title="Flash flood">flash floods</A>. In fact, research has also shown that most tornadoes occur from this type of thunderstorm.<SUP id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-28">[28]</A></SUP> Supercells are the strongest type of thunderstorm, even stronger than the most severe thunderstorms.<SUP id="cite_ref-tsbasics_9-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tsbasics-9">[9]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Severe_thunderstorms">Severe thunderstorms</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Thunderstorm&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Severe thunderstorms">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>A thunderstorm is classed as severe if winds reach at least 93 kilometres per hour (58 mph), hail is 25 millimetres (1 in) in diameter or larger, or if <A href="/wiki/Funnel_cloud" title="Funnel cloud">funnel clouds</A> or <A href="/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado">tornadoes</A> are reported.<SUP id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-29">[29]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-30">[30]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-31">[31]</A></SUP> Although a funnel cloud or tornado indicates a severe thunderstorm, a <A href="/wiki/Tornado_warning" title="Tornado warning">tornado warning</A> is issued in place of a <A href="/wiki/Severe_thunderstorm_warning" title="Severe thunderstorm warning">severe thunderstorm warning</A>. A severe thunderstorm warning is issued if a thunderstorm becomes severe, or will soon turn severe. In Canada, a rainfall rate greater than 50 millimetres (2 in) in one hour, or 75 millimetres (3 in) in three hours, is also used to indicate severe thunderstorms.<SUP id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-32">[32]</A></SUP> Severe thunderstorms can occur from any type of storm cell. However, <A href="/wiki/Multicellular_thunderstorm" title="Multicellular thunderstorm">multicell</A>, <A href="/wiki/Supercell" title="Supercell">supercell</A>, and squall lines represent the most common forms of thunderstorms that produce severe weather.<SUP id="cite_ref-motion_12-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-motion-12">[12]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Mesoscale_convective_systems">Mesoscale convective systems</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Thunderstorm&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Mesoscale convective systems">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <A href="/wiki/Mesoscale_convective_system" title="Mesoscale convective system">Mesoscale convective system</A></DIV>
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MCC moving through <A href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</A>: August 2, 2006 0600 UTC</DIV>
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<P>A <A href="/wiki/Mesoscale_convective_system" title="Mesoscale convective system">mesoscale convective system</A> (MCS) is a complex of thunderstorms that becomes organized on a scale larger than the individual thunderstorms but smaller than <A href="/wiki/Extratropical_cyclone" title="Extratropical cyclone">extratropical cyclones</A>, and normally persists for several hours or more.<SUP id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-33">[33]</A></SUP> A mesoscale convective system's overall cloud and precipitation pattern may be round or linear in shape, and include weather systems such as <A href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone" title="Tropical cyclone">tropical cyclones</A>, <A href="/wiki/Squall_line" title="Squall line">squall lines</A>, <A href="/wiki/Lake-effect_snow" title="Lake-effect snow">lake-effect snow</A> events, <A href="/wiki/Polar_low" title="Polar low">polar lows</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Mesoscale_Convective_Complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesoscale Convective Complex">Mesoscale Convective Complexes</A> (MCCs), and they generally form near <A href="/wiki/Weather_front" title="Weather front">weather fronts</A>. Most mesoscale convective systems develop overnight and continue their lifespan through the next day.<SUP id="cite_ref-Extreme_Weather_8-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Extreme_Weather-8">[8]</A></SUP> The type that forms during the warm season over land has been noted across <A href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</A>, <A href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</A>, with a maximum in activity noted during the late afternoon and evening hours.<SUP id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-34">[34]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-35">[35]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Forms of MCS that develop in the tropics are found in use either the <A href="/wiki/Intertropical_Convergence_Zone" title="Intertropical Convergence Zone">Intertropical Convergence Zone</A> or <A href="/wiki/Monsoon_trough" title="Monsoon trough">monsoon troughs</A>, generally within the warm season between <A href="/wiki/Spring_(season)" title="Spring (season)">spring</A> and <A href="/wiki/Fall" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall">fall</A>. More intense systems form over land than over water.<SUP id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-36">[36]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-37">[37]</A></SUP> One exception is that of <A href="/wiki/Lake-effect_snow" title="Lake-effect snow">lake-effect snow</A> bands, which form due to cold air moving across relatively warm bodies of water, and occurs from fall through spring.<SUP id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-38">[38]</A></SUP> Polar lows are a second special class of MCS. They form at high latitudes during the cold season.<SUP id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-39">[39]</A></SUP> Once the parent MCS dies, later thunderstorm development can occur in connection with its remnant <A href="/wiki/Mesoscale_convective_vortex" title="Mesoscale convective vortex">mesoscale convective vortex</A> (MCV).<SUP id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-40">[40]</A></SUP> Mesoscale convective systems are important to the <A href="/wiki/United_States_rainfall_climatology" title="United States rainfall climatology">United States rainfall climatology</A> over the <A href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</A> since they bring the region about half of their annual warm season rainfall.<SUP id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-41">[41]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Motion">Motion</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Thunderstorm&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Motion">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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Thunderstorm line viewed in <A href="/wiki/Reflectivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Reflectivity">reflectivity</A> (<A href="/wiki/DBZ_(meteorology)" title="DBZ (meteorology)">dBZ</A>) on a <A href="/wiki/Plan_position_indicator" title="Plan position indicator">plan position indicator</A> radar display</DIV>
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<P>The two major ways thunderstorms move are via <A href="/wiki/Advection" title="Advection">advection</A> of the wind and propagation along <A href="/wiki/Outflow_boundary" title="Outflow boundary">outflow boundaries</A> towards sources of greater heat and moisture. Many thunderstorms move with the mean wind speed through the Earth's <A href="/wiki/Troposphere" title="Troposphere">troposphere</A>, the lowest 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) of the <A href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">Earth's atmosphere</A>. Weaker thunderstorms are steered by winds closer to the Earth's surface than stronger thunderstorms, as the weaker thunderstorms are not as tall. Organized, long-lived thunderstorm cells and complexes move at a right angle to the direction of the vertical <A href="/wiki/Wind_shear" title="Wind shear">wind shear</A> vector. If the gust front, or leading edge of the outflow boundary, races ahead of the thunderstorm, its motion will accelerate in tandem. This is more of a factor with thunderstorms with heavy precipitation (HP) than with thunderstorms with low precipitation (LP). When thunderstorms merge, which is most likely when numerous thunderstorms exist in proximity to each other, the motion of the stronger thunderstorm normally dictates the future motion of the merged cell. The stronger the mean wind, the less likely other processes will be involved in storm motion. On <A href="/wiki/Weather_radar" title="Weather radar">weather radar</A>, storms are tracked by using a prominent feature and tracking it from scan to scan.<SUP id="cite_ref-motion_12-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-motion-12">[12]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Back-building_thunderstorm">Back-building thunderstorm</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Thunderstorm&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Back-building thunderstorm">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>A back-building thunderstorm, commonly referred to as a <A href="/wiki/Training_(meteorology)" title="Training (meteorology)">training thunderstorm</A>, is a thunderstorm in which new development takes place on the upwind side (usually the west or southwest side in the <A href="/wiki/Northern_Hemisphere" title="Northern Hemisphere">Northern Hemisphere</A>), such that the storm seems to remain stationary or propagate in a backward direction. Though the storm often appears stationary on radar, or even moving upwind, this is an illusion. The storm is really a multi-cell storm with new, more vigorous cells that form on the upwind side, replacing older cells that continue to drift downwind.<SUP id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-42">[42]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-43">[43]</A></SUP> When this happens, catastrophic flooding is possible. In <A href="/wiki/Rapid_City,_South_Dakota" title="Rapid City, South Dakota">Rapid City, South Dakota</A>, in 1972, an unusual alignment of winds at various levels of the atmosphere combined to produce a continuously training set of cells that dropped an enormous quantity of rain upon the same area, resulting in <A href="/wiki/Black_Hills_flood" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Hills flood">devastating flash flooding</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-44">[44]</A></SUP> A similar event occurred in <A href="/wiki/Boscastle" title="Boscastle">Boscastle</A>, England, on 16 August 2004.<SUP id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-45">[45]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Hazards">Hazards</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Thunderstorm&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Hazards">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>Each year, many people are killed or seriously injured by severe thunderstorms despite the advance warning. While severe thunderstorms are most common in the <A href="/wiki/Spring_(season)" title="Spring (season)">spring</A> and <A href="/wiki/Summer" title="Summer">summer</A>, they can occur at just about any time of the year.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Cloud-to-ground_lightning">Cloud-to-ground lightning</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Thunderstorm&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Cloud-to-ground lightning">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <A href="/wiki/Lightning_strike" title="Lightning strike">Lightning strike</A> and <A href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfire</A></DIV>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Blitze_IMGP6376_wp.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Blitze_IMGP6376_wp.jpg/220px-Blitze_IMGP6376_wp.jpg" width="220" height="174" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Blitze_IMGP6376_wp.jpg/330px-Blitze_IMGP6376_wp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Blitze_IMGP6376_wp.jpg/440px-Blitze_IMGP6376_wp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3204" data-file-height="2528" /></A>
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A return stroke, cloud-to-ground lightning strike during a thunderstorm.</DIV>
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<P><A href="/wiki/Cloud-to-ground_lightning" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloud-to-ground lightning">Cloud-to-ground lightning</A> frequently occurs within the phenomena of thunderstorms and have numerous hazards towards landscapes and populations. One of the more significant hazards lightning can pose is the wildfires they are capable of igniting.<SUP id="cite_ref-Scott2000_46-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Scott2000-46">[46]</A></SUP> Under a regime of low precipitation (LP) thunderstorms, where little precipitation is present, rainfall cannot prevent fires from starting when vegetation is dry as lightning produces a concentrated amount of extreme heat.<SUP id="cite_ref-ufl_47-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-ufl-47">[47]</A></SUP> Direct damage caused by lightning strikes occurs on occasion.<SUP id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-48">[48]</A></SUP> In areas with a high frequency for cloud-to-ground lightning, like <A href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</A>, lightning causes several fatalities per year, most commonly to people working outside.<SUP id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-49">[49]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Acid rain is also a frequent risk produced by lightning. <A href="/wiki/Distilled_water" title="Distilled water">Distilled water</A> has a <A href="/wiki/Neutral_solution" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutral solution">neutral</A> <A href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</A> of 7. “Clean” or unpolluted rain has a slightly acidic pH of about 5.2, because carbon dioxide and water in the air react together to form <A href="/wiki/Carbonic_acid" title="Carbonic acid">carbonic acid</A>, a weak acid (pH 5.6 in distilled water), but unpolluted rain also contains other chemicals.<SUP id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-50">[50]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Nitric_oxide" title="Nitric oxide">Nitric oxide</A> present during thunderstorm phenomena,<SUP id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-51">[51]</A></SUP> caused by the oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen, can result in the production of acid rain, if nitric oxide forms compounds with the water molecules in precipitation, thus creating acid rain. Acid rain can damage infrastructures containing calcite or certain other solid chemical compounds. In ecosystems, acid rain can dissolve plant tissues of vegetations and increase acidification process in bodies of water and in <A href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</A>, resulting in deaths of marine and terrestrial organisms.<SUP id="cite_ref-EPA_52-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-EPA-52">[52]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Hail">Hail</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Thunderstorm&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Hail">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Hail" title="Hail">Hail</A></DIV>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Bogota_hailstorm.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Bogota_hailstorm.jpg/220px-Bogota_hailstorm.jpg" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Bogota_hailstorm.jpg/330px-Bogota_hailstorm.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Bogota_hailstorm.jpg/440px-Bogota_hailstorm.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></A>
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Hailstorm in <A href="/wiki/Bogot%C3%A1" title="Bogotá">Bogotá</A>, <A href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</A>.</DIV>
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<P>Any thunderstorm that produces hail that reaches the ground is known as a hailstorm.<SUP id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-53">[53]</A></SUP> Thunderclouds that are capable of producing hailstones are often seen obtaining green coloration. Hail is more common along mountain ranges because mountains force horizontal winds upwards (known as <A href="/wiki/Orographic_lift" title="Orographic lift">orographic lifting</A>), thereby intensifying the updrafts within thunderstorms and making hail more likely.<SUP id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-54">[54]</A></SUP> One of the more common regions for large hail is across mountainous northern India, which reported one of the highest hail-related death tolls on record in 1888.<SUP id="cite_ref-Oliver_55-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Oliver-55">[55]</A></SUP> China also experiences significant hailstorms.<SUP id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-56">[56]</A></SUP> Across <A href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</A>, <A href="/wiki/Croatia" title="Croatia">Croatia</A> experiences frequent occurrences of hail.<SUP id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-57">[57]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In <A href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</A>, hail is most common in the area where <A href="/wiki/Colorado" title="Colorado">Colorado</A>, <A href="/wiki/Nebraska" title="Nebraska">Nebraska</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Wyoming" title="Wyoming">Wyoming</A> meet, known as "Hail Alley."<SUP id="cite_ref-ncarhail_58-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-ncarhail-58">[58]</A></SUP> Hail in this region occurs between the months of March and October during the afternoon and evening hours, with the bulk of the occurrences from May through September. <A href="/wiki/Cheyenne,_Wyoming" title="Cheyenne, Wyoming">Cheyenne, Wyoming</A> is North America's most hail-prone city with an average of nine to ten hailstorms per season.<SUP id="cite_ref-Nolanhail_59-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Nolanhail-59">[59]</A></SUP> In South America, areas prone to hail are cities like Bogotá, Colombia.</P>
