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<TITLE>American entry into World War I - Wikipedia</TITLE>

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<H1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">American entry into World War I</H1>			<DIV id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content">
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				<DIV id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><DIV class="mw-parser-output"><P>The <A href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">American</A> entry into <A href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</A> came in April 1917, after more than two and a half years of efforts by <A href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</A> <A href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</A> to keep the <A href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</A> out of the war. Apart from an <A href="/wiki/Anglophile" title="Anglophile">Anglophile</A> element urging early support for the <A href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">British</A>, American public opinion reflected that of the president: the sentiment for neutrality was particularly strong among <A href="/wiki/Irish_Americans" title="Irish Americans">Irish Americans</A>, <A href="/wiki/German_Americans" title="German Americans">German Americans</A> and <A href="/wiki/Scandinavian_Americans" title="Scandinavian Americans">Scandinavian Americans</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-1">[1]</A></SUP> as well as among church leaders and among women in general. On the other hand, even before <A href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</A> had broken out, American opinion had been more negative toward <A href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</A> than towards any other country in Europe.<SUP id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-2">[2]</A></SUP> Over time, especially after reports of <A href="/wiki/The_Rape_of_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="The Rape of Belgium">atrocities in Belgium</A> in 1914 and following the <A href="/wiki/Sinking_of_the_RMS_Lusitania" title="Sinking of the RMS Lusitania">sinking of the passenger liner <I>RMS Lusitania</I></A> in 1915, the American people increasingly came to see Germany as the aggressor in Europe.</P>
<P>As U.S. president, it was Wilson who made the key policy decisions over foreign affairs: while the country was at peace, the domestic economy ran on a <I><A href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">laissez-faire</A></I> basis, with American banks making huge loans to <A href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">Britain</A> and <A href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">France</A> — funds that were in large part used to buy munitions, raw materials, and food from across the Atlantic. Until 1917, Wilson made minimal preparations for a land war and kept the <A href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">United States Army</A> on a small peacetime footing, despite increasing demands for enhanced preparedness. He did however expand the <A href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">United States Navy</A>.</P>
<P>In 1917, with Russia <A href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">experiencing political upheaval</A> following widespread disillusionment there over the war, and with Britain and France low on credit, Germany appeared to have the upper hand in Europe,<SUP id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-3">[3]</A></SUP> while Germany's ally, the <A href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</A>, <A href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_theater_of_World_War_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Eastern theater of World War I">clung stubbornly to its possessions in the Middle East</A>. In the same year, Germany decided to resume <A href="/wiki/Unrestricted_submarine_warfare_(February_1917)" class="mw-redirect" title="Unrestricted submarine warfare (February 1917)">unrestricted submarine warfare</A> against any vessel approaching British waters; this attempt to starve Britain into surrender was balanced against the knowledge that it would almost certainly bring the United States into the war. Germany also made a secret offer to help Mexico regain territories lost in the <A href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</A> in an encoded telegram known as the <A href="/wiki/Zimmermann_Telegram" title="Zimmermann Telegram">Zimmermann Telegram</A>, which was intercepted by British Intelligence. Publication of that communique outraged Americans just as German <A href="/wiki/U-boat" title="U-boat">U-boats</A> started sinking American merchant ships in the <A href="/wiki/North_Atlantic" class="mw-redirect" title="North Atlantic">North Atlantic</A>. Wilson then asked <A href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</A> for "a <A href="/wiki/The_war_to_end_war" title="The war to end war">war to end all wars</A>" that would "make the world safe for democracy", and Congress voted to <A href="/wiki/United_States_declaration_of_war_on_Germany_(1917)" title="United States declaration of war on Germany (1917)">declare war on Germany on April 6, 1917</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-4">[4]</A></SUP></P>
<P>On December 7, 1917, <A href="/wiki/United_States_declaration_of_war_on_Austria-Hungary" title="United States declaration of war on Austria-Hungary">the U.S. declared war</A> on <A href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-AHS1_5-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-AHS1-5">[5]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-ElseaWeed_6-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-ElseaWeed-6">[6]</A></SUP></P>
<P>U.S. troops began arriving on the <A href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Western Front (World War I)">Western Front</A> in large numbers in 1918.</P>
<P></P>
<DIV id="toc" class="toc">
<DIV class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr" xml:lang="en">
<H2>Contents</H2>
<SPAN class="toctoggle"> [<A role="button" tabindex="0" class="togglelink">hide</A>] </SPAN></DIV>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><A href="#Main_issues"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Main issues</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><A href="#Naval_blockade"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Naval blockade</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-3"><A href="#The_strategy_behind_the_blockade"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1.1.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">The strategy behind the blockade</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><A href="#Business_considerations"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Business considerations</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><A href="#Views_of_the_elites"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Views of the elites</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><A href="#Public_opinion"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Public opinion</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><A href="#Parties"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Parties</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><A href="#Workers,_farmers,_and_African_Americans"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Workers, farmers, and African Americans</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><A href="#South"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">South</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><A href="#German_Americans"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">German Americans</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><A href="#Christian_churches_and_pacifists"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Christian churches and pacifists</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><A href="#Jewish_Americans"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.6</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Jewish Americans</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><A href="#Irish-Americans"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.7</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Irish-Americans</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><A href="#Pro-Allied_immigrants"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.8</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Pro-Allied immigrants</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><A href="#Popular_pacifism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.9</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Popular pacifism</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><A href="#German_agents"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.10</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">German agents</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><A href="#Preparedness_movement"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Preparedness movement</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><A href="#Size_of_military"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Size of military</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><A href="#Navy"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Navy</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><A href="#Decision_for_war"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Decision for war</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><A href="#Decision_making"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Decision making</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><A href="#Zimmermann_Telegram"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Zimmermann Telegram</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><A href="#Sinking_of_American_merchant_ships"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Sinking of American merchant ships</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><A href="#Public_opinion,_moralism,_and_national_interest"><SPAN class="tocnumber">5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Public opinion, moralism, and national interest</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><A href="#Declaration_of_war"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Declaration of war</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><A href="#Germany"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Germany</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><A href="#Austria-Hungary"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Austria-Hungary</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28"><A href="#See_also"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">See also</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><A href="#Footnotes"><SPAN class="tocnumber">8</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Footnotes</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30"><A href="#Bibliography"><SPAN class="tocnumber">9</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Bibliography</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-31"><A href="#Historiography"><SPAN class="tocnumber">9.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Historiography</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-32"><A href="#Primary_sources"><SPAN class="tocnumber">10</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Primary sources</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-33"><A href="#External_links"><SPAN class="tocnumber">11</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">External links</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<P></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Main_issues">Main issues</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=American_entry_into_World_War_I&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Main issues">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <A href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_World_War_I" title="Diplomatic history of World War I">Diplomatic history of World War I</A> and <A href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Presidency of Woodrow Wilson">Presidency of Woodrow Wilson</A></DIV>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Naval_blockade">Naval blockade</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=American_entry_into_World_War_I&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Naval blockade">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>Britain used its large navy to prevent cargo vessels entering German ports, mainly by intercepting them in the <A href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</A> between the coasts of Scotland and Norway. The wider sea approaches to Britain and France, their distance from German harbours and the smaller size of the German surface fleet all made it harder for Germany to reciprocate. Instead, Germany used <A href="/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">submarines</A> to lie in wait for, and then sink, merchant ships heading for enemy ports.</P>
<P>The United States insisted on maintaining the traditional rights of ships registered in neutral countries and protested strongly against American ships being intercepted or sunk: the British seized American ships for supposed violations, while the Germans sank them — often without warning, in violation of international law that said sailors must be allowed an opportunity to reach their lifeboats. After several violations, Germany stopped this practice but in early 1917 she decided to resume unrestricted submarine warfare, in the hope that this would starve out the British before the Americans could make any effective military retaliation.</P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="The_strategy_behind_the_blockade">The strategy behind the blockade</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=American_entry_into_World_War_I&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: The strategy behind the blockade">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<P>The British <A href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</A> successfully stopped the shipment of most war supplies and food to Germany. Neutral American ships that tried to trade with Germany were seized or turned back by the Royal Navy who viewed such trade as in direct conflict with the Allies' war efforts. The strangulation came about very slowly, because Germany and <A href="/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">its allies</A> controlled extensive farmlands and raw materials. It was eventually successful because Germany and <A href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</A> had decimated their agricultural production by taking so many farmers into their armies. By 1918, German cities were on the verge of starvation; the front-line soldiers were on short rations and were running out of essential supplies.<SUP id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-7">[7]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Germany also considered a blockade. "England wants to starve us", said Admiral <A href="/wiki/Alfred_von_Tirpitz" title="Alfred von Tirpitz">Alfred von Tirpitz</A>, the man who built the German fleet and who remained a key advisor to the <A href="/wiki/Wilhelm_II,_German_Emperor" title="Wilhelm II, German Emperor">Kaiser Wilhelm II</A>. "We can play the same game. We can bottle her up and destroy every ship that endeavors to break the blockade".<SUP id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-8">[8]</A></SUP> Unable to challenge the more powerful Royal Navy on the surface, Tirpitz wanted to scare off merchant and passenger ships en route to Britain. He reasoned that since the island of Britain depended on imports of food, raw materials, and manufactured goods, scaring off a substantial number of the ships would effectively undercut its long-term ability to maintain an army on the <A href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Western Front (World War I)">Western Front</A>. While Germany had only nine long-range <A href="/wiki/U-boat" title="U-boat">U-boats</A> at the start of the war, it had ample shipyard capacity to build the hundreds needed. However, the United States demanded that Germany respect the international agreements upon "<A href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_seas" title="Freedom of the seas">freedom of the seas</A>", which protected neutral American ships on the high seas from seizure or sinking by either belligerent. Furthermore, Americans insisted that the drowning of innocent civilians was barbaric and grounds for a declaration of war. The British frequently violated America's neutral rights by seizing ships.<SUP id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-9">[9]</A></SUP> Wilson's top advisor, Colonel <A href="/wiki/Edward_M._House" title="Edward M. House">Edward M. House</A> commented that, "The British have gone as far as they possibly could in violating neutral rights, though they have done it in the most courteous way".<SUP id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-10">[10]</A></SUP> When Wilson protested British violations of American neutrality, the British backed down.</P>
<P>German submarines torpedoed ships without warning, causing sailors and passengers to drown. Berlin explained that submarines were so vulnerable that they dared not surface near merchant ships that might be carrying guns and which were too small to rescue submarine crews. Britain armed most of its merchant ships with medium calibre guns that could sink a submarine, making above-water attacks too risky. In February 1915, the United States warned Germany about misuse of submarines. On April 22, the German Imperial Embassy warned U.S. citizens against boarding vessels to Britain, which would have to face German attack. On May 7, Germany torpedoed the British passenger liner <A href="/wiki/Sinking_of_the_RMS_Lusitania" title="Sinking of the RMS Lusitania"><I>RMS Lusitania</I>, sinking her</A>. This act of aggression caused the loss of 1,198 civilian lives, including 128 Americans. The sinking of a large, unarmed passenger ship, combined with the previous stories of atrocities in Belgium, shocked Americans and turned public opinion hostile to Germany, although not yet to the point of war. Wilson issued a warning to Germany that it would face "strict accountability" if it sank more neutral U.S. passenger ships.<SUP id="cite_ref-http://www.firstworldwar.com/wilsonwarning_11-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-http://www.firstworldwar.com/wilsonwarning-11">[11]</A></SUP> Berlin acquiesced, ordering its submarines to avoid passenger ships.</P>
<P>By January 1917, however, <A href="/wiki/Field_Marshal" class="mw-redirect" title="Field Marshal">Field Marshal</A> <A href="/wiki/Paul_von_Hindenburg" title="Paul von Hindenburg">Paul von Hindenburg</A> and <A href="/wiki/General" class="mw-redirect" title="General">General</A> <A href="/wiki/Erich_Ludendorff" title="Erich Ludendorff">Erich Ludendorff</A> decided that an unrestricted submarine blockade was the only way to achieve a decisive victory. They demanded that Kaiser Wilhelm order unrestricted submarine warfare be resumed. Germany knew this decision meant war with the United States, but they gambled that they could win before America's potential strength could be mobilized.<SUP id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-12">[12]</A></SUP> However, they overestimated how many ships they could sink and thus the extent Britain would be weakened. Finally, they did not foresee that <A href="/wiki/Convoy" title="Convoy">convoys</A> could and would be used to defeat their efforts. They believed that the United States was so weak militarily that it could not be a factor on the Western Front for more than a year. The civilian government in Berlin objected, but the Kaiser sided with his military.<SUP id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-13">[13]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Business_considerations">Business considerations</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=American_entry_into_World_War_I&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Business considerations">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>The beginning of war in Europe coincided with the end of the Recession of 1913–1914 in America. Exports to belligerent nations rose rapidly over the first four years of the War from $824.8 million in 1913 to $2.25 billion in 1917.<SUP id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-14">[14]</A></SUP> Loans from American financial institutions to the Allied nations in Europe also increased dramatically over the same period.<SUP id="cite_ref-Horn_2000_85–112_15-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Horn_2000_85–112-15">[15]</A></SUP> Economic activity towards the end of this period boomed as government resources aided the production of the private sector. Between 1914 and 1917, industrial production increased 32% and GNP increased by almost 20%.<SUP id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-16">[16]</A></SUP> The improvements to industrial production in the United States outlasted the war. The capital build-up that had allowed American companies to supply belligerents and the American army resulted in a greater long-run rate of production even after the war had ended in 1918.<SUP id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-17">[17]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In 1913, <A href="/wiki/J._P._Morgan,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="J. P. Morgan, Jr.">J. P. Morgan, Jr.</A> took over the <A href="/wiki/House_of_Morgan" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Morgan">House of Morgan</A>, an American-based investment bank consisting of separate banking operations in New York, London, and Paris, after the death of his father, <A href="/wiki/J._Pierpont_Morgan" class="mw-redirect" title="J. Pierpont Morgan">J. Pierpont Morgan</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Horn_2000_85–112_15-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Horn_2000_85–112-15">[15]</A></SUP> The House of Morgan offered assistance in the wartime financing of Britain and France from the earliest stages of the war in 1914 through America's entrance in 1917. J.P. Morgan & Co., the House of Morgan's bank in New York, was designated as the primary financial agent to the British government in 1914 after successful lobbying by the British ambassador, <A href="/wiki/Cecil_Spring_Rice" title="Cecil Spring Rice">Sir Cecil Spring Rice</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Horn_2000_85–112_15-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Horn_2000_85–112-15">[15]</A></SUP> The same bank would later take a similar role in France and would offer extensive financial assistance to both warring nations. J.P. Morgan &Co. became the primary issuer of loans to the French government by raising money from American investors.<SUP id="cite_ref-Horn_2000_85–112_15-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Horn_2000_85–112-15">[15]</A></SUP> Morgan, Harjes, the House of Morgan's French affiliated bank, controlled the majority of the wartime financial dealings between the House of Morgan and the French government after primary issuances of debt in American markets.<SUP id="cite_ref-Horn_2000_85–112_15-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Horn_2000_85–112-15">[15]</A></SUP> Relations between the House of Morgan and the French government became tense as the war raged on with no end in sight.<SUP id="cite_ref-Horn_2000_85–112_15-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Horn_2000_85–112-15">[15]</A></SUP> France's ability to borrow from other sources diminished, leading to greater lending rates and a depressing of the value of the franc. After the war, in 1918, J.P. Morgan & Co. continued to aid the French government financially through monetary stabilization and debt relief.<SUP id="cite_ref-Horn_2000_85–112_15-6" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Horn_2000_85–112-15">[15]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Because America was still a declared neutral state, the financial dealings of American banks in Europe caused a great deal of contention between Wall Street and the U.S. government. Secretary of State <A href="/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan" title="William Jennings Bryan">William Jennings Bryan</A> strictly opposed financial support of warring nations and wanted to ban loans to the belligerents in August 1914.<SUP id="cite_ref-Horn_2000_85–112_15-7" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Horn_2000_85–112-15">[15]</A></SUP> He told President Wilson that "refusal to loan to any belligerent would naturally tend to hasten a conclusion of the war." Wilson at first agreed, but then reversed himself when France argued that if it was legal to buy American goods then it was legal to take out credits on the purchase.<SUP id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-18">[18]</A></SUP></P>
