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<H1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Shortwave radio</H1>			<DIV id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content">
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				<DIV id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><DIV class="mw-parser-output"><DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Shortwave" redirects here. For other uses, see <A href="/wiki/Shortwave_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Shortwave (disambiguation)">Shortwave (disambiguation)</A>.</DIV>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Grundig_Satellit_Professional_400.JPG" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Grundig_Satellit_Professional_400.JPG/220px-Grundig_Satellit_Professional_400.JPG" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Grundig_Satellit_Professional_400.JPG/330px-Grundig_Satellit_Professional_400.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Grundig_Satellit_Professional_400.JPG/440px-Grundig_Satellit_Professional_400.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></A>
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<A href="/wiki/Grundig" title="Grundig">Grundig</A> Satellit 400 solid-state, digital <A href="/wiki/Shortwave_receiver" class="mw-redirect" title="Shortwave receiver">shortwave receiver</A>, circa 1986 <SUP id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-1">[1]</A></SUP></DIV>
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<P><B>Shortwave radio</B> is <A href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">radio</A> transmission using shortwave <A href="/wiki/Radio_frequencies" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio frequencies">radio frequencies</A>. There is no official definition of the band, but the range always includes all of the <A href="/wiki/High_frequency" title="High frequency">high frequency band (HF)</A>, and generally extends from 1.7–30 MHz (176.3–10.0 m); from the high end of the <A href="/wiki/Medium_frequency" title="Medium frequency">medium frequency band (MF)</A> just above the <A href="/wiki/Mediumwave" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediumwave">mediumwave</A> AM broadcast band, to the end of the <A href="/wiki/High_frequency" title="High frequency">HF band</A>.</P>
<P>Radio waves in the shortwave band can be reflected or refracted from a layer of electrically charged atoms in the atmosphere called the <A href="/wiki/Ionosphere" title="Ionosphere">ionosphere</A>. Therefore, short waves directed at an angle into the sky can be reflected back to Earth at great distances, beyond the horizon. This is called <A href="/wiki/Skywave" title="Skywave">skywave</A> or "skip" <A href="/wiki/Radio_propagation" title="Radio propagation">propagation</A>. Thus shortwave radio can be used for very long distance communication, in contrast to radio waves of higher frequency which travel in straight lines (<A href="/wiki/Line-of-sight_propagation" title="Line-of-sight propagation">line-of-sight propagation</A>) and are limited by the visual horizon, about 40 miles (64 km). Shortwave radio is used for <A href="/wiki/Broadcasting" title="Broadcasting">broadcasting</A> of voice and music to <A href="/wiki/Shortwave_listening" title="Shortwave listening">shortwave listeners</A> over very large areas; sometimes entire continents or beyond. It is also used for military <A href="/wiki/Over-the-horizon_radar" title="Over-the-horizon radar">over-the-horizon radar</A>, diplomatic communication, and two-way international communication by <A href="/wiki/Amateur_radio" title="Amateur radio">amateur radio</A> enthusiasts for hobby, educational and emergency purposes, as well as for long distance aviation and marine communications.</P>
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<H2>Contents</H2>
<SPAN class="toctoggle"> [<A role="button" tabindex="0" class="togglelink">hide</A>] </SPAN></DIV>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><A href="#Frequency_classifications"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Frequency classifications</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><A href="#History"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">History</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><A href="#Development"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Development</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><A href="#Amateur_use_of_shortwave_propagation"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Amateur use of shortwave propagation</SPAN></A></LI>
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</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><A href="#Propagation_characteristics"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Propagation characteristics</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><A href="#Types_of_modulation"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Types of modulation</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><A href="#Users"><SPAN class="tocnumber">5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Users</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><A href="#Shortwave_broadcasting"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Shortwave broadcasting</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><A href="#Frequency_allocations"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Frequency allocations</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><A href="#Advantages"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Advantages</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><A href="#Disadvantages"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Disadvantages</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><A href="#Shortwave_listening"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Shortwave listening</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><A href="#Shortwave_broadcasts_and_music"><SPAN class="tocnumber">8</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Shortwave broadcasts and music</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><A href="#Shortwave's_future"><SPAN class="tocnumber">9</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Shortwave's future</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><A href="#See_also"><SPAN class="tocnumber">10</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">See also</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><A href="#References"><SPAN class="tocnumber">11</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">References</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><A href="#External_links"><SPAN class="tocnumber">12</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">External links</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<P></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Frequency_classifications">Frequency classifications</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Shortwave_radio&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Frequency classifications">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>The widest popular definition of the shortwave frequency interval is the <A href="/wiki/ITU_Region_1" class="mw-redirect" title="ITU Region 1">ITU Region 1 (EU+Africa+Russia...)</A> definition, and is the span 1.6–30 <A href="/wiki/MHz" class="mw-redirect" title="MHz">MHz</A>, just above the <A href="/wiki/Medium_wave" title="Medium wave">medium wave</A> band, which ends approximately at 1.6 MHz.</P>
<P>There are also other definitions of the shortwave frequency interval:</P>
<UL>
<LI>1.71 to 30 MHz in <A href="/wiki/ITU_Region_2" class="mw-redirect" title="ITU Region 2">ITU Region 2 (North and South America...)</A></LI>
<LI>1.8 (160 meter radio amateur band start) to 30 MHz</LI>
<LI>2.3 (120 meter band start) to 30 MHz</LI>
<LI>2.3 (120 meter band start) to 26.1 MHz (11 meter band end)<SUP id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-2">[2]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-3">[3]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI>In <A href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</A> and perhaps <A href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</A> the <A href="/wiki/ITU_Region_1" class="mw-redirect" title="ITU Region 1">ITU Region 1</A> shortwave radio frequency interval can be subdivided in:
<UL>
<LI><I><A href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grenzwelle" class="extiw" title="de:Grenzwelle">de:Grenzwelle</A></I> ("border waves"): 1.605–3.8 MHz<SUP id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-4">[4]</A></SUP></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI>In Germany these shortwave radio frequency intervals have also been seen used:
<UL>
<LI>the above other definitions<SUP id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-5">[5]</A></SUP></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="History">History</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Shortwave_radio&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Development">Development</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Shortwave_radio&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Development">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Guglielmo_Marconi_1901_wireless_signal.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Guglielmo_Marconi_1901_wireless_signal.jpg/220px-Guglielmo_Marconi_1901_wireless_signal.jpg" width="220" height="139" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Guglielmo_Marconi_1901_wireless_signal.jpg/330px-Guglielmo_Marconi_1901_wireless_signal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Guglielmo_Marconi_1901_wireless_signal.jpg/440px-Guglielmo_Marconi_1901_wireless_signal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="379" /></A>
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Radio amateurs carried out the first shortwave transmissions over a long distance before <A href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</A></DIV>
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<P>The name "shortwave" originated during the early days of radio in the early 20th century, when the <A href="/wiki/Radio_spectrum" title="Radio spectrum">radio spectrum</A> was considered divided into <A href="/wiki/Long_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Long wave">long wave</A> (LW), <A href="/wiki/Medium_wave" title="Medium wave">medium wave</A> (MW) and short wave bands based on the <A href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelength</A> of the <A href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">radio waves</A>. Shortwave radio received its name because the wavelengths in this band are relatively shorter than 200 m (1,500 kHz) which marked the original upper limit of the <A href="/wiki/Medium_frequency" title="Medium frequency">medium frequency</A> band <A href="/wiki/History_of_radio" title="History of radio">first used</A> for radio communications. The broadcast <A href="/wiki/Medium_wave" title="Medium wave">medium wave</A> band now extends above the 200 m/1,500 kHz limit, and the <A href="/wiki/Amateur_radio" title="Amateur radio">amateur radio</A> 1.8 MHz – 2.0 MHz band (known as the "<A href="/wiki/Top_band" class="mw-redirect" title="Top band">top band</A>") is the lowest-frequency band considered to be 'shortwave'.</P>
<P>Early long distance <A href="/wiki/Radio_telegraphy" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio telegraphy">radio telegraphy</A> used <A href="/wiki/Long_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Long wave">long waves</A>, below 300 <A href="/wiki/Kilohertz" class="mw-redirect" title="Kilohertz">kilohertz</A> (kHz). The drawbacks to this system included a very limited spectrum available for long distance communication, and the very expensive <A href="/wiki/Transmitter" title="Transmitter">transmitters</A>, receivers and gigantic antennas that were required. It was also difficult to beam the radio wave directionally with long wave, resulting in a major loss of power over long distances. Prior to the 1920s, the shortwave frequencies above 1.5 MHz were regarded as useless for long distance communication and were designated in many countries for amateur use.<SUP id="cite_ref-Nebeker2009_6-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Nebeker2009-6">[6]</A></SUP></P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</A>, pioneer of radio, commissioned his assistant <A href="/wiki/Charles_Samuel_Franklin" title="Charles Samuel Franklin">Charles Samuel Franklin</A> to carry out a large scale study into the transmission characteristics of short wavelength waves and to determine their suitability for long distance transmissions. Franklin rigged up a large antenna at <A href="/wiki/Poldhu" title="Poldhu">Poldhu Wireless Station</A>, <A href="/wiki/Cornwall" title="Cornwall">Cornwall</A>, running on 25 kW of power. In June and July 1923, wireless transmissions were completed during nights on 97 meters from Poldhu to Marconi's yacht <I>Elettra</I> in the <A href="/wiki/Cape_Verde" title="Cape Verde">Cape Verde Islands</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Bray_7-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Bray-7">[7]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In September 1924, Marconi transmitted daytime and nighttime on 32 meters from Poldhu to his yacht in Beirut. Franklin went on to refine the directional transmission, by inventing the <A href="/wiki/Curtain_array" title="Curtain array">curtain array</A> aerial system.<SUP id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-8">[8]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-9">[9]</A></SUP> In July 1924, Marconi entered into contracts with the British <A href="/wiki/General_Post_Office" title="General Post Office">General Post Office</A> (GPO) to install high speed shortwave telegraphy circuits from London to Australia, India, South Africa and Canada as the main element of the <A href="/wiki/Imperial_Wireless_Chain" title="Imperial Wireless Chain">Imperial Wireless Chain</A>. The UK-to-Canada shortwave "Beam Wireless Service" went into commercial operation on 25 October 1926. Beam Wireless Services from the UK to Australia, South Africa and India went into service in 1927.<SUP id="cite_ref-Bray_7-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Bray-7">[7]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Shortwave communications began to grow rapidly in the 1920s,<SUP id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-10">[10]</A></SUP> similar to the internet in the late 20th century. By 1928, more than half of long distance communications had moved from <A href="/wiki/Submarine_communications_cable" title="Submarine communications cable">transoceanic cables</A> and longwave wireless services to shortwave and the overall volume of transoceanic shortwave communications had vastly increased. Shortwave stations had cost and efficiency advantages over massive longwave wireless installations,<SUP id="cite_ref-Hugill1999_11-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Hugill1999-11">[11]</A></SUP> however some commercial longwave communications stations remained in use until the 1960s. Long distance radio circuits also reduced the load on the existing transoceanic telegraph cables and hence the need for new cables, although the cables maintained their advantages of high security and a much more reliable and better quality signal than shortwave.</P>