<P>Hail can cause serious damage, notably to <A href="/wiki/Automobile" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile">automobiles</A>, aircraft, skylights, glass-roofed structures, <A href="/wiki/Livestock" title="Livestock">livestock</A>, and most commonly, farmers' <A href="/wiki/Crops" class="mw-redirect" title="Crops">crops</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Nolanhail_59-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Nolanhail-59">[59]</A></SUP> Hail is one of the most significant thunderstorm hazards to aircraft. When hail stones exceed 13 millimetres (0.5 in) in diameter, planes can be seriously damaged within seconds.<SUP id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-60">[60]</A></SUP> The hailstones accumulating on the ground can also be hazardous to landing aircraft. Wheat, corn, soybeans, and tobacco are the most sensitive crops to hail damage.<SUP id="cite_ref-Oliver_55-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Oliver-55">[55]</A></SUP> Hail is one of Canada's most costly hazards.<SUP id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-61">[61]</A></SUP> Hailstorms have been the cause of costly and deadly events throughout history. One of the earliest recorded incidents occurred around the 9th century in <A href="/wiki/Roopkund" title="Roopkund">Roopkund</A>, <A href="/wiki/Uttarakhand" title="Uttarakhand">Uttarakhand</A>, India.<SUP id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-62">[62]</A></SUP> The largest hailstone in terms of maximum circumference and length ever recorded in the United States fell in 2003 in <A href="/wiki/Aurora,_Nebraska" title="Aurora, Nebraska">Aurora, Nebraska</A>, United States.<SUP id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-63">[63]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Tornadoes_and_waterspouts">Tornadoes and waterspouts</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Thunderstorm&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Tornadoes and waterspouts">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:F5_tornado_Elie_Manitoba_2007.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/F5_tornado_Elie_Manitoba_2007.jpg/220px-F5_tornado_Elie_Manitoba_2007.jpg" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/F5_tornado_Elie_Manitoba_2007.jpg/330px-F5_tornado_Elie_Manitoba_2007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/F5_tornado_Elie_Manitoba_2007.jpg/440px-F5_tornado_Elie_Manitoba_2007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></A>
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In June 2007, the town of <A href="/wiki/Elie,_Manitoba" title="Elie, Manitoba">Elie, Manitoba</A> was struck by an <A href="/wiki/Fujita_scale" title="Fujita scale">F5</A> <A href="/wiki/2007_Elie,_Manitoba_tornado" title="2007 Elie, Manitoba tornado">tornado</A>.</DIV>
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<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <A href="/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado">Tornado</A> and <A href="/wiki/Waterspout" title="Waterspout">Waterspout</A></DIV>
<P>A tornado is a violent, rotating column of air in contact with both the surface of the earth and a cumulonimbus cloud (otherwise known as a thundercloud) or, in rare cases, the base of a <A href="/wiki/Cumulus_cloud" title="Cumulus cloud">cumulus cloud</A>. Tornadoes come in many sizes but are typically in the form of a visible <A href="/wiki/Funnel_cloud" title="Funnel cloud">condensation funnel</A>, whose narrow end touches the earth and is often encircled by a cloud of <A href="/wiki/Debris" title="Debris">debris</A> and <A href="/wiki/Dust" title="Dust">dust</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Renno_64-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Renno-64">[64]</A></SUP> Most tornadoes have wind speeds between 40 and 110 mph (64 and 177 km/h), are approximately 75 metres (246 ft) across, and travel several kilometers (a few miles) before dissipating. Some attain wind speeds of more than 300 mph (480 km/h), stretch more than 1,600 metres (1 mi) across, and stay on the ground for more than 100 kilometres (dozens of miles).<SUP id="cite_ref-SPC_FAQ_65-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-SPC_FAQ-65">[65]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-fastest_wind_66-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-fastest_wind-66">[66]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-widest_tornado_67-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-widest_tornado-67">[67]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/Fujita_scale" title="Fujita scale">Fujita scale</A> and the <A href="/wiki/Enhanced_Fujita_Scale" class="mw-redirect" title="Enhanced Fujita Scale">Enhanced Fujita Scale</A> rate tornadoes by damage caused. An <B>EF0</B> tornado, the weakest category, damages trees but not substantial structures. An <B>EF5</B> tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large <A href="/wiki/Skyscraper" title="Skyscraper">skyscrapers</A>. The similar <A href="/wiki/TORRO_scale" title="TORRO scale">TORRO scale</A> ranges from a <B>T0</B> for extremely weak tornadoes to <B>T11</B> for the most powerful known tornadoes.<SUP id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-68">[68]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Pulse-Doppler_radar" title="Pulse-Doppler radar">Doppler</A> <A href="/wiki/Weather_radar" title="Weather radar">radar</A> data, <A href="/wiki/Photogrammetry" title="Photogrammetry">photogrammetry</A>, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating.<SUP id="cite_ref-EF_SPC_69-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-EF_SPC-69">[69]</A></SUP></P>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Great_Lakes_Waterspouts.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Great_Lakes_Waterspouts.jpg/220px-Great_Lakes_Waterspouts.jpg" width="220" height="136" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Great_Lakes_Waterspouts.jpg/330px-Great_Lakes_Waterspouts.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Great_Lakes_Waterspouts.jpg/440px-Great_Lakes_Waterspouts.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="372" /></A>
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Formation of numerous waterspouts in the <A href="/wiki/Great_Lakes" title="Great Lakes">Great Lakes</A> region. (North America)</DIV>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Kings_Christian_Church_carpark_Flooded.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Kings_Christian_Church_carpark_Flooded.jpg/220px-Kings_Christian_Church_carpark_Flooded.jpg" width="220" height="123" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Kings_Christian_Church_carpark_Flooded.jpg/330px-Kings_Christian_Church_carpark_Flooded.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Kings_Christian_Church_carpark_Flooded.jpg/440px-Kings_Christian_Church_carpark_Flooded.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="895" /></A>
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A flash flood caused by a severe thunderstorm</DIV>
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<P>Waterspouts have similar characteristics as tornadoes, characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current that form over bodies of water, connecting to large cumulonimbus clouds. Waterspouts are generally classified as forms of tornadoes, or more specifically, non-<A href="/wiki/Supercell" title="Supercell">supercelled</A> tornadoes that develop over large bodies of water.<SUP id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-70">[70]</A></SUP> These spiralling columns of air are frequently developed within tropical areas close to the <A href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">equator</A>, but are less common within areas of <A href="/wiki/High_latitude" class="mw-redirect" title="High latitude">high latitude</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-71">[71]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Flash_flood">Flash flood</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Thunderstorm&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Flash flood">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Flash_flood" title="Flash flood">Flash flood</A></DIV>
<P>Flash flooding is the process where a landscape, most notably an urban environment, is subjected to rapid floods.<SUP id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-72">[72]</A></SUP> These rapid floods occur more quickly and are more localized than seasonal river flooding or areal flooding<SUP id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-73">[73]</A></SUP> and are frequently (though not always) associated with intense rainfall.<SUP id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-74">[74]</A></SUP> Flash flooding can frequently occur in slow-moving thunderstorms and is usually caused by the heavy liquid precipitation that accompanies it. Flash floods are most common in densely populated urban environments, where few plants and bodies of water are present to absorb and contain the extra water. Flash flooding can be hazardous to small infrastructure, such as bridges, and weakly constructed buildings. Plants and crops in agricultural areas can be destroyed and devastated by the force of raging water. Automobiles parked within affected areas can also be displaced. <A href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">Soil</A> erosion can occur as well, exposing risks of <A href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">landslide</A> phenomena.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Downburst">Downburst</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Thunderstorm&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Downburst">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Downburst" title="Downburst">Downburst</A></DIV>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Downburst_damage.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Downburst_damage.jpg/220px-Downburst_damage.jpg" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Downburst_damage.jpg/330px-Downburst_damage.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Downburst_damage.jpg/440px-Downburst_damage.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></A>
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Trees uprooted or displaced by the force of a downburst wind in northwest Monroe County, <A href="/wiki/Wisconsin" title="Wisconsin">Wisconsin</A>.</DIV>
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<P>Downburst winds can produce numerous hazards to landscapes experiencing thunderstorms. Downburst winds are generally very powerful, and are often mistaken for wind speeds produced by tornadoes,<SUP id="cite_ref-erh.noaa_75-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-erh.noaa-75">[75]</A></SUP> due to the concentrated amount of force exerted by their straight-horizontal characteristic. Downburst winds can be hazardous to unstable, incomplete, or weakly constructed infrastructures and buildings. Agricultural crops, and other plants in nearby environments can be uprooted and damaged. Aircraft engaged in takeoff or landing can crash.<SUP id="cite_ref-Extreme_Weather_8-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Extreme_Weather-8">[8]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-erh.noaa_75-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-erh.noaa-75">[75]</A></SUP> Automobiles can be displaced by the force exerted by downburst winds. Downburst winds are usually formed in areas when high pressure air systems of downdrafts begin to sink and displace the air masses below it, due to their higher density. When these downdrafts reach the surface, they spread out and turn into the destructive straight-horizontal winds.<SUP id="cite_ref-Extreme_Weather_8-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Extreme_Weather-8">[8]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Thunderstorm_asthma">Thunderstorm asthma</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Thunderstorm&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Thunderstorm asthma">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Thunderstorm_asthma" title="Thunderstorm asthma">Thunderstorm asthma</A></DIV>
<P>Thunderstorm asthma is the triggering of an asthma attack by environmental conditions directly caused by a local thunderstorm. During a thunderstorm, pollen grains can absorb moisture and then burst into much smaller fragments with these fragments being easily dispersed by wind. While larger pollen grains are usually filtered by hairs in the nose, the smaller pollen fragments are able to pass through and enter the lungs, triggering the asthma attack.<SUP id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-76">[76]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-77">[77]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-78">[78]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-79">[79]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Safety_precautions">Safety precautions</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Thunderstorm&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Safety precautions">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <A href="/wiki/Emergency_management" title="Emergency management">Emergency management</A> and <A href="/wiki/Tornado_preparedness" title="Tornado preparedness">Tornado preparedness</A></DIV>
<P>Most thunderstorms come and go fairly uneventfully; however, any thunderstorm can become <A href="/wiki/Severe_thunderstorm" class="mw-redirect" title="Severe thunderstorm">severe</A>, and all thunderstorms, by definition, present the danger of <A href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">lightning</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-redcross_80-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-redcross-80">[80]</A></SUP> Thunderstorm preparedness and safety refers to taking steps before, during, and after a thunderstorm to minimize injury and damage.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Preparedness">Preparedness</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Thunderstorm&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Preparedness">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>Preparedness refers to precautions that should be taken before a thunderstorm. Some preparedness takes the form of general readiness (as a thunderstorm can occur at any time of the day or year).<SUP id="cite_ref-NWS_81-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-NWS-81">[81]</A></SUP> Preparing a family emergency plan, for example, can save valuable time if a storm arises quickly and unexpectedly.<SUP id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-82">[82]</A></SUP> Preparing the home by removing dead or rotting limbs and trees, which can be blown over in high winds, can also significantly reduce the risk of property damage and personal injury.<SUP id="cite_ref-fema_83-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-fema-83">[83]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/National_Weather_Service" title="National Weather Service">National Weather Service</A> (NWS) in the United States recommends several precautions that people should take if thunderstorms are likely to occur:<SUP id="cite_ref-NWS_81-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-NWS-81">[81]</A></SUP></P>
<DL>
<DD>
<UL>
<LI>Know the names of local counties, cities, and towns, as these are how warnings are described.<SUP id="cite_ref-NWS_81-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-NWS-81">[81]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI>Monitor forecasts and weather conditions and know whether thunderstorms are likely in the area.<SUP id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_84-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-84">[84]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI>Be alert for natural signs of an approaching storm.</LI>
<LI>Cancel or reschedule outdoor events (to avoid being caught outdoors when a storm hits).<SUP id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_84-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-84">[84]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI>Take action early so you have time to get to a safe place.<SUP id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_84-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-84">[84]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI>Get inside a substantial building or hard-topped metal vehicle before threatening weather arrives.<SUP id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_84-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-84">[84]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI>If you hear <A href="/wiki/Thunder" title="Thunder">thunder</A>, get to the safe place immediately.<SUP id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_84-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-84">[84]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI>Avoid open areas like hilltops, fields, and <A href="/wiki/Beach" title="Beach">beaches</A>, and don't be or be near the tallest objects in an area when thunderstorms are occurring.<SUP id="cite_ref-NWS_81-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-NWS-81">[81]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_84-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-84">[84]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI>Don't shelter under tall or isolated trees during thunderstorms.<SUP id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_84-6" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-84">[84]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI>If in the woods, put as much distance between you and any trees during thunderstorms.<SUP id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_84-7" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-84">[84]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI>If in a group, spread out so that you increase the chances for survivors who could come to the aid of any victims from a <A href="/wiki/Lightning_strike" title="Lightning strike">lightning strike</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_84-8" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-84">[84]</A></SUP></LI>
</UL>
</DD>
</DL>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Safety">Safety</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Thunderstorm&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Safety">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>While safety and preparedness often overlap, “thunderstorm safety” generally refers to what people should do during and after a storm. The <A href="/wiki/American_Red_Cross" title="American Red Cross">American Red Cross</A> recommends that people follow these precautions if a storm is imminent or in progress:<SUP id="cite_ref-redcross_80-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-redcross-80">[80]</A></SUP></P>
<DL>
<DD>
<UL>
<LI>Take action immediately upon hearing thunder. Anyone close enough to the storm to hear thunder can be struck by lightning.<SUP id="cite_ref-fema_83-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-fema-83">[83]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI>Avoid electrical appliances, including corded telephones.<SUP id="cite_ref-redcross_80-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-redcross-80">[80]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Cordless_telephone" title="Cordless telephone">Cordless</A> and wireless telephones are safe to use during a thunderstorm.<SUP id="cite_ref-fema_83-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-fema-83">[83]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI>Close and stay away from windows and doors, as glass can become a serious hazard in high wind.<SUP id="cite_ref-redcross_80-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-redcross-80">[80]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI>Do not bathe or shower, as plumbing conducts <A href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</A>.</LI>