<P>J.P. Morgan issued loans to France including one in March 1915 and, following negotiations with the <A href="/wiki/Anglo-French_Financial_Commission" title="Anglo-French Financial Commission">Anglo-French Financial Commission</A>, another joint loan to Britain and France in October 1915, the latter amounting to US$500,000,000.<SUP id="cite_ref-Horn_2000_85–112_15-8" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Horn_2000_85–112-15">[15]</A></SUP> Although the stance of the U.S. government was that stopping such financial assistance could hasten the end of the war and therefore save lives, little was done to insure adherence to the ban on loans, in part due to pressure from Allied governments and American business interests.<SUP id="cite_ref-Horn_2000_85–112_15-9" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Horn_2000_85–112-15">[15]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The American steel industry had faced difficulties and declining profits during the Recession of 1913–1914.<SUP id="cite_ref-Cuff_1970_291–306_19-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Cuff_1970_291–306-19">[19]</A></SUP> As war began in Europe, however, the increased demand for tools of war began a period of heightened productivity that alleviated many U.S. industrial companies from the low-growth environment of the recession. <A href="/wiki/Bethlehem_Steel" title="Bethlehem Steel">Bethlehem Steel</A> took particular advantage of the increased demand for armaments abroad. Prior to American entrance into the War, these companies benefitted from unrestricted commerce with sovereign customers abroad. After President Wilson issued his declaration of war, the companies were subjected to price controls created by the U.S. Trade Commission in order to insure that the U.S. military would have access to the necessary armaments.<SUP id="cite_ref-Cuff_1970_291–306_19-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Cuff_1970_291–306-19">[19]</A></SUP></P>
<P>By the end of the war in 1918, Bethlehem Steel had produced 65,000 pounds of forged military products and 70 million pounds of armor plate, 1.1 billion pounds of steel for shells, and 20.1 million rounds of artillery ammunition for Britain and France.<SUP id="cite_ref-Metz_2006_10–15_20-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Metz_2006_10–15-20">[20]</A></SUP> Bethlehem Steel took advantage of the domestic armaments market and produced 60% of the American weaponry and 40% of the artillery shells used in the War.<SUP id="cite_ref-Metz_2006_10–15_20-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Metz_2006_10–15-20">[20]</A></SUP> Even with price controls and a lower profit margin on manufactured goods, the profits resulting from wartime sales expanded the company into the third largest manufacturing company in the country. Bethlehem Steel became the primary arms supplier for the United States and other allied powers again in 1939.<SUP id="cite_ref-Metz_2006_10–15_20-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Metz_2006_10–15-20">[20]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Views_of_the_elites">Views of the elites</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=American_entry_into_World_War_I&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Views of the elites">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>Historians divide the views of American political and social leaders into four distinct groupings—the camps were mostly informal:</P>
<P>The first of these were the <A href="/wiki/Non-interventionism" title="Non-interventionism">Non-Interventionists</A>, a loosely affiliated and politically diverse anti-war movement which sought to keep the United States out of the war altogether. Members of this group tended to view the war as a clash between <A href="/wiki/British_imperialism" class="mw-redirect" title="British imperialism">British imperialism</A> and <A href="/wiki/German_militarism" class="mw-redirect" title="German militarism">German militarism</A>, both of which they regarded as equally corrupt. Others were <A href="/wiki/Pacifists" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacifists">pacifists</A>, who objected on moral grounds. Prominent leaders included Democrats like former Secretary of State <A href="/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan" title="William Jennings Bryan">William Jennings Bryan</A>, industrialist <A href="/wiki/Henry_Ford" title="Henry Ford">Henry Ford</A> and publisher <A href="/wiki/William_Randolph_Hearst" title="William Randolph Hearst">William Randolph Hearst</A>; Republicans <A href="/wiki/Robert_M._La_Follette,_Sr." class="mw-redirect" title="Robert M. La Follette, Sr.">Robert M. La Follette</A>, Senator from Wisconsin and <A href="/wiki/George_W._Norris" title="George W. Norris">George W. Norris</A>, Senator from Nebraska; and Progressive Party activist <A href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Jane Addams</A>.</P>
<P>At the far-left end of the political spectrum the <A href="/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_America" title="Socialist Party of America">Socialists</A>, led by their <A href="/wiki/Perennial_candidate" title="Perennial candidate">perennial candidate</A> for President <A href="/wiki/Eugene_V._Debs" title="Eugene V. Debs">Eugene V. Debs</A> and movement veterans like <A href="/wiki/Victor_L._Berger" title="Victor L. Berger">Victor L. Berger</A> and <A href="/wiki/Morris_Hillquit" title="Morris Hillquit">Morris Hillquit</A>, were staunch <A href="/wiki/Antimilitarism" title="Antimilitarism">anti-militarists</A> and opposed to any US intervention, branding the conflict as a "capitalist war" that American workers should avoid. However, after the US did join the war in April, 1917 a schism developed between the anti-war Party majority and a pro-war faction of Socialist writers, journalists and intellectuals led by <A href="/wiki/John_Spargo" title="John Spargo">John Spargo</A>, <A href="/wiki/William_English_Walling" title="William English Walling">William English Walling</A> and <A href="/wiki/E._Haldeman-Julius" title="E. Haldeman-Julius">E. Haldeman-Julius</A>. This group founded the rival <A href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_League_of_America" title="Social Democratic League of America">Social Democratic League of America</A> to promote the war effort among their fellow Socialists.<SUP id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-21">[21]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Next were the more moderate <A href="/wiki/Liberal_internationalism" title="Liberal internationalism">Liberal-Internationalists</A>. This bipartisan group reluctantly supported a declaration of war against Germany with the postwar goal of establishing collective international security institutions designed to peacefully resolve future conflicts between nations and to promote <A href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">liberal democratic</A> values more broadly. This groups's views were advocated by interest groups such as the <A href="/wiki/League_to_Enforce_Peace" title="League to Enforce Peace">League to Enforce Peace</A>. Adherents included US President <A href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</A>, his influential advisor <A href="/wiki/Edward_M._House" title="Edward M. House">Edward M. House</A>, former President <A href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">William Howard Taft</A>, famed inventor <A href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Graham Bell</A>, Wall Street financier <A href="/wiki/Bernard_Baruch" title="Bernard Baruch">Bernard Baruch</A> and Harvard University President <A href="/wiki/Abbott_Lawrence_Lowell" title="Abbott Lawrence Lowell">Abbott Lawrence Lowell</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Cuff_1970_291–306_19-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Cuff_1970_291–306-19">[19]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Finally, there were the so-called <A href="/wiki/Atlanticism" title="Atlanticism">Atlanticists</A>. Ardently pro-<A href="/wiki/Triple_Entente" title="Triple Entente">Entente</A>, they had strongly championed American <A href="/wiki/Interventionism_(politics)" title="Interventionism (politics)">intervention</A> in the war since 1915. Their primary political motivation was to both prepare the US for war with Germany and to forge an enduring military alliance with Great Britain. This group actively supported the <A href="/wiki/Preparedness_Movement" title="Preparedness Movement">Preparedness Movement</A> and was strong among the <A href="/wiki/Anglophile" title="Anglophile">Anglophile</A> political <A href="/wiki/The_Establishment" title="The Establishment">establishment</A> of the <A href="/wiki/Northeastern_United_States" title="Northeastern United States">northeast</A>, boasting such luminaries as former President <A href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</A>, Major General <A href="/wiki/Leonard_Wood" title="Leonard Wood">Leonard Wood</A>, prominent attorney and diplomat <A href="/wiki/Joseph_Hodges_Choate" title="Joseph Hodges Choate">Joseph Hodges Choate</A>, former Secretary of War <A href="/wiki/Henry_Stimson" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Stimson">Henry Stimson</A>, journalist <A href="/wiki/Walter_Lippman" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Lippman">Walter Lippman</A> and Senators <A href="/wiki/Henry_Cabot_Lodge,_Sr." class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Cabot Lodge, Sr.">Henry Cabot Lodge, Sr.</A> of Massachusetts and <A href="/wiki/Elihu_Root" title="Elihu Root">Elihu Root</A> of New York.<SUP id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-22">[22]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Public_opinion">Public opinion</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=American_entry_into_World_War_I&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Public opinion">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>A cosmopolitan group of upper and upper-middle class businessmen based in the largest cities took the lead in promoting military preparedness and in defining how far America could be pushed around before it would fight back. Many public figures hated war—Secretary of State <A href="/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan" title="William Jennings Bryan">William Jennings Bryan</A> was the most prominent, and he resigned when he thought Wilson had become too bellicose.<SUP id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-23">[23]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Grassroots" title="Grassroots">Grassroots</A> opposition to American entry came especially from German and Irish elements.<SUP id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-24">[24]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-25">[25]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Parties">Parties</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=American_entry_into_World_War_I&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Parties">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>A surprising factor in the development of American public opinion was how little the political parties became involved. Wilson and the Democrats in 1916 campaigned on the slogan "He kept us out of war!", saying a Republican victory would mean war with both Mexico and Germany. His position probably was critical in winning the Western states.<SUP id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-26">[26]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Hughes" title="Charles Evans Hughes">Charles Evans Hughes</A>, the GOP candidate, insisted on downplaying the war issue.<SUP id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-27">[27]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The Socialist party talked peace. Socialist rhetoric declared the European conflict to be "an imperialist war". It won 2% of the 1916 vote for <A href="/wiki/Eugene_V._Debs" title="Eugene V. Debs">Eugene V. Debs</A>, blamed the war on capitalism and pledged total opposition. "A bayonet", its propaganda said, "was a weapon with a worker at each end".<SUP id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-28">[28]</A></SUP> When war began, however, about half the Socialists, typified by Congressman <A href="/wiki/Meyer_London" title="Meyer London">Meyer London</A>, supported the decision and sided with the pro-Allied efforts. The rest, led by Debs, remained ideological and die-hard opponents.<SUP id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-29">[29]</A></SUP> Many socialists came under investigation from the <A href="/wiki/Espionage_Act_of_1917" title="Espionage Act of 1917">Espionage Act of 1917</A> and many suspected of treason were arrested, including Debs. This would only increase the Socialist's anti-war groups in resentment toward the American government.<SUP id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-30">[30]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN id="Workers.2C_farmers.2C_and_African_Americans"></SPAN><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Workers,_farmers,_and_African_Americans">Workers, farmers, and African Americans</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=American_entry_into_World_War_I&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Workers, farmers, and African Americans">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>The working class was relatively quiet, and tended to divide along ethnic lines. At the beginning of the war, neither working men nor farmers took a large interest in the debates on war preparation.<SUP id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-31">[31]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-32">[32]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-33">[33]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Samuel_Gompers" title="Samuel Gompers">Samuel Gompers</A>, head of the AFL labor movement, denounced the war in 1914 as "unnatural, unjustified, and unholy", but by 1916 he was supporting Wilson's limited preparedness program, against the objections of Socialist union activists. In 1916 the labor unions supported Wilson on domestic issues and ignored the war question.<SUP id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-34">[34]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The war at first disrupted the cotton market; Britain blockaded shipments to Germany, and prices fell from 11 cents a pound to only 4 cents. By 1916, however, the British decided to bolster the price to 10 cents to avoid losing Southern support. The cotton growers seem to have moved from neutrality to intervention at about the same pace as the rest of the nation.<SUP id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-35">[35]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-36">[36]</A></SUP> Midwestern farmers generally opposed the war, especially those of German and Scandinavian descent. The Midwest became the stronghold of isolationism; other remote rural areas also saw no need for war.<SUP id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-37">[37]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The African-American community did not take a strong position one way or the other. A month after congress declared war, <A href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</A> called on African-Americans to "fight shoulder to shoulder with the world to gain a world where war shall be no more".<SUP id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-38">[38]</A></SUP> Once war began and black men were drafted, they worked to achieve equality.<SUP id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-39">[39]</A></SUP> Many had hoped the community's help in the war efforts abroad would earn civil rights at home. When such civil liberties were still not granted, many African-Americans grew tired of waiting for recognition of their rights as American citizens.<SUP id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-40">[40]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="South">South</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=American_entry_into_World_War_I&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: South">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>There was a strong antiwar element in the white South and border states. In rural Missouri for example, distrust of powerful Eastern influences focused on the risk that Wall Street would lead America into war.<SUP id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-41">[41]</A></SUP> Across the South poor white farmers warned each other that "a rich man's war meant a poor man's fight," and they wanted nothing of it.<SUP id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-42">[42]</A></SUP> Congressman James Hay, Democrat of Virginia was the powerful chairman of the House Committee on Military Affairs. He repeatedly blocked prewar efforts to modernize and enlarge the army. Preparedness was not needed because Americans were already safe, he insisted in January 1915:</P>
<DL>
<DD>Isolated as we are, safe in our vastness, protected by a great navy, and possessed of an army sufficient for any emergency that may arise, we may disregard the lamentations and predictions of the militarists.<SUP id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-43">[43]</A></SUP></DD>
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<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="German_Americans">German Americans</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=American_entry_into_World_War_I&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: German Americans">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P><A href="/wiki/German_Americans" title="German Americans">German Americans</A> by this time usually had only weak ties to Germany; however, they were fearful of negative treatment they might receive if the United States entered the war (such mistreatment was already happening to German-descent citizens in Canada and Australia). Almost none called for intervening on Germany's side, instead calling for neutrality and speaking of the superiority of German culture. As more nations were drawn into the conflict, however, the English-languages press increasingly supporting Britain, while the German-American media called for neutrality while also defending Germany's position. Chicago's Germans worked to secure a complete embargo on all arms shipments to Europe. In 1916, large crowds in Chicago's Germania celebrated the Kaiser's birthday, something they had not done before the war.<SUP id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-44">[44]</A></SUP> German Americans in early 1917 still called for neutrality, but proclaimed that if a war came they would be loyal to the United States. By this point, they had been excluded almost entirely from national discourse on the subject.<SUP id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-45">[45]</A></SUP> Once war started, they were harassed in so many ways that historian Carl Wittke noted in 1936, it was "one of the most difficult and humiliating experiences suffered by an ethnic group in American history."<SUP id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-46">[46]</A></SUP> German-American Socialists in <A href="/wiki/Milwaukee" title="Milwaukee">Milwaukee</A>, <A href="/wiki/Wisconsin" title="Wisconsin">Wisconsin</A> actively campaigned against entry into the war.<SUP id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-47">[47]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Christian_churches_and_pacifists">Christian churches and pacifists</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=American_entry_into_World_War_I&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Christian churches and pacifists">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
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<I>Come on in, America, the Blood's Fine!</I> (1917) by M.A. Kempf.</DIV>
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<P>Leaders of most religious groups (except the Episcopalians) tended to pacifism, as did leaders of the woman's movement. The Methodists and Quakers among others were vocal opponents of the war.<SUP id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-48">[48]</A></SUP> President Wilson, who was a devout Presbyterian, would often frame the war in terms of good and evil in an appeal for religious support of the war.<SUP id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-49">[49]</A></SUP></P>