<P>The cable companies began to lose large sums of money in 1927, and a serious financial crisis threatened the viability of cable companies that were vital to strategic British interests. The British government convened the Imperial Wireless and Cable Conference<SUP id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-12">[12]</A></SUP> in 1928 "to examine the situation that had arisen as a result of the competition of Beam Wireless with the Cable Services". It recommended and received Government approval for all overseas cable and wireless resources of the Empire to be merged into one system controlled by a newly formed company in 1929, Imperial and International Communications Ltd. The name of the company was changed to <A href="/wiki/Cable_%26_Wireless_plc" title="Cable & Wireless plc">Cable and Wireless Ltd.</A> in 1934.</P>
<P>Long-distance cables had a resurgence beginning in 1956 with the laying of TAT-1 across the Atlantic Ocean, the first voice frequency cable on this route. This provided 36 high quality telephone channels and was soon followed by even higher capacity cables all around the world. These sounded the death knell of shortwave radio for commercial communications.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Amateur_use_of_shortwave_propagation">Amateur use of shortwave propagation</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Shortwave_radio&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Amateur use of shortwave propagation">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Dial.png" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Dial.png/220px-Dial.png" width="220" height="145" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Dial.png/330px-Dial.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Dial.png/440px-Dial.png 2x" data-file-width="604" data-file-height="399" /></A>
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<A href="/wiki/Hallicrafters_SX-28" title="Hallicrafters SX-28">Hallicrafters SX-28</A> shortwave receiver analog tuning dial, circa 1944</DIV>
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<P><A href="/wiki/Amateur_radio" title="Amateur radio">Amateur radio operators</A> also discovered that long-distance communication was possible on shortwave bands. Early long-distance services used <A href="/wiki/Surface_wave" title="Surface wave">surface wave</A> propagation at <A href="/wiki/Very_low_frequency" title="Very low frequency">very low frequencies</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-13">[13]</A></SUP> which are attenuated along the path at wavelengths shorter than 1,000 meters. Longer distances and higher frequencies using this method meant more signal loss. This, and the difficulties of generating and detecting higher frequencies, made discovery of shortwave propagation difficult for commercial services.</P>
<P>Radio amateurs may have conducted the first successful transatlantic tests in December 1921,<SUP id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-14">[14]</A></SUP> operating in the 200 meter <A href="/wiki/Mediumwave" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediumwave">mediumwave</A> band (near 1,500 kHz in the modern AM broadcast band) – the shortest wavelength then available to amateurs. In 1922 hundreds of North American amateurs were heard in Europe on 200 meters and at least 20 North American amateurs heard amateur signals from Europe. The first two-way communications between North American and Hawaiian amateurs began in 1922 at 200 meters. Although operation on wavelengths shorter than 200 meters was technically illegal (but tolerated as the authorities mistakenly believed at first that such frequencies were useless for commercial or military use), amateurs began to experiment with those wavelengths using newly available <A href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tubes</A> shortly after World War I.</P>
<P>Extreme interference at the longer edge of the 150–200 meter band – the official wavelengths allocated to <A href="/wiki/Amateur_radio_operators" class="mw-redirect" title="Amateur radio operators">amateurs</A> by the Second National Radio Conference<SUP id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-15">[15]</A></SUP> in 1923 – forced amateurs to shift to shorter and shorter wavelengths; however, amateurs were limited by regulation to wavelengths longer than 150 meters (2 MHz). A few fortunate amateurs who obtained special permission for experimental communications at wavelengths shorter than 150 meters completed hundreds of long distance two way contacts on 100 meters (3 MHz) in 1923 including the first transatlantic two way contacts.<SUP id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-16">[16]</A></SUP></P>
<P>By 1924 many additional specially licensed amateurs were routinely making transoceanic contacts at distances of 6,000 miles (9,600 km) and more. On 21 September 1924 several amateurs in California completed two-way contacts with an amateur in <A href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</A>. On 19 October amateurs in New Zealand and England completed a 90 minute two-way contact nearly halfway around the world. On 10 October the Third National Radio Conference made three shortwave bands available to U.S. amateurs<SUP id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-17">[17]</A></SUP> at <A href="/wiki/80-meter_band" title="80-meter band">80 meters</A> (3.75 MHz), <A href="/wiki/40-meter_band" title="40-meter band">40 meters</A> (7 MHz) and <A href="/wiki/20-meter_band" title="20-meter band">20 meters</A> (14 MHz). These were allocated worldwide, while the <A href="/wiki/10-meter_band" title="10-meter band">10 meter band</A> (28 MHz) was created by the Washington International Radiotelegraph Conference<SUP id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-18">[18]</A></SUP> on 25 November 1927. The <A href="/wiki/15-meter_band" title="15-meter band">15 meter band</A> (21 MHz) was opened to amateurs in the United States on 1 May 1952.</P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Propagation_characteristics">Propagation characteristics</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Shortwave_radio&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Propagation characteristics">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Skip_Zone_Example.gif" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/eb/Skip_Zone_Example.gif/220px-Skip_Zone_Example.gif" width="220" height="181" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/eb/Skip_Zone_Example.gif/330px-Skip_Zone_Example.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/eb/Skip_Zone_Example.gif/440px-Skip_Zone_Example.gif 2x" data-file-width="645" data-file-height="530" /></A>
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Formation of a <A href="/wiki/Skip_zone" title="Skip zone">skip zone</A></DIV>
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<P>Shortwave radio frequency energy is capable of reaching any location on the Earth as it is influenced by <A href="/wiki/Ionospheric_reflection" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionospheric reflection">ionospheric reflection</A> back to the earth by the <A href="/wiki/Ionosphere" title="Ionosphere">ionosphere</A>, (a phenomenon known as "<A href="/wiki/Skywave" title="Skywave">skywave</A> propagation"). A typical phenomenon of shortwave propagation is the occurrence of a <A href="/wiki/Skip_zone" title="Skip zone">skip zone</A> where reception fails. With a fixed working frequency, large changes in ionospheric conditions may create skip zones at night.</P>
<P>As a result of the multi-layer structure of the ionosphere, propagation often simultaneously occurs on different paths, <A href="/wiki/Scattering" title="Scattering">scattered</A> by the E or F region and with different numbers of hops, a phenomenon that may be disturbed for certain techniques. Particularly for lower frequencies of the shortwave band, absorption of radio frequency energy in the lowest ionospheric layer, the D layer, may impose a serious limit. This is due to collisions of electrons with neutral molecules, absorbing some of a <A href="/wiki/Radio_frequency" title="Radio frequency">radio frequency</A>'s energy and converting it to heat.<SUP id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-19">[19]</A></SUP> Predictions of skywave propagation depend on:</P>
<UL>
<LI>The distance from the transmitter to the target receiver.</LI>
<LI>Time of day. During the day, frequencies higher than approximately 12 MHz can travel longer distances than lower ones. At night, this property is reversed.</LI>
<LI>With lower frequencies the dependence on the time of the day is mainly due to the lowest ionospheric layer, the <A href="/wiki/D_layer" class="mw-redirect" title="D layer">D Layer</A>, forming only during the day when photons from the sun break up atoms into ions and free electrons.</LI>
<LI>Season. During the winter months of the Northern or Southern hemispheres, the AM/MW broadcast band tends to be more favorable because of longer hours of darkness.</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Solar_flare" title="Solar flare">Solar flares</A> produce a large increase in D region ionization so high, sometimes for periods of several minutes, all skywave propagation is nonexistent.</LI>
</UL>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Types_of_modulation">Types of modulation</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Shortwave_radio&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Types of modulation">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <A href="/wiki/Modulation" title="Modulation">Modulation</A></DIV>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Shortwave_Radio.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Shortwave_Radio.jpg/220px-Shortwave_Radio.jpg" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Shortwave_Radio.jpg/330px-Shortwave_Radio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Shortwave_Radio.jpg/440px-Shortwave_Radio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></A>
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National Panasonic R3000 analog shortwave receiver, circa 1965 <SUP id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-20">[20]</A></SUP></DIV>
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<P>Several different types of modulation are used to impress information on a short-wave transmission.</P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Amplitude_modulation" title="Amplitude modulation">Amplitude modulation</A> is the simplest type and the most commonly used for shortwave broadcasting. The instantaneous amplitude of the carrier is controlled by the amplitude of the signal (speech, or music, for example). At the receiver, a simple <A href="/wiki/Detector_(radio)" title="Detector (radio)">detector</A> recovers the desired modulation signal from the carrier.</P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Single_sideband" class="mw-redirect" title="Single sideband">Single sideband</A> transmission is a form of amplitude modulation but in effect filters the result of modulation. An amplitude-modulated signal has frequency components both above and below the <A href="/wiki/Carrier_frequency" title="Carrier frequency">carrier frequency</A>. If one set of these components is eliminated as well as the residual carrier, only the remaining set is transmitted. This reduces power in the transmission, as roughly 2/3 of the energy sent by an AM signal is unnecessary to recover the information contained on it. It also reduces "bandwidth", enabling about one-half the carrier frequency spectrum width to be used. The drawback is the receiver is more complicated, since it must re-create the carrier to recover the signal. Small errors in the detection process greatly affect the pitch of the received signal. As a result, single sideband is not used for music or general broadcast. Single sideband is used for long-range voice communications by ships and aircraft, <A href="/wiki/Citizen%27s_Band" class="mw-redirect" title="Citizen's Band">Citizen's Band</A>, and amateur radio operators. Lower sideband (LSB) is generally used below 9 MHz and USB (upper sideband) above 9 MHz.</P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Vestigal_sideband" class="mw-redirect" title="Vestigal sideband">Vestigal sideband</A> transmits the carrier and one complete sideband, but filters out the other sideband. It is a compromise between AM and SSB, enabing simple receivers to be used, but requires almost as much transmitter power as AM. One advantage is only half the bandwidth of an AM signal is used. It can be heard in the transmission of certain radio <A href="/wiki/Time_signal" title="Time signal">time signal</A> stations. <A href="/wiki/Single_sideband_modulation#Vestigial_sideband_(VSB)" class="mw-redirect" title="Single sideband modulation">Vestigial sideband</A> is used for over the air Television Broadcasts both analog and <A href="/wiki/8VSB" title="8VSB">digital</A>.</P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Continuous_wave" title="Continuous wave">Continuous wave</A> (CW) is <A href="/wiki/On-off_keying" title="On-off keying">on-and-off keying</A> of a carrier, used for <A href="/wiki/Morse_code" title="Morse code">Morse code</A> communications and <A href="/wiki/Hellschreiber" title="Hellschreiber">Hellschreiber</A> <A href="/wiki/Facsimile" title="Facsimile">facsimile</A>-based <A href="/wiki/Teleprinter" title="Teleprinter">teleprinter</A> transmissions.<SUP id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-21">[21]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Narrow-band <A href="/wiki/Frequency_modulation" title="Frequency modulation">frequency modulation</A> (NBFM) is used typically above 20 MHz. Because of the larger <A href="/wiki/Bandwidth_(signal_processing)" title="Bandwidth (signal processing)">bandwidth</A> required, NBFM is commonly used for <A href="/wiki/VHF" class="mw-redirect" title="VHF">VHF</A> communication. Regulations limit the <A href="/wiki/Bandwidth_(signal_processing)" title="Bandwidth (signal processing)">bandwidth</A> of a signal transmitted in the HF bands, and the advantages of frequency modulation are greatest if the FM signal has a wide bandwidth. NBFM is limited to short-range transmissions due to the multiphasic distortions created by the ionosphere.<SUP id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-22">[22]</A></SUP></P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Digital_Radio_Mondiale" title="Digital Radio Mondiale">Digital Radio Mondiale</A> (DRM) is a digital modulation for use on bands below 30 MHz.</P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Radioteletype" title="Radioteletype">Radioteletype</A>, fax, digital, <A href="/wiki/Slow-scan_television" title="Slow-scan television">slow-scan television</A> and other systems use forms of frequency-shift keying or audio subcarriers on a shortwave carrier. These generally require special equipment to decode, such as software on a computer equipped with a sound card.</P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Users">Users</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Shortwave_radio&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Users">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Shortwave_Radio_Dial.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Shortwave_Radio_Dial.jpg/220px-Shortwave_Radio_Dial.jpg" width="220" height="147" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Shortwave_Radio_Dial.jpg/330px-Shortwave_Radio_Dial.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Shortwave_Radio_Dial.jpg/440px-Shortwave_Radio_Dial.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></A>