<LI>If driving, safely exit the roadway, turn on hazard lights, and park. Remain in the vehicle and avoid touching metal.<SUP id="cite_ref-redcross_80-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-redcross-80">[80]</A></SUP></LI>
</UL>
</DD>
</DL>
<P>The NWS stopped recommending the "lightning crouch" in 2008 as it doesn't provide a significant level of protection and will not significantly lower the risk of being killed or injured from a nearby lightning strike.<SUP id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_84-9" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-84">[84]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-85">[85]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-86">[86]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Frequent_occurrences">Frequent occurrences</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Thunderstorm&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Frequent occurrences">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <A href="/wiki/United_States_rainfall_climatology" title="United States rainfall climatology">United States rainfall climatology</A></DIV>
<DIV class="thumb tleft">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Cumulonimbus_Over_Niagara_Falls.JPG" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Cumulonimbus_Over_Niagara_Falls.JPG/220px-Cumulonimbus_Over_Niagara_Falls.JPG" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Cumulonimbus_Over_Niagara_Falls.JPG/330px-Cumulonimbus_Over_Niagara_Falls.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Cumulonimbus_Over_Niagara_Falls.JPG/440px-Cumulonimbus_Over_Niagara_Falls.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></A>
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<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:Cumulonimbus_Over_Niagara_Falls.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
A mild thunderstorm over <A href="/wiki/Niagara_Falls,_Ontario" title="Niagara Falls, Ontario">Niagara Falls, Ontario</A>.</DIV>
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<P>Thunderstorms occur throughout the world, even in the polar regions, with the greatest frequency in <A href="/wiki/Tropical" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical">tropical</A> <A href="/wiki/Rainforest" title="Rainforest">rainforest</A> areas, where they may occur nearly daily. At any given time approximately 2,000 thunderstorms are occurring on Earth.<SUP id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-87">[87]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Kampala" title="Kampala">Kampala</A> and <A href="/wiki/Tororo" title="Tororo">Tororo</A> in <A href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</A> have each been mentioned as the most thunderous places on Earth,<SUP id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-88">[88]</A></SUP> a claim also made for <A href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</A> and <A href="/wiki/Bogor" title="Bogor">Bogor</A> on the Indonesian island of <A href="/wiki/Java_(island)" class="mw-redirect" title="Java (island)">Java</A>. Other cities known for frequent storm activity include <A href="/wiki/Darwin,_Northern_Territory" title="Darwin, Northern Territory">Darwin</A>, <A href="/wiki/Caracas" title="Caracas">Caracas</A>, <A href="/wiki/Manila" title="Manila">Manila</A> and <A href="/wiki/Mumbai" title="Mumbai">Mumbai</A>. Thunderstorms are associated with the various <A href="/wiki/Monsoon" title="Monsoon">monsoon</A> seasons around the globe, and they populate the <A href="/wiki/Rainband" title="Rainband">rainbands</A> of <A href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone" title="Tropical cyclone">tropical cyclones</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-89">[89]</A></SUP> In temperate regions, they are most frequent in spring and summer, although they can occur along or ahead of <A href="/wiki/Cold_front" title="Cold front">cold fronts</A> at any time of year.<SUP id="cite_ref-DR_90-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-DR-90">[90]</A></SUP> They may also occur within a cooler air mass following the passage of a cold front over a relatively warmer body of water. Thunderstorms are rare in polar regions because of cold surface temperatures.</P>
<P>Some of the most powerful thunderstorms over the United States occur in the Midwest and the <A href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern states</A>. These storms can produce large hail and powerful tornadoes. Thunderstorms are relatively uncommon along much of the <A href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="West Coast of the United States">West Coast of the United States</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-91">[91]</A></SUP> but they occur with greater frequency in the inland areas, particularly the <A href="/wiki/Sacramento_Valley" title="Sacramento Valley">Sacramento</A> and <A href="/wiki/San_Joaquin_Valley" title="San Joaquin Valley">San Joaquin</A> Valleys of <A href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</A>. In spring and summer, they occur nearly daily in certain areas of the <A href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountains" title="Rocky Mountains">Rocky Mountains</A> as part of the <A href="/wiki/North_American_Monsoon" title="North American Monsoon">North American Monsoon</A> regime. In the <A href="/wiki/Northeastern_United_States" title="Northeastern United States">Northeast</A>, storms take on similar characteristics and patterns as the Midwest, but with less frequency and severity. During the summer, <A href="/wiki/Air-mass_thunderstorm" title="Air-mass thunderstorm">air-mass thunderstorms</A> are an almost daily occurrence over central and southern parts of <A href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</A>.</P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Energy">Energy</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Thunderstorm&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Energy">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <A href="/wiki/Sprite_(lightning)" title="Sprite (lightning)">Sprite (lightning)</A>, <A href="/wiki/Upper-atmospheric_lightning" title="Upper-atmospheric lightning">Upper-atmospheric lightning</A>, and <A href="/wiki/St._Elmo%27s_fire" title="St. Elmo's fire">St. Elmo's fire</A></DIV>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:How_thunderstorms_launch_particle_beams_into_space_300dpi.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/How_thunderstorms_launch_particle_beams_into_space_300dpi.jpg/220px-How_thunderstorms_launch_particle_beams_into_space_300dpi.jpg" width="220" height="145" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/How_thunderstorms_launch_particle_beams_into_space_300dpi.jpg/330px-How_thunderstorms_launch_particle_beams_into_space_300dpi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/How_thunderstorms_launch_particle_beams_into_space_300dpi.jpg/440px-How_thunderstorms_launch_particle_beams_into_space_300dpi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5500" data-file-height="3613" /></A>
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<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:How_thunderstorms_launch_particle_beams_into_space_300dpi.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
How thunderstorms launch particle beams into space</DIV>
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<P>If the quantity of water that is condensed in and subsequently precipitated from a cloud is known, then the total energy of a thunderstorm can be calculated. In a typical thunderstorm, approximately 5×10<SUP>8</SUP> <A href="/wiki/Kilograms" class="mw-redirect" title="Kilograms">kg</A> of water vapor are lifted, and the amount of <A href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</A> released when this condenses is 10<SUP>15</SUP> <A href="/wiki/Joules" class="mw-redirect" title="Joules">joules</A>. This is on the same order of magnitude of energy released within a tropical cyclone, and more energy than that released during <A href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">the atomic bomb blast at Hiroshima, Japan in 1945</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-condensationenergy_10-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-condensationenergy-10">[10]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/Fermi_Gamma-ray_Burst_Monitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermi Gamma-ray Burst Monitor">Fermi Gamma-ray Burst Monitor</A> results show that <A href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma rays</A> and <A href="/wiki/Antimatter" title="Antimatter">antimatter</A> particles (<A href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positrons</A>) can be generated in powerful thunderstorms.<SUP id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-92">[92]</A></SUP> It is suggested that the antimatter positrons are formed in <A href="/wiki/Terrestrial_gamma-ray_flash" title="Terrestrial gamma-ray flash">terrestrial gamma-ray flashes</A> (TGF). TGFs are brief bursts occurring inside thunderstorms and associated with lightning. The streams of positrons and electrons collide higher in the atmosphere to generate more gamma rays.<SUP id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-93">[93]</A></SUP> About 500 TGFs may occur every day worldwide, but mostly go undetected.</P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Studies">Studies</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Thunderstorm&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Studies">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>In more contemporary times, thunderstorms have taken on the role of a scientific curiosity. Every spring, <A href="/wiki/Storm_chasing" title="Storm chasing">storm chasers</A> head to the <A href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</A> of the United States and the Canadian Prairies to explore the scientific aspects of storms and tornadoes through use of videotaping.<SUP id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-94">[94]</A></SUP> Radio pulses produced by cosmic rays are being used to study how electric charges develop within thunderstorms.<SUP id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-95">[95]</A></SUP> More organized meteorological projects such as <A href="/wiki/VORTEX2" class="mw-redirect" title="VORTEX2">VORTEX2</A> use an array of sensors, such as the <A href="/wiki/Doppler_on_Wheels" title="Doppler on Wheels">Doppler on Wheels</A>, vehicles with mounted automated <A href="/wiki/Weather_station" title="Weather station">weather stations</A>, <A href="/wiki/Weather_balloon" title="Weather balloon">weather balloons</A>, and unmanned aircraft to investigate thunderstorms expected to produce severe weather.<SUP id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-96">[96]</A></SUP> Lightning is detected remotely using sensors that detect cloud-to-ground lightning strokes with 95 percent accuracy in detection and within 250 metres (820 ft) of their point of origin.<SUP id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-97">[97]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Mythology_and_religion">Mythology and religion</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Thunderstorm&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Mythology and religion">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>Thunderstorms strongly influenced many early civilizations. <A href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greeks</A> believed that they were battles waged by <A href="/wiki/Zeus" title="Zeus">Zeus</A>, who hurled lightning bolts forged by <A href="/wiki/Hephaestus" title="Hephaestus">Hephaestus</A>. Some <A href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">American Indian</A> tribes associated thunderstorms with the <A href="/wiki/Thunderbird_(mythology)" title="Thunderbird (mythology)">Thunderbird</A>, who they believed was a servant of the <A href="/wiki/Great_Spirit" title="Great Spirit">Great Spirit</A>. The <A href="/wiki/Norsemen" title="Norsemen">Norse</A> considered thunderstorms to occur when <A href="/wiki/Thor" title="Thor">Thor</A> went to fight <A href="/wiki/J%C3%B6tunn" title="Jötunn">Jötnar</A>, with the thunder and lightning being the effect of his strikes with the hammer <A href="/wiki/Mj%C3%B6lnir" title="Mjölnir">Mjölnir</A>. <A href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</A> recognizes <A href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</A> as the god of rain and thunderstorms. <A href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</A> doctrine accepted the ideas of <A href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</A>'s original work, called <I><A href="/wiki/Meteorology_(Aristotle)" title="Meteorology (Aristotle)">Meteorologica</A></I>, that winds were caused by exhalations from the Earth and that fierce storms were the work of <A href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</A>. These ideas were still within the mainstream as late as the 18th century.<SUP id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-98">[98]</A></SUP></P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</A> was out walking when a thunderstorm began, causing him to pray to God for being saved and promising to become a monk.<SUP id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-99">[99]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Outside_of_Earth">Outside of Earth</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Thunderstorm&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Outside of Earth">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>Thunderstorms, evidenced by flashes of <A href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">lightning</A>, on Jupiter have been detected and are associated with clouds where water may exist as both a liquid and ice, suggesting that a similar mechanism may act as on Earth. (Water is a <A href="/wiki/Polar_molecule" class="mw-redirect" title="Polar molecule">polar molecule</A> that can carry a charge, so it is capable of creating the charge separation needed to produce lightning.)<SUP id="cite_ref-elkins-tanton_100-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-elkins-tanton-100">[100]</A></SUP> These electrical discharges can be up to a thousand times as powerful as lightning on the Earth.<SUP id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-101">[101]</A></SUP> The water clouds can form thunderstorms driven by the heat rising from the interior.<SUP id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-102">[102]</A></SUP> The clouds of Venus may also be capable of producing <A href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">lightning</A>; some observations suggest that the lightning rate is at least half of that on Earth.<SUP id="cite_ref-Russell2007_103-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Russell2007-103">[103]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Thunderstorm&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: See also">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Barber%27s_pole#Meteorology" title="Barber's pole">Barber's pole</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Continuous_gusts" title="Continuous gusts">Continuous gusts</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Convective_storm_detection" title="Convective storm detection">Convective storm detection</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hector_(cloud)" title="Hector (cloud)">Hector (cloud)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Severe_thunderstorm_warning" title="Severe thunderstorm warning">Severe thunderstorm warning</A> and <A href="/wiki/Severe_thunderstorm_watch" title="Severe thunderstorm watch">Severe thunderstorm watch</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Thundersnow" title="Thundersnow">Thundersnow</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tornado_warning" title="Tornado warning">Tornado warning</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tornado_watch" title="Tornado watch">Tornado watch</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Training_(meteorology)" title="Training (meteorology)">Training (meteorology)</A></LI>
</UL>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="References">References</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Thunderstorm&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: References">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<OL class="references">