<P>A concerted effort was made by pacifists including <A href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Jane Addams</A>, <A href="/wiki/Oswald_Garrison_Villard" title="Oswald Garrison Villard">Oswald Garrison Villard</A>, <A href="/wiki/David_Starr_Jordan" title="David Starr Jordan">David Starr Jordan</A>, <A href="/wiki/Henry_Ford" title="Henry Ford">Henry Ford</A>, <A href="/wiki/Lillian_Wald" title="Lillian Wald">Lillian Wald</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Carrie_Chapman_Catt" title="Carrie Chapman Catt">Carrie Chapman Catt</A>. Their goal was to encourage Wilson's efforts to mediate an end of the war by bringing the belligerents to the conference table.<SUP id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-50">[50]</A></SUP> Finally in 1917 Wilson convinced some of them that to be truly anti-war they needed to support what he promised would be "a war to end all wars".<SUP id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-51">[51]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Once war was declared, the more liberal denominations, which had endorsed the <A href="/wiki/Social_Gospel" title="Social Gospel">Social Gospel</A>, called for a war for righteousness that would help uplift all mankind. The theme—an aspect of <A href="/wiki/American_exceptionalism" title="American exceptionalism">American exceptionalism</A>—was that God had chosen America as his tool to bring redemption to the world.<SUP id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-52">[52]</A></SUP></P>
<P>American Catholic bishops maintained a general silence toward the issue of intervention. Millions of Catholics lived in both warring camps, and Catholic Americans tended to split on ethnic lines in their opinions toward American involvement in the war. At the time, heavily Catholic towns and cities in the East and Midwest often contained multiple parishes, each serving a single ethnic group, such as Irish, German, Italian, Polish, or English. American Catholics of Irish and German descent opposed intervention most strongly. Pope <A href="/wiki/Benedict_XV" class="mw-redirect" title="Benedict XV">Benedict XV</A> made several attempts to negotiate a peace. All of his efforts were rebuffed by both the Allies and the Germans, and throughout the war the Vatican maintained a policy of strict neutrality.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Jewish_Americans">Jewish Americans</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=American_entry_into_World_War_I&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Jewish Americans">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P><A href="/wiki/American_Jews" title="American Jews">Jewish American</A> sympathies likewise broke along ethnic lines, with recently arrived Yiddish speaking Jews inclined to <A href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</A>, and the established German-American Jewish community largely opposed to it. In 1914–1916, there were few Jewish forces in favor of American entry into the war. Many regarded Britain as hostile to Jewish interests. New York City, with its well-organized element numbering 1.5 million Jews, was the center of antiwar activism.<SUP id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-53">[53]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-54">[54]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The different Jewish communities worked together during the war years to provide relief to Jewish communities in Eastern Europe.<SUP id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-55">[55]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-56">[56]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Of greatest concern to Jews was the tsarist regime in Russia because it was notorious for tolerating pogroms and following anti-Semitic policies. As historian Joseph Rappaport reported through his study of Yiddish press during the war, "The pro-Germanism of America's immigrant Jews was an inevitable consequence of their Russophobia".<SUP id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-57">[57]</A></SUP> The fall of the tsarist regime in March 1917 removed a major obstacle for many Jews who refused to support tsarism.<SUP id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-58">[58]</A></SUP> The draft went smoothly in New York City, and left-wing opposition to the war largely collapsed when Zionists saw the possibility of using the war to demand a state of Israel.<SUP id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-59">[59]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Irish-Americans">Irish-Americans</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=American_entry_into_World_War_I&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Irish-Americans">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>The most effective domestic opponents of the war were Irish-American Catholics. They had little interest in the continent, but were neutral about helping the <A href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</A> because it had recently enacted the <A href="/wiki/Government_of_Ireland_Act_1914" title="Government of Ireland Act 1914">Government of Ireland Act 1914</A>, allowing Irish Home Rule. However, the Act was suspended until the war ended. <A href="/wiki/John_Redmond" title="John Redmond">John Redmond</A> and the <A href="/wiki/Irish_Parliamentary_Party" title="Irish Parliamentary Party">Irish Parliamentary Party</A> (IPP) declared that Irish Volunteers should support America's pro-Allied war efforts first; his political opponents argued that it was not the time to support Britain in its attempt to "strengthen and expand her empire".<SUP id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-60">[60]</A></SUP> The attacks on the IPP and pro-Allied press showed a firm belief that a German victory would hasten the achievement of Irish independence. Yet rather than proposing intervention on behalf of the Germans, Irish American leaders and organizations focused on demanding American <A href="/wiki/Neutrality_(international_relations)" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutrality (international relations)">neutrality</A>. But the increased contact between militant Irish nationalists and German agents in the United States only fueled concerns of where the primary loyalties of Irish Americans lay.<SUP id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-61">[61]</A></SUP> Nevertheless, close to 1,000 Irish-born Americans died fighting with the U.S. armed forces in WWI.<SUP id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-62">[62]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/Easter_Rising" title="Easter Rising">Easter Rising</A> in Dublin in April 1916 was crushed within a week and its leaders <A href="/wiki/Execution_by_firing_squad" title="Execution by firing squad">executed by firing squad</A>. The mainstream American press treated the uprising as foolish and misguided, and theorized it was largely inspired by the Germans. Overall public opinion remained faithfully pro-British.<SUP id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-63">[63]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Irish-Americans dominated the Democratic party in many large cities so Wilson had to take account of their views. They did not prevent him from being hostile to Germany, but they did force him to keep his distance from Britain. Indeed, Irish-American pressure influenced the United States into not accepting Britain's war aims as its own and define its own objectives, primarily <A href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">self-determination</A>. The Irish-American community thought they had Wilson's promise to promote Irish independence in exchange for their support of his war policies, but after the war they were bitterly disappointed by his refusal to support them in 1919.<SUP id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-64">[64]</A></SUP> Wilson saw the Irish situation purely as an internal UK matter and did not perceive the dispute and the unrest in Ireland as comparable to the plight of the various nationalities in Europe as a fall-out from World War I.<SUP id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-65">[65]</A></SUP> The progress of the <A href="/wiki/Irish_Race_Conventions" title="Irish Race Conventions">Irish Race Conventions</A> give a flavour of the differing and changing opinions during the war.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Pro-Allied_immigrants">Pro-Allied immigrants</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=American_entry_into_World_War_I&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Pro-Allied immigrants">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>Some British immigrants worked actively for intervention. London-born <A href="/wiki/Samuel_Insull" title="Samuel Insull">Samuel Insull</A>, Chicago's leading industrialist, for example, enthusiastically provided money, propaganda, and means for volunteers to enter the British or Canadian armies. After the United States' entry, Insull directed the Illinois State Council of Defense, with responsibility for organizing the state's mobilization.<SUP id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-66">[66]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Immigrants from eastern Europe usually cared more about politics in their homeland than politics in the United States. Spokesmen for Slavic immigrants hoped that an Allied victory would bring independence for their homelands.<SUP id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-67">[67]</A></SUP> Large numbers of Hungarian immigrants who were liberal and nationalist in sentiment, and sought an independent Hungary, separate from the Austro-Hungarian Empire lobbied in favor of the war and allied themselves with the Atlanticist or Anglophile portion of the population. This community was largely pro-British and anti-German in sentiment.<SUP id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-68">[68]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-69">[69]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-70">[70]</A></SUP> Albanian-Americans in communities such as Boston also campaigned for entry into the war and were overwhelmingly pro-British and anti-German, as well as hopeful the war would lead to an independent Albania which would be free from the Ottoman Empire.<SUP id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-71">[71]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Polish_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish people">Polish</A>, <A href="/wiki/Slovaks" title="Slovaks">Slovak</A>, and <A href="/wiki/History_of_the_Czech_Lands" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Czech Lands">Czech</A> immigrants were enthusiastically pro-war and generally pro-British.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Popular_pacifism">Popular pacifism</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=American_entry_into_World_War_I&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Popular pacifism">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:IDidntRaiseMyBoyToBeASoldierCoverMorton.jpeg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/IDidntRaiseMyBoyToBeASoldierCoverMorton.jpeg/220px-IDidntRaiseMyBoyToBeASoldierCoverMorton.jpeg" width="220" height="284" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/IDidntRaiseMyBoyToBeASoldierCoverMorton.jpeg/330px-IDidntRaiseMyBoyToBeASoldierCoverMorton.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/IDidntRaiseMyBoyToBeASoldierCoverMorton.jpeg/440px-IDidntRaiseMyBoyToBeASoldierCoverMorton.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1587" data-file-height="2051" /></A>
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The song "<A href="/wiki/I_Didn%27t_Raise_My_Boy_To_Be_A_Soldier" class="mw-redirect" title="I Didn't Raise My Boy To Be A Soldier">I Didn't Raise My Boy To Be A Soldier</A>" was a hit in 1915, selling 650,000 copies. Its expression of popular pacifist sentiment "helped make the pacifist movement a hard, quantifiable political reality to be reckoned with."<SUP id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-72">[72]</A></SUP></DIV>
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<P><A href="/wiki/Henry_Ford" title="Henry Ford">Henry Ford</A> supported the pacifist cause by sponsoring a large-scale private peace mission, with numerous activists and intellectuals aboard the "<A href="/wiki/Peace_Ship" title="Peace Ship">Peace Ship</A>' (the ocean liner Oscar II). Ford chartered the ship in 1915 and invited prominent peace activists to join him to meet with leaders on both sides in Europe. He hoped to create enough publicity to prompt the belligerent nations to convene a peace conference and mediate an end to the war. The mission was widely mocked by the press, which wrote about the "Ship of Fools." Infighting between the activists, mockery by the press contingent aboard, and an outbreak of influenza marred the voyage. Four days after the ship arrived in neutral Norway, a beleaguered and physically ill Ford abandoned the mission and returned to the United States; he had demonstrated that independent small efforts accomplished nothing.<SUP id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-73">[73]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="German_agents">German agents</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=American_entry_into_World_War_I&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: German agents">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>On July 24, 1915, the German embassy's commercial attaché, <A href="/wiki/Heinrich_Albert" title="Heinrich Albert">Heinrich Albert</A>, left his briefcase on a train in New York City, where an alert Secret Service agent, Frank Burke, snatched it up.<SUP id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-74">[74]</A></SUP> Wilson let the newspapers publish the contents, which indicated a systematic effort by Berlin to subsidize friendly newspapers and block British purchases of war materials. Berlin's top espionage agent, debonnaire <A href="/wiki/Franz_von_Rintelen" title="Franz von Rintelen">Franz Rintelen von Kleist</A> was spending millions to finance sabotage in Canada, stir up trouble between the United States and Mexico and to incite labor strikes. The British were engaged in propaganda too, though not illegal espionage. But they did not get caught.<SUP id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-75">[75]</A></SUP> Germany took the blame as Americans grew ever more worried about the vulnerability of a free society to subversion. Indeed, one of the main fears Americans of all stations had in 1916–1919 was that spies and saboteurs were everywhere. This sentiment played a major role in arousing fear of Germany, and suspicions regarding everyone of German descent who could not "prove" 100% loyalty.<SUP id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-76">[76]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Preparedness_movement">Preparedness movement</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=American_entry_into_World_War_I&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Preparedness movement">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Preparedness_Movement" title="Preparedness Movement">Preparedness Movement</A></DIV>
<P>By 1915, Americans were paying much more attention to the war. The sinking of the <I>Lusitania</I> had a strong effect on public opinion because of the deaths of American civilians. That year, a strong "Preparedness" movement emerged.<SUP id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-77">[77]</A></SUP> Proponents argued that the United States needed to immediately build up strong naval and land forces for defensive purposes; an unspoken assumption was that America would fight sooner or later. General <A href="/wiki/Leonard_Wood" title="Leonard Wood">Leonard Wood</A> (still on active duty after serving a term as Chief of Staff of the Army), former president <A href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</A>, and former secretaries of war <A href="/wiki/Elihu_Root" title="Elihu Root">Elihu Root</A> and <A href="/wiki/Henry_Stimson" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Stimson">Henry Stimson</A> were the driving forces behind Preparedness, along with many of the nation's most prominent bankers, industrialists, lawyers and scions of prominent families. Indeed, there emerged an "Atlanticist" foreign policy establishment, a group of influential Americans drawn primarily from upper-class lawyers, bankers, academics, and politicians of the Northeast, committed to a strand of Anglophile internationalism. Representative was <A href="/wiki/Paul_D._Cravath" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul D. Cravath">Paul D. Cravath</A>, one of New York's foremost corporation lawyers. For Cravath, in his mid-fifties when the war began, the conflict served as an epiphany, sparking an interest in international affairs that dominated his remaining career. Fiercely Anglophile, he strongly supported American intervention in the war and hoped that close Anglo-American cooperation would be the guiding principle of postwar international organization.<SUP id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-78">[78]</A></SUP></P>
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The advertisement of <I><A href="/wiki/The_Battle_Cry_of_Peace" title="The Battle Cry of Peace">The Battle Cry of Peace</A></I> film</DIV>
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<P>The Preparedness movement had a "realistic" philosophy of world affairs—they believed that economic strength and military muscle were more decisive than idealistic crusades focused on causes like democracy and national self-determination. Emphasizing over and over the weak state of national defenses, they showed that America's 100,000-man Army even augmented by the 112,000 National Guardsmen, was outnumbered 20 to one by Germany's army, which was drawn from a smaller population. Similarly in 1915, the armed forces of <A href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</A> and the <A href="/wiki/British_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="British empire">British empire</A> (the world's most powerful military and economic power at the time<SUP id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-79">[79]</A></SUP>), <A href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</A>, <A href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</A>, the <A href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Austro-Hungarian empire">Austro-Hungarian empire</A>, <A href="/wiki/Ottoman_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman empire">Ottoman empire</A>, <A href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</A>, <A href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</A>, <A href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</A>, <A href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbia</A>, <A href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</A>, <A href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</A> and <A href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</A> were all larger and more experienced than the United States military, in many cases significantly so.<SUP id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-80">[80]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Reform to them meant UMT or "universal military training". They proposed a national service program under which the 600,000 men who turned 18 every year would be required to spend six months in military training, and afterwards be assigned to reserve units. The small regular army would primarily be a training agency.</P>
<P>Antimilitarists complained the plan would make America resemble Germany (which required two years' active duty). Advocates retorted that military "service" was an essential duty of citizenship, and that without the commonality provided by such service the nation would splinter into antagonistic ethnic groups. One spokesman promised that UMT would become "a real <A href="/wiki/Melting_pot" title="Melting pot">melting pot</A>, under which the fire is hot enough to fuse the elements into one common mass of Americanism". Furthermore, they promised, the discipline and training would make for a better paid work force. Hostility to military service was strong at the time, and the program failed to win approval. In World War II, when Stimson as Secretary of War proposed a similar program of universal peacetime service, he was defeated.<SUP id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-81">[81]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Underscoring its commitment, the Preparedness movement set up and funded <A href="/wiki/Plattsburg_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Plattsburg Movement">its own summer training camps</A> at <A href="/wiki/Plattsburgh,_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Plattsburgh, New York">Plattsburgh</A>, New York, and other sites, where 40,000 college alumni became physically fit, learned to march and shoot, and ultimately provided the cadre of a wartime officer corps.<SUP id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-82">[82]</A></SUP> Suggestions by labor unions that talented working-class youth be invited to Plattsburgh were ignored. The Preparedness movement was distant not only from the working classes but also from the middle-class leadership of most of small-town America. It had had little use for the National Guard, which it saw as politicized, localistic, poorly armed, ill trained, too inclined to idealistic crusading (as against <A href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spain in 1898</A>), and too lacking in understanding of world affairs. The National Guard on the other hand was securely rooted in state and local politics, with representation from a very broad cross section of American society. The Guard was one of the nation's few institutions that (in some northern states) accepted blacks on an equal footing.</P>
<P>The Democratic party saw the Preparedness movement as a threat. Roosevelt, Root and Wood were prospective Republican presidential candidates. More subtly, the Democrats were rooted in localism that appreciated the National Guard, and the voters were hostile to the rich and powerful in the first place. Working with the Democrats who controlled Congress, Wilson was able to sidetrack the Preparedness forces. Army and Navy leaders were forced to testify before Congress to the effect that the nation's military was in excellent shape.</P>