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Portable shortwave receiver's digital display tuned to the <A href="/wiki/80-meter_band" title="80-meter band">75 meter band</A></DIV>
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<P>Some established users of the shortwave radio bands may include:</P>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/International_broadcasting" title="International broadcasting">International broadcasting</A> primarily by government-sponsored <A href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">propaganda</A>, international news (for example, the <A href="/wiki/BBC_World_Service" title="BBC World Service">BBC World Service</A>) or cultural stations to foreign audiences: the most common use of all.</LI>
<LI>Domestic broadcasting: to widely dispersed populations with few <A href="/wiki/Longwave" title="Longwave">longwave</A>, <A href="/wiki/Mediumwave" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediumwave">mediumwave</A> and FM stations serving them; or for specialty political, religious and <A href="/wiki/Alternative_media" title="Alternative media">alternative media</A> networks; or of individual commercial and non-commercial paid broadcasts.</LI>
<LI>Oceanic <A href="/wiki/Air_traffic_control" title="Air traffic control">air traffic control</A> uses the HF/shortwave band for long distance communication to aircraft over the oceans and poles, which are far beyond the range of traditional <A href="/wiki/VHF" class="mw-redirect" title="VHF">VHF</A> frequencies. Modern systems also include satellite communications, such as ADS-C/<A href="/wiki/CPDLC" class="mw-redirect" title="CPDLC">CPDLC</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Utility_station" title="Utility station">"Utility" stations</A> transmitting messages not intended for the general public, such as merchant shipping, marine weather, and ship-to-shore stations; for aviation weather and air-to-ground communications; for military communications; for long-distance governmental purposes, and for other non-broadcast communications.</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Amateur_radio" title="Amateur radio">Amateur radio</A> operators at the <A href="/wiki/80-meter_band" title="80-meter band">80/75</A>, <A href="/wiki/60-meter_band" title="60-meter band">60</A>, <A href="/wiki/40-meter_band" title="40-meter band">40</A>, <A href="/wiki/30-meter_band" class="mw-redirect" title="30-meter band">30</A>, <A href="/wiki/20-meter_band" title="20-meter band">20</A>, <A href="/wiki/17-meter_band" class="mw-redirect" title="17-meter band">17</A>, <A href="/wiki/15-meter_band" title="15-meter band">15</A>, <A href="/wiki/12-meter_band" class="mw-redirect" title="12-meter band">12</A>, and <A href="/wiki/10-meter_band" title="10-meter band">10-meter</A> bands. Licenses are granted by authorized government agencies.</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Time_signal" title="Time signal">Time signal</A> and <A href="/wiki/Radio_clock" title="Radio clock">radio clock</A> stations: In North America, <A href="/wiki/WWV_(radio_station)" title="WWV (radio station)">WWV radio</A> and <A href="/wiki/WWVH" title="WWVH">WWVH radio</A> transmit at these frequencies: 2.5 MHz, 5 MHz, 10 MHz, and 15 MHz; and WWV also transmits on 20 MHz. The <A href="/wiki/CHU_(radio_station)" title="CHU (radio station)">CHU radio station</A> in Canada transmits on the following frequencies: 3.33 MHz, 7.85 MHz, and 14.67 MHz. Other similar <A href="/wiki/Radio_clock" title="Radio clock">radio clock</A> stations transmit on various shortwave and longwave frequencies around the world. The shortwave transmissions are primarily intended for human reception, while the longwave stations are generally used for automatic synchronization of watches and clocks.</LI>
</UL>
<P>Sporadic or non-traditional users of the shortwave bands may include:</P>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Clandestine_radio" class="mw-redirect" title="Clandestine radio">Clandestine stations</A>. These are stations that broadcast on behalf of various political movements such as rebel or insurrectionist forces. They may advocate civil war, insurrection, rebellion against the government-in-charge of the country to which they are directed. Clandestine broadcasts may emanate from transmitters located in rebel-controlled territory or from outside the country entirely, using another country's transmission facilities.<SUP id="cite_ref-Sterling2004_23-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Sterling2004-23">[23]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Numbers_Station" class="mw-redirect" title="Numbers Station">Numbers Stations</A>. These stations regularly appear and disappear all over the shortwave radio band but are unlicensed and untraceable. It is believed that Numbers Stations are operated by government agencies and are used to communicate with clandestine operatives working within foreign countries. However, no definitive proof of such use has emerged. Because the vast majority of these broadcasts contain nothing but the recitation of blocks of numbers, in various languages, with occasional bursts of music, they have become known colloquially as "Number Stations". Perhaps the most noted Number Station is the <A href="/wiki/Lincolnshire_Poacher_(numbers_station)" title="Lincolnshire Poacher (numbers station)">"Lincolnshire Poacher"</A>, named after the 18th century English folk song, which is transmitted just before the sequences of numbers.</LI>
<LI>Unlicensed <A href="/wiki/Two_way_radio" class="mw-redirect" title="Two way radio">two way radio</A> activity by individuals such as taxi drivers, bus drivers and fishermen in various countries can be heard on various shortwave frequencies. Such unlicensed transmissions by "pirate" or "bootleg" two way radio operators<SUP id="cite_ref-Magazines1940_24-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Magazines1940-24">[24]</A></SUP> can often cause <A href="/wiki/Co-channel_interference" title="Co-channel interference">signal interference</A> to licensed stations.<SUP id="cite_ref-IARU_25-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-IARU-25">[25]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pirate_radio" title="Pirate radio">Pirate radio</A> broadcasters who feature programming such as music, talk and other entertainment, can be heard sporadically and in various modes on the shortwave bands.<SUP id="cite_ref-Yoder2002_26-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Yoder2002-26">[26]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Over-the-horizon_radar" title="Over-the-horizon radar">Over-the-horizon radar</A>: From 1976 to 1989, the <A href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</A>'s <A href="/wiki/Russian_Woodpecker" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Woodpecker">Russian Woodpecker</A> over-the-horizon radar system blotted out numerous shortwave broadcasts daily.</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ionospheric_heater" title="Ionospheric heater">Ionospheric heaters</A> used for scientific experimentation such as the <A href="/wiki/High_Frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program" title="High Frequency Active Auroral Research Program">High Frequency Active Auroral Research Program</A> in Alaska, and the <A href="/wiki/Sura_Ionospheric_Heating_Facility" title="Sura Ionospheric Heating Facility">Sura ionospheric heating facility</A> in Russia.<SUP id="cite_ref-BychkovGolubkov2010_27-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-BychkovGolubkov2010-27">[27]</A></SUP></LI>
</UL>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Shortwave_broadcasting">Shortwave broadcasting</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Shortwave_radio&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Shortwave broadcasting">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P><I>See <A href="/wiki/International_broadcasting" title="International broadcasting">International broadcasting</A> for details on the history and practice of broadcasting to foreign audiences.</I></P>
<P><I>See <A href="/wiki/Shortwave_relay_station" title="Shortwave relay station">Shortwave relay station</A> for the actual kinds of integrated technologies used to bring high power signals to listeners.</I></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Frequency_allocations">Frequency allocations</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Shortwave_radio&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Frequency allocations">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Shortwave_bands" title="Shortwave bands">Shortwave bands</A></DIV>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/World_Radiocommunication_Conference" title="World Radiocommunication Conference">World Radiocommunication Conference</A> (WRC), organized under the auspices of the <A href="/wiki/International_Telecommunication_Union" title="International Telecommunication Union">International Telecommunication Union</A>, allocates bands for various services in conferences every few years. The last WRC took place in 2007.</P>
<P>At WRC-97 in 1997, the following bands were allocated for <A href="/wiki/International_broadcasting" title="International broadcasting">international broadcasting</A>. AM shortwave broadcasting channels are allocated with a 5 kHz separation for traditional analog audio broadcasting.</P>
<DIV style="clear:both;"></DIV>
<TABLE border="0" cellspacing="2" cellpadding="1" style="float:left;margin-left:10px">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH style="background:#b5b5b5;">Metre Band</TH>
<TH style="background:#b5b5b5;">Frequency Range</TH>
<TH style="background:#b5b5b5;">Remarks</TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>120 m</TD>
<TD>2.3–2.495 MHz</TD>
<TD>tropical band</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="background:#e8e8e8;">
<TD>90 m</TD>
<TD>3.2–3.4 MHz</TD>
<TD>tropical band</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>75 m</TD>
<TD>3.9–4 MHz</TD>
<TD>shared with the North American <A href="/wiki/80-meter_band" title="80-meter band">amateur radio 80m band</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR style="background:#e8e8e8;">
<TD>60 m</TD>
<TD>4.75–5.06 MHz</TD>
<TD>tropical band</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>49 m</TD>
<TD>5.9–6.2 MHz</TD>
<TD> </TD>
</TR>
<TR style="background:#e8e8e8;">
<TD>41 m</TD>
<TD>7.2–7.6 MHz</TD>
<TD>shared with the <A href="/wiki/Amateur_radio_frequency_allocations#40_Metres" title="Amateur radio frequency allocations">amateur radio 40m band</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>31 m</TD>
<TD>9.4–9.9 MHz</TD>
<TD>currently the most heavily used band</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="background:#e8e8e8;">
<TD>25 m</TD>
<TD>11.6–12.2 MHz</TD>
<TD> </TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>22 m</TD>
<TD>13.57–13.87 MHz</TD>
<TD></TD>
</TR>
<TR style="background:#e8e8e8;">
<TD>19 m</TD>
<TD>15.1–15.8 MHz</TD>
<TD> </TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>16 m</TD>
<TD>17.48–17.9 MHz</TD>
<TD> </TD>
</TR>
<TR style="background:#e8e8e8;">
<TD>15 m</TD>
<TD>18.9–19.02 MHz</TD>
<TD>almost unused, could become a DRM band</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>13 m</TD>
<TD>21.45–21.85 MHz</TD>
<TD> </TD>
</TR>
<TR style="background:#e8e8e8;">
<TD>11 m</TD>
<TD>25.6–26.1 MHz</TD>
<TD>may be used for local DRM broadcasting</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
<DIV style="clear:both;"></DIV>
<P>Although countries generally follow the table above, there may be small differences between countries or regions. For example, in the official bandplan of the <A href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-28">[28]</A></SUP> the 49 m band starts at 5.95 MHz, the 41 m band ends at 7.45 MHz, the 11 m band starts at 25.67 MHz, and the 120, 90 and 60 m bands are absent altogether. Additionally, international broadcasters sometimes operate outside the normal WRC-allocated bands or use off-channel frequencies. This is done for practical reasons, or to attract attention in crowded bands (60m, 49m, 40m, 41m, 31m, 25m).</P>
<P>The new <A href="/wiki/Digital_audio_broadcasting" title="Digital audio broadcasting">digital audio broadcasting</A> format for shortwave <A href="/wiki/Digital_Radio_Mondiale" title="Digital Radio Mondiale">DRM</A> operates 10 kHz or 20 kHz channels. There are some ongoing discussions with respect to specific band allocation for DRM, as it mainly transmitted in 10 kHz format.</P>
<P>The power used by shortwave transmitters ranges from less than one watt for some experimental and amateur radio transmissions to 500 kilowatts and higher for intercontinental broadcasters and <A href="/wiki/Over-the-horizon_radar" title="Over-the-horizon radar">over-the-horizon radar</A>. Shortwave transmitting centers often use specialized <A href="/wiki/Antenna_(radio)" title="Antenna (radio)">antenna</A> designs (like the <A href="/wiki/ALLISS" title="ALLISS">ALLISS</A> antenna technology) to concentrate radio energy at the target area.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Advantages">Advantages</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Shortwave_radio&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Advantages">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Soviet_SWL_URS3-108-B.jpeg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Soviet_SWL_URS3-108-B.jpeg/220px-Soviet_SWL_URS3-108-B.jpeg" width="220" height="199" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Soviet_SWL_URS3-108-B.jpeg/330px-Soviet_SWL_URS3-108-B.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Soviet_SWL_URS3-108-B.jpeg/440px-Soviet_SWL_URS3-108-B.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="855" data-file-height="772" /></A>
<DIV class="thumbcaption">
<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:Soviet_SWL_URS3-108-B.jpeg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