<LI id="cite_note-1"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-1"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.weather.gov/glossary/index.php?letter=t">"Weather Glossary – T"</A>. National Weather Service. 21 April 2005<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2006-08-23</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Weather+Glossary+%E2%80%93+T&rft.pub=National+Weather+Service&rft.date=2005-04-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.weather.gov%2Fglossary%2Findex.php%3Fletter%3Dt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-nssl.noaa.gov-2"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-nssl.noaa.gov_2-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A href="/wiki/National_Severe_Storms_Laboratory" title="National Severe Storms Laboratory">National Severe Storms Laboratory</A> (September 1992). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nssl.noaa.gov/edu/safety/tornadoguide.html">"tornadoes...<I>Nature's Most Violent Storms</I>"</A>. <I>A PREPAREDNESS GUIDE</I>. <A href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2008-08-03</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=A+PREPAREDNESS+GUIDE&rft.atitle=tornadoes...Nature%27s+Most+Violent+Storms&rft.date=1992-09&rft.au=National+Severe+Storms+Laboratory&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nssl.noaa.gov%2Fedu%2Fsafety%2Ftornadoguide.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-3"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-3"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Albert Irvin Frye (1913). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=PDtIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA462"><I>Civil engineers' pocket book: a reference-book for engineers, contractors</I></A>. D. Van Nostrand Company. p. 462<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-08-31</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Civil+engineers%27+pocket+book%3A+a+reference-book+for+engineers%2C+contractors&rft.pages=462&rft.pub=D.+Van+Nostrand+Company&rft.date=1913&rft.au=Albert+Irvin+Frye&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DPDtIAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA462&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-4"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-4"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Yikne Deng (2005). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=ssO_19TRQ9AC&pg=PA112"><I>Ancient Chinese Inventions</I></A>. Chinese International Press. pp. 112–13. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-5085-0837-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-7-5085-0837-5">978-7-5085-0837-5</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-06-18</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Chinese+Inventions&rft.pages=112-13&rft.pub=Chinese+International+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-7-5085-0837-5&rft.au=Yikne+Deng&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DssO_19TRQ9AC%26pg%3DPA112&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-5"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-5"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">FMI (2007). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zamg.ac.at/docu/Manual/SatManu/main.htm?/docu/Manual/SatManu/CMs/FgStr/backgr.htm">"Fog And Stratus – Meteorological Physical Background"</A>. Zentralanstalt für Meteorologie und Geodynamik<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-02-07</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Fog+And+Stratus+%E2%80%93+Meteorological+Physical+Background&rft.pub=Zentralanstalt+f%C3%BCr+Meteorologie+und+Geodynamik&rft.date=2007&rft.au=FMI&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.zamg.ac.at%2Fdocu%2FManual%2FSatManu%2Fmain.htm%3F%2Fdocu%2FManual%2FSatManu%2FCMs%2FFgStr%2Fbackgr.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-6"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-6"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Chris C. Mooney (2007). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=RRSzR4NQdGkC&pg=PA20"><I>Storm world: hurricanes, politics, and the battle over global warming</I></A>. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 20. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-15-101287-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-15-101287-9">978-0-15-101287-9</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-08-31</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Storm+world%3A+hurricanes%2C+politics%2C+and+the+battle+over+global+warming&rft.pages=20&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Harcourt&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-15-101287-9&rft.au=Chris+C.+Mooney&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DRRSzR4NQdGkC%26pg%3DPA20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-CAPE-7"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-CAPE_7-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">David O. Blanchard (September 1998). "Assessing the Vertical Distribution of Convective Available Potential Energy". <I><A href="/wiki/Weather_and_Forecasting" title="Weather and Forecasting">Weather and Forecasting</A></I>. <A href="/wiki/American_Meteorological_Society" title="American Meteorological Society">American Meteorological Society</A>. <B>13</B> (3): 870–7. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998WtFor..13..870B">1998WtFor..13..870B</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0434%281998%29013%3C0870%3AATVDOC%3E2.0.CO%3B2">10.1175/1520-0434(1998)013<0870:ATVDOC>2.0.CO;2</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Weather+and+Forecasting&rft.atitle=Assessing+the+Vertical+Distribution+of+Convective+Available+Potential+Energy&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=870-7&rft.date=1998-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2F1520-0434%281998%29013%3C0870%3AATVDOC%3E2.0.CO%3B2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1998WtFor..13..870B&rft.au=David+O.+Blanchard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Extreme_Weather-8"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Extreme_Weather_8-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Extreme_Weather_8-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Extreme_Weather_8-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Extreme_Weather_8-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Extreme_Weather_8-4"><SUP><I><B>e</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Michael H. Mogil (2007). <I>Extreme Weather</I>. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publisher. pp. 210–211. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57912-743-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57912-743-5">978-1-57912-743-5</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Extreme+Weather&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=210-211&rft.pub=Black+Dog+%26+Leventhal+Publisher&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-57912-743-5&rft.au=Michael+H.+Mogil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tsbasics-9"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-tsbasics_9-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-tsbasics_9-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-tsbasics_9-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-tsbasics_9-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">National Severe Storms Laboratory (2006-10-15). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nssl.noaa.gov/primer/tstorm/tst_basics.html">"A Severe Weather Primer: Questions and Answers about Thunderstorms"</A>. <A href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-09-01</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Severe+Weather+Primer%3A+Questions+and+Answers+about+Thunderstorms&rft.pub=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&rft.date=2006-10-15&rft.au=National+Severe+Storms+Laboratory&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nssl.noaa.gov%2Fprimer%2Ftstorm%2Ftst_basics.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-condensationenergy-10"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-condensationenergy_10-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-condensationenergy_10-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Gianfranco Vidali (2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100315113421/http://physics.syr.edu/courses/modules/ENERGY/ENERGY_POLICY/tables.html">"Rough Values of Various Processes"</A>. <A href="/wiki/University_of_Syracuse" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Syracuse">University of Syracuse</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://physics.syr.edu/courses/modules/ENERGY/ENERGY_POLICY/tables.html">the original</A> on 2010-03-15<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-08-31</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rough+Values+of+Various+Processes&rft.pub=University+of+Syracuse&rft.date=2009&rft.au=Gianfranco+Vidali&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphysics.syr.edu%2Fcourses%2Fmodules%2FENERGY%2FENERGY_POLICY%2Ftables.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-11"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-11"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Pilot's Web The Aviator's Journal (2009-06-13). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pilotsweb.com/wx/w_sense.htm">"Structural Icing in VMC"</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-09-02</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Structural+Icing+in+VMC&rft.date=2009-06-13&rft.au=Pilot%27s+Web+The+Aviator%27s+Journal&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pilotsweb.com%2Fwx%2Fw_sense.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-motion-12"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-motion_12-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-motion_12-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-motion_12-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-motion_12-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Jon W. Zeitler & Matthew J. Bunkers (March 2005). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crh.noaa.gov/images/unr/soo/scm/ZB06.pdf">"Operational Forecasting of Supercell Motion: Review and Case Studies Using Multiple Datasets"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/National_Weather_Service" title="National Weather Service">National Weather Service</A> Forecast Office, <A href="/wiki/Riverton,_Wyoming" title="Riverton, Wyoming">Riverton, Wyoming</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-08-30</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Operational+Forecasting+of+Supercell+Motion%3A+Review+and+Case+Studies+Using+Multiple+Datasets&rft.pub=National+Weather+Service+Forecast+Office%2C+Riverton%2C+Wyoming&rft.date=2005-03&rft.au=Jon+W.+Zeitler&rft.au=Matthew+J.+Bunkers&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crh.noaa.gov%2Fimages%2Funr%2Fsoo%2Fscm%2FZB06.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-13"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-13"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">The Weather World 2010 Project (2009-09-03). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/svr/comp/wind/home.rxml">"Vertical Wind Shear"</A>. University of Illinois<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2006-10-21</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Vertical+Wind+Shear&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois&rft.date=2009-09-03&rft.au=The+Weather+World+2010+Project&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu%2F%28Gh%29%2Fguides%2Fmtr%2Fsvr%2Fcomp%2Fwind%2Fhome.rxml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-14"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-14"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book"><A href="/wiki/Ted_Fujita" title="Ted Fujita">T. T. Fujita</A> (1985). <I>The Downburst, microburst and macroburst: SMRP Research Paper 210</I>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Downburst%2C+microburst+and+macroburst%3A+SMRP+Research+Paper+210&rft.date=1985&rft.au=T.+T.+Fujita&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-15"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-15"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Markowski, Paul and Yvette Richardson. Mesoscale Meteorology in Midlatitudes. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 2010. pp. 209.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-16"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-16"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Maddox, R.A., C.F. Chappell, and L.R. Hoxit, (1979). Synoptic and meso-α scale aspects of flash flood events. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 60, 115-123.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-17"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-17"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Schnetzler, Amy Eliza. Analysis of Twenty-Five Years of Heavy Rainfall Events in the Texas Hill Country. University of Missouri-Columbia, 2008. pp. 74.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-18"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-18"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Markowski, Paul and Yvette Richardson. Mesoscale Meteorology in Midlatitudes. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 2010. pp. 215, 310.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-19"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-19"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Glossary of Meteorology (2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081217175139/http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=squall-line1">"Squall line"</A>. <A href="/wiki/American_Meteorological_Society" title="American Meteorological Society">American Meteorological Society</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=squall-line1">the original</A> on 2008-12-17<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-06-14</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Squall+line&rft.pub=American+Meteorological+Society&rft.date=2009&rft.au=Glossary+of+Meteorology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Famsglossary.allenpress.com%2Fglossary%2Fsearch%3Fid%3Dsquall-line1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-20"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-20"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Glossary of Meteorology (2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070817224959/http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=prefrontal-squall-line1">"Prefrontal squall line"</A>. <A href="/wiki/American_Meteorological_Society" title="American Meteorological Society">American Meteorological Society</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=prefrontal-squall-line1">the original</A> on 2007-08-17<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-06-14</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Prefrontal+squall+line&rft.pub=American+Meteorological+Society&rft.date=2009&rft.au=Glossary+of+Meteorology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Famsglossary.allenpress.com%2Fglossary%2Fsearch%3Fid%3Dprefrontal-squall-line1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-OU-21"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-OU_21-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">University of Oklahoma (2004). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060901163934/http://weather.ou.edu/~metr4424/Files/Norwegian_Cyclone_Model.pdf">"The Norwegian Cyclone Model"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://weather.ou.edu/~metr4424/Files/Norwegian_Cyclone_Model.pdf">the original</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN> on September 1, 2006<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2007-05-17</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Norwegian+Cyclone+Model&rft.date=2004&rft.au=University+of+Oklahoma&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweather.ou.edu%2F~metr4424%2FFiles%2FNorwegian_Cyclone_Model.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-22"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-22"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology (2008). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090506002006/http://www.ofcm.gov/slso/pdf/slsochp2.pdf">"Chapter 2: Definitions"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/NOAA" class="mw-redirect" title="NOAA">NOAA</A>. pp. 2–1. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ofcm.gov/slso/pdf/slsochp2.pdf">the original</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN> on 2009-05-06<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-05-03</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chapter+2%3A+Definitions&rft.pages=2-1&rft.pub=NOAA&rft.date=2008&rft.au=Office+of+the+Federal+Coordinator+for+Meteorology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ofcm.gov%2Fslso%2Fpdf%2Fslsochp2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-23"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-23"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Glossary of Meteorology (2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110606103620/http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?p=1&query=bow+echo&submit=Search">"Bow echo"</A>. <A href="/wiki/American_Meteorological_Society" title="American Meteorological Society">American Meteorological Society</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?p=1&query=bow+echo&submit=Search">the original</A> on 2011-06-06<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-06-14</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bow+echo&rft.pub=American+Meteorological+Society&rft.date=2009&rft.au=Glossary+of+Meteorology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Famsglossary.allenpress.com%2Fglossary%2Fsearch%3Fp%3D1%26query%3Dbow%2Becho%26submit%3DSearch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-24"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-24"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Glossary of Meteorology (2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080924175030/http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=line-echo-wave-pattern1"><I>Line echo wave pattern</I></A>. <A href="/wiki/American_Meteorological_Society" title="American Meteorological Society">American Meteorological Society</A>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-878220-34-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-878220-34-9">1-878220-34-9</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=line-echo-wave-pattern1">the original</A> on 2008-09-24<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-05-03</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Line+echo+wave+pattern&rft.pub=American+Meteorological+Society&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=1-878220-34-9&rft.au=Glossary+of+Meteorology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Famsglossary.allenpress.com%2Fglossary%2Fsearch%3Fid%3Dline-echo-wave-pattern1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-noaa-25"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-noaa_25-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Stephen F. Corfidi; Jeffry S. Evans & Robert H. Johns (2015). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spc.noaa.gov/misc/AbtDerechos/derechofacts.htm">"About Derechos"</A>. <A href="/wiki/Storm_Prediction_Center" title="Storm Prediction Center">Storm Prediction Center</A>, NCEP, NWS, NOAA Web Site<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2015-02-17</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=About+Derechos&rft.pub=Storm+Prediction+Center%2C+NCEP%2C+NWS%2C+NOAA+Web+Site&rft.date=2015&rft.au=Stephen+F.+Corfidi&rft.au=Jeffry+S.+Evans&rft.au=Robert+H.+Johns&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spc.noaa.gov%2Fmisc%2FAbtDerechos%2Fderechofacts.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-26"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-26"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Glossary of Meteorology (2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110606102146/http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=heat-burst1"><I>Heat burst</I></A>. <A href="/wiki/American_Meteorological_Society" title="American Meteorological Society">American Meteorological Society</A>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-878220-34-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-878220-34-9">1-878220-34-9</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=heat-burst1">the original</A> on 2011-06-06<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-06-14</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Heat+burst&rft.pub=American+Meteorological+Society&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=1-878220-34-9&rft.au=Glossary+of+Meteorology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Famsglossary.allenpress.com%2Fglossary%2Fsearch%3Fid%3Dheat-burst1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-27"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-27"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hko.gov.hk/education/edu01met/wxphe/ele_squalle.htm">"Squall lines and "Shi Hu Feng" – what you want to know about the violent squalls hitting Hong Kong on 9 May 2005"</A>. Hong Kong Observatory. 