<P>In fact, neither the Army nor Navy was in shape for war. The Navy had fine ships but Wilson had been using them to threaten Mexico, and the fleet's readiness had suffered. The crews of the <I><A href="/wiki/USS_Texas_(BB-35)" title="USS Texas (BB-35)">Texas</A></I> and the <I><A href="/wiki/USS_New_York_(BB-34)" title="USS New York (BB-34)">New York</A></I>, the two newest and largest battleships, had never fired a gun, and the morale of the sailors was low. In addition, it was outnumbered and outgunned by the British, German, French, and Italian navies. The Army and Navy air forces were tiny in size. Despite the flood of new weapons systems unveiled by the British, Germans, French, Austro-Hungarians, Italians, and others in the war in Europe, the Army was paying scant attention. For example, it was making no studies of <A href="/wiki/Trench_warfare" title="Trench warfare">trench warfare</A>, <A href="/wiki/Poison_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Poison gas">poison gas</A>, <A href="/wiki/Heavy_artillery" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy artillery">heavy artillery</A>, or <A href="/wiki/Tanks" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanks">tanks</A> and was utterly unfamiliar with the rapid evolution of <A href="/wiki/Aerial_warfare" title="Aerial warfare">Aerial warfare</A>. The Democrats in Congress tried to cut the military budget in 1915. The Preparedness movement effectively exploited the surge of outrage over the <I>Lusitania</I> in May 1915, forcing the Democrats to promise some improvements to the military and naval forces. Wilson, less fearful of the Navy, embraced a long-term building program designed to make the fleet the equal of the British <A href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</A> by the mid-1920s, although this would not be achieved until <A href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</A>. "Realism" was at work here; the admirals were Mahanians and they therefore wanted a surface fleet of heavy battleships second to none—that is, equal to Britain. The facts of submarine warfare (which necessitated destroyers, not battleships) and the possibilities of imminent war with Germany (or with Britain, for that matter), were simply ignored.</P>
<P>Wilson's program for the Army touched off a firestorm.<SUP id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-83">[83]</A></SUP> Secretary of War <A href="/wiki/Lindley_Garrison" class="mw-redirect" title="Lindley Garrison">Lindley Garrison</A> adopted many of the proposals of the Preparedness leaders, especially their emphasis on a large federal reserve and abandonment of the National Guard. Garrison's proposals not only outraged the localistic politicians of both parties, they also offended a strongly held belief shared by the liberal wing of the Progressive movement. They felt that warfare always had a hidden economic motivation. Specifically, they warned the chief warmongers were New York bankers (like <A href="/wiki/J._P._Morgan" title="J. P. Morgan">J. P. Morgan</A>) with millions at risk, profiteering munition makers (like <A href="/wiki/Bethlehem_Steel" title="Bethlehem Steel">Bethlehem Steel</A>, which made armor, and <A href="/wiki/DuPont" title="DuPont">DuPont</A>, which made powder) and unspecified industrialists searching for global markets to control. Antiwar critics blasted them. These special interests were too powerful, especially, <A href="/wiki/Robert_M._La_Follette_Sr." class="mw-redirect" title="Robert M. La Follette Sr.">Senator La Follette</A> noted, in the conservative wing of the Republican Party. The only road to peace was disarmament, reiterated Bryan.</P>
<P>Garrison's plan unleashed the fiercest battle in peacetime history over the relationship of military planning to national goals. In peacetime, War Department arsenals and Navy yards manufactured nearly all munitions that lacked civilian uses, including warships, artillery, naval guns, and shells. Items available on the civilian market, such as food, horses, saddles, wagons, and uniforms were always purchased from civilian contractors. Armor plate (and after 1918, airplanes) was an exception that has caused unremitting controversy for a century. After World War II, the arsenals and Navy yards were much less important than giant civilian aircraft and electronics firms, which became the second half of the "<A href="/wiki/Military-industrial_complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Military-industrial complex">military-industrial complex</A>" Peace leaders like <A href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Jane Addams</A> of <A href="/wiki/Hull_House" title="Hull House">Hull House</A> and <A href="/wiki/David_Starr_Jordan" title="David Starr Jordan">David Starr Jordan</A> of Stanford redoubled their efforts, and now turned their voices against the president because he was "sowing the seeds of militarism, raising up a military and naval caste". Many ministers, professors, farm spokesmen, and labor union leaders joined in, with powerful support from a band of four dozen southern Democrats in Congress who took control of the House Military Affairs Committee. Wilson, in deep trouble, took his cause to the people in a major speaking tour in early 1916, a warmup for his reelection campaign that fall. Wilson seems to have won over the middle classes, but had little impact on the largely ethnic working classes and the deeply isolationist farmers. Congress still refused to budge, so Wilson replaced Garrison as Secretary of War with <A href="/wiki/Newton_Baker" class="mw-redirect" title="Newton Baker">Newton Baker</A>, the Democratic mayor of <A href="/wiki/Cleveland" title="Cleveland">Cleveland</A> and an outspoken opponent of preparedness (Garrison kept quiet, but felt Wilson was "a man of high ideals but no principles"). The upshot was a compromise passed in May 1916, as the war raged on and Berlin was debating whether America was so weak it could be ignored. The Army was to double in size to 11,300 officers and 208,000 men, with no reserve, and a National Guard that would be enlarged in five years to 440,000 men. Summer camps on the Plattsburg model were authorized for new officers, and the government was given $20 million to build a nitrate plant of its own. Preparedness supporters were downcast, the antiwar people were jubilant. America would now be too weak to go to war. Colonel Robert L. Bullard privately complained that "Both sides [Britain and Germany] treat us with scorn and contempt; our fool, smug conceit of superiority has been exploded in our faces and deservedly." The House gutted the naval plans as well, defeating a "big navy" plan by 189 to 183, and scuttling the battleships. The <A href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jutland" title="Battle of Jutland">battle of Jutland</A> (May 31/June 1, 1916) was used by the navalists to argue for the primacy of seapower; they then took control in the Senate, broke the House coalition, and authorized a rapid three-year buildup of all classes of warships. A new weapons system, naval aviation, received $3.5 million, and the government was authorized to build its own armor plate factory. The very weakness of American military power encouraged Berlin to start its unrestricted submarine attacks in 1917. It knew this meant war with America, but it could discount the immediate risk because the U.S. Army was negligible and the new warships would not be at sea until 1919 by which time the war would be over, with Germany victorious. The notion that armaments led to war was turned on its head: refusal to arm in 1916 led to war in 1917.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Size_of_military">Size of military</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=American_entry_into_World_War_I&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Size of military">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>Americans felt an increasing need for a military that could command respect. As one editor put it, "The best thing about a large army and a strong navy is that they make it so much easier to say just what we want to say in our diplomatic correspondence." Berlin thus far had backed down and apologized when Washington was angry, thus boosting American self-confidence. America's rights and America's honor increasingly came into focus. The slogan "Peace" gave way to "Peace with Honor". The Army remained unpopular, however. A recruiter in Indianapolis noted that, "The people here do not take the right attitude towards army life as a career, and if a man joins from here he often tries to go out on the quiet". The Preparedness movement used its easy access to the mass media to demonstrate that the War Department had no plans, no equipment, little training, no reserve, a laughable <A href="/wiki/National_Guard_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Guard (United States)">National Guard</A>, and a wholly inadequate organization for war. Motion pictures like <I><A href="/wiki/The_Battle_Cry_of_Peace" title="The Battle Cry of Peace">The Battle Cry of Peace</A></I> (1915) depicted invasions of the American homeland that demanded action.<SUP id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-84">[84]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Navy">Navy</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=American_entry_into_World_War_I&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Navy">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Navy#Preparing_for_war_1914–1917" title="History of the United States Navy">History of the United States Navy § Preparing for war 1914–1917</A></DIV>
<P>The readiness and capability of the U.S. Navy was a matter of controversy. The press at the time reported that the only thing the military was ready for was an enemy fleet attempting to seize New York harbor—at a time when the German battle fleet was penned up by the Royal Navy. The Navy Secretary <A href="/wiki/Josephus_Daniels" title="Josephus Daniels">Josephus Daniels</A> was a journalist with pacifist leanings.<SUP id="cite_ref-Paolo_Coletta_1980_85-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Paolo_Coletta_1980-85">[85]</A></SUP> He had built up the educational resources of the Navy and made its <A href="/wiki/Naval_War_College" title="Naval War College">Naval War College</A> in <A href="/wiki/Newport,_Rhode_Island" title="Newport, Rhode Island">Newport, Rhode Island</A> an essential experience for would-be admirals. However, he alienated the officer corps with his moralistic reforms, including no wine in the officers' mess, no hazing at the Naval Academy, and more chaplains and YMCAs. Daniels, as a newspaperman, knew the value of publicity. In 1915 he set up the Naval Consulting Board headed by <A href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Edison</A> to obtain the advice and expertise of leading scientists, engineers, and industrialists. It popularized technology, naval expansion, and military preparedness, and was well covered in the media.<SUP id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-86">[86]</A></SUP> But according to Coletta he ignored the nation's strategic needs, and disdaining the advice of its experts, Daniels suspended meetings of the Joint Army and Navy Board for two years because it was giving unwelcome advice, chopped in half the General Board's recommendations for new ships, reduced the authority of officers in the Navy yards where ships were built and repaired, and ignored the administrative chaos in his department. <A href="/wiki/Bradley_Fiske" class="mw-redirect" title="Bradley Fiske">Bradley Fiske</A>, one of the most innovative admirals in American naval history, in 1914 was Daniels' top aide; he recommended a reorganization that would prepare for war, but Daniels refused. Instead he replaced Fiske in 1915 and brought in for the new post of Chief of Naval Operations an unknown captain, <A href="/wiki/William_S._Benson" title="William S. Benson">William Benson</A>. Chosen for his compliance, Benson proved a wily bureaucrat who was more interested in preparing for an eventual showdown with Britain than an immediate one with Germany. Benson told Sims he "would as soon fight the British as the Germans". Proposals to send observers to Europe were blocked, leaving the Navy in the dark about the success of the German submarine campaign. Admiral William Sims charged after the war that in April 1917, only ten percent of the Navy's warships were fully manned; the rest lacked 43% of their seamen. Light antisubmarine ships were few in number, as if Daniels had been unaware of the German submarine menace that had been the focus of foreign policy for two years. The Navy's only warfighting plan, the "Black Plan" assumed the Royal Navy did not exist and that German battleships were moving freely about the Atlantic and the Caribbean and threatening the Panama Canal. Daniels' tenure would have been even less successful save for the energetic efforts of Assistant Secretary <A href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</A>, who effectively ran the Department.<SUP id="cite_ref-Paolo_Coletta_1980_85-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Paolo_Coletta_1980-85">[85]</A></SUP> His most recent biographer concludes that, "it is true that Daniels had not prepared the navy for the war it would have to fight."<SUP id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-87">[87]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Decision_for_war">Decision for war</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=American_entry_into_World_War_I&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Decision for war">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Hurting_their_feelings_cph.3b32242.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Hurting_their_feelings_cph.3b32242.jpg/220px-Hurting_their_feelings_cph.3b32242.jpg" width="220" height="247" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Hurting_their_feelings_cph.3b32242.jpg/330px-Hurting_their_feelings_cph.3b32242.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Hurting_their_feelings_cph.3b32242.jpg/440px-Hurting_their_feelings_cph.3b32242.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1212" data-file-height="1362" /></A>
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"Hurting Their Feelings": Political cartoon from November 9, 1915, shows the British lion and <A href="/wiki/John_Bull" title="John Bull">John Bull</A> reading a newspaper about American war protests and crying, while American ships and cargo appear in the harbor behind them</DIV>
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<P>By 1916 a new factor was emerging—a sense of national self-interest and American nationalism. The unbelievable casualty figures in Europe were sobering—two vast battles caused over one million casualties each. Clearly this war would be a decisive episode in the history of the world. Every American effort to find a peaceful solution was frustrated.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Decision_making">Decision making</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=American_entry_into_World_War_I&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Decision making">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>Kendrick Clements claims bureaucratic decision-making was one of the main sources pushing the United States to declaring war on Germany and aligning itself with the Allies. He cites the State Department's demand that Germany's submarines obey outdated, 18th century sailing laws as one of the first missteps by the United States bureaucracy regarding the war. By doing so, the United States had essentially given Germany the choice of whether or not the U.S. would enter the war. <A href="/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan" title="William Jennings Bryan">Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan</A> spent most of the fall of 1914 out of contact with the State Department, leaving the more conservative <A href="/wiki/Robert_Lansing" title="Robert Lansing">Robert Lansing</A> with the ability to shape American foreign policy at the time. One of these decisions was made in response to British protests that the Germans were using U.S. radio towers to send messages to their warships. Immediately prior to the war starting in 1914, Britain had cut all cable communications leading out of Germany, including the trans-Atlantic cable. The US Government permitted German embassies to use the US cable lines for "proper" diplomatic business. Germany argued that usage of the towers was necessary to allow efficient contact between the U.S. and Germany. Lansing responded by requiring both sides to give the U.S. Navy copies of the messages they sent over the towers. The French and British were still able to use the cables, forcing Germany to be the only belligerent required to provide the U.S. with their messages. This and other seemingly small decisions made by Lansing during this time would eventually stack up, shifting American support towards the Allies.<SUP id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-88">[88]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Zimmermann_Telegram">Zimmermann Telegram</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=American_entry_into_World_War_I&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Zimmermann Telegram">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Zimmermann_Telegram" title="Zimmermann Telegram">Zimmermann Telegram</A></DIV>
<P>Once Germany had decided on <A href="/wiki/Unrestricted_submarine_warfare" title="Unrestricted submarine warfare">unrestricted submarine warfare</A> in January 1917, and knowing it would be attacking all American ships in the North Atlantic, it tried to line up new allies, especially Mexico. <A href="/wiki/Arthur_Zimmermann" title="Arthur Zimmermann">Arthur Zimmermann</A>, the German foreign minister, sent the <A href="/wiki/Zimmermann_Telegram" title="Zimmermann Telegram">Zimmermann Telegram</A> to Mexico on January 16, 1917. Zimmerman invited Mexico (knowing their resentment towards America since the 1848 Mexican Cession) to join in a war against the United States. Germany promised to pay for Mexico's costs and to help it recover the territory annexed by the U.S. in 1848. These territories included the present day states of California, Nevada, Utah, most of Arizona, about half of New Mexico and a quarter of Colorado. British intelligence intercepted and decoded the telegram and passed it to the <A href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Presidency of Woodrow Wilson">Wilson administration</A>. The White House would release it to the press on March 1st. Anger grew further as the Germans began sinking American ships, even as isolationists in the Senate launched a filibuster to block legislation for arming American merchant ships to defend themselves.<SUP id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-89">[89]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-90">[90]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Sinking_of_American_merchant_ships">Sinking of American merchant ships</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=American_entry_into_World_War_I&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Sinking of American merchant ships">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>In early 1917 Berlin forced the issue. Its declared decision on 31 January 1917 to target neutral shipping in a designated war-zone<SUP id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-91">[91]</A></SUP> became the immediate cause of the entry of the United States into the war.<SUP id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-92">[92]</A></SUP> Five American merchant ships went down in March. Outraged public opinion now overwhelmingly supported Wilson when he asked Congress for a declaration of war on April 2, 1917.<SUP id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-93">[93]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN id="Public_opinion.2C_moralism.2C_and_national_interest"></SPAN><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Public_opinion,_moralism,_and_national_interest">Public opinion, moralism, and national interest</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=American_entry_into_World_War_I&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Public opinion, moralism, and national interest">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>Historians such as <A href="/wiki/Ernest_May_(historian)" title="Ernest May (historian)">Ernest R. May</A> have approached the process of American entry into the war as a study in how public opinion changed radically in three years' time. In 1914 most Americans called for neutrality, seeing the war a dreadful mistake and were determined to stay out. By 1917 the same public felt just as strongly that going to war was both necessary and wise. Military leaders had little to say during this debate, and military considerations were seldom raised. The decisive questions dealt with morality and visions of the future. The prevailing attitude was that America possessed a superior moral position as the only great nation devoted to the principles of freedom and democracy. By staying aloof from the squabbles of reactionary empires, it could preserve those ideals—sooner or later the rest of the world would come to appreciate and adopt them. In 1917 this very long-run program faced the severe danger that in the short run powerful forces adverse to democracy and freedom would triumph. Strong support for moralism came from religious leaders, women (led by <A href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Jane Addams</A>), and from public figures like long-time Democratic leader <A href="/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan" title="William Jennings Bryan">William Jennings Bryan</A>, the Secretary of State from 1913 to 1916. The most important moralist of all was President Woodrow Wilson—the man who dominated decision making so totally that the war has been labelled, from an American perspective, "Wilson's War".<SUP id="cite_ref-Ernest_R._May_1966_94-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Ernest_R._May_1966-94">[94]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In 1917 Wilson won the support of most of the moralists by proclaiming "a war to make the world safe for democracy." If they truly believed in their ideals, he explained, now was the time to fight. The question then became whether Americans would fight for what they deeply believed in, and the answer turned out to be a resounding "Yes".<SUP id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-95">[95]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Antiwar activists at the time and in the 1930s, alleged that beneath the veneer of moralism and idealism there must have been ulterior motives. Some suggested a conspiracy on the part of New York City bankers holding $3 billion of war loans to the Allies, or steel and chemical firms selling munitions to the Allies.<SUP id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-96">[96]</A></SUP> The interpretation was popular among left-wing Progressives (led by Senator Robert La Follette of Wisconsin) and among the "agrarian" wing of the Democratic party—including the chairman of the tax-writing Ways and Means Committee of the House. He strenuously opposed war, and when it came he rewrote the tax laws to make sure the rich paid the most. (In the 1930s <A href="/wiki/Neutrality_Acts_of_1930s" title="Neutrality Acts of 1930s">neutrality laws</A> were passed to prevent financial entanglements from dragging the nation into a war.) In 1915, Bryan thought that Wilson's pro-British sentiments had distorted his policies, so he became the first Secretary of State ever to resign in protest.<SUP id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-97">[97]</A></SUP></P>