<A href="/wiki/Soviet_union" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet union">Soviet</A> shortwave listener in <A href="/wiki/Borisoglebsk" title="Borisoglebsk">Borisoglebsk</A>, 1941</DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<P>Shortwave does possess a number of advantages over newer technologies, including the following:</P>
<UL>
<LI>Difficulty of censoring programming by authorities in restrictive countries: unlike their relative ease in monitoring the Internet, government authorities face technical difficulties monitoring which stations (sites) are being listened to (accessed). For example, during the attempted coup against Soviet President <A href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</A>, when his access to communications was limited (e.g. his phones were cut off, etc.), Gorbachev was able to stay informed by means of the <A href="/wiki/BBC_World_Service" title="BBC World Service">BBC World Service</A> on shortwave.<SUP id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-29">[29]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI>Low-cost shortwave radios are widely available in all but the most repressive countries in the world. Simple shortwave <A href="/wiki/Regenerative_receiver" class="mw-redirect" title="Regenerative receiver">regenerative receivers</A> can be easily built with a few parts.</LI>
<LI>In many countries (particularly in most developing nations and in the <A href="/wiki/Eastern_bloc" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern bloc">Eastern bloc</A> during the <A href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</A> era) ownership of shortwave receivers has been and continues to be widespread<SUP id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-30">[30]</A></SUP> (in many of these countries some domestic stations also used shortwave).</LI>
<LI>Many newer shortwave receivers are portable and can be battery-operated, making them useful in difficult circumstances. Newer technology includes <A href="/wiki/Hand-cranked_radio" class="mw-redirect" title="Hand-cranked radio">hand-cranked radios</A> which provide power without batteries.</LI>
<LI>Shortwave radios can be used in situations where <A href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</A> or <A href="/wiki/Satellite_communications" class="mw-redirect" title="Satellite communications">satellite communications</A> service is temporarily or long-term unavailable (or unaffordable).</LI>
<LI>Shortwave radio travels much farther than broadcast FM (88–108 MHz). Shortwave broadcasts can be easily transmitted over a distance of several thousands of kilometers, including from one continent to another.</LI>
<LI>Particularly in tropical regions, SW is somewhat less prone to interference from <A href="/wiki/Thunderstorms" class="mw-redirect" title="Thunderstorms">thunderstorms</A> than <A href="/wiki/Medium_wave" title="Medium wave">medium wave radio</A>, and is able to cover a large geographic area with relatively low power (and hence cost). Therefore, in many of these countries it is widely used for domestic broadcasting.</LI>
<LI>Very little infrastructure is required for long-distance two-way communications using shortwave radio. All one needs is a pair of transceivers, each with an antenna, and a source of energy (such as a battery, a portable generator, or the electrical grid). This makes shortwave radio one of the most robust means of communications, which can be disrupted only by interference or bad ionospheric conditions. Modern digital transmission modes such as <A href="/wiki/MFSK" class="mw-redirect" title="MFSK">MFSK</A> and <A href="/wiki/Olivia_MFSK" title="Olivia MFSK">Olivia</A> are even more robust, allowing successful reception of signals well below the <A href="/wiki/Noise_floor" title="Noise floor">noise floor</A> of a conventional receiver.</LI>
</UL>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Disadvantages">Disadvantages</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Shortwave_radio&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Disadvantages">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>Shortwave radio's benefits are sometimes regarded as being outweighed by its drawbacks, including:</P>
<UL>
<LI>In most Western countries, shortwave radio ownership is usually limited to true enthusiasts, since most new standard radios do not receive the shortwave band. Therefore, Western audiences are limited.</LI>
<LI>In the developed world, shortwave reception is very difficult in urban areas because of excessive noise from <A href="/wiki/Switched-mode_power_supply" title="Switched-mode power supply">switched-mode</A> power adapters, fluorescent or LED light sources, internet modems and routers, computers and many other sources of <A href="/wiki/Radio_interference" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio interference">radio interference</A>.</LI>
</UL>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Shortwave_listening">Shortwave listening</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Shortwave_radio&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Shortwave listening">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:RADIOBUDAPESTPENNANTLATE80s.JPG" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fa/RADIOBUDAPESTPENNANTLATE80s.JPG/220px-RADIOBUDAPESTPENNANTLATE80s.JPG" width="220" height="293" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fa/RADIOBUDAPESTPENNANTLATE80s.JPG/330px-RADIOBUDAPESTPENNANTLATE80s.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fa/RADIOBUDAPESTPENNANTLATE80s.JPG/440px-RADIOBUDAPESTPENNANTLATE80s.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="3072" /></A>
<DIV class="thumbcaption">
<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:RADIOBUDAPESTPENNANTLATE80s.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
A pennant sent to overseas listeners by <A href="/wiki/Magyar_R%C3%A1di%C3%B3" title="Magyar Rádió">Radio Budapest</A> in the late 1980s</DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Shortwave_listening" title="Shortwave listening">Shortwave listening</A></DIV>
<P>The Asia-Pacific Telecommunity estimates that there are approximately 600 million <A href="/wiki/Shortwave_receiver" class="mw-redirect" title="Shortwave receiver">shortwave broadcast-radio receivers</A> in use in 2002.<SUP id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-31">[31]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/WWCR" title="WWCR">WWCR</A> claims that there are 1.5 billion shortwave receivers worldwide.<SUP id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-32">[32]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Many hobbyists listen to shortwave broadcasters. In some cases, the goal is to hear as many stations from as many countries as possible <I>(<A href="/wiki/DXing" title="DXing">DXing</A>)</I>; others listen to specialized shortwave utility, or "ute", transmissions such as maritime, naval, aviation, or military signals. Others focus on intelligence signals from <A href="/wiki/Numbers_stations" class="mw-redirect" title="Numbers stations">numbers stations</A>, stations which transmit strange broadcast usually for intelligence operations, or the two way communications by amateur radio operators. Some short wave listeners behave analogously to "lurkers" on the Internet, in that they listen only and never make any attempt to send out their own signals. Other listeners participate in clubs, or actively send and receive QSL cards, or become involved with amateur radio and start transmitting on their own.</P>
<P>Many listeners tune the shortwave bands for the programmes of stations broadcasting to a general audience (such as <A href="/wiki/Radio_Taiwan_International" title="Radio Taiwan International">Radio Taiwan International</A>, <A href="/wiki/China_Radio_International" title="China Radio International">China Radio International</A>, <A href="/wiki/Voice_of_America" title="Voice of America">Voice of America</A>, <A href="/wiki/Radio_France_Internationale" title="Radio France Internationale">Radio France Internationale</A>, <A href="/wiki/BBC_World_Service" title="BBC World Service">BBC World Service</A>, <A href="/wiki/Voice_of_Korea" title="Voice of Korea">Voice of Korea</A>, <A href="/wiki/Radio_Free_Sarawak" title="Radio Free Sarawak">Radio Free Sarawak</A> etc.). Today, through the evolution of the Internet, the hobbyist can listen to shortwave signals via remotely controlled or web controlled shortwave receivers around the world, even without owning a shortwave radio.<SUP id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-33">[33]</A></SUP> Many international broadcasters offer live streaming audio on their websites and a number have closed their shortwave service entirely, or severely curtailed it, in favour of internet transmission.</P>
<P>Shortwave listeners, or SWLs, can obtain <A href="/wiki/QSL_card" title="QSL card">QSL cards</A> from broadcasters, utility stations or amateur radio operators as trophies of the hobby. Some stations even give out special certificates, pennants, stickers and other tokens and promotional materials to shortwave listeners.</P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Shortwave_broadcasts_and_music">Shortwave broadcasts and music</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Shortwave_radio&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Shortwave broadcasts and music">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Stockhausen_1994_WDR.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Stockhausen_1994_WDR.jpg/220px-Stockhausen_1994_WDR.jpg" width="220" height="152" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Stockhausen_1994_WDR.jpg/330px-Stockhausen_1994_WDR.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Stockhausen_1994_WDR.jpg/440px-Stockhausen_1994_WDR.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3242" data-file-height="2242" /></A>
<DIV class="thumbcaption">
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Composer <A href="/wiki/Karlheinz_Stockhausen" title="Karlheinz Stockhausen">Karlheinz Stockhausen</A></DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<P>Some musicians have been attracted to the unique aural characteristics of shortwave radio which—due to the nature of amplitude modulation, varying propagation conditions, and the presence of interference—generally has lower fidelity than local broadcasts (particularly via FM stations). Shortwave transmissions often have bursts of distortion, and "hollow" sounding loss of clarity at certain aural frequencies, altering the harmonics of natural sound and creating at times a strange "spacey" quality due to echoes and phase distortion. Evocations of shortwave reception distortions have been incorporated into rock and classical compositions, by means of delays or feedback loops, equalizers, or even playing shortwave radios as live instruments. Snippets of broadcasts have been mixed into electronic sound collages and live musical instruments, by means of analogue <A href="/wiki/Tape_loop" title="Tape loop">tape loops</A> or <A href="/wiki/Digital_sampler" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital sampler">digital samples</A>. Sometimes the sounds of instruments and existing musical recordings are altered by remixing or equalizing, with various distortions added, to replicate the garbled effects of shortwave radio reception.<SUP id="cite_ref-Wörner1973_34-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Wörner1973-34">[34]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Sheppard2009_35-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Sheppard2009-35">[35]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Wire_36-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Wire-36">[36]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The first attempts by serious composers to incorporate radio effects into music may be those of the Russian physicist and musician <A href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Theremin" title="Léon Theremin">Léon Theremin</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-Wire_36-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Wire-36">[36]</A></SUP> who perfected a form of radio oscillator as a musical instrument in 1928 (<A href="/wiki/Regenerative_circuit" title="Regenerative circuit">regenerative circuits</A> in radios of the time were prone to breaking into <A href="/wiki/Oscillation" title="Oscillation">oscillation</A>, adding various tonal <A href="/wiki/Harmonics" class="mw-redirect" title="Harmonics">harmonics</A> to music and speech); and in the same year, the development of a French instrument called the <A href="/wiki/Ondes_Martenot" title="Ondes Martenot">Ondes Martenot</A> by its inventor <A href="/wiki/Maurice_Martenot" title="Maurice Martenot">Maurice Martenot</A>, a French cellist and former wireless telegrapher. <A href="/wiki/Karlheinz_Stockhausen" title="Karlheinz Stockhausen">Karlheinz Stockhausen</A> used shortwave radio and effects in works including <I><A href="/wiki/Hymnen" title="Hymnen">Hymnen</A></I> (1966–67), <I><A href="/wiki/Kurzwellen" title="Kurzwellen">Kurzwellen</A></I> (1968)—adapted for the Beethoven Bicentennial in <I>Opus 1970</I> with filtered and distorted snippets of Beethoven pieces—<I><A href="/wiki/Spiral_(Stockhausen)" title="Spiral (Stockhausen)">Spiral</A></I> (1968), <I><A href="/wiki/Pole_(Stockhausen)" title="Pole (Stockhausen)">Pole</A></I>, <I><A href="/wiki/Expo_(Stockhausen)" title="Expo (Stockhausen)">Expo</A></I> (both 1969–70), and <I><A href="/wiki/Licht#Wednesday" title="Licht">Michaelion</A></I> (1997).<SUP id="cite_ref-Wörner1973_34-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Wörner1973-34">[34]</A></SUP></P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cypriot</A> composer <A href="/wiki/Yannis_Kyriakides" title="Yannis Kyriakides">Yannis Kyriakides</A> incorporated shortwave <A href="/wiki/Numbers_station" title="Numbers station">numbers station</A> transmissions in his 1999 <I>ConSPIracy cantata</I>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Dolp2017_37-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Dolp2017-37">[37]</A></SUP></P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Holger_Czukay" title="Holger Czukay">Holger Czukay</A>, a student of Stockhausen, was one of the first to use shortwave in a <A href="/wiki/Rock_music" title="Rock music">rock music</A> context.<SUP id="cite_ref-Sheppard2009_35-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Sheppard2009-35">[35]</A></SUP> In 1975, German <A href="/wiki/Electronic_music" title="Electronic music">electronic music</A> band <A href="/wiki/Kraftwerk" title="Kraftwerk">Kraftwerk</A> recorded a full length <A href="/wiki/Concept_album" title="Concept album">concept album</A> around simulated radiowave and shortwave sounds, entitled <I><A href="/wiki/Radioactivity_(album)" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactivity (album)">Radio-Activity</A></I>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Barr2013_38-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Barr2013-38">[38]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/The_The" title="The The">The The</A>'s Radio Cineola monthly broadcasts drew heavily on shortwave radio sound.<SUP id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-39">[39]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN id="Shortwave.27s_future"></SPAN><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Shortwave's_future">Shortwave's future</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Shortwave_radio&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Shortwave's future">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Penny_Mercury.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Penny_Mercury.jpg/220px-Penny_Mercury.jpg" width="220" height="132" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Penny_Mercury.jpg/330px-Penny_Mercury.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Penny_Mercury.jpg/440px-Penny_Mercury.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="615" /></A>