17 June 2005<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2006-08-23</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Squall+lines+and+%22Shi+Hu+Feng%22+%E2%80%93+what+you+want+to+know+about+the+violent+squalls+hitting+Hong+Kong+on+9+May+2005&rft.pub=Hong+Kong+Observatory&rft.date=2005-06-17&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hko.gov.hk%2Feducation%2Fedu01met%2Fwxphe%2Fele_squalle.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-28"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-28"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/svr/type/spr/home.rxml">"Supercell Thunderstorms"</A>. <I>Weather World 2010 Project</I>. University of Illinois. October 4, 1999<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2006-08-23</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Weather+World+2010+Project&rft.atitle=Supercell+Thunderstorms&rft.date=1999-10-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu%2F%28Gh%29%2Fguides%2Fmtr%2Fsvr%2Ftype%2Fspr%2Fhome.rxml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-29"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-29"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A href="/wiki/National_Weather_Service" title="National Weather Service">National Weather Service</A> (2005-04-21). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.weather.gov/glossary/index.php?letter=s">"Weather Glossary – S"</A>. <A href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2007-06-17</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Weather+Glossary+%E2%80%93+S&rft.pub=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&rft.date=2005-04-21&rft.au=National+Weather+Service&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.weather.gov%2Fglossary%2Findex.php%3Fletter%3Ds&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-30"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-30"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation audio-visual">Kim Runk (2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crh.noaa.gov/crh/One_Inch_Hail_Podcast.wmv"><I>1" Hail</I></A> (.wmv). Silver Spring, Maryland: NOAA.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=1%22+Hail&rft.place=Silver+Spring%2C+Maryland&rft.pub=NOAA&rft.date=2009&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crh.noaa.gov%2Fcrh%2FOne_Inch_Hail_Podcast.wmv&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-31"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-31"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A href="/wiki/National_Weather_Service" title="National Weather Service">National Weather Service</A> Forecast Office, <A href="/wiki/Phoenix,_Arizona" title="Phoenix, Arizona">Phoenix, Arizona</A> (2009-04-07). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wrh.noaa.gov/psr/pns/2009/April/NewHailCriteria.php?wfo=psr">"New Hail Criteria"</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-09-03</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=New+Hail+Criteria&rft.date=2009-04-07&rft.au=National+Weather+Service+Forecast+Office%2C+Phoenix%2C+Arizona&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wrh.noaa.gov%2Fpsr%2Fpns%2F2009%2FApril%2FNewHailCriteria.php%3Fwfo%3Dpsr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN><SPAN class="citation-comment" style="display:none; color:#33aa33; margin-left:0.3em">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<A href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list">link</A>)</SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-32"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-32"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A href="/wiki/Environment_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Environment Canada">Environment Canada</A> Ontario Region (2005-05-24). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090228151724/http://www.on.ec.gc.ca/severe-weather/summerwx_factsheet_e.html">"Fact Sheet – Summer Severe Weather Warnings"</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.on.ec.gc.ca/severe-weather/summerwx_factsheet_e.html">the original</A> on 2009-02-28<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-09-03</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Fact+Sheet+%E2%80%93+Summer+Severe+Weather+Warnings&rft.date=2005-05-24&rft.au=Environment+Canada+Ontario+Region&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.on.ec.gc.ca%2Fsevere-weather%2Fsummerwx_factsheet_e.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-33"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-33"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Glossary of Meteorology (2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110606103649/http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?p=1&query=mesoscale+convective+system&submit=Search">"Mesoscale convective system"</A>. <A href="/wiki/American_Meteorological_Society" title="American Meteorological Society">American Meteorological Society</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?p=1&query=mesoscale+convective+system&submit=Search">the original</A> on 2011-06-06<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-06-27</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mesoscale+convective+system&rft.pub=American+Meteorological+Society&rft.date=2009&rft.au=Glossary+of+Meteorology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Famsglossary.allenpress.com%2Fglossary%2Fsearch%3Fp%3D1%26query%3Dmesoscale%2Bconvective%2Bsystem%26submit%3DSearch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-34"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-34"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">William R. Cotton; Susan van den Heever & Israel Jirak (2003). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rams.atmos.colostate.edu/at540/fall03/fall03Pt9.pdf">"Conceptual Models of Mesoscale Convective Systems: Part 9"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/Colorado_State_University" title="Colorado State University">Colorado State University</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2008-03-23</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Conceptual+Models+of+Mesoscale+Convective+Systems%3A+Part+9&rft.pub=Colorado+State+University&rft.date=2003&rft.au=William+R.+Cotton&rft.au=Susan+van+den+Heever&rft.au=Israel+Jirak&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frams.atmos.colostate.edu%2Fat540%2Ffall03%2Ffall03Pt9.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-35"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-35"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">C. Morel & S. Senesi (2002). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=13876728">"A climatology of mesoscale convective systems over Europe using satellite infrared imagery II: Characteristics of European mesoscale convective systems"</A>. <I>Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society</I>. <B>128</B> (584): 1973. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002QJRMS.128.1973M">2002QJRMS.128.1973M</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1256%2F003590002320603494">10.1256/003590002320603494</A>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0035-9009">0035-9009</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2008-03-02</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Quarterly+Journal+of+the+Royal+Meteorological+Society&rft.atitle=A+climatology+of+mesoscale+convective+systems+over+Europe+using+satellite+infrared+imagery+II%3A+Characteristics+of+European+mesoscale+convective+systems&rft.volume=128&rft.issue=584&rft.pages=1973&rft.date=2002&rft.issn=0035-9009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1256%2F003590002320603494&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002QJRMS.128.1973M&rft.au=C.+Morel&rft.au=S.+Senesi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcat.inist.fr%2F%3FaModele%3DafficheN%26cpsidt%3D13876728&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-36"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-36"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Semyon A. Grodsky & James A. Carton (2003-02-15). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atmos.umd.edu/~carton/pdfs/grodsky&carton03.pdf">"The Intertropical Convergence Zone in the South Atlantic and the Equatorial Cold Tongue"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/University_of_Maryland,_College_Park" title="University of Maryland, College Park">University of Maryland, College Park</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-06-05</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Intertropical+Convergence+Zone+in+the+South+Atlantic+and+the+Equatorial+Cold+Tongue&rft.pub=University+of+Maryland%2C+College+Park&rft.date=2003-02-15&rft.au=Semyon+A.+Grodsky&rft.au=James+A.+Carton&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.atmos.umd.edu%2F~carton%2Fpdfs%2Fgrodsky%26carton03.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-37"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-37"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Michael Garstang; David Roy Fitzjarrald (1999). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=HiaP4yJ8wNMC&pg=PA40"><I>Observations of surface to atmosphere interactions in the tropics</I></A>. Oxford University Press US. pp. 40–41. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511270-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511270-2">978-0-19-511270-2</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Observations+of+surface+to+atmosphere+interactions+in+the+tropics&rft.pages=40-41&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press+US&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-19-511270-2&rft.au=Michael+Garstang&rft.au=David+Roy+Fitzjarrald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DHiaP4yJ8wNMC%26pg%3DPA40&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-38"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-38"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">B. Geerts (1998). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-das.uwyo.edu/~geerts/cwx/notes/chap10/lake_effect_snow.html">"Lake Effect Snow"</A>. <A href="/wiki/University_of_Wyoming" title="University of Wyoming">University of Wyoming</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2008-12-24</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lake+Effect+Snow&rft.pub=University+of+Wyoming&rft.date=1998&rft.au=B.+Geerts&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-das.uwyo.edu%2F~geerts%2Fcwx%2Fnotes%2Fchap10%2Flake_effect_snow.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-39"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-39"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">E. A. Rasmussen & J. Turner (2003). <I>Polar Lows: Mesoscale Weather Systems in the Polar Regions</I>. Cambridge University Press. p. 612. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62430-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62430-5">978-0-521-62430-5</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Polar+Lows%3A+Mesoscale+Weather+Systems+in+the+Polar+Regions&rft.pages=612&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-521-62430-5&rft.au=E.+A.+Rasmussen&rft.au=J.+Turner&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-40"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-40"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Lance F. Bosart & Thomas J. Galarneau Jr. (2005). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ams.confex.com/ams/pdfpapers/84665.pdf">"3.5 The Influence of the Great Lakes on Warm Season Weather Systems During BAMEX"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. 6th <A href="/wiki/American_Meteorological_Society" title="American Meteorological Society">American Meteorological Society</A> Coastal Meteorology Conference<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-06-15</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=3.5+The+Influence+of+the+Great+Lakes+on+Warm+Season+Weather+Systems+During+BAMEX&rft.pub=6th+American+Meteorological+Society+Coastal+Meteorology+Conference&rft.date=2005&rft.au=Lance+F.+Bosart&rft.au=Thomas+J.+Galarneau+Jr.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fams.confex.com%2Fams%2Fpdfpapers%2F84665.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-41"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-41"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">William R. Cotton; Susan van den Heever & Israel Jirak (Fall 2003). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rams.atmos.colostate.edu/at540/fall03/fall03Pt9.pdf">"Conceptual Models of Mesoscale Convective Systems: Part 9"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2008-03-23</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Conceptual+Models+of+Mesoscale+Convective+Systems%3A+Part+9&rft.date=2003&rft.au=William+R.+Cotton&rft.au=Susan+van+den+Heever&rft.au=Israel+Jirak&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frams.atmos.colostate.edu%2Fat540%2Ffall03%2Ffall03Pt9.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-42"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-42"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Stephen Corfidi (2015-02-04). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spc.noaa.gov/publications/corfidi/mcsflashflood_2015feb07.ppt">"MCS Movement and Behavior (PowerPoint)"</A>. National Weather Service, Storm Prediction Center<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2015-02-18</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=MCS+Movement+and+Behavior+%28PowerPoint%29&rft.pub=National+Weather+Service%2C+Storm+Prediction+Center&rft.date=2015-02-04&rft.au=Stephen+Corfidi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spc.noaa.gov%2Fpublications%2Fcorfidi%2Fmcsflashflood_2015feb07.ppt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-43"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-43"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A href="/wiki/National_Weather_Service" title="National Weather Service">National Weather Service</A> (2009-09-01). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream/tstorms/tstrmtypes.htm">"Types of Thunderstorms"</A>. National Weather Service Southern Region Headquarters<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-09-03</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Types+of+Thunderstorms&rft.pub=National+Weather+Service+Southern+Region+Headquarters&rft.date=2009-09-01&rft.au=National+Weather+Service&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.srh.noaa.gov%2Fjetstream%2Ftstorms%2Ftstrmtypes.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-44"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-44"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A href="/wiki/National_Weather_Service" title="National Weather Service">National Weather Service</A> Forecast Office, <A href="/wiki/Rapid_City,_South_Dakota" title="Rapid City, South Dakota">Rapid City, South Dakota</A> (2007-05-15). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crh.noaa.gov/unr/?n=weather">"The Rapid City Flood of 1972"</A>. <A href="/wiki/National_Weather_Service" title="National Weather Service">National Weather Service</A> Central Region Headquarters<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-09-03</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Rapid+City+Flood+of+1972&rft.pub=National+Weather+Service+Central+Region+Headquarters&rft.date=2007-05-15&rft.au=National+Weather+Service+Forecast+Office%2C+Rapid+City%2C+South+Dakota&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crh.noaa.gov%2Funr%2F%3Fn%3Dweather&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN><SPAN class="citation-comment" style="display:none; color:#33aa33; margin-left:0.3em">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<A href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list">link</A>)</SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-45"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-45"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">David Flower (2008-02-09). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tintagelweb.co.uk/BoscastleFlood.htm">"Boscastle Flood 2004"</A>. Tintagel – King Arthur Country<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-09-03</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Boscastle+Flood+2004&rft.pub=Tintagel+%E2%80%93+King+Arthur+Country&rft.date=2008-02-09&rft.au=David+Flower&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tintagelweb.co.uk%2FBoscastleFlood.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Scott2000-46"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Scott2000_46-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Scott, A (2000). "The Pre-Quaternary history of fire". <I>Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology</I>. <B>164</B>: 281. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000PPP...164..281S">2000PPP...164..281S</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2FS0031-0182%2800%2900192-9">10.1016/S0031-0182(00)00192-9</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Palaeogeography%2C+Palaeoclimatology%2C+Palaeoecology&rft.atitle=The+Pre-Quaternary+history+of+fire&rft.volume=164&rft.pages=281&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0031-0182%2800%2900192-9&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000PPP...164..281S&rft.au=Scott%2C+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-ufl-47"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-ufl_47-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Vladimir A. Rakov (1999). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plaza.ufl.edu/rakov/Gas.html">"Lightning Makes Glass"</A>. <A href="/wiki/University_of_Florida" title="University of Florida">University of Florida</A>, Gainesville<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">November 7,</SPAN> 2007</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lightning+Makes+Glass&rft.pub=University+of+Florida%2C+Gainesville&rft.date=1999&rft.au=Vladimir+A.+Rakov&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplaza.ufl.edu%2Frakov%2FGas.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-48"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-48"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Bruce Getz & Kelli Bowermeister (2009-01-09). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100124020843/http://www.hughston.com/hha/a_12_3_4.htm">"Lightning and Its Hazards"</A>. Hughston Sports Medicine Foundation. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hughston.com/hha/a_12_3_4.htm">the original</A> on 2010-01-24<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-09-09</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lightning+and+Its+Hazards&rft.pub=Hughston+Sports+Medicine+Foundation&rft.date=2009-01-09&rft.au=Bruce+Getz&rft.au=Kelli+Bowermeister&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hughston.com%2Fhha%2Fa_12_3_4.