<P>However, historian Harold C. Syrett argues that business supported neutrality.<SUP id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-98">[98]</A></SUP> Other historians state that the pro-war element was animated not by profit but by disgust with what Germany actually did, especially in Belgium, and the threat it represented to American ideals. Belgium kept the public's sympathy as the Germans executed civilians,<SUP id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-99">[99]</A></SUP> and English nurse <A href="/wiki/Edith_Cavell" title="Edith Cavell">Edith Cavell</A>. American engineer <A href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Herbert Hoover</A> led a private relief effort that won wide support. Compounding <A href="/wiki/Rape_of_Belgium" title="Rape of Belgium">the Belgium atrocities</A> were new weapons that Americans found repugnant, like <A href="/wiki/Chemical_weapons_in_World_War_I" title="Chemical weapons in World War I">poison gas</A> and the aerial bombardment of innocent civilians as <A href="/wiki/German_strategic_bombing_during_World_War_I" title="German strategic bombing during World War I">Zeppelins dropped bombs on London</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Ernest_R._May_1966_94-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Ernest_R._May_1966-94">[94]</A></SUP> Even anti-war spokesmen did not claim that Germany was innocent, and pro-German scripts were poorly received.<SUP id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-100">[100]</A></SUP></P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Randolph_Bourne" title="Randolph Bourne">Randolph Bourne</A> criticized the moralist philosophy claiming it was a justification by American intellectual and power elites, like President Wilson, for going to war unnecessarily. He argues that the push for war started with the Preparedness movement, fueled by big business. While big business would not push much further than Preparedness, benefitting the most from neutrality, the movement would eventually evolve into a war-cry, led by war-hawk intellectuals under the guise of moralism. Bourne believes elites knew full well what going to war would entail and the price in American lives it would cost. If American elites could portray the United States' role in the war as noble, they could convince the generally isolationist American public war would be acceptable.<SUP id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-101">[101]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Above all, American attitudes towards Germany focused on the U-boats (submarines), which sank the <I><A href="/wiki/RMS_Lusitania" title="RMS Lusitania">Lusitania</A></I> in 1915 and other passenger ships "without warning".<SUP id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-102">[102]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-103">[103]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-104">[104]</A></SUP> That appeared to Americans as an unacceptable challenge to America's rights as a neutral country, and as an unforgivable affront to humanity. After repeated diplomatic protests, Germany agreed to stop. But in 1917 the Germany military leadership decided that "military necessity" dictated the unrestricted use of their submarines. The Kaiser's advisors felt America was enormously powerful economically but too weak militarily to make a difference.</P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Declaration_of_war">Declaration of war</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=American_entry_into_World_War_I&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Declaration of war">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Germany">Germany</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=American_entry_into_World_War_I&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Germany">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>On April 2, 1917, Wilson asked a special <A href="/wiki/Joint_session_of_Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="Joint session of Congress">joint session of Congress</A> to declare war on the <A href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</A>, stating, "We have no selfish ends to serve".<SUP id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-105">[105]</A></SUP> To make the conflict seem like a better idea, he painted the conflict idealistically, stating that the war would "make the world safe for democracy" and later that it would be a "war to end war". The United States had a moral responsibility to enter the war, Wilson proclaimed. The future of the world was being determined on the battlefield, and American national interest demanded a voice. Wilson's definition of the situation won wide acclaim, and, indeed, has shaped America's role in world and military affairs ever since. Wilson believed that if the Central Powers won, the consequences would be bad for the United States. Germany would have dominated the continent and perhaps would gain control of the seas as well. Latin America could well have fallen under Berlin's control. The dream of spreading democracy, liberalism, and independence would have been shattered. On the other hand, if the Allies had won without help, there was a danger they would carve up the world without regard to American commercial interests. They were already planning to use government subsidies, tariff walls, and controlled markets to counter the competition posed by American businessmen. The solution was a third route, a "peace without victory", according to Wilson.<SUP id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-106">[106]</A></SUP></P>
<P>On April 6, 1917, Congress declared war. In the Senate, the resolution passed 82 to 6, with Senators <A href="/wiki/Harry_Lane" title="Harry Lane">Harry Lane</A>, <A href="/wiki/William_J._Stone" title="William J. Stone">William J. Stone</A>, <A href="/wiki/James_Vardaman" class="mw-redirect" title="James Vardaman">James Vardaman</A>, <A href="/wiki/Asle_Gronna" title="Asle Gronna">Asle Gronna</A>, <A href="/wiki/Robert_M._La_Follette,_Sr." class="mw-redirect" title="Robert M. La Follette, Sr.">Robert M. La Follette, Sr.</A>, and <A href="/wiki/George_W._Norris" title="George W. Norris">George W. Norris</A> voting against it. In the House, the declaration passed 373 to 50, with <A href="/wiki/Claude_Kitchin" title="Claude Kitchin">Claude Kitchin</A>, a senior Democrat, notably opposing it. Another opponent was <A href="/wiki/Jeannette_Rankin" title="Jeannette Rankin">Jeannette Rankin</A>, who alone voted against entry into both World War I and <A href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</A>. Nearly all of the opposition came from the West and the Midwest.<SUP id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-107">[107]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=American_entry_into_World_War_I&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Austria-Hungary">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">United States Senate</A>, in a 74 to 0 vote, declared war on <A href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</A> on December 7, 1917, citing Austria-Hungary's severing of diplomatic relations with the United States, its use of unrestricted submarine warfare and <A href="/wiki/Triple_Alliance_(1882)" title="Triple Alliance (1882)">its alliance</A> with Germany.<SUP id="cite_ref-AHS1_5-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-AHS1-5">[5]</A></SUP> The declaration passed in the <A href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">United States House of Representatives</A> by a vote of 365 to 1.<SUP id="cite_ref-ElseaWeed_6-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-ElseaWeed-6">[6]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=American_entry_into_World_War_I&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: See also">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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<LI style="display:table-row"><SPAN style="display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center"><A href="/wiki/File:Fokker_Dr._I_(117710246).jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Fokker_Dr._I_%28117710246%29.jpg/32px-Fokker_Dr._I_%28117710246%29.jpg" width="32" height="24" class="noviewer thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Fokker_Dr._I_%28117710246%29.jpg/48px-Fokker_Dr._I_%28117710246%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Fokker_Dr._I_%28117710246%29.jpg/64px-Fokker_Dr._I_%28117710246%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></A></SPAN><SPAN style="display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle"><A href="/wiki/Portal:World_War_I" title="Portal:World War I">World War I portal</A></SPAN></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_I" title="Causes of World War I">Causes of World War I</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_World_War_I" title="Diplomatic history of World War I">Diplomatic history of World War I</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">United States in World War I</A></LI>
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<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Footnotes">Footnotes</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=American_entry_into_World_War_I&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Footnotes">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<OL class="references">
<LI id="cite_note-1"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-1"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Jeanette Keith (2004). <I>Rich Man's War, Poor Man's Fight: Race, Class, and Power in the Rural South during the First World War</I>. U. of North Carolina Press. pp. 1–5. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-7589-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-7589-6">978-0-8078-7589-6</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rich+Man%27s+War%2C+Poor+Man%27s+Fight%3A+Race%2C+Class%2C+and+Power+in+the+Rural+South+during+the+First+World+War&rft.pages=1-5&rft.pub=U.+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-7589-6&rft.au=Jeanette+Keith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-2"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-2"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Barnes, Harry Elmer. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/genesisofworldwa00harr#page/590/mode/1up">The Genesis of the World War</A> (1925) pp. 590–591</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-3"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-3"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwone/war_end_01.shtml">"World War One"</A>. BBC History.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=World+War+One&rft.pub=BBC+History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fhistory%2Fworldwars%2Fwwone%2Fwar_end_01.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-4"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-4"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Link, Arthur S. (1972). <I>Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era, 1910–1917</I>. New York: Harper & Row. pp. 252–282.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Woodrow+Wilson+and+the+Progressive+Era%2C+1910%E2%80%931917&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=252-282&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Row&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Link&rft.aufirst=Arthur+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-AHS1-5"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-AHS1_5-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-AHS1_5-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/image/HJRes169_WWI_Austria-Hungary.htm">H.J.Res.169: Declaration of War with Austria-Hungary, WWI</A>, United States Senate</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-ElseaWeed-6"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-ElseaWeed_6-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-ElseaWeed_6-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Jennifer K. Elsea; Matthew C. Weed (April 18, 2014). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060810061201/https://fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/RL31133.pdf">"Declarations of War and Authorizations for the Use of Military Force: Historical Background and Legal Implications"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. p. 9. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/RL31133.pdf">the original</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN> on August 10, 2006<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">July 21,</SPAN> 2014</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Declarations+of+War+and+Authorizations+for+the+Use+of+Military+Force%3A+Historical+Background+and+Legal+Implications&rft.pages=9&rft.date=2014-04-18&rft.au=Jennifer+K.+Elsea&rft.au=Matthew+C.+Weed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffas.org%2Fsgp%2Fcrs%2Fnatsec%2FRL31133.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-7"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-7"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Eric W. Osborne, <I>Britain's economic blockade of Germany, 1914–1919</I> (2004)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-8"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-8"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Ernest May, <I>The World War and American Isolation, 1914–1917</I> (1959) p. 115 quote from Dec 1914.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-9"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-9"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">C. R. M. F. Cruttwell, <I>A history of the Great War, 1914–1918</I> (2007) p. 191</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-10"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-10"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Edward House, <I>The intimate papers of Colonel House: Vol 2</I> (1928) p. 73</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-http://www.firstworldwar.com/wilsonwarning-11"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-http://www.firstworldwar.com/wilsonwarning_11-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Duffy, Michael (August 22, 2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/wilsonwarningfeb1915.htm">"U.S. 'Strict Accountability' Warning to Germany, 10 February 1915"</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">January 30,</SPAN> 2011</SPAN></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=U.S.+%27Strict+Accountability%27+Warning+to+Germany%2C+10+February+1915&rft.date=2009-08-22&rft.aulast=Duffy&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.firstworldwar.com%2Fsource%2Fwilsonwarningfeb1915.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-12"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-12"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Spencer Tucker, <I>The Great War, 1914–18</I> (1997) p. 133</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-13"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-13"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Ernest May, <I>The World War and American Isolation, 1914–1917</I> (1959) p. 414</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-14"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-14"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Krakow, Ira. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130205043001/http://www.is.wayne.edu/mnissani/WWI/parallelsToIraq.htm">"World War I - The Most Unpopular War In Our History"</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.is.wayne.edu/mnissani/WWI/parallelsToIraq.htm">the original</A> on February 5, 2013<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">March 20,</SPAN> 2013</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=World+War+I+-+The+Most+Unpopular+War+In+Our+History&rft.aulast=Krakow&rft.aufirst=Ira&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.is.wayne.edu%2Fmnissani%2FWWI%2FparallelsToIraq.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Horn_2000_85–112-15"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Horn_2000_85–112_15-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Horn_2000_85–112_15-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Horn_2000_85–112_15-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Horn_2000_85–112_15-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Horn_2000_85–112_15-4"><SUP><I><B>e</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Horn_2000_85–112_15-5"><SUP><I><B>f</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Horn_2000_85–112_15-6"><SUP><I><B>g</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Horn_2000_85–112_15-7"><SUP><I><B>h</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Horn_2000_85–112_15-8"><SUP><I><B>i</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Horn_2000_85–112_15-9"><SUP><I><B>j</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Horn, Martin (Spring 2000). "A Private Bank at War: J.P. Morgan &Co. and France, 1914–1918". <I>Business History Review</I>. 1. <B>74</B>: 85–112. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.2307%2F3116353">10.2307/3116353</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Business+History+Review&rft.atitle=A+Private+Bank+at+War%3A+J.P.+Morgan+%26Co.+and+France%2C+1914%E2%80%931918&rft.ssn=winter&rft.volume=74&rft.pages=85-112&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3116353&rft.aulast=Horn&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-16"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-16"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Global Financial Data. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.globalfinancialdata.com/platform/Mainform.aspx">"Industrial Output 1909–1930"</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">March 20,</SPAN> 2013</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Industrial+Output+1909%E2%80%931930&rft.au=Global+Financial+Data&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.globalfinancialdata.com%2Fplatform%2FMainform.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-17"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-17"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Kendrick, John W. (1961). "Productivity Trends in the United States". <I>National Bureau of Economic Research</I>: 1–50.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=National+Bureau+of+Economic+Research&rft.atitle=Productivity+Trends+in+the+United+States&rft.pages=1-50&rft.date=1961&rft.aulast=Kendrick&rft.aufirst=John+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-18"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-18"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">H. W. Brands (2003). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IRgge_bZ47EC&pg=PA55"><I>Woodrow Wilson: The American Presidents Series: The 28th President, 1913–1921</I></A>. Henry Holt. pp. 55–56.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Woodrow+Wilson%3A+The+American+Presidents+Series%3A+The+28th+President%2C+1913%E2%80%931921&rft.pages=55-56&rft.pub=Henry+Holt&rft.date=2003&rft.au=H.+W.+Brands&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIRgge_bZ47EC%26pg%3DPA55&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Cuff_1970_291–306-19"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Cuff_1970_291–306_19-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Cuff_1970_291–306_19-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Cuff_1970_291–306_19-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Cuff, Robert D.; Urofsky, Melvin I. (Autumn 1970). "The Steel Industry and Price-Fixing during World War I". <I>The Business History Review</I>. 3. <B>44</B> (3): 291–306. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.2307%2F3112615">10.2307/3112615</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Business+History+Review&rft.atitle=The+Steel+Industry+and+Price-Fixing+during+World+War+I&rft.ssn=summer&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=291-306&rft.date=1970&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3112615&rft.aulast=Cuff&rft.aufirst=Robert+D.&rft.au=Urofsky%2C+Melvin+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Metz_2006_10–15-20"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Metz_2006_10–15_20-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Metz_2006_10–15_20-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Metz_2006_10–15_20-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Metz, Lance E. (November 2006). "Bethlehem Steel: The Rise and Fall of An Industrial Giant". <I>Pennsylvania Legacies</I>. <B>6</B> (2): 10–15.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pennsylvania+Legacies&rft.atitle=Bethlehem+Steel%3A+The+Rise+and+Fall+of+An+Industrial+Giant&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=10-15&rft.date=2006-11&rft.aulast=Metz&rft.aufirst=Lance+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-21"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-21"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">James Weinstein, "Anti-War Sentiment and the Socialist Party, 1917–1918." <I>Political Science Quarterly</I> 74#2 (1959): 215–239. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2146632">in JSTOR</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-22"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-22"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Ross A. Kennedy, <I>The Will to Believe: Woodrow Wilson, World War I, and America's Strategy for Peace and Security</I> (Kent State University Press, 2009)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-23"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-23"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Charles Chatfield, <I>For peace and justice: pacifism in America, 1914–1941</I> (1973) ch 1</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-24"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-24"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Nicole Anderson Yanoso (2016). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GQgnDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT90"><I>The Irish and the American Presidency</I></A>. Transaction Publishers. pp. 90–91.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Irish+and+the+American+Presidency&rft.pages=90-91&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=2016&rft.au=Nicole+Anderson+Yanoso&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGQgnDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT90&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-25"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-25"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Frederick C. Luebke,<I>Bonds of Loyalty: German-American and World War I</I> (Northern Illinois University Press, 1974), ch 1.