<DIV class="thumbcaption">
<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:Penny_Mercury.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
PC spectrum display of a modern <A href="/wiki/Software_defined_radio" class="mw-redirect" title="Software defined radio">software defined</A> shortwave receiver</DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <A href="/wiki/Shortwave_listening#Future_of_shortwave_listening" title="Shortwave listening">Shortwave listening § Future of shortwave listening</A></DIV>
<P>The development of direct broadcasts from satellites has reduced the demand for shortwave receiver hardware, but there are still a great number of shortwave broadcasters. A new <A href="/wiki/Digital_radio" title="Digital radio">digital radio</A> technology, <A href="/wiki/Digital_Radio_Mondiale" title="Digital Radio Mondiale">Digital Radio Mondiale</A> (DRM), is expected to improve the quality of shortwave audio from very poor to standards comparable to the FM broadcast band.<SUP id="cite_ref-RW_40-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-RW-40">[40]</A></SUP> The future of shortwave radio is threatened by the rise of <A href="/wiki/Power_line_communication" class="mw-redirect" title="Power line communication">power line communication</A> (PLC), also known as <A href="/wiki/Broadband_over_Power_Lines" class="mw-redirect" title="Broadband over Power Lines">Broadband over Power Lines</A> (BPL), which uses a data stream transmitted over unshielded power lines. As the BPL frequencies used overlap with shortwave bands, severe distortions can make listening to analog shortwave radio signals near power lines difficult or impossible.<SUP id="cite_ref-HrasnicaHaidine2005_41-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-HrasnicaHaidine2005-41">[41]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Experts disagree on the future of shortwave. According to Andy Sennitt, former editor of the <A href="/wiki/World_Radio_TV_Handbook" title="World Radio TV Handbook">World Radio TV Handbook</A>, “shortwave is a legacy technology, which is expensive and environmentally unfriendly. A few countries are hanging on to it, but most have faced up to the fact that the glory days of shortwave have gone. Religious broadcasters will still use it because they are not too concerned with listening figures".<SUP id="cite_ref-RW_40-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-RW-40">[40]</A></SUP></P>
<P>However Thomas Witherspoon, editor of shortwave news site SWLingPost.com wrote that “shortwave remains the most accessible international communications medium that still provides listeners with the protection of complete anonymity". According to Nigel Fry, head of Distribution for the <A href="/wiki/BBC_World_Service" title="BBC World Service">BBC World Service</A> Group, “I still see a place for shortwave in the 21st century, especially for reaching areas of the world that are prone to natural disasters that destroy local broadcasting and Internet infrastructure".<SUP id="cite_ref-RW_40-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-RW-40">[40]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Shortwave_radio&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/ALLISS" title="ALLISS">ALLISS</A>—a very large rotatable antenna system used in international broadcasting</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Amateur_radio" title="Amateur radio">Amateur radio</A>—also uses the shortwave bands, but with power levels under 2 kW</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/International_broadcasting" title="International broadcasting">International broadcasting</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_American_shortwave_broadcasters" class="mw-redirect" title="List of American shortwave broadcasters">List of American shortwave broadcasters</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_shortwave_radio_broadcasters" title="List of shortwave radio broadcasters">List of shortwave radio broadcasters</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Long_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Long wave">Long wave</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Medium_wave" title="Medium wave">Medium wave</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Shortwave_bands" title="Shortwave bands">Shortwave bands</A>—shortwave spectrum allocation</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Shortwave_relay_station" title="Shortwave relay station">shortwave relay station</A>—the fundamental way in which programmes are broadcast on shortwave</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Modulation#Analog_modulation_methods" title="Modulation">SSB</A>—a method of radio signal modulation</LI>
</UL>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="References">References</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Shortwave_radio&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="reflist" style="list-style-type: decimal;">
<DIV class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns">
<OL class="references">
<LI id="cite_note-1"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-1"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.shortwaveradio.ch/radio-e/grundig-sat400-e.htm">Grundig Satellit 400 international/professional</A> ShortWaveRadio.ch</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-2"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-2"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Inconsistent article: <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.itwissen.info/definition/lexikon/Kurzwelle-SW-short-wave-KW.html">itwissen.info: KW (Kurzwelle) SW (short wave)</A> Quote: "... Der KW-Frequenzbereich (SW) liegt zwischen 3 MHz und 30 MHz [<-1. definition] ... Kurzwelle ist auch eine sendetechnische Bezeichnung für Rundfunk im Frequenzbereich zwischen 2,3 MHz und 26,1 MHz [<-2. definition] ..."</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-3"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-3"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oldtimeradio.de/lexikon.php">oldtimeradio.de: Kleines Radio-Lexikon</A> Quote: "... Kurzwellen, Kurzwellenbereich ... Wellenbereich, der von den Rundfunksendern (je nach geographischer Lage) von 11 bis 120 m = 26.100 bis 2.300 kHz ..."</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-4"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-4"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.darc.de/distrikte/k/35/afu-frequenzen/">darc.de: Amateurfunk Frequenzen</A> Quote: "... Grenzwelle (Kurzwelle) ...", <I><A href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grenzwelle" class="extiw" title="de:Grenzwelle">de:Grenzwelle</A></I> Quote: "... Als Grenzwelle wird der Frequenzbereich zwischen 1605 kHz und 3800 kHz bezeichnet, weil er auf der „Grenze" zwischen Mittelwelle und Kurzwelle liegt ..."</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-5"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-5"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.owdjim.gen.nz/chris/radio/Grundig/diags.php">Grundig Satellit 1000 TR6002</A>, <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.owdjim.gen.nz/chris/radio/Grundig/large/CircuitDiagram.jpg">schematic</A> See at the bottom of the schematic, just below the transformer. In the schematic it is written that the first shortwave band starts at 1.6 MHz (just after the band end of MW/AM): "KW1-SW1-OC1 1,6 .... 5,0 MHz"</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Nebeker2009-6"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Nebeker2009_6-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Nebeker, Frederik (6 May 2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xwmH6-q5O5AC&pg=PA157"><I>Dawn of the Electronic Age: Electrical Technologies in the Shaping of the Modern World, 1914 to 1945</I></A>. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 157–. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-40974-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-40974-9">978-0-470-40974-9</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dawn+of+the+Electronic+Age%3A+Electrical+Technologies+in+the+Shaping+of+the+Modern+World%2C+1914+to+1945&rft.pages=157-&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2009-05-06&rft.isbn=978-0-470-40974-9&rft.aulast=Nebeker&rft.aufirst=Frederik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxwmH6-q5O5AC%26pg%3DPA157&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShortwave+radio" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Bray-7"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Bray_7-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Bray_7-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Bray, John (2002). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3h7R36Y0yFUC"><I>Innovation and the Communications Revolution: From the Victorian Pioneers to Broadband Internet</I></A>. IET. pp. 73–75. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780852962183" title="Special:BookSources/9780852962183">9780852962183</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Innovation+and+the+Communications+Revolution%3A+From+the+Victorian+Pioneers+to+Broadband+Internet&rft.pages=73-75&rft.pub=IET&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780852962183&rft.aulast=Bray&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3h7R36Y0yFUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShortwave+radio" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-8"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-8"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Beauchamp, K. G. (2001). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=ni7lDl3k5LwC&dq=%22charles+samuel+franklin%22&pg=PA234&lpg=PA234&q=charles+samuel+franklin"><I>History of Telegraphy</I></A>. IET. p. 234. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85296-792-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-85296-792-6">0-85296-792-6</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2007-11-23</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Telegraphy&rft.pages=234&rft.pub=IET&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-85296-792-6&rft.aulast=Beauchamp&rft.aufirst=K.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3Dni7lDl3k5LwC%26dq%3D%2522charles%2Bsamuel%2Bfranklin%2522%26pg%3DPA234%26lpg%3DPA234%26q%3Dcharles%2Bsamuel%2Bfranklin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShortwave+radio" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-9"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-9"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Burns, R. W. (1986). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=WC2MNgNMJ7gC&pg=PA315&lpg=PA315&dq=%22charles+samuel+franklin%22"><I>British Television: The Formative Years</I></A>. IET. p. 315. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86341-079-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-86341-079-0">0-86341-079-0</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2007-11-23</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=British+Television%3A+The+Formative+Years&rft.pages=315&rft.pub=IET&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-86341-079-0&rft.aulast=Burns&rft.aufirst=R.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DWC2MNgNMJ7gC%26pg%3DPA315%26lpg%3DPA315%26dq%3D%2522charles%2Bsamuel%2Bfranklin%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShortwave+radio" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-10"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-10"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/beyondionosphere00unitrich/beyondionosphere00unitrich_djvu.txt">"Full text of "Beyond the ionosphere : fifty years of satellite communication<SPAN style="padding-right:0.2em;">"</SPAN>"</A>. Archive.org<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2012-08-31</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Full+text+of+%22Beyond+the+ionosphere+%3A+fifty+years+of+satellite+communication%22&rft.pub=Archive.org&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fbeyondionosphere00unitrich%2Fbeyondionosphere00unitrich_djvu.txt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShortwave+radio" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Hugill1999-11"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Hugill1999_11-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Peter J. Hugill (4 March 1999). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GjfBkup-ccMC&pg=PA129"><I>Global Communications Since 1844: Geopolitics and Technology</I></A>. JHU Press. pp. 129–. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-6074-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-6074-4">978-0-8018-6074-4</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Global+Communications+Since+1844%3A+Geopolitics+and+Technology&rft.pages=129-&rft.pub=JHU+Press&rft.date=1999-03-04&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-6074-4&rft.au=Peter+J.+Hugill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGjfBkup-ccMC%26pg%3DPA129&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShortwave+radio" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-12"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-12"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.porthcurno.org.uk/page.php?id=104">Cable and Wireless Plc History</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320053915/http://www.porthcurno.org.uk/page.php?id=104">Archived</A> 2015-03-20 at the <A href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</A>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-13"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-13"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Stormfax. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stormfax.com/wireless.htm">Marconi Wireless on Cape Cod</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-14"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-14"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.radio-club-of-america.org/history.php?page=1921.html">"1921 – Club Station 1BCG and the Transatlantic Tests"</A>. Radio Club of America<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-09-05</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=1921+%E2%80%93+Club+Station+1BCG+and+the+Transatlantic+Tests&rft.pub=Radio+Club+of+America&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.radio-club-of-america.org%2Fhistory.php%3Fpage%3D1921.