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-49"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-49"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Charles H. Paxton; J. Colson & N. Carlisle (2008). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ams.confex.com/ams/88Annual/techprogram/paper_132808.htm">"P2.13 Florida lightning deaths and injuries 2004–2007"</A>. <A href="/wiki/American_Meteorological_Society" title="American Meteorological Society">American Meteorological Society</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-09-05</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=P2.13+Florida+lightning+deaths+and+injuries+2004%E2%80%932007&rft.pub=American+Meteorological+Society&rft.date=2008&rft.au=Charles+H.+Paxton&rft.au=J.+Colson&rft.au=N.+Carlisle&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fams.confex.com%2Fams%2F88Annual%2Ftechprogram%2Fpaper_132808.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-50"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-50"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">G. E. Likens; W. C. Keene; J. M. Miller & J. N. Galloway (1987). "Chemistry of precipitation from a remote, terrestrial site in Australia". <I>Journal of Geophysical Research</I>. <B>92</B> (13): 299–314. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1987JGR....92..299R">1987JGR....92..299R</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1029%2FJA092iA01p00299">10.1029/JA092iA01p00299</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Geophysical+Research&rft.atitle=Chemistry+of+precipitation+from+a+remote%2C+terrestrial+site+in+Australia&rft.volume=92&rft.issue=13&rft.pages=299-314&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2FJA092iA01p00299&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1987JGR....92..299R&rft.au=G.+E.+Likens&rft.au=W.+C.+Keene&rft.au=J.+M.+Miller&rft.au=J.+N.+Galloway&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-51"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-51"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Joel S. Levine; Tommy R. Augustsson; Iris C. Andersont; James M. Hoell Jr. & Dana A. Brewer (1984). "Tropospheric sources of NOx: Lightning and biology". <I>Atmospheric Environment</I>. <B>18</B> (9): 1797–1804. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1984AtmEn..18.1797L">1984AtmEn..18.1797L</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2F0004-6981%2884%2990355-X">10.1016/0004-6981(84)90355-X</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11540827">11540827</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Atmospheric+Environment&rft.atitle=Tropospheric+sources+of+NOx%3A+Lightning+and+biology&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=1797-1804&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11540827&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0004-6981%2884%2990355-X&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1984AtmEn..18.1797L&rft.au=Joel+S.+Levine&rft.au=Tommy+R.+Augustsson&rft.au=Iris+C.+Andersont&rft.au=James+M.+Hoell+Jr.&rft.au=Dana+A.+Brewer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-EPA-52"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-EPA_52-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Office of Air and Radiation Clean Air Markets Division (2008-12-01). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.epa.gov/acidrain/effects/surface_water.html">"Effects of Acid Rain – Surface Waters and own Aquatic Animals"</A>. <A href="/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">United States Environmental Protection Agency</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-09-05</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Effects+of+Acid+Rain+%E2%80%93+Surface+Waters+and+own+Aquatic+Animals&rft.pub=United+States+Environmental+Protection+Agency&rft.date=2008-12-01&rft.au=Office+of+Air+and+Radiation+Clean+Air+Markets+Division&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Facidrain%2Feffects%2Fsurface_water.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-53"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-53"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Glossary of Meteorology (2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110606103908/http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?p=1&query=Hailstorm">"Hailstorm"</A>. <A href="/wiki/American_Meteorological_Society" title="American Meteorological Society">American Meteorological Society</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?p=1&query=Hailstorm">the original</A> on 2011-06-06<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-08-29</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hailstorm&rft.pub=American+Meteorological+Society&rft.date=2009&rft.au=Glossary+of+Meteorology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Famsglossary.allenpress.com%2Fglossary%2Fsearch%3Fp%3D1%26query%3DHailstorm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-54"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-54"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Geoscience Australia (2007-09-04). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090621231613/http://www.ga.gov.au/hazards/severeweather/where.jsp">"Where does severe weather occur?"</A>. Commonwealth of Australia. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ga.gov.au/hazards/severeweather/where.jsp">the original</A> on 2009-06-21<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-08-28</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Where+does+severe+weather+occur%3F&rft.pub=Commonwealth+of+Australia&rft.date=2007-09-04&rft.au=Geoscience+Australia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ga.gov.au%2Fhazards%2Fsevereweather%2Fwhere.jsp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Oliver-55"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Oliver_55-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Oliver_55-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">John E. Oliver (2005). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=-mwbAsxpRr0C&pg=PA401"><I>Encyclopedia of World Climatology</I></A>. Springer. p. 401. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-3264-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-3264-6">978-1-4020-3264-6</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-08-28</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+World+Climatology&rft.pages=401&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-3264-6&rft.au=John+E.+Oliver&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3D-mwbAsxpRr0C%26pg%3DPA401&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-56"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-56"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Dongxia Liu; Guili Feng & Shujun Wu (February 2009). "The characteristics of cloud-to-ground lightning activity in hailstorms over northern China". <I>Atmospheric Research</I>. <B>91</B> (2–4): 459–465. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009AtmRe..91..459L">2009AtmRe..91..459L</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.atmosres.2008.06.016">10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.06.016</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Atmospheric+Research&rft.atitle=The+characteristics+of+cloud-to-ground+lightning+activity+in+hailstorms+over+northern+China&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=2%E2%80%934&rft.pages=459-465&rft.date=2009-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.atmosres.2008.06.016&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009AtmRe..91..459L&rft.au=Dongxia+Liu&rft.au=Guili+Feng&rft.au=Shujun+Wu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-57"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-57"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Damir Počakal; Željko Večenaj & Janez Štalec (2009). "Hail characteristics of different regions in continental part of Croatia based on influence of orography". <I>Atmospheric Research</I>. <B>93</B> (1–3): 516. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009AtmRe..93..516P">2009AtmRe..93..516P</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.atmosres.2008.10.017">10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.10.017</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Atmospheric+Research&rft.atitle=Hail+characteristics+of+different+regions+in+continental+part+of+Croatia+based+on+influence+of+orography&rft.volume=93&rft.issue=1%E2%80%933&rft.pages=516&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.atmosres.2008.10.017&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009AtmRe..93..516P&rft.au=Damir+Po%C4%8Dakal&rft.au=%C5%BDeljko+Ve%C4%8Denaj&rft.au=Janez+%C5%A0talec&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-ncarhail-58"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-ncarhail_58-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Rene Munoz (2000-06-02). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091015141754/http://www.ucar.edu/communications/factsheets/Hail.html">"Fact Sheet on Hail"</A>. University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucar.edu/communications/factsheets/Hail.html">the original</A> on 2009-10-15<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-07-18</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Fact+Sheet+on+Hail&rft.pub=University+Corporation+for+Atmospheric+Research&rft.date=2000-06-02&rft.au=Rene+Munoz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucar.edu%2Fcommunications%2Ffactsheets%2FHail.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Nolanhail-59"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Nolanhail_59-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Nolanhail_59-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Nolan J. Doesken (April 1994). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cocorahs.org/media/docs/hail_1994.pdf">"Hail, Hail, Hail ! The Summertime Hazard of Eastern Colorado"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>Colorado Climate</I>. <B>17</B> (7)<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-07-18</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Colorado+Climate&rft.atitle=Hail%2C+Hail%2C+Hail+%21++The+Summertime+Hazard+of+Eastern+Colorado&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=7&rft.date=1994-04&rft.au=Nolan+J.+Doesken&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cocorahs.org%2Fmedia%2Fdocs%2Fhail_1994.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-60"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-60"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A href="/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administration" title="Federal Aviation Administration">Federal Aviation Administration</A> (2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aviationweather.ws/063_Hazards.php">"Hazards"</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-08-29</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hazards&rft.date=2009&rft.au=Federal+Aviation+Administration&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aviationweather.ws%2F063_Hazards.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-61"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-61"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Damon P. Coppola (2007). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=s6oxEraqWWwC&pg=RA1-PA61"><I>Introduction to international disaster management</I></A>. Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 62. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7506-7982-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7506-7982-4">978-0-7506-7982-4</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+international+disaster+management&rft.pages=62&rft.pub=Butterworth-Heinemann&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7506-7982-4&rft.au=Damon+P.+Coppola&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3Ds6oxEraqWWwC%26pg%3DRA1-PA61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-62"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-62"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">David Orr (2004-11-07). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051203015218/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=%2Fnews%2F2004%2F11%2F07%2Fwind07.xml&sSheet=%2Fnews%2F2004%2F11%2F07%2Fixworld.html">"Giant hail killed more than 200 in Himalayas"</A>. Telegraph Group Unlimited via the Internet Wayback Machine. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2004/11/07/wind07.xml&sSheet=/news/2004/11/07/ixworld.html">the original</A> on 2005-12-03<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-08-28</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Giant+hail+killed+more+than+200+in+Himalayas&rft.pub=Telegraph+Group+Unlimited+via+the+Internet+Wayback+Machine&rft.date=2004-11-07&rft.au=David+Orr&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fmain.jhtml%3Fxml%3D%2Fnews%2F2004%2F11%2F07%2Fwind07.xml%26sSheet%3D%2Fnews%2F2004%2F11%2F07%2Fixworld.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-63"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-63"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">C. A. Knight and N.C. Knight, 2005: Very Large Hailstones From Aurora, Nebraska. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 86, 1773–1781.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Renno-64"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Renno_64-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Renno, Nilton O. (August 2008). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vortexengine.ca/misc/Renno_2008.pdf">"A thermodynamically general theory for convective vortices"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I><A href="/wiki/Tellus_A" title="Tellus A">Tellus A</A></I>. <B>60</B> (4): 688–99. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008TellA..60..688R">2008TellA..60..688R</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1600-0870.2008.00331.x">10.1111/j.1600-0870.2008.00331.x</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tellus+A&rft.atitle=A+thermodynamically+general+theory+for+convective+vortices&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=688-99&rft.date=2008-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1600-0870.2008.00331.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008TellA..60..688R&rft.aulast=Renno&rft.aufirst=Nilton+O.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvortexengine.ca%2Fmisc%2FRenno_2008.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-SPC_FAQ-65"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-SPC_FAQ_65-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A href="/wiki/Roger_Edwards_(meteorologist)" title="Roger Edwards (meteorologist)">Edwards, Roger</A> (2006-04-04). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spc.noaa.gov/faq/tornado">"The Online Tornado FAQ"</A>. <A href="/wiki/Storm_Prediction_Center" title="Storm Prediction Center">Storm Prediction Center</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2006-09-08</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Online+Tornado+FAQ&rft.pub=Storm+Prediction+Center&rft.date=2006-04-04&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spc.noaa.gov%2Ffaq%2Ftornado&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-fastest_wind-66"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-fastest_wind_66-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070205124033/http://www.cswr.org/dow/dow.htm">"Doppler On Wheels"</A>. Center for Severe Weather Research. 2006. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cswr.org/dow/DOW.htm">the original</A> on 2007-02-05<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2006-12-29</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Doppler+On+Wheels&rft.pub=Center+for+Severe+Weather+Research&rft.date=2006&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcswr.org%2Fdow%2FDOW.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-widest_tornado-67"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-widest_tornado_67-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crh.noaa.gov/oax/archive/hallam/hallam.php">"Hallam Nebraska Tornado"</A>. Omaha/Valley, NE Weather Forecast Office. 2005-10-02<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2006-09-08</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hallam+Nebraska+Tornado&rft.pub=Omaha%2FValley%2C+NE+Weather+Forecast+Office&rft.date=2005-10-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crh.noaa.gov%2Foax%2Farchive%2Fhallam%2Fhallam.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-68"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-68"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Dr. Terence Meaden (2004). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100430211910/http://www.torro.org.uk/TORRO/ECSS_Slide_Show/2004%20SPAIN%20ECSS%20Post-FINAL%20slide%20show.html">"Wind Scales: Beaufort, T – Scale, and Fujita's Scale"</A>. Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.torro.org.uk/TORRO/ECSS_Slide_Show/2004%20SPAIN%20ECSS%20Post-FINAL%20slide%20show.html">the original</A> on 2010-04-30<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-09-11</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Wind+Scales%3A+Beaufort%2C+T+%E2%80%93+Scale%2C+and+Fujita%27s+Scale&rft.pub=Tornado+and+Storm+Research+Organisation&rft.date=2004&rft.au=Dr.+Terence+Meaden&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.torro.org.uk%2FTORRO%2FECSS_Slide_Show%2F2004%2520SPAIN%2520ECSS%2520Post-FINAL%2520slide%2520show.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-EF_SPC-69"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-EF_SPC_69-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Storm Prediction Center. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spc.noaa.gov/efscale/ef-scale.html">"Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage"</A>. <A href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-06-21</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Enhanced+F+Scale+for+Tornado+Damage&rft.pub=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&rft.au=Storm+Prediction+Center&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spc.noaa.gov%2Fefscale%2Fef-scale.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-70"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-70"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080620115657/http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?p=1&query=waterspout">"Waterspout"</A>. <A href="/wiki/American_Meteorological_Society" title="American Meteorological Society">American Meteorological Society</A>. 2009. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?p=1&query=Waterspout">the original</A> on 2008-06-20<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-09-11</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Waterspout&rft.pub=American+Meteorological+Society&rft.date=2009&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Famsglossary.allenpress.com%2Fglossary%2Fsearch%3Fp%3D1%26query%3DWaterspout&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-71"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-71"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A href="/wiki/National_Weather_Service" title="National Weather Service">National Weather Service</A> Forecast Office, <A href="/wiki/Burlington,_Vermont" title="Burlington, Vermont">Burlington, Vermont</A> (2009-02-03). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.erh.noaa.gov/btv/events/15Jan2009/overview.shtml">"15 January 2009: Lake Champlain Sea Smoke, Steam Devils, and Waterspout: Chapters IV and V"</A>. Eastern Region Headquarters<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-06-21</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=15+January+2009%3A+Lake+Champlain+Sea+Smoke%2C+Steam+Devils%2C+and+Waterspout%3A+Chapters+IV+and+V&rft.pub=Eastern+Region+Headquarters&rft.date=2009-02-03&rft.au=National+Weather+Service+Forecast+Office%2C+Burlington%2C+Vermont&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.erh.noaa.gov%2Fbtv%2Fevents%2F15Jan2009%2Foverview.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN><SPAN class="citation-comment" style="display:none; color:#33aa33; margin-left:0.3em">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<A href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list">link</A>)</SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-72"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-72"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Glossary of Meteorology (2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110606085246/http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?p=1&query=Flash+flood">"Flash Flood"</A>. <A href="/wiki/American_Meteorological_Society" title="American Meteorological Society">American Meteorological Society</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?p=1&query=Flash+flood">the original</A> on 2011-06-06<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-09-09</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Flash+Flood&rft.pub=American+Meteorological+Society&rft.date=2009&rft.au=Glossary+of+Meteorology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Famsglossary.allenpress.com%2Fglossary%2Fsearch%3Fp%3D1%26query%3DFlash%2Bflood&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-73"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-73"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">National Weather Service. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.srh.noaa.gov/bmx/?n=outreach_flw">"Flood Products: What Do They Mean?"</A>. NOAA<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">23 August</SPAN> 2011</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Flood+Products%3A+What+Do+They+Mean%3F&rft.pub=NOAA&rft.au=National+Weather+Service&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.srh.noaa.gov%2Fbmx%2F%3Fn%3Doutreach_flw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-74"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-74"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">National Weather Service. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crh.noaa.gov/glossary.php?word=FLASH%20FLOOD">"Flash Flood"</A>. NOAA<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">23 August</SPAN> 2011</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Flash+Flood&rft.pub=NOAA&rft.au=National+Weather+Service&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crh.noaa.gov%2Fglossary.php%3Fword%3DFLASH%2520FLOOD&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-erh.noaa-75"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-erh.noaa_75-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-erh.noaa_75-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A href="/wiki/National_Weather_Service" title="National Weather Service">National Weather Service</A> Forecast Office <A href="/wiki/Columbia,_South_Carolina" title="Columbia, South Carolina">Columbia, South Carolina</A> (2009-01-27). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.erh.noaa.gov/cae/svrwx/downburst.htm">"Downbursts.."</A> <A href="/wiki/National_Weather_Service" title="National Weather Service">National Weather Service</A> Eastern Region Headquarters<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-09-09</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Downbursts...&rft.pub=National+Weather+Service+Eastern+Region+Headquarters&rft.date=2009-01-27&rft.au=National+Weather+Service+Forecast+Office+Columbia%2C+South+Carolina&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.erh.noaa.gov%2Fcae%2Fsvrwx%2Fdownburst.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-76"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-76"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Suphioglu C. Thunderstorm Asthma Due to Grass Pollen. <I>Int Arch Allergy Immunol</I> 1998;116:253–260. doi:10.1159/000023953</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-77"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-77"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Taylor, P.E. & Jonsson, H. Thunderstorm asthma. <I>Curr Allergy Asthma Rep</I> (2004) 4: 409. doi:10.1007/s11882-004-0092-3</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-78"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-78"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Dabrera G, Murray V, Emberlin J, Ayres JG, Collier C, Clewlow Y, Sachon P. Thunderstorm asthma: an overview of the evidence base and implications for public health advice. <I>QJM</I>. 2013 Mar;106(3):207-17. doi: 10.1093/qjmed/hcs234. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23275386">23275386</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-79"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-79"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">D'Amato G, Vitale C, D'Amato M, Cecchi L, Liccardi G, Molino A, Vatrella A, Sanduzzi A, Maesano C, Annesi-Maesano I. Thunderstorm-related asthma: what happens and why. <I>Clin Exp Allergy</I>. 2016 Mar;46(3):390-6. doi: 10.1111/cea.12709. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26765082">26765082</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-redcross-80"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-redcross_80-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-redcross_80-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-redcross_80-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-redcross_80-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-redcross_80-4"><SUP><I><B>e</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">American Red Cross. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.redcross.org/www-files/Documents/pdf/Preparedness/checklists/Thunderstorm.pdf">"Thunderstorm Safety Checklist"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. American Red Cross<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">24 August</SPAN> 2011</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Thunderstorm+Safety+Checklist&rft.pub=American+Red+Cross&rft.au=American+Red+Cross&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.redcross.org%2Fwww-files%2FDocuments%2Fpdf%2FPreparedness%2Fchecklists%2FThunderstorm.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-NWS-81"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-NWS_81-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-NWS_81-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-NWS_81-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-NWS_81-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.srh.noaa.gov/abq/?n=prepthunderstorms">"Thunderstorm"</A>. <I>Severe Weather Preparedness Information</I>. Albuquerque, NM: NOAA<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">24 August</SPAN> 2011</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Severe+Weather+Preparedness+Information&rft.atitle=Thunderstorm&rft.au=National+Weather+Service+Weather+Forecast+Office&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.srh.noaa.gov%2Fabq%2F%3Fn%3Dprepthunderstorms&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-82"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-82"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Federal Emergency Management Agency. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110623092608/http://www.ready.gov/america/beinformed/thunderstorms.html">"Thunderstorms and Lightning"</A>. <I>Ready</I>. US Department of Homeland Security. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ready.gov/america/beinformed/thunderstorms.html">the original</A> on 23 June 2011<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">24 August</SPAN> 2011</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ready&rft.atitle=Thunderstorms+and+Lightning&rft.au=Federal+Emergency+Management+Agency&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ready.gov%2Famerica%2Fbeinformed%2Fthunderstorms.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-fema-83"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-fema_83-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-fema_83-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-fema_83-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Federal Emergency Management Agency. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110820113150/http://www.fema.gov/hazard/thunderstorm/th_before.shtm">"What to Do Before a Thunderstorm"</A>. US Department of Homeland Security. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fema.gov/hazard/thunderstorm/th_before.shtm">the original</A> on 20 August 2011<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">24 August</SPAN> 2011</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+to+Do+Before+a+Thunderstorm&rft.pub=US+Department+of+Homeland+Security&rft.au=Federal+Emergency+Management+Agency&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fema.gov%2Fhazard%2Fthunderstorm%2Fth_before.shtm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-autogenerated1-84"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_84-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_84-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_84-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_84-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_84-4"><SUP><I><B>e</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_84-5"><SUP><I><B>f</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_84-6"><SUP><I><B>g</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_84-7"><SUP><I><B>h</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_84-8"><SUP><I><B>i</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_84-9"><SUP><I><B>j</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lightningsafety.noaa.gov/blog.htm">"NWS Lightning Safety Myths"</A>. Lightningsafety.noaa.gov. 2014-06-30<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2014-08-20</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=NWS+Lightning+Safety+Myths&rft.pub=Lightningsafety.noaa.gov&rft.date=2014-06-30&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lightningsafety.noaa.gov%2Fblog.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-85"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-85"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream/lightning/lightning_faq.htm#5">"NWS JetStream – Lightning Frequently Asked Questions"</A>. Srh.noaa.gov. 2014-06-28<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2014-08-20</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=NWS+JetStream+%E2%80%93+Lightning+Frequently+Asked+Questions&rft.pub=Srh.noaa.gov&rft.date=2014-06-28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.srh.noaa.gov%2Fjetstream%2Flightning%2Flightning_faq.htm%235&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-86"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-86"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.latimes.com/nation/nationnow/la-na-nn-six-lightning-facts-20140714-htmlstory.html">"You're not safer crouching: Six things you didn't know about lightning"</A>. LA Times<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2014-08-20</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=You%27re+not+safer+crouching%3A+Six+things+you+didn%27t+know+about+lightning&rft.pub=LA+Times&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Fnation%2Fnationnow%2Fla-na-nn-six-lightning-facts-20140714-htmlstory.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-87"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-87"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">National Geographic Almanac of Geography, <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7922-3877-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-7922-3877-X">0-7922-3877-X</A>, page 75.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-88"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-88"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070711070501/http://sky-fire.tv/index.cgi/thunderstorms.html#occur">"How many thunderstorms occur each year?"</A>. <I>Thunderstorms</I>. Sky Fire Productions. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sky-fire.tv/index.cgi/thunderstorms.html#occur">the original</A> on 2007-07-11<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2006-08-23</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Thunderstorms&rft.atitle=How+many+thunderstorms+occur+each+year%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsky-fire.tv%2Findex.cgi%2Fthunderstorms.html%23occur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-89"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-89"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A href="/wiki/National_Weather_Service" title="National Weather Service">National Weather Service</A> JetStream (2008-10-08). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream/tropics/tc_hazards.htm">"Tropical Cyclone Hazards"</A>. <A href="/wiki/National_Weather_Service" title="National Weather Service">National Weather Service</A> Southern Region Headquarters<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-08-30</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tropical+Cyclone+Hazards&rft.pub=National+Weather+Service+Southern+Region+Headquarters&rft.date=2008-10-08&rft.au=National+Weather+Service+JetStream&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.srh.noaa.gov%2Fjetstream%2Ftropics%2Ftc_hazards.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-DR-90"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-DR_90-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">David Roth. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/sfc/UASfcManualVersion1.pdf">"Unified Surface Analysis Manual"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/Hydrometeorological_Prediction_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrometeorological Prediction Center">Hydrometeorological Prediction Center</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2006-10-22</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Unified+Surface+Analysis+Manual&rft.pub=Hydrometeorological+Prediction+Center&rft.au=David+Roth&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov%2Fsfc%2FUASfcManualVersion1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-91"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-91"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology (2001-06-07). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090506002006/http://www.ofcm.gov/slso/pdf/slsochp2.pdf">"National Severe Local Storms Operations Plan – Chapter 2"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/Department_of_Commerce" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of Commerce">Department of Commerce</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ofcm.gov/slso/pdf/slsochp2.pdf">the original</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN> on 2009-05-06<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2006-08-23</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=National+Severe+Local+Storms+Operations+Plan+%E2%80%93+Chapter+2&rft.pub=Department+of+Commerce&rft.date=2001-06-07&rft.au=Office+of+the+Federal+Coordinator+for+Meteorology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ofcm.gov%2Fslso%2Fpdf%2Fslsochp2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-92"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-92"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Garner, Rob (26 June 2015). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/GLAST/news/fermi-thunderstorms.html">"Fermi Catches Antimatter-Hurling Storms"</A>. <I>nasa.gov</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">19 July</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nasa.gov&rft.atitle=Fermi+Catches+Antimatter-Hurling+Storms&rft.date=2015-06-26&rft.aulast=Garner&rft.aufirst=Rob&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasa.gov%2Fmission_pages%2FGLAST%2Fnews%2Ffermi-thunderstorms.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-93"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-93"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Ouellette, Jennifer (January 13, 2011). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.discovery.com/space/fermi-spots-antimatter-in-thunderstorms.html">"Fermi Spots Antimatter in Thunderstorms"</A>. <I>Discovery News</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">16 January</SPAN> 2011</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Discovery+News&rft.atitle=Fermi+Spots+Antimatter+in+Thunderstorms&rft.date=2011-01-13&rft.aulast=Ouellette&rft.aufirst=Jennifer&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.discovery.com%2Fspace%2Ffermi-spots-antimatter-in-thunderstorms.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-94"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-94"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A href="/wiki/Alan_Moller" title="Alan Moller">Alan Moller</A> (2003-03-05). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cimms.ou.edu/~stumpf/cethics.html">"Storm Chase Ethics"</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-09-09</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Storm+Chase+Ethics&rft.date=2003-03-05&rft.au=Alan+Moller&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cimms.ou.edu%2F~stumpf%2Fcethics.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-95"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-95"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A href="/wiki/Florida_Institute_of_Technology" title="Florida Institute of Technology">Florida Institute of Technology</A> (2009-06-02). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=28329">"Scientists use high-energy particles from space to probe thunderstorms"</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-09-09</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Scientists+use+high-energy+particles+from+space+to+probe+thunderstorms&rft.date=2009-06-02&rft.au=Florida+Institute+of+Technology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spaceref.com%2Fnews%2Fviewpr.html%3Fpid%3D28329&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-96"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-96"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">VORTEX2 (2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vortex2.org/home/">"What is VORTEX2?"