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-26"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-26"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">John Milton Cooper, Jr., <I>Woodrow Wilson</I> (2009) pp. 341–2, 352, 360</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-27"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-27"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Merlo J. Pusey, <I>Charles Evans Hughes</I> (1951) vol 1, p. 356</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-28"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-28"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Bernard J. Brommel, "The pacifist speechmaking of Eugene V. Debs." <I>Quarterly Journal of Speech</I> 52.2 (1966): 146-154.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-29"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-29"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Seymour Martin Lipset and Gary Marks, <I>It didn't happen here: why socialism failed in the United States</I> (2001) p. 184</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-30"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-30"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">John Whiteclay Chambers (1999). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_Rzy_yNMKbcC&pg=PA203"><I>The Oxford Companion to American Military History</I></A>. Oxford UP. p. 203.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+American+Military+History&rft.pages=203&rft.pub=Oxford+UP&rft.date=1999&rft.au=John+Whiteclay+Chambers&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_Rzy_yNMKbcC%26pg%3DPA203&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-31"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-31"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Lawrence O. Christensen, "World War I in Missouri," <I>Missouri Historical Review,</I> 90 (1996), 330-354, 410-428.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-32"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-32"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Edwin Costrell, <I>How Maine viewed the war, 1914–1917</I> (1940)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-33"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-33"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">John C. Crighton, <I>Missouri and the World War, 1914–1917: a study in public opinion</I> (1947)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-34"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-34"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Joseph A. McCartin, <I>Labor's Great War: The Struggle for Industrial Democracy and the Origins of Modern American Labor Relations, 1912–1921</I> (1998) pp. 34, 57</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-35"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-35"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">McCorkle, James L., Jr. (1981). "Mississippi from Neutrality to War (1914–1917)". <I>Journal of Mississippi History</I>. <B>43</B> (2): 85–125.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Mississippi+History&rft.atitle=Mississippi+from+Neutrality+to+War+%281914%E2%80%931917%29&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=85-125&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=McCorkle&rft.aufirst=James+L.%2C+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-36"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-36"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Arthur S. Link, <I>Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era</I> (1954) pp. 169–72</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-37"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-37"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Christopher C. Gibbs, <I>The great silent majority: Missouri's resistance to World War I</I> (1988)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-38"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-38"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Panikos Panayi, "Minorities in Wartime: National and Racial Groupings in Europe, North America, and Australia During the Two World War"(1992) p. 170</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-39"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-39"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Mark Ellis, "America's Black Press, 1914–18," <I>History Today,</I> Sept 1991, Vol. 41, Issue 9</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-40"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-40"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Panikos Panayi, "Minorities in Wartime: National and Racial Groupings in Europe, North America, and Australia During the Two World Wars" (1992) p. 171</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-41"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-41"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Christopher C. Gibbs, <I>Great Silent Majority: Missouri's Resistance to World War I</I> (1988)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-42"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-42"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Jeanette Keith (2004). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_3FDr7kE7d4C&pg=PA85"><I>Rich Man's War, Poor Man's Fight: Race, Class, and Power in the Rural South During the First World War</I></A>. U. of North Carolina Press. p. 85.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rich+Man%27s+War%2C+Poor+Man%27s+Fight%3A+Race%2C+Class%2C+and+Power+in+the+Rural+South+During+the+First+World+War&rft.pages=85&rft.pub=U.+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.au=Jeanette+Keith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_3FDr7kE7d4C%26pg%3DPA85&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-43"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-43"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">George C. Herring, "James Hay and the Preparedness Controversy, 1915–1916." <I>Journal of Southern History</I> (1964) 30#4 pp. 383–404 quote, p. 386 <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2204278">in JSTOR</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-44"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-44"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Leslie V. Tischauser, <I>The Burden of Ethnicity: The German Question in Chicago, 1914–1941</I> (Garland, 1990) pp. 21–23</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-45"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-45"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Frederick C. Luebke, <I>Bonds of Loyalty: German-Americans and World War I</I> (1974) pp. 200–207</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-46"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-46"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Carl Wittke, <I>German-Americans and the World War (with Special Emphasis on Ohio's German-Language Press)</I> (Columbus, Ohio, 1936), p. 209</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-47"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-47"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">See <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wisconsinhistory.org/turningpoints/tp-037/?action=more_essay">Wisconsin Historical Society, "World War I, at home and in the trenches"</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-48"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-48"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">John F. Piper, <I>The American Churches in World War I</I> (1985).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-49"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-49"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Samuel S. Hill, Charles H. Lippy, and Charles Reagan Wilson, <I>Encyclopedia of Religion in the South</I> (2005) p. 297</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-50"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-50"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Patterson, David S. (1971). "Woodrow Wilson and the Mediation Movement 1914–1917". <I><A href="/wiki/The_Historian_(journal)" title="The Historian (journal)">The Historian</A></I>. <B>33</B> (4): 535–556. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1540-6563.1971.tb01164.x">10.1111/j.1540-6563.1971.tb01164.x</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Historian&rft.atitle=Woodrow+Wilson+and+the+Mediation+Movement+1914%E2%80%931917&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=535-556&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1540-6563.1971.tb01164.x&rft.aulast=Patterson&rft.aufirst=David+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-51"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-51"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Piper, John F., Jr. (1970). "The American Churches in World War I". <I>Journal of the American Academy of Religion</I>. <B>38</B> (2): 147–155. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1093%2Fjaarel%2FXXXVIII.2.147">10.1093/jaarel/XXXVIII.2.147</A>. <A href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/1461171">1461171</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Academy+of+Religion&rft.atitle=The+American+Churches+in+World+War+I&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=147-155&rft.date=1970&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjaarel%2FXXXVIII.2.147&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1461171&rft.aulast=Piper&rft.aufirst=John+F.%2C+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-52"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-52"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Gamble, Richard M. (2003). <I>The War for Righteousness: Progressive Christianity, the Great War, and the Rise of the Messianic Nation</I>. Wilmington: ISI Books. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-932236-16-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-932236-16-3">1-932236-16-3</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+War+for+Righteousness%3A+Progressive+Christianity%2C+the+Great+War%2C+and+the+Rise+of+the+Messianic+Nation&rft.place=Wilmington&rft.pub=ISI+Books&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1-932236-16-3&rft.aulast=Gamble&rft.aufirst=Richard+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-53"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-53"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Christopher M. Sterba, <I>Good Americans: Italian and Jewish Immigrants During the First World War</I> (2003), 61–63</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-54"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-54"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Mary Ann Irwin, and Ann Marie Wilson; "'The Air is Becoming Full of War': Jewish San Francisco and World War I," <I>Pacific Historical Review</I> 74#3 (2005): 331-66</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-55"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-55"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Zosa Szajkowski, "Private and Organized American Jewish Overseas Relief (1914–1938)," <I>American Jewish Historical Quarterly</I> 57#1 (1967) 52–106 <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23875989">in JSTOR</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-56"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-56"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Zosa Szajkowski, <I>Jews, Wars, and Communism. Vol. I: The Attitude of American Jews to World War I, the Russian Revolutions of 1917, and Communism (1914–1945)</I> (New York: KTAV, 1973) includes a great deal of undigested information.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-57"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-57"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Joseph Rappaport, <I>Jewish Immigrants and World War I: A Study of Yiddish Attitudes</I>(1951), p. 78</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-58"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-58"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Henry L. Feingold (2007). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2Uk5jK1z4hsC&pg=PA13"><I>"Silent No More": Saving the Jews of Russia, the American Jewish Effort, 1967–1989</I></A>. Syracuse UP. p. 13.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22Silent+No+More%22%3A+Saving+the+Jews+of+Russia%2C+the+American+Jewish+Effort%2C+1967%E2%80%931989&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Syracuse+UP&rft.date=2007&rft.au=Henry+L.+Feingold&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2Uk5jK1z4hsC%26pg%3DPA13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-59"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-59"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Sterba, <I>Good Americans</I> (2003), 68–69, 76, 79, 167-69</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-60"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-60"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Malcolm Campbell, <I>Ireland's New Worlds</I>, (2008), p. 164</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-61"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-61"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Malcolm Campbell, <I>Ireland's New Worlds</I>, (2008), p. 174</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-62"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-62"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Smolenyak, Megan. <CITE class="citation news"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://issuu.com/irishamerica/docs/ia.april_may_2015">"How Many Irish-Born Died in Service to the U.S. in WWI?"</A>. <I>Irish America</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">April 13,</SPAN> 2015</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Irish+America&rft.atitle=How+Many+Irish-Born+Died+in+Service+to+the+U.S.+in+WWI%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fissuu.com%2Firishamerica%2Fdocs%2Fia.april_may_2015&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-63"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-63"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Malcolm Campbell, <I>Ireland's New Worlds</I>, (2008), p. 170</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-64"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-64"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal"><A href="/wiki/William_M._Leary" title="William M. Leary">Leary, William M., Jr.</A> (1967). "Woodrow Wilson, Irish Americans, and the Election of 1916". <I><A href="/wiki/Journal_of_American_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of American History">Journal of American History</A></I>. <B>54</B> (1): 57–72. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.2307%2F1900319">10.2307/1900319</A>. <A href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/1900319">1900319</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+American+History&rft.atitle=Woodrow+Wilson%2C+Irish+Americans%2C+and+the+Election+of+1916&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=57-72&rft.date=1967&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1900319&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1900319&rft.aulast=Leary&rft.aufirst=William+M.%2C+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-65"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-65"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Kennedy, Billy. "Woodrow Wilson". Ulstervirginia.com. <CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071212222252/http://www.ulstervirginia.com/woodrowwilson.asp">"Archived copy"</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ulstervirginia.com/woodrowwilson.asp">the original</A> on 2007-12-12<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2015-02-08</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ulstervirginia.com%2Fwoodrowwilson.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN>. Retrieved November 10, 2011.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-66"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-66"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">McDonald, Forrest (2004). <I>Insull: The Rise and Fall of a Billionaire Utility Tycoon</I>. Washington: Beard Books. pp. 162–187. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58798-243-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-58798-243-9">1-58798-243-9</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Insull%3A+The+Rise+and+Fall+of+a+Billionaire+Utility+Tycoon&rft.place=Washington&rft.pages=162-187&rft.pub=Beard+Books&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=1-58798-243-9&rft.aulast=McDonald&rft.aufirst=Forrest&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-67"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-67"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">O'Grady, Joseph (1967). <I>The Immigrants' Influence on Wilson's Peace Policies</I>. Lexington: University of Kentucky Press.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Immigrants%27+Influence+on+Wilson%27s+Peace+Policies&rft.place=Lexington&rft.pub=University+of+Kentucky+Press&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=O%27Grady&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-68"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-68"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">The Hungarian-Americans by Steven Béla Várdy; Twayne Publishers, 1985 page 87–99</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-69"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-69"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Christopher M. Sterba, <I>Good Americans: Italian and Jewish Immigrants During the First World War</I>,(2003) p. 31–32</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-70"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-70"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Michael T. Urbanski, "Money, War, and Recruiting an Army: The Activities of Connecticut Polonia During World War I," <I>Connecticut History</I> (2007) 46#1 pp. 45–69.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-71"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-71"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">The Albanian-American Odyssey: A Pilot Study of the Albanian Community of Boston, Massachusetts Front Cover Dennis L. Nagi AMS Press, Jan 1, 1989, pp. 33–35</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-72"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-72"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Mark W. van Wienen (1997). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_nIkCcLM5yQC&pg=PA57"><I>Partisans and Poets: The Political Work of American Poetry in the Great War</I></A>. Cambridge UP. p. 57.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Partisans+and+Poets%3A+The+Political+Work+of+American+Poetry+in+the+Great+War&rft.pages=57&rft.pub=Cambridge+UP&rft.date=1997&rft.au=Mark+W.+van+Wienen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_nIkCcLM5yQC%26pg%3DPA57&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-73"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-73"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Barbara S. Kraft, <I>The Peace Ship: Henry Ford's Pacifist Adventure in the First World War</I> (1978) p. 81</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-74"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-74"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Max Wallace, <I>The American Axis</I> (New York, New York: St. Martin's Press, 2003), <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q4T0yyIqx_4C&pg=PA225#v=onepage&q&f=false">pp. 224–225.</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-75"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-75"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">H.C. Peterson, <I>Propaganda for war: The campaign against American neutrality, 1914–1917</I> (1968)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-76"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-76"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Link 3:556ff</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-77"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-77"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">George C. Herring, "James Hay and the Preparedness Controversy, 1915–1916." <I>Journal of Southern History</I> (1964) 30#4 pp. 383–404 <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2204278">in JSTOR</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-78"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-78"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Roberts, Priscilla (2005). "Paul D. Cravath, the First World War, and the Anglophile Internationalist Tradition". <I>Australian Journal of Politics and History</I>. <B>51</B> (2): 194–215. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-8497.2005.00370.x">10.1111/j.1467-8497.2005.00370.x</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Australian+Journal+of+Politics+and+History&rft.atitle=Paul+D.+Cravath%2C+the+First+World+War%2C+and+the+Anglophile+Internationalist+Tradition&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=194-215&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-8497.2005.00370.x&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Priscilla&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-79"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-79"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/World_War_I.aspx">"World War I facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles about World War I"</A>. Encyclopedia.com<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2016-11-06</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=World+War+I+facts%2C+information%2C+pictures+%26%23124%3B+Encyclopedia.com+articles+about+World+War+I&rft.pub=Encyclopedia.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Ftopic%2FWorld_War_I.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-80"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-80"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Scott Manning (2007-01-04). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scottmanning.com/content/world-war-i-troop-statistics/">"World War I: Troop Statistics"</A>. Scottmanning.com<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2016-11-06</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=World+War+I%3A+Troop+Statistics&rft.pub=Scottmanning.com&rft.date=2007-01-04&rft.au=Scott+Manning&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scottmanning.com%2Fcontent%2Fworld-war-i-troop-statistics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-81"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-81"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Chambers 93; Weigley Army 345</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-82"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-82"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Very few young men from wealthy or prominent families considered a career in the Army or Navy then or at any time in American history. The highest social background of cadets, exemplified by George Patton, West Point 1909, and Lucius Clay, 1918, was oldest son of a locally prominent family.