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShortwave+radio" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-15"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-15"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation magazine"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uiug.30112106763342;view=1up;seq=63">"Radio Service Bulletin No. 72, pp. 9–13"</A>. Bureau of Navigation, Department of Commerce. 1923-04-02<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-09-05</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Radio+Service+Bulletin+No.+72%2C+pp.+9%E2%80%9313&rft.pub=Bureau+of+Navigation%2C+Department+of+Commerce&rft.date=1923-04-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Duiug.30112106763342%3Bview%3D1up%3Bseq%3D63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShortwave+radio" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-16"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-16"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.arrl.org/news/features/1998/1102/2/?nc=1">[1]</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091130112737/http://www.arrl.org/news/features/1998/1102/2/?nc=1">Archived</A> November 30, 2009, at the <A href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</A>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-17"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-17"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://earlyradiohistory.us/1924conf.htm">"Recommendations for Regulation of Radio: October 6–10, 1924"</A>. Earlyradiohistory.us<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2012-08-31</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Recommendations+for+Regulation+of+Radio%3A+October+6%E2%80%9310%2C+1924&rft.pub=Earlyradiohistory.us&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fearlyradiohistory.us%2F1924conf.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShortwave+radio" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-18"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-18"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.twiar.org/aaarchives/WB008.txt">http://www.twiar.org/aaarchives/WB008.txt</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-19"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-19"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Karl Rawer:"Wave Propagation in the Ionosphere". Kluwer, Dordrecht 1993 <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7923-0775-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-7923-0775-5">0-7923-0775-5</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-20"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-20"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.shortwaveradio.ch/radio-e/panasonic-e.htm">Panasonic/National</A> ShortwaveRadio.ch</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-21"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-21"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sites.google.com/site/feldhellclub/Home/feld-hell-faq">"Feld Hell Club"</A>. <I>Google Sites</I>. Google<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">9 January</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Google+Sites&rft.atitle=Feld+Hell+Club&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsites.google.com%2Fsite%2Ffeldhellclub%2FHome%2Ffeld-hell-faq&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShortwave+radio" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-22"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-22"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Ian Robertson Sinclair, <I>Audio and Hi-Fi Handbook</I>, Newnes, 2000 <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7506-4975-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-7506-4975-5">0-7506-4975-5</A> pp. 195–196</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Sterling2004-23"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Sterling2004_23-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Christopher H. Sterling (March 2004). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-UeveLMilioC&pg=PA538"><I>Encyclopedia of Radio 3-Volume Set</I></A>. Routledge. pp. 538–. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-45649-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-45649-8">978-1-135-45649-8</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Radio+3-Volume+Set&rft.pages=538-&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004-03&rft.isbn=978-1-135-45649-8&rft.au=Christopher+H.+Sterling&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-UeveLMilioC%26pg%3DPA538&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShortwave+radio" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Magazines1940-24"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Magazines1940_24-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Hearst Magazines (January 1940). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3tkDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA62"><I>Popular Mechanics</I></A>. Hearst Magazines. pp. 62–.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Popular+Mechanics&rft.pages=62-&rft.pub=Hearst+Magazines&rft.date=1940-01&rft.au=Hearst+Magazines&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3tkDAAAAMBAJ%26pg%3DPA62&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShortwave+radio" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-IARU-25"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-IARU_25-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iaru.org/monitoring-system.html">"IARU Monitoring System"</A>. <I>iaru.org</I>. International Amateur Radio Union (IARU)<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">28 November</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=iaru.org&rft.atitle=IARU+Monitoring+System&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iaru.org%2Fmonitoring-system.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShortwave+radio" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Yoder2002-26"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Yoder2002_26-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Andrew R. Yoder (2002). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qMjT5wOX-d4C"><I>Pirate Radio Stations: Tuning in to Underground Broadcasts in the Air and Online</I></A>. McGraw Hill Professional. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-137563-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-137563-4">978-0-07-137563-4</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pirate+Radio+Stations%3A+Tuning+in+to+Underground+Broadcasts+in+the+Air+and+Online&rft.pub=McGraw+Hill+Professional&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-07-137563-4&rft.au=Andrew+R.+Yoder&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqMjT5wOX-d4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShortwave+radio" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-BychkovGolubkov2010-27"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-BychkovGolubkov2010_27-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Vladimir Bychkov; Gennady Golubkov; Anatoly Nikitin (17 July 2010). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rrSgz8l0EI0C&pg=PA104"><I>The Atmosphere and Ionosphere: Dynamics, Processes and Monitoring</I></A>. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 104–. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-481-3212-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-481-3212-6">978-90-481-3212-6</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Atmosphere+and+Ionosphere%3A+Dynamics%2C+Processes+and+Monitoring&rft.pages=104-&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2010-07-17&rft.isbn=978-90-481-3212-6&rft.au=Vladimir+Bychkov&rft.au=Gennady+Golubkov&rft.au=Anatoly+Nikitin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrrSgz8l0EI0C%26pg%3DPA104&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShortwave+radio" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-28"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-28"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rijksoverheid.nl/onderwerpen/frequentiebeleid/documenten-en-publicaties/rapporten/2007/01/18/nationaal-frequentieplan-nfp.html">Nationaal Frequentieplan</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-29"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-29"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.w4uvh.net/dxld7078.txt">http://www.w4uvh.net/dxld7078.txt</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-30"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-30"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Habrat, Marek. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oldradio.pl/karta_odb.php?nrmod=471">"Odbiornik "Roksana" (Radio constructor's recollections)"</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2008-08-05</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Odbiornik+%22Roksana%22+%28Radio+constructor%27s+recollections%29&rft.aulast=Habrat&rft.aufirst=Marek&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foldradio.pl%2Fkarta_odb.php%3Fnrmod%3D471&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShortwave+radio" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-31"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-31"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.aptsec.org/meetings/2002/apg2003-4/(56)ABU.doc">[2]</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050210001613/http://www.aptsec.org/meetings/2002/apg2003-4/(56)ABU.doc">Archived</A> February 10, 2005, at the <A href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</A>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-32"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-32"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Arlyn T. Anderson. "Changes at the BBC World Service: Documenting the World Service's Move From Shortwave to Web Radio in North America, Australia, and New Zealand", <I>Journal of Radio Studies</I> 2005, Vol. 12, No. 2, Pages 286–304 <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1207%2Fs15506843jrs1202_8">10.1207/s15506843jrs1202_8</A> mentioned in <A rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.wwcr.com/wwcr_faq/latest_sw_rx_research.html">[3]</A> WWCR FAQ</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-33"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-33"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dxing.com/webclink.htm">Web-Controlled Radios</A> DXing.com</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Wörner1973-34"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Wörner1973_34-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Wörner1973_34-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Karl Heinrich Wörner (1973). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aqmMPnlXZOMC&pg=PA76"><I>Stockhausen; Life and Work</I></A>. University of California Press. pp. 76–. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-02143-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-02143-3">978-0-520-02143-3</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stockhausen%3B+Life+and+Work&rft.pages=76-&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-520-02143-3&rft.au=Karl+Heinrich+W%C3%B6rner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaqmMPnlXZOMC%26pg%3DPA76&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShortwave+radio" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Sheppard2009-35"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Sheppard2009_35-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Sheppard2009_35-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">David Sheppard (1 May 2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rZluAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA275"><I>On Some Faraway Beach: The Life and Times of Brian Eno</I></A>. Chicago Review Press. pp. 275–. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55652-107-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55652-107-2">978-1-55652-107-2</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+Some+Faraway+Beach%3A+The+Life+and+Times+of+Brian+Eno&rft.pages=275-&rft.pub=Chicago+Review+Press&rft.date=2009-05-01&rft.isbn=978-1-55652-107-2&rft.au=David+Sheppard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrZluAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA275&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShortwave+radio" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Wire-36"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Wire_36-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Wire_36-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zB5MAAAAYAAJ"><I>The Wire</I></A>. C. Parker. 2000.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wire&rft.pub=C.+Parker&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzB5MAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShortwave+radio" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Dolp2017-37"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Dolp2017_37-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Laura Dolp (13 July 2017). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=l8wnDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA83"><I>Arvo Pärt's White Light</I></A>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 83–. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-18289-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-18289-9">978-1-107-18289-9</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arvo+P%C3%A4rt%27s+White+Light&rft.pages=83-&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2017-07-13&rft.isbn=978-1-107-18289-9&rft.au=Laura+Dolp&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dl8wnDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA83&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShortwave+radio" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Barr2013-38"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Barr2013_38-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Tim Barr (31 August 2013). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0mcj4h2qEhQC&pg=PT98"><I>Kraftwerk: from Dusseldorf to the Future With Love</I></A>. Ebury Publishing. pp. 98–. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4481-7776-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4481-7776-9">978-1-4481-7776-9</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kraftwerk%3A+from+Dusseldorf+to+the+Future+With+Love&rft.pages=98-&rft.pub=Ebury+Publishing&rft.date=2013-08-31&rft.isbn=978-1-4481-7776-9&rft.au=Tim+Barr&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0mcj4h2qEhQC%26pg%3DPT98&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShortwave+radio" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-39"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-39"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thethe.com/sections/radio.php">Radio Cineola</A> www.thethe.com <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111218173001/http://www.thethe.com/sections/radio.php">Archived</A> December 18, 2011, at the <A href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</A>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-RW-40"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-RW_40-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-RW_40-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-RW_40-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Careless, James. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.radioworld.com/digital-radio/0014/the-evolution-of-shortwave-radio/338422">"The Evolution of Shortwave Radio"</A>. <I>Radio World</I>. NewBay Media<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">16 February</SPAN> 2018</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Radio+World&rft.atitle=The+Evolution+of+Shortwave+Radio&rft.aulast=Careless&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.radioworld.com%2Fdigital-radio%2F0014%2Fthe-evolution-of-shortwave-radio%2F338422&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShortwave+radio" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-HrasnicaHaidine2005-41"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-HrasnicaHaidine2005_41-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Halid Hrasnica; Abdelfatteh Haidine; Ralf Lehnert (14 January 2005). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d270N6yvWCoC&pg=PA34"><I>Broadband Powerline Communications: Network Design</I></A>. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 34–. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-85742-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-85742-7">978-0-470-85742-7</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Broadband+Powerline+Communications%3A+Network+Design&rft.pages=34-&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2005-01-14&rft.isbn=978-0-470-85742-7&rft.au=Halid+Hrasnica&rft.au=Abdelfatteh+Haidine&rft.au=Ralf+Lehnert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dd270N6yvWCoC%26pg%3DPA34&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShortwave+radio" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