</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-09-09</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+VORTEX2%3F&rft.date=2009&rft.au=VORTEX2&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.vortex2.org%2Fhome%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-97"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-97"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Peter P. Neilley & R. B. Bent (2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ams.confex.com/ams/89annual/techprogram/paper_149149.htm">"An Overview of the United States Precision Lightning Network (USPLN)"</A>. <A href="/wiki/American_Meteorological_Society" title="American Meteorological Society">American Meteorological Society</A> Fourth Conference on the Meteorological Applications of Lightning Data<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-09-09</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=An+Overview+of+the+United+States+Precision+Lightning+Network+%28USPLN%29&rft.pub=American+Meteorological+Society+Fourth+Conference+on+the+Meteorological+Applications+of+Lightning+Data&rft.date=2009&rft.au=Peter+P.+Neilley&rft.au=R.+B.+Bent&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fams.confex.com%2Fams%2F89annual%2Ftechprogram%2Fpaper_149149.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-98"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-98"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">John D. Cox (2002). <I>Storm Watchers</I>. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 7. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-38108-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-38108-X">0-471-38108-X</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Storm+Watchers&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-471-38108-X&rft.au=John+D.+Cox&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-99"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-99"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.christianitytoday.com/history/people/theologians/martin-luther.html">"Martin Luther"</A>. Christian History<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">6 July</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Martin+Luther&rft.pub=Christian+History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.christianitytoday.com%2Fhistory%2Fpeople%2Ftheologians%2Fmartin-luther.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-elkins-tanton-100"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-elkins-tanton_100-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Elkins-Tanton, Linda T. (2006). <I>Jupiter and Saturn</I>. New York: Chelsea House. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8160-5196-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8160-5196-8">0-8160-5196-8</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jupiter+and+Saturn&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Chelsea+House&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-8160-5196-8&rft.aulast=Elkins-Tanton&rft.aufirst=Linda+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-101"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-101"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Watanabe, Susan, ed. (February 25, 2006). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/solarsystem/galileo_end.html">"Surprising Jupiter: Busy Galileo spacecraft showed jovian system is full of surprises"</A>. NASA<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2007-02-20</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Surprising+Jupiter%3A+Busy+Galileo+spacecraft+showed+jovian+system+is+full+of+surprises&rft.pub=NASA&rft.date=2006-02-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasa.gov%2Fvision%2Funiverse%2Fsolarsystem%2Fgalileo_end.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-102"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-102"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Kerr, Richard A. (2000). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/287/5455/946b">"Deep, Moist Heat Drives Jovian Weather"</A>. <I>Science</I>. <B>287</B> (5455): 946–947. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.287.5455.946b">10.1126/science.287.5455.946b</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2007-02-24</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Deep%2C+Moist+Heat+Drives+Jovian+Weather&rft.volume=287&rft.issue=5455&rft.pages=946-947&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.287.5455.946b&rft.aulast=Kerr&rft.aufirst=Richard+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencemag.org%2Fcgi%2Fcontent%2Ffull%2F287%2F5455%2F946b&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Russell2007-103"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Russell2007_103-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Russell, S. T.; Zhang, T.L.; Delva, M.; et al. (2007). "Lightning on Venus inferred from whistler-mode waves in the ionosphere". <I>Nature</I>. <B>450</B> (7170): 661–662. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007Natur.450..661R">2007Natur.450..661R</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature05930">10.1038/nature05930</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18046401">18046401</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Lightning+on+Venus+inferred+from+whistler-mode+waves+in+the+ionosphere&rft.volume=450&rft.issue=7170&rft.pages=661-662&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18046401&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature05930&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007Natur.450..661R&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=S.+T.&rft.au=Zhang%2C+T.L.&rft.au=Delva%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThunderstorm" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
</OL>
</DIV>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Thunderstorm&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<UL>
<LI>Burgess, D. W., R. J. Donaldson Jr., and P. R. Desrochers, 1993: <I>Tornado detection and warning by radar. The Tornado: Its Structure, Dynamics, Prediction, and Hazards, Geophys. Monogr.</I>, No. 79, <A href="/wiki/American_Geophysical_Union" title="American Geophysical Union">American Geophysical Union</A>, 203–221.</LI>
<LI>Corfidi, S. F., 1998: <I>Forecasting MCS mode and motion.</I> Preprints 19th Conf. on Severe Local Storms, <A href="/wiki/American_Meteorological_Society" title="American Meteorological Society">American Meteorological Society</A>, <A href="/wiki/Minneapolis" title="Minneapolis">Minneapolis</A>, Minnesota, pp. 626–629.</LI>
<LI>Davies, J. M., 2004: <I>Estimations of CIN and LFC associated with tornadic and nontornadic supercells</I>. Weather Forecast., 19, 714–726.</LI>
<LI>Davies, J. M., and R. H. Johns, 1993: <I>Some wind and instability parameters associated with strong and violent tornadoes. Part I: Helicity and mean shear magnitudes. The Tornado: Its Structure, Dynamics, Prediction, and Hazards</I> (C. Church et al., Eds.), Geophysical Monograph 79, American Geophysical Union, 573–582.</LI>
<LI>David, C. L. 1973: <I>An objective of estimating the probability of severe thunderstorms</I>. Preprint Eight conference of Severe Local Storms. <A href="/wiki/Denver,_Colorado" class="mw-redirect" title="Denver, Colorado">Denver, Colorado</A>, <A href="/wiki/American_Meteorological_Society" title="American Meteorological Society">American Meteorological Society</A>, 223–225.</LI>
<LI>Doswell, C.A., III, D. V. Baker, and C. A. Liles, 2002: <I>Recognition of negative factors for severe weather potential: A case study</I>. Weather Forecast., 17, 937–954.</LI>
<LI>Doswell, C.A., III, S.J. Weiss and R.H. Johns (1993): <I>Tornado forecasting: A review. The Tornado: Its Structure, Dynamics, Prediction, and Hazards (C. Church et al., Eds)</I>, Geophys. Monogr. No. 79, American Geophysical Union, 557–571.</LI>
<LI>Johns, R. H., J. M. Davies, and P. W. Leftwich, 1993: <I>Some wind and instability parameters associated with strong and violent tornadoes. Part II: Variations in the combinations of wind and instability parameters. The Tornado: Its Structure, Dynamics, Prediction and Hazards, Geophys. Mongr.</I>, No. 79, American Geophysical Union, 583–590.</LI>
<LI>Evans, Jeffry S.,: <I>Examination of Derecho Environments Using Proximity Soundings</I>. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spc.noaa.gov/publications/evans/bowpaper/bowpaper.htm">NOAA.gov</A></LI>
<LI>J. V. Iribarne and W.L. Godson, <I>Atmospheric Thermodynamics</I>, published by D. Reidel Publishing Company, <A href="/wiki/Dordrecht" title="Dordrecht">Dordrecht</A>, the <A href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</A>, 1973</LI>
<LI>M. K. Yau and R. R. Rogers, <I>Short Course in Cloud Physics, Third Edition</I>, published by Butterworth-Heinemann, January 1, 1989, EAN 9780750632157 <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7506-3215-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7506-3215-1">0-7506-3215-1</A></LI>
</UL>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Thunderstorm&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: External links">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/atlas/themes.aspx?id=weather&sub=weather_phenomena_thunderstorm&lang=En">Anatomy of a thunderstorm</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ejssm.org/">Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wimp.com/thunderstormsairport/">Air traffic control display</A> at an airport of aircraft avoiding thunderstorm</LI>
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<DIV id="Meteorological_data_and_variables" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Meteorological data and variables</DIV>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</TH>
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<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Adiabatic_process" title="Adiabatic process">Adiabatic processes</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Advection" title="Advection">Advection</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Buoyancy" title="Buoyancy">Buoyancy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lapse_rate" title="Lapse rate">Lapse rate</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">Lightning</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Solar_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar radiation">Surface solar radiation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Surface_weather_analysis" title="Surface weather analysis">Surface weather analysis</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Visibility" title="Visibility">Visibility</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Vorticity" title="Vorticity">Vorticity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wind" title="Wind">Wind</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wind_shear" title="Wind shear">Wind shear</A></LI>
</UL>
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</TD>
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<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Condensation" title="Condensation">Condensation</A></TH>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Cloud" title="Cloud">Cloud</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cloud_condensation_nuclei" title="Cloud condensation nuclei">Cloud condensation nuclei (CCN)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fog" title="Fog">Fog</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Convective_condensation_level" title="Convective condensation level">Convective condensation level (CCL)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lifted_condensation_level" title="Lifted condensation level">Lifted condensation level (LCL)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">Precipitation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Water_vapor" title="Water vapor">Water vapor</A></LI>
</UL>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Atmospheric_convection" title="Atmospheric convection">Convection</A></TH>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Convective_available_potential_energy" title="Convective available potential energy">Convective available potential energy (CAPE)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Convective_inhibition" title="Convective inhibition">Convective inhibition (CIN)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Convective_instability" title="Convective instability">Convective instability</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Convective_momentum_transport" title="Convective momentum transport">Convective momentum transport</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Convective_temperature" title="Convective temperature">Convective temperature (<I>T</I><SUB>c</SUB>)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Equilibrium_level" title="Equilibrium level">Equilibrium level (EL)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Free_convective_layer" title="Free convective layer">Free convective layer (FCL)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Helicity_(fluid_mechanics)#Meteorology" class="mw-redirect" title="Helicity (fluid mechanics)">Helicity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/K-index_(meteorology)" title="K-index (meteorology)">K Index</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Level_of_free_convection" title="Level of free convection">Level of free convection (LFC)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lifted_index" title="Lifted index">Lifted index (LI)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Maximum_parcel_level" title="Maximum parcel level">Maximum parcel level (MPL)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bulk_Richardson_number" title="Bulk Richardson number">Bulk Richardson number (BRN)</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
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<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">Temperature</A></TH>
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<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Dew_point" title="Dew point">Dew point (<I>T</I><SUB>d</SUB>)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Dew_point_depression" title="Dew point depression">Dew point depression</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Dry-bulb_temperature" title="Dry-bulb temperature">Dry-bulb temperature</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Equivalent_temperature" title="Equivalent temperature">Equivalent temperature (<I>T</I><SUB>e</SUB>)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Forest_fire_weather_index" title="Forest fire weather index">Forest fire weather index</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Haines_Index" title="Haines Index">Haines Index</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Heat_index" title="Heat index">Heat index</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Humidex" title="Humidex">Humidex</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Humidity" title="Humidity">Humidity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Relative_humidity" title="Relative humidity">Relative humidity (RH)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mixing_ratio" title="Mixing ratio">Mixing ratio</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Potential_temperature" title="Potential temperature">Potential temperature (<I>θ</I>)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Equivalent_potential_temperature" title="Equivalent potential temperature">Equivalent potential temperature (<I>θ</I><SUB>e</SUB>)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">Sea surface temperature (SST)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_temperature" title="Thermodynamic temperature">Thermodynamic temperature</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Vapor_pressure" title="Vapor pressure">Vapor pressure</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Virtual_temperature" title="Virtual temperature">Virtual temperature</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wet-bulb_temperature" title="Wet-bulb temperature">Wet-bulb temperature</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wet-bulb_potential_temperature" title="Wet-bulb potential temperature">Wet-bulb potential temperature</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wind_chill" title="Wind chill">Wind chill</A></LI>
</UL>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">Pressure</A></TH>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure" title="Atmospheric pressure">Atmospheric pressure</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Baroclinity" title="Baroclinity">Baroclinity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Barotropic" class="mw-redirect" title="Barotropic">Barotropicity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pressure_gradient" title="Pressure gradient">Pressure gradient</A></LI>
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title="Auratge – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl"><A href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burza" title="Burza – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt"><A href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trovoada" title="Trovoada – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu"><A href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuyur" title="Tuyur – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru"><A href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Гроза – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco"><A href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thunnerstorm" 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hreflang="sh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi"><A href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukkonen" title="Ukkonen – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv"><A href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%85ska" title="Åska – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta"><A href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%B4%E0%AF%88" title="இடியுடன் கூடிய மழை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th"><A href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%9F%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87" title="พายุฟ้าคะนอง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr"><A href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oraj" title="Oraj – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk"><A href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Гроза – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi"><A href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%B4ng" title="Dông – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa"><A href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oraedje" title="Oraedje – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg"><A 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document_title: Thunderstorm

token: Thunderstorm

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token: српскохрватски

question_text: how far from the heavy rain of a thunder storm can lightning strike