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-83"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-83"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Link, Woodrow Wilson, pp. 179ff</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-84"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-84"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Herring, "James Hay and the Preparedness Controversy, 1915–1916," p. 383</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Paolo_Coletta_1980-85"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Paolo_Coletta_1980_85-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Paolo_Coletta_1980_85-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Paolo Coletta, <I>American Secretaries of the Navy</I> (1980) 2:526-41</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-86"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-86"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Theodore A. Thelander, "Josephus Daniels and the Publicity Campaign for Naval and Industrial Preparedness before World War I," <I>North Carolina Historical Review</I> (1966) 43#3 pp. 316–332</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-87"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-87"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Lee A. Craig (2013). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qfVEGsArAGUC&pg=PA364"><I>Josephus Daniels: His Life and Times</I></A>. U. North Carolina Press. pp. 364–65.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Josephus+Daniels%3A+His+Life+and+Times&rft.pages=364-65&rft.pub=U.+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.au=Lee+A.+Craig&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqfVEGsArAGUC%26pg%3DPA364&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-88"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-88"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Kendrick A. Clements, "Woodrow Wilson and World War I." <I>Presidential Studies Quarterly</I> (2004) 34#1 pp. 62–82.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-89"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-89"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Cooper, <I>Woodrow Wilson</I> (2011) pp. 378–79</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-90"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-90"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Thomas Boghardt, <I>The Zimmermann Telegram: Intelligence, Diplomacy, and America's Entry into World War I</I> (2012) <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Zimmermann-Telegram-Intelligence-Diplomacy-Americas/dp/1612511481/">Excerpt and text search</A>, summarized in Thomas Boghardt's <I>The Zimmermann Telegram: Diplomacy, Intelligence and The American Entry into World War I</I> (2003) <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060902235946/http://cges.georgetown.edu/docs/Docs_Working_Papers_Page/Working_Paper_Boghardt_6-04.pdf">online</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-91"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-91"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Compare: <CITE class="citation book">Doenecke, Justus D. (2011). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LL2xKWcAkp0C"><I>Nothing Less Than War: A New History of America's Entry Into World War I</I></A>. Studies in Conflict, Diplomacy and Peace Series. University Press of Kentucky. p. 250. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-3002-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-3002-6">978-0-8131-3002-6</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2015-12-07</SPAN></SPAN>. <Q>On January 31, Ambassador Bernstorff presented [...] Germany's response to Wilson's recent 'peace without victory' plea [...]: his nation was about to launch an unrestricted submarine campaign, thereby declaring total maritime war against all neutrals. After February 1, the communique noted, German U-boats would sink without warning belligerent and neutral ships found in a designated zone comprising waters around Great Britain, France, and Italy, and in the eastern Mediterranean. The Admiralty made one minor exception: it would permit one American steamer a week to sail between New York and Falmouth [...]. Initially Germany would grant a period of grace, during which its submarines would not harm neutral ships that either were en route to the war zone or had already arrived.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nothing+Less+Than+War%3A+A+New+History+of+America%27s+Entry+Into+World+War+I&rft.series=Studies+in+Conflict%2C+Diplomacy+and+Peace+Series&rft.pages=250&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kentucky&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-8131-3002-6&rft.aulast=Doenecke&rft.aufirst=Justus+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLL2xKWcAkp0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-92"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-92"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Compare: <CITE class="citation book">Doenecke, Justus D. (2011). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LL2xKWcAkp0C"><I>Nothing Less Than War: A New History of America's Entry Into World War I</I></A>. Studies in Conflict, Diplomacy and Peace Series. University Press of Kentucky. p. 286. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-3002-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-3002-6">978-0-8131-3002-6</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2015-12-07</SPAN></SPAN>. <Q>Several factors led to Wilson's choice. Germany's U-boat warfare was paramount. Had it not been for Berlin's announcement of January 31, the president probably would not have issued a call to arms.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nothing+Less+Than+War%3A+A+New+History+of+America%27s+Entry+Into+World+War+I&rft.series=Studies+in+Conflict%2C+Diplomacy+and+Peace+Series&rft.pages=286&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kentucky&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-8131-3002-6&rft.aulast=Doenecke&rft.aufirst=Justus+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLL2xKWcAkp0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-93"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-93"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Justus D. Doenecke, <I>Nothing Less Than War: A New History of America's Entry into World War I</I> (2011) ch 10</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Ernest_R._May_1966-94"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Ernest_R._May_1966_94-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Ernest_R._May_1966_94-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">May, Ernest R. (1966). <I>The World War and American isolation, 1914–1917</I>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World+War+and+American+isolation%2C+1914%E2%80%931917&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=May&rft.aufirst=Ernest+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-95"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-95"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Knock, Thomas J. (1995). <I>To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World Order</I>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=To+End+All+Wars%3A+Woodrow+Wilson+and+the+Quest+for+a+New+World+Order&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Knock&rft.aufirst=Thomas+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-96"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-96"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Syrett, Harold C. (1945). "The Business Press and American Neutrality, 1914–1917". <I>Mississippi Valley Historical Review</I>. <B>32</B> (2): 215–230. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.2307%2F1898209">10.2307/1898209</A>. <A href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/1898209">1898209</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mississippi+Valley+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Business+Press+and+American+Neutrality%2C+1914%E2%80%931917&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=215-230&rft.date=1945&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1898209&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1898209&rft.aulast=Syrett&rft.aufirst=Harold+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-97"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-97"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Robert W. Cherny, <I>A righteous cause: the life of William Jennings Bryan</I> (1994) p. 144</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-98"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-98"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Syrett, "The Business Press and American Neutrality, 1914–1917,"</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-99"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-99"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">The German army executed over 6,500 French and Belgian civilians between August and November 1914, usually in near-random large-scale shootings of civilians ordered by junior German officers. <CITE class="citation book">Horne, John; Kramer, Alan (2001). <I>German Atrocities, 1914: A History of Denial</I>. New Haven: Yale U.P. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-08975-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-08975-9">0-300-08975-9</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=German+Atrocities%2C+1914%3A+A+History+of+Denial&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+U.P.&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-300-08975-9&rft.aulast=Horne&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Kramer%2C+Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-100"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-100"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Bonadio, Felice A. (1959). "The Failure of German Propaganda in the United States, 1914–1917". <I>Mid America</I>. <B>41</B> (1): 40–57.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mid+America&rft.atitle=The+Failure+of+German+Propaganda+in+the+United+States%2C+1914%E2%80%931917&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=40-57&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Bonadio&rft.aufirst=Felice+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-101"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-101"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Bourne, Randolph. "The War and the Intellectuals." N.p.: n.p., n.d. 133-46. Print.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-102"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-102"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F7081FFC385C13738DDDA10894DD405B858DF1D3">DISASTER BEARS OUT EMBASSY'S WARNING; German Advertisement Practically Foretold Lusitania's Fate on Day She Sailed. AND IS REPEATED TODAY Passengers Also Said to Have Received Telegrams -- Shipping Men Heard of Threats.</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-103"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-103"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.english.emory.edu/LostPoets/Lusitaniapapers.html">Germany, U-Boats and the Lusitania</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-104"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-104"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/lusitania.htm">The Lusitania</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-105"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-105"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">for detailed coverage of the speech see <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/0402.html#article">NY Times main headline, April 2, 1917, <I>President Calls for War Declaration, Stronger Navy, New Army of 500,000 Men, Full Cooperation With Germany's Foes</I></A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-106"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-106"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">John Milton Cooper, Jr., <I>Woodrow Wilson: A Biography</I> (2011) pp. 383–89</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-107"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-107"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Simon Newton Dexter North; et al. (1918). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2Y4cAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA10"><I>The American Year Book: A Record of Events and Progress</I></A>. Thomas Nelson & Sons. pp. 10–11.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+American+Year+Book%3A+A+Record+of+Events+and+Progress&rft.pages=10-11&rft.pub=Thomas+Nelson+%26+Sons&rft.date=1918&rft.au=Simon+Newton+Dexter+North&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2Y4cAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
</OL>
</DIV>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Bibliography">Bibliography</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=American_entry_into_World_War_I&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:206px;"><A href="/wiki/File:WWIHunNatlArchives.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/WWIHunNatlArchives.jpg" width="204" height="310" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="204" data-file-height="310" /></A>
<DIV class="thumbcaption">
<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:WWIHunNatlArchives.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
After war was declared war bond posters demonized Germany</DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<DIV class="refbegin" style="">
<UL>
<LI>Ambrosius, Lloyd E. "Woodrow Wilson and George W. Bush: Historical Comparisons of Ends and Means in Their Foreign Policies," <I>Diplomatic History</I>, 30 (June 2006), 509–43.</LI>
<LI>Arnett, Alex Mathews. <I>Claude Kitchin and the Wilson War Policies.</I> 1937. <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1278853">1278853</A>Kitchen was an antiwar Democrat in the House</LI>
<LI>Bassett, John Spencer. <I>Our War with Germany: A History</I> (1919) <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=76UTAAAAIAAJ&printsec=toc&dq=intitle:war+date:1919-1921&num=30&as_brr=1&sig=4Vx3GGygya6F24ozaNJyLzMI694#PPP10,M1">online edition</A></LI>
<LI>Brands, H.W. <I>Theodore Roosevelt</I> (2001)<A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/50431515">50431515</A>, full biography <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98669157">online edition</A></LI>
<LI>Clements, Kendrick A. "Woodrow Wilson and World War I," <I>Presidential Studies Quarterly</I> 34:1 (2004). pp. 62+. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5006516101">online edition</A></LI>
<LI>Clifford, J. Garry. <I>Citizen Soldiers: The Plattsburgh Training Camp Movement, 1913–1920</I> (1972)</LI>
<LI>Cooper, John Milton. <I>The vanity of power: American isolationism and the First World War, 1914-1917</I> (1969).</LI>
<LI>Cooper, John Milton. <I>Woodrow Wilson. A Biography</I> (2009), Major scholarly biography.</LI>
<LI>Costrell, Edwin. <I>How Maine viewed the war, 1914–1917,</I> (1940)<A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/475605726">475605726</A></LI>
<LI>Crighton, John C. <I>Missouri and the World War, 1914–1917: a study in public opinion</I> (University of Missouri, 1947) <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/831309569">831309569</A></LI>
<LI>Coffman, Edward M. <I>The War to End All Wars: The American Military Experience in World War I</I> (1998) <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8131-0955-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8131-0955-8">0-8131-0955-8</A> <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/38842092">38842092</A></LI>
<LI>Cummins, Cedric Clisten. <I>Indiana public opinion and the World War, 1914–1917,</I> (1945)</LI>
<LI>Davis, Allen F. <I>American Heroine: The Life and Legend of Jane Addams.</I> (Oxford University Press, 1973) <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-501694-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-501694-7">0-19-501694-7</A> <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/714527">714527</A></LI>
<LI>Doenecke, Justus D. <I>Nothing Less Than War: A New History of America's Entry into World War I</I> (2011) 433 pages; comprehensive history <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/120079509/nothing-less-than-war-a-new-history-of-america-s">online</A> <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-3002-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-3002-6">978-0-8131-3002-6</A> <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/682895305">682895305</A></LI>
<LI>Doenecke, Justus D. "Neutrality Policy and the Decision for War." in Ross Kennedy ed., <I>A Companion to Woodrow Wilson</I> (2013) pp. 243–69 <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TytaiSLySTsC&pg=PT285">Online</A>; covers the historiography</LI>
<LI>Early, Frances H. <I>A World without War: How U.S. Feminists and Pacifists Resisted World War I.</I> (Syracuse University Press, 1997) <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8156-2764-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8156-2764-5">0-8156-2764-5</A> <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/36800616">36800616</A></LI>
<LI>Esposito, David M. <I>The Legacy of Woodrow Wilson: American War Aims in World War I.</I> (Praeger, 1996) 159pp <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=14266596#">online edition</A> <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-275-95493-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-275-95493-5">0-275-95493-5</A> <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/33244422">33244422</A></LI>
<LI>Finnegan, John P. <I>Against the Specter of a Dragon: The Campaign for American Military Preparedness, 1914–1917.</I> (1975). <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8371-7376-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8371-7376-0">0-8371-7376-0</A> <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/983933">983933</A></LI>
<LI>Floyd, M. Ryan (2013). <I>Abandoning American Neutrality: Woodrow Wilson and the Beginning of the Great War, August 1914-December 1915.</I> New York: Palgrave Macmillan. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-33411-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-33411-4">978-1-137-33411-4</A> <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/836748335">836748335</A></LI>
<LI>Fordham, Benjamin O. "Revisionism reconsidered: exports and American intervention in World War I." <I>International Organization</I> 61#2 (2007): 277-310.</LI>
<LI>Gibbs, Christopher C. <I>The Great Silent Majority: Missouri's Resistance to World War I</I>. 1988. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8262-0683-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8262-0683-2">0-8262-0683-2</A> <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/17676727">17676727</A></LI>
<LI>Grubbs, Frank L. <I>The Struggle for Labor Loyalty: Gompers, the A. F. of L., and the Pacifists, 1917–1920.</I> 1968. <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/640024383">640024383</A></LI>
<LI>Hannigan, Robert E. <I>The Great War and American Foreign Policy, 1914-24</I> (2016) <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.upenn.edu/pennpress/book/toc/15570.html">excerpt</A>; <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/read/125900923/the-great-war-and-american-foreign-policy-1914-24">online at Questia</A></LI>
<LI>Herman, Sondra. <I>Eleven Against War: Studies in American Internationalist Thought, 1898–1921.</I> 1969. <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/23333">23333</A></LI>
<LI>Higham, Robin and Dennis E. Showalter, eds. <I>Researching World War I: A Handbook</I>. 2003. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-28850-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-28850-X">0-313-28850-X</A> <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/51922814">51922814</A>, 475pp; highly detailed historiography, <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=107066504">online edition</A></LI>
<LI>Hodgson, Godfrey. <I>Woodrow Wilson's Right Hand: The Life of Colonel Edward M. House.</I> 2006. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-09269-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-09269-5">0-300-09269-5</A> <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/61864854">61864854</A> 335pp</LI>
<LI>Kazal, Russell A. <I>Becoming Old Stock: The Paradox of German-American Identity.</I> 2004. 390, pp. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-05015-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-05015-5">0-691-05015-5</A> <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/52509620">52509620</A> German Americans in Philadelphia ponder the war.</LI>
<LI>Kazin, Michael. <I>War Against War: The American Fight for Peace, 1914-1918</I> (2017).</LI>
<LI>Keene, Jennifer D. "Remembering the "Forgotten War": American Historiography on World War I." <I>Historian</I> 78#3 (2016): 439–468.</LI>
<LI>Keene, Jennifer D. "Americans Respond: Perspectives on the Global War, 1914-1917." <I>Geschichte und Gesellschaft</I> 40.2 (2014): 266-286. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://192.77.116.204/wilkinson/_files/KeeneAmericansRespond.pdf">online</A></LI>
<LI>Kennedy, David M. <I>Over Here: The First World War and American Society</I> (1982), covers politics & economics & society <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=106147343">online edition</A> <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-502729-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-502729-9">0-19-502729-9</A> <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/6085939">6085939</A></LI>
<LI>Kennedy, Ross A. "Preparedness," in Ross A. Kennedy ed., <I>A Companion to Woodrow Wilson</I> 2013. pp. 270–86 <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-3737-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-3737-2">978-1-4443-3737-2</A> <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/808244737">808244737</A></LI>
<LI>Kennedy, Ross A. <I>Woodrow Wilson, World War I, and America’s Strategy for Peace and Security</I> (2009).</LI>
<LI>Koistinen, Paul. <I>Mobilizing for Modern War: The Political Economy of American Warfare, 1865–1919</I> Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1997.</LI>