</OL>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<UL>
<LI>Ulrich L. Rohde, Jerry Whitaker "Communications Receivers, Third Edition" McGraw Hill, New York, NY, 2001, <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-136121-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-07-136121-9">0-07-136121-9</A>.</LI>
</UL>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Shortwave_radio&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<UL>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.swling.com/">SWLing.com</A> – A beginner's guide to shortwave radio listening.</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Glenn_Hauser" title="Glenn Hauser">Glenn Hauser</A>'s <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldofradio.com">World of Radio</A> website</LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://propagation.hfradio.org/">Space Weather and Radio Propagation Center</A> View live and historical data and images of <A href="/wiki/Space_weather" title="Space weather">space weather</A> and <A href="/wiki/Radio_propagation" title="Radio propagation">radio propagation</A>.</LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.economist.com/world/international/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11590746&fsrc=RSS">Short-wave radio, Snap and crackle goes pop, Life in the old wireless yet</A> <A href="/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</A> article describing pros and cons of short wave radio since the <A href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</A>.</LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4OIDAAAAMBAJ&pg=-PA114&dq=Popular+Science+1930+plane+%22Popular+Mechanics%22&hl=en&ei=NCt4TtDKIqnf0QG65_3-Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=book-thumbnail&resnum=6&ved=0CEIQ6wEwBTge#v=onepage&q&f=true">"Short-Wave Radio Telephone is Success in Tests" <I>Popular Mechanics</I>, July 1931, mid page</A> experiments carried out for the French and British governments</LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://queescucharenlaoc.blogspot.com">Que Escuchar en la Onda Corta en Español</A> website</LI>
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<DIV id="Time_signal_stations" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><A href="/wiki/Radio_clock" title="Radio clock">Time signal stations</A></DIV>
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<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Longwave" title="Longwave">Longwave</A></TH>
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<LI><SPAN class="flagicon"><A href="/wiki/China" title="China"><IMG alt="China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></A></SPAN> <A href="/wiki/BPC_(time_signal)" title="BPC (time signal)">BPC</A></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="flagicon"><A href="/wiki/China" title="China"><IMG alt="China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></A></SPAN> <A href="/wiki/BPL_(time_service)" title="BPL (time service)">BPL</A></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="flagicon"><A href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan"><IMG alt="Taiwan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></A></SPAN> <A href="/wiki/BSF_(time_service)" title="BSF (time service)">BSF</A></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="flagicon"><A href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany"><IMG alt="Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/15px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" width="15" height="9" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/30px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></A></SPAN> <A href="/wiki/DCF77" title="DCF77">DCF77</A></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="flagicon"><A href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><IMG alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/15px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/30px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></A></SPAN> <A href="/wiki/JJY" title="JJY">JJY</A></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="flagicon"><A href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia"><IMG alt="Russia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/15px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></A></SPAN> <A href="/wiki/RBU_(radio_station)" title="RBU (radio station)">RBU</A></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="flagicon"><A href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia"><IMG alt="Russia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/15px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></A></SPAN> <A href="/wiki/Beta_(time_signal)" title="Beta (time signal)">RJH66 (Beta)</A></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="flagicon"><A href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia"><IMG alt="Russia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/15px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></A></SPAN> <A href="/wiki/RTZ_(radio_station)" title="RTZ (radio station)">RTZ</A></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="flagicon"><A href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><IMG alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></A></SPAN> <A href="/wiki/Time_from_NPL_(MSF)" title="Time from NPL (MSF)">MSF</A></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="flagicon"><A href="/wiki/France" title="France"><IMG alt="France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/15px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/30px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></A></SPAN> <A href="/wiki/TDF_time_signal" title="TDF time signal">TDF</A></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="flagicon"><A href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><IMG alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></A></SPAN> <A href="/wiki/WWVB" title="WWVB">WWVB</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/High_frequency" title="High frequency">Shortwave</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><SPAN class="flagicon"><A href="/wiki/China" title="China"><IMG alt="China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></A></SPAN> <A href="/wiki/BPM_(time_service)" title="BPM (time service)">BPM</A></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="flagicon"><A href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan"><IMG alt="Taiwan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></A></SPAN> <A href="/wiki/BSF_(time_service)" title="BSF (time service)">BSF</A></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="flagicon"><A href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada"><IMG alt="Canada" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/cf/Flag_of_Canada.svg/15px-Flag_of_Canada.svg.png" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/cf/Flag_of_Canada.svg/23px-Flag_of_Canada.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/cf/Flag_of_Canada.svg/30px-Flag_of_Canada.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></A></SPAN> <A href="/wiki/CHU_(radio_station)" title="CHU (radio station)">CHU</A></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="flagicon"><A href="/wiki/Ecuador" title="Ecuador"><IMG alt="Ecuador" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Flag_of_Ecuador.svg/15px-Flag_of_Ecuador.svg.png" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Flag_of_Ecuador.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ecuador.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Flag_of_Ecuador.svg/30px-Flag_of_Ecuador.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1440" data-file-height="960" /></A></SPAN> <A href="/wiki/HD2IOA" title="HD2IOA">HD2IOA</A></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="flagicon"><A href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea"><IMG alt="South Korea" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/15px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/23px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/30px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></A></SPAN> <A href="/wiki/HLA_(radio_station)" title="HLA (radio station)">HLA</A></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="flagicon"><A href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy"><IMG alt="Italy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/15px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/30px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></A></SPAN> <A href="/wiki/JN53DV" title="JN53DV">JN53DV</A></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="flagicon"><A href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia"><IMG alt="Russia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/15px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></A></SPAN> <A href="/wiki/RWM" title="RWM">RWM</A></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="flagicon"><A href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain"><IMG alt="Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/15px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/23px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/30px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></A></SPAN> <A href="/wiki/ROA_Time" title="ROA Time">ROA</A></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="flagicon"><A href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><IMG alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></A></SPAN> <A href="/wiki/WWV_(radio_station)" title="WWV (radio station)">WWV</A></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="flagicon"><A href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii"><IMG alt="Hawaii" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Flag_of_Hawaii.svg/15px-Flag_of_Hawaii.svg.png" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Flag_of_Hawaii.svg/23px-Flag_of_Hawaii.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Flag_of_Hawaii.svg/30px-Flag_of_Hawaii.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></A></SPAN> <A href="/wiki/WWVH" title="WWVH">WWVH (Hawaii, USA)</A></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="flagicon"><A href="/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela"><IMG alt="Venezuela" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flag_of_Venezuela.svg/15px-Flag_of_Venezuela.svg.png" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flag_of_Venezuela.svg/23px-Flag_of_Venezuela.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flag_of_Venezuela.svg/30px-Flag_of_Venezuela.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></A></SPAN> <A href="/wiki/YVTO" title="YVTO">YVTO</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Very-high_frequency" class="mw-redirect" title="Very-high frequency">VHF</A>/<A href="/wiki/FM_band" class="mw-redirect" title="FM band">FM</A>/<A href="/wiki/Ultra-high_frequency" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultra-high frequency">UHF</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/RDS_CT" class="mw-redirect" title="RDS CT">RDS CT</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Satellite_navigation" title="Satellite navigation">Satellite</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><SPAN class="flagicon"><A href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><IMG alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></A></SPAN> <A href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">GPS</A></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="flagicon"><A href="/wiki/China" title="China"><IMG alt="China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></A></SPAN> <A href="/wiki/BeiDou_Navigation_Satellite_System" title="BeiDou Navigation Satellite System">BeiDou</A></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="flagicon"><A href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union"><IMG alt="European Union" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/15px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/23px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/30px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="810" data-file-height="540" /></A></SPAN> <A href="/wiki/Galileo_(satellite_navigation)" title="Galileo (satellite navigation)">Galileo</A></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="flagicon"><A href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia"><IMG alt="Russia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/15px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></A></SPAN> <A href="/wiki/GLONASS" title="GLONASS">GLONASS</A></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="flagicon"><A href="/wiki/India" title="India"><IMG alt="India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/15px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/30px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1350" data-file-height="900" /></A></SPAN> <A