<LI>Knock, Thomas J. <I>To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World Order</I> New York : Oxford University Press, 1992. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-507501-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-507501-3">0-19-507501-3</A> <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/25317305">25317305</A></LI>
<LI>Lemnitzer, Jan Martin. "Woodrow Wilson’s Neutrality, the Freedom of the Seas, and the Myth of the 'Civil War Precedents'." <I>Diplomacy & Statecraft</I> 27.4 (2016): 615-638.</LI>
<LI>Link, Arthur S. <I>Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era, 1910–1917</I>. 1972.</LI>
<LI>Link, Arthur S. <I>Wilson: The Struggle for Neutrality: 1914–1915</I> (1960); <I>Wilson: Confusions and Crises: 1915–1916</I> (1964); <I>Wilson: Campaigns for Progressivism and Peace: 1916–1917</I> (1965) <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20000707012840/http://www.historyebook.org/">all 3 volumes are online at ACLS e-books</A></LI>
<LI>Link, Arthur S. <I>Wilson the Diplomatist: A Look at His Major Foreign Policies</I> Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1957. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=9422144">online edition</A> <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/475072">475072</A></LI>
<LI>Link, Arthur S. <I>Woodrow Wilson and a Revolutionary World, 1913–1921</I>. 1982. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=104472422">online edition</A></LI>
<LI>Link, Arthur S. <I>Woodrow Wilson: Revolution, War, and Peace</I>. Arlington Heights, IL: AHM Pub. Corp., 1979. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=111418063">online edition</A> <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88295-798-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-88295-798-8">0-88295-798-8</A> <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/5244770">5244770</A></LI>
<LI>Livermore, Seward W. <I>Politics Is Adjourned: Woodrow Wilson and the War Congress, 1916–1918.</I> 1966.</LI>
<LI>Luebke, Frederick C. <I>Bonds of Loyalty: German-Americans and World War I.</I> Dekalb : Northern Illinois University Press, 1974. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87580-045-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-87580-045-9">0-87580-045-9</A> <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/865969">865969</A></LI>
<LI>McCallum, Jack. <I>Leonard Wood: Rough Rider, Surgeon, Architect of American Imperialism</I>. New York : New York University Press, 2006. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-5699-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-5699-7">978-0-8147-5699-7</A> <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/60402000">60402000</A></LI>
<LI>McDonald, Forrest. <I>Insull: The Rise and Fall of a Billionaire Utility Tycoon</I> (2004)</LI>
<LI>May, Ernest R. <I>The World War and American Isolation, 1914–1917</I> (1959) <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20000707012840/http://www.historyebook.org/">online at ACLS e-books</A>, highly influential study</LI>
<LI>Nash, George H. <I>Life of Herbert Hoover: The Humanitarian, 1914–1917</I> (Life of Herbert Hoover, Vol. 2) (1988)</LI>
<LI>O'Toole, Patricia. <I>When Trumpets Call: Theodore Roosevelt after the White House.</I> New York : Simon & Schuster, 2005. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-86477-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-684-86477-0">0-684-86477-0</A> <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/56921011">56921011</A></LI>
<LI>Perkins, Bradford. <I>The Great Rapprochement: England and the United States, 1895–1914</I> 1968.</LI>
<LI>Peterson, H. C. <I>Propaganda for War: The Campaign Against American Neutrality, 1914–1917.</I> Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1968.</LI>
<LI>Rothwell, V. H. <I>British War Aims and Peace Diplomacy, 1914–1918.</I> 1971.</LI>
<LI>Safford, Jeffrey J. <I>Wilsonian Maritime Diplomacy, 1913–1921.</I> 1978.</LI>
<LI>Smith, Daniel. <I>The Great Departure: The United States and World War I, 1914–1920</I>. 1965.</LI>
<LI>Sterba, Christopher M. <I>Good Americans: Italian and Jewish Immigrants during the First World War.</I> 2003. 288 pp. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103564691">online edition</A> <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-514754-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-514754-5">0-19-514754-5</A> <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/49576532">49576532</A></LI>
<LI><CITE id="Tuchman" class="citation book"><A href="/wiki/Barbara_Tuchman" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbara Tuchman">Tuchman, Barbara W.</A> (1985). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0345324250/"><I>The Zimmermann Telegram</I></A>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-345-32425-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-345-32425-0">0-345-32425-0</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Zimmermann+Telegram&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=0-345-32425-0&rft.aulast=Tuchman&rft.aufirst=Barbara+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2Fdp%2F0345324250%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI>Tucker, Robert W. <I>Woodrow Wilson and the Great War: Reconsidering America's Neutrality, 1914–1917</I>. 2007. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8139-2629-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8139-2629-2">978-0-8139-2629-2</A></LI>
<LI>Unger, Nancy C. <I>Fighting Bob La Follette: The Righteous Reformer</I> Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8078-2545-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8078-2545-X">0-8078-2545-X</A> <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/42861557">42861557</A></LI>
<LI>Venzon, Anne Cipriano, ed. <I>The United States in the First World War: An Encyclopedia</I> New York: Garland Pub., 1995. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8240-7055-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8240-7055-0">0-8240-7055-0</A> <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32013365">32013365</A></LI>
<LI>Ward, Robert D. "The Origin and Activities of the National Security League, 1914–1919." Mississippi Valley Historical Review 47 (1960): 51–65. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1891278">online at JSTOR</A></LI>
<LI>Witcover, Jules. <I>Sabotage at Black Tom: Imperial Germany's Secret War in America</I>. Chapel Hill, NC: Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill, 1989. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-912697-98-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-912697-98-9">0-912697-98-9</A> <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/18379558">18379558</A></LI>
</UL>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Historiography">Historiography</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=American_entry_into_World_War_I&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Historiography">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<UL>
<LI>Doenecke, Justus D. "Neutrality Policy and the Decision for War." in Ross Kennedy ed., <I>A Companion to Woodrow Wilson</I> (2013) pp. 243–69 <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TytaiSLySTsC&pg=PT285">Online</A>; covers the historiography</LI>
<LI>Keene, Jennifer D. "Remembering the "Forgotten War": American Historiography on World War I." <I>Historian</I> 78#3 (2016): 439–468.</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=American_entry_into_World_War_I&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Primary sources">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<UL>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141101004800/http://www.pupress.princeton.edu/catalogs/series/pw.html"><I>The Papers of Woodrow Wilson</I></A> edited by <A href="/wiki/Arthur_S._Link" title="Arthur S. Link">Arthur S. Link</A> complete in 69 vol, at major academic libraries. Annotated edition of all of WW's letters, speeches and writings plus many letters written to him</LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext04/whwar10h.htm">Wilson, Woodrow. <I>Why We Are at War</I> (1917)</A> six war messages to Congress, Jan- April 1917</LI>
</UL>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=American_entry_into_World_War_I&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: External links">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<UL>
<LI>Keene, Jennifer D.: <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/united_states_of_america">United States of America</A> , in: <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html">1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War</A>.</LI>
<LI>Ford, Nancy Gentile: <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/civilian_and_military_power_usa">Civilian and Military Power (USA)</A> , in: <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html">1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War</A>.</LI>
<LI>Strauss, Lon: <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/social_conflict_and_control_protest_and_repression_usa">Social Conflict and Control, Protest and Repression (USA)</A> , in: <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html">1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War</A>.</LI>
<LI>Little, Branden: <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/making_sense_of_the_war_usa">Making Sense of the War (USA)</A> , in: <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html">1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War</A>.</LI>
<LI>Miller, Alisa: <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/pressjournalism_usa">Press/Journalism (USA)</A> , in: <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html">1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War</A>.</LI>
<LI>Wells, Robert A.: <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/propaganda_at_home_usa">Propaganda at Home (USA)</A> , in: <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html">1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War</A>.</LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/0402.html#article">NY Times main headline, April 2, 1917, <I>President Calls for War Declaration, Stronger Navy, New Army of 500,000 Men, Full Cooperation With Germany's Foes</I></A></LI>
<LI><A href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/President_Wilson%27s_War_Address" class="extiw" title="s:President Wilson's War Address">President Wilson's War Address</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://maps.omniatlas.com/europe/19170406/">Map of Europe</A> at the time of the US declaration of war on Germany at omniatlas.com</LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/law/help/digitized-books/world-war-i-declarations/united-states.php">World War I: Declarations of War from Around the Globe - How America Entered the Great War</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/item/today-in-history/april-06/">Today in History: U.S. Enters World War I</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Woodrow_Wilson" title="First inauguration of Woodrow Wilson">1913 inauguration</A>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Act" title="Federal Reserve Act">Federal Reserve Act</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1913#Tariffs" title="Revenue Act of 1913">Revenue Act of 1913</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Flag_Day_(United_States)" title="Flag Day (United States)">Flag Day</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/National_Advisory_Committee_for_Aeronautics" title="National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics">National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_occupation_of_Haiti" title="United States occupation of Haiti">Occupation of Haiti</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bryan%E2%80%93Chamorro_Treaty" title="Bryan–Chamorro Treaty">Bryan–Chamorro Treaty</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Jones_Law_(Philippines)#Evolution_of_the_bill" title="Jones Law (Philippines)">Philippine Autonomy Act</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</A>
<UL>
<LI><A class="mw-selflink selflink">entry</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_campaigns_in_World_War_I" title="United States campaigns in World War I">campaigns</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Home_front_during_World_War_I#United_States" title="Home front during World War I">home front</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Committee_on_Public_Information" title="Committee on Public Information">Committee on Public Information</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Espionage_Act_of_1917" title="Espionage Act of 1917">Espionage Act of 1917</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Selective_Service_Act_of_1917" title="Selective Service Act of 1917">Selective Service Act of 1917</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Four_Minute_Men" title="Four Minute Men">Four Minute Men</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sedition_Act_of_1918" title="Sedition Act of 1918">Sedition Act of 1918</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/National_War_Labor_Board_(1918%E2%80%931919)" title="National War Labor Board (1918–1919)">National War Labor Board</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/The_Inquiry" title="The Inquiry">The Inquiry</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/American_Commission_to_Negotiate_Peace" title="American Commission to Negotiate Peace">American Commission to Negotiate Peace</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference,_1919" title="Paris Peace Conference, 1919">Paris Peace Conference, 1919</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/The_Big_Four_(World_War_I)#Woodrow_Wilson" title="The Big Four (World War I)">The Big Four</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fourteen_Points" title="Fourteen Points">Fourteen Points</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Covenant_of_the_League_of_Nations" title="Covenant of the League of Nations">charter</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_Peace_Prize_laureates#Laureates" title="List of Nobel Peace Prize laureates">1919 Nobel Peace Prize</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wilsonian_Armenia" title="Wilsonian Armenia">Wilsonian Armenia</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Silent_Sentinels" title="Silent Sentinels">Silent Sentinels</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Women's Suffrage amendment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_desk" title="Theodore Roosevelt desk">Roosevelt desk</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Woodrow_Wilson" title="List of federal judges appointed by Woodrow Wilson">Judicial appointments</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson#Supreme_Court" title="Woodrow Wilson">Supreme Court</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson#Administration_and_Cabinet" title="Woodrow Wilson">Cabinet</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/1913_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1913 State of the Union Address">State of the Union Address 1913</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/1914_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1914 State of the Union Address">1914</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/1915_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1915 State of the Union Address">1915</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/1916_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1916 State of the Union Address">1916</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/1917_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1917 State of the Union Address">1917</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/1918_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1918 State of the Union Address">1918</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/1920_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1920 State of the Union Address">1920</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_Presidential_Library" title="Woodrow Wilson Presidential Library">Birthplace and Presidential Library</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Seeley_G._Mudd_Manuscript_Library" title="Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library">papers and manuscripts</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_Boyhood_Home" title="Woodrow Wilson Boyhood Home">Boyhood home in Georgia</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Thomas_Woodrow_Wilson_Boyhood_Home" title="Thomas Woodrow Wilson Boyhood Home">Boyhood home in South Carolina</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_Princeton_University#Princeton_University" title="History of Princeton University">Princeton University president</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Harlakenden" title="Harlakenden">Summer White House (Harlakenden</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Shadow_Lawn_(New_Jersey)" title="Shadow Lawn (New Jersey)">Shadow Lawn)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_House_(Washington,_D.C.)" title="Woodrow Wilson House (Washington, D.C.)">Woodrow Wilson House</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Washington_National_Cathedral#Burials" title="Washington National Cathedral">Gravesite</A></LI>
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<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Books</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><I>Congressional Government</I></LI>
<LI><I>When a Man Comes to Himself</I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/The_New_Freedom" title="The New Freedom"><I>The New Freedom</I> <SMALL>(1913)</SMALL></A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Elections</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/New_Jersey_gubernatorial_election,_1910" title="New Jersey gubernatorial election, 1910">New Jersey gubernatorial election, 1910</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/1912_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1912 Democratic National Convention">1912 Democratic National Convention</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_election,_1912" title="United States presidential election, 1912">1912 U.S. presidential election</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/1916_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1916 Democratic National Convention">1916 Democratic National Convention</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_election,_1916" title="United States presidential election, 1916">1916 U.S. presidential election</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legacy</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wilsonianism" title="Wilsonianism">Wilsonianism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_Foundation" title="Woodrow Wilson Foundation">Woodrow Wilson Foundation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_International_Center_for_Scholars" title="Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars">Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_School_of_Public_and_International_Affairs" title="Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs">Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs</A></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Celestial_Sphere_Woodrow_Wilson_Memorial" title="Celestial Sphere Woodrow Wilson Memorial">Celestial Sphere Woodrow Wilson Memorial</A></I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_Bridge" title="Woodrow Wilson Bridge">Woodrow Wilson Bridge</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_National_Fellowship_Foundation" title="Woodrow Wilson National Fellowship Foundation">Woodrow Wilson National Fellowship Foundation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Presidents_of_the_United_States_on_U.S._postage_stamps#Woodrow_Wilson" title="Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps">U.S. Postage stamps</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Large_denominations_of_United_States_currency#$100,000" title="Large denominations of United States currency">U.S. Currency</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Popular<BR />
culture</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wilson_(1944_film)" title="Wilson (1944 film)"><I>Wilson</I> <SMALL>(1944 film)</SMALL></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Profiles_in_Courage_(TV_series)" title="Profiles in Courage (TV series)"><I>Profiles in Courage</I> <SMALL>(1965 series)</SMALL></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wilson_(book)" title="Wilson (book)"><I>Wilson</I> <SMALL>(2013 book)</SMALL></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_and_the_Birth_of_the_American_Century" title="Woodrow Wilson and the Birth of the American Century"><I>Woodrow Wilson and the Birth of the American Century</I> <SMALL>(2002 documentary)</SMALL></A></LI>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family</TH>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Joseph_Ruggles_Wilson" title="Joseph Ruggles Wilson">Joseph Ruggles Wilson</A> <SMALL>(father)</SMALL></LI>
<LI>Jessie Janet Woodrow <SMALL>(mother)</SMALL></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ellen_Axson_Wilson" title="Ellen Axson Wilson">Ellen Axson Wilson</A> <SMALL>(wife, 1885–1914; death)</SMALL></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Edith_Wilson" title="Edith Wilson">Edith Bolling Wilson</A> <SMALL>(wife, 1915–1924)</SMALL></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Margaret_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Margaret Woodrow Wilson">Margaret Wilson</A> <SMALL>(daughter)</SMALL></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Jessie_Woodrow_Wilson_Sayre" title="Jessie Woodrow Wilson Sayre">Jessie Wilson Sayre</A> <SMALL>(daughter)</SMALL></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Eleanor_Wilson_McAdoo" title="Eleanor Wilson McAdoo">Eleanor Wilson McAdoo</A> <SMALL>(daughter)</SMALL></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/William_Gibbs_McAdoo" title="William Gibbs McAdoo">William McAdoo</A> <SMALL>(son-in-law)</SMALL></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Francis_Bowes_Sayre,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Francis Bowes Sayre, Jr.">Francis Sayre, Jr.</A> <SMALL>(grandson)</SMALL></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/James_Woodrow_(Professor)" class="mw-redirect" title="James Woodrow (Professor)">James Woodrow</A> <SMALL>(maternal uncle)</SMALL></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Jefferson_Literary_and_Debating_Society" title="Jefferson Literary and Debating Society">Jefferson Literary and Debating Society</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">← William Howard Taft</A></LI>
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question_text: when did united states enter world war i