href="/wiki/Indian_Regional_Navigation_Satellite_System" title="Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System">IRNSS</A></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="flagicon"><A href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><IMG alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/15px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/30px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></A></SPAN> <A href="/wiki/Quasi-Zenith_Satellite_System" title="Quasi-Zenith Satellite System">QZSS</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Defunct</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><SPAN class="flagicon"><A href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland"><IMG alt="Switzerland" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg/15px-Flag_of_Switzerland.svg.png" width="15" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Switzerland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg/30px-Flag_of_Switzerland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></A></SPAN> <A href="/wiki/HBG_(time_signal)" title="HBG (time signal)">HBG</A></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="flagicon"><A href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><IMG alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></A></SPAN> <A href="/wiki/NAA_(defunct)" title="NAA (defunct)">NAA</A></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="flagicon"><A href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><IMG alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></A></SPAN> <A href="/wiki/WWVB#History" title="WWVB">WWVL</A></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="flagicon"><A href="/wiki/Czech_Republic" title="Czech Republic"><IMG alt="Czech Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></A></SPAN> <A href="/wiki/OMA_(time_signal)" title="OMA (time signal)">OMA</A></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="flagicon"><A href="/wiki/Czech_Republic" title="Czech Republic"><IMG alt="Czech Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></A></SPAN> <A href="/wiki/OLB5" title="OLB5">OLB5</A></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="flagicon"><A href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia"><IMG alt="Australia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg/15px-Flag_of_Australia.svg.png" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Australia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Australia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="640" /></A></SPAN> <A href="/wiki/Radio_VNG" title="Radio VNG">VNG</A></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="flagicon"><A href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany"><IMG alt="East Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/15px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png" width="15" height="9" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/23px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/30px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></A></SPAN> <A href="/wiki/Y3S" title="Y3S">Y3S</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
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</DIV>
<DIV role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Analog_and_digital_audio_broadcasting" style="padding:3px">
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<LI class="nv-view"><A href="/wiki/Template:Audio_broadcasting" title="Template:Audio broadcasting"><ABBR title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none;">v</ABBR></A></LI>
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<DIV id="Analog_and_digital_audio_broadcasting" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><A href="/wiki/Analog_recording" title="Analog recording">Analog</A> and <A href="/wiki/Digital_audio" title="Digital audio">digital audio</A> <A href="/wiki/Broadcasting" title="Broadcasting">broadcasting</A></DIV>
</TH>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terrestrial</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
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<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">Radio</A> <A href="/wiki/Modulation" title="Modulation">modulation</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Amplitude_modulation" title="Amplitude modulation">AM</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Frequency_modulation" title="Frequency modulation">FM</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Orthogonal_frequency-division_multiplexing" title="Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing">COFDM</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Frequency_allocation" title="Frequency allocation">Frequency allocations</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Longwave" title="Longwave">LW</A> (<A href="/wiki/Low_frequency" title="Low frequency">LF</A>)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Medium_wave" title="Medium wave">MW</A> (<A href="/wiki/Medium_frequency" title="Medium frequency">MF</A>)</LI>
<LI><A class="mw-selflink selflink">SW</A> (<A href="/wiki/High_frequency" title="High frequency">HF</A>)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Very_high_frequency" title="Very high frequency">VHF</A> (<A href="/wiki/Band_I" title="Band I">low</A> / <A href="/wiki/Band_II" title="Band II">mid</A> / <A href="/wiki/Band_III" title="Band III">high</A>)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/L_band" title="L band">L band</A> (<A href="/wiki/Ultra_high_frequency" title="Ultra high frequency">UHF</A>)</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Digital systems</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/CAM-D" title="CAM-D">CAM-D</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Digital_audio_broadcasting" title="Digital audio broadcasting">DAB/DAB+</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Digital_Radio_Mondiale" title="Digital Radio Mondiale">DRM/DRM+</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/FMeXtra" title="FMeXtra">FMeXtra</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/HD_Radio" title="HD Radio">HD Radio</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/w/index.php?title=China_Digital_Radio&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="China Digital Radio (page does not exist)">CDR</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/DVB-T2" title="DVB-T2">DVB-T2 Lite</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Satellite</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Frequency allocations</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/C_band_(IEEE)" title="C band (IEEE)">C band</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ku_band" title="Ku band">K<SUB>u</SUB> band</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/L_band" title="L band">L band</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/S_band" title="S band">S band</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Digital systems</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Astra_Digital_Radio" title="Astra Digital Radio">ADR</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Digital_audio_broadcasting" title="Digital audio broadcasting">DAB-S</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/DVB-SH" title="DVB-SH">DVB-SH</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/S-DMB" title="S-DMB">S-DMB</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/ETSI_Satellite_Digital_Radio" title="ETSI Satellite Digital Radio">SDR</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Commercial_broadcasting" title="Commercial broadcasting">Commercial radio</A> providers</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/1worldspace" title="1worldspace">1worldspace</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sirius_XM_Holdings" title="Sirius XM Holdings">Sirius XM Holdings</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/SiriusXM_Canada" title="SiriusXM Canada">SiriusXM Canada</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Codec" title="Codec">Codecs</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Advanced_Audio_Coding" title="Advanced Audio Coding">AAC</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Extended_Adaptive_Multi-Rate_%E2%80%93_Wideband" title="Extended Adaptive Multi-Rate – Wideband">AMR-WB+</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/High-Definition_Coding" title="High-Definition Coding">HDC</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/High-Efficiency_Advanced_Audio_Coding" title="High-Efficiency Advanced Audio Coding">HE-AAC</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/MPEG-1_Audio_Layer_II" title="MPEG-1 Audio Layer II">MPEG-1 Audio Layer II</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Subcarrier" title="Subcarrier">Subcarrier</A> signals</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Amplitude_modulation_signalling_system" title="Amplitude modulation signalling system">AMSS</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/DirectBand" title="DirectBand">DirectBand</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Program-associated_data" title="Program-associated data">PAD</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Radio_Data_System" title="Radio Data System">RDS/RBDS</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Subsidiary_communications_authority" title="Subsidiary communications authority">SCA/SCMO</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Data_Radio_Channel" title="Data Radio Channel">DARC</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TD colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
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<TH scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2">
<DIV id="Related_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Related topics</DIV>
</TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technical (audio)</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Audio_data_compression" class="mw-redirect" title="Audio data compression">Audio data compression</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Audio_signal_processing" title="Audio signal processing">Audio signal processing</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technical (<A href="/wiki/AM_stereo" title="AM stereo">AM stereo</A> formats)</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/AM_stereo#Belar_System" title="AM stereo">Belar</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/C-QUAM" title="C-QUAM">C-QUAM</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/AM_stereo#Harris_System" title="AM stereo">Harris</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/AM_stereo#Kahn-Hazeltine" title="AM stereo">Kahn-Hazeltine</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/AM_stereo#Magnavox_System" title="AM stereo">Magnavox</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technical (emission)</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/AM_broadcasting" title="AM broadcasting">AM broadcasting</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/AM_expanded_band" title="AM expanded band">AM expanded band</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cable_radio" title="Cable radio">Cable radio</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Digital_radio" title="Digital radio">Digital radio</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Error_detection_and_correction" title="Error detection and correction">Error detection and correction</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/FM_broadcast_band" title="FM broadcast band">FM broadcast band</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/FM_broadcasting" title="FM broadcasting">FM broadcasting</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Multipath_propagation" title="Multipath propagation">Multipath propagation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Shortwave_relay_station" title="Shortwave relay station">Shortwave relay station</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cultural</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_radio" title="History of radio">History of radio</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/International_broadcasting" title="International broadcasting">International broadcasting</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2">
<DIV>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Comparison_of_radio_systems" title="Comparison of radio systems">Comparison of radio systems</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
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</TD>
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</TBODY></TABLE>
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<DIV id="Radio_spectrum_(ITU)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><A href="/wiki/Radio_spectrum" title="Radio spectrum">Radio spectrum</A> (ITU)</DIV>
</TH>
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<DIV>
<P><B><A href="/wiki/Extremely_low_frequency" title="Extremely low frequency">ELF</A></B><BR />
3 Hz/100 Mm<BR />
30 Hz/10 Mm</P>
</DIV>
</TD>
<TD class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;;;;width:10em;">
<DIV>
<P><B><A href="/wiki/Super_low_frequency" title="Super low frequency">SLF</A></B><BR />
30 Hz/10 Mm<BR />
300 Hz/1 Mm</P>
</DIV>
</TD>
<TD class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;;;;width:10em;">
<DIV>
<P><B><A href="/wiki/Ultra_low_frequency" title="Ultra low frequency">ULF</A></B><BR />
300 Hz/1 Mm<BR />
3 kHz/100 km</P>
</DIV>
</TD>
<TD class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;;;;width:10em;">
<DIV>
<P><B><A href="/wiki/Very_low_frequency" title="Very low frequency">VLF</A></B><BR />
3 kHz/100 km<BR />
30 kHz/10 km</P>
</DIV>
</TD>
<TD class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;;;;width:10em;">
<DIV>
<P><B><A href="/wiki/Low_frequency" title="Low frequency">LF</A></B><BR />
30 kHz/10 km<BR />
300 kHz/1 km</P>
</DIV>
</TD>
<TD class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;;;;width:10em;">
<DIV>
<P><B><A href="/wiki/Medium_frequency" title="Medium frequency">MF</A></B><BR />
300 kHz/1 km<BR />
3 MHz/100 m</P>
</DIV>
</TD>
<TD class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;;;;width:10em;">
<DIV>
<P><B><A href="/wiki/High_frequency" title="High frequency">HF</A></B><BR />
3 MHz/100 m<BR />
30 MHz/10 m</P>
</DIV>
</TD>
<TD class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;;;;width:10em;">
<DIV>
<P><B><A href="/wiki/Very_high_frequency" title="Very high frequency">VHF</A></B><BR />
30 MHz/10 m<BR />
300 MHz/1 m</P>
</DIV>
</TD>
<TD class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;;;;width:10em;">
<DIV>
<P><B><A href="/wiki/Ultra_high_frequency" title="Ultra high frequency">UHF</A></B><BR />
300 MHz/1 m<BR />
3 GHz/100 mm</P>
</DIV>
</TD>
<TD class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;;;;width:10em;">
<DIV>
<P><B><A href="/wiki/Super_high_frequency" title="Super high frequency">SHF</A></B><BR />
3 GHz/100 mm<BR />
30 GHz/10 mm</P>
</DIV>
</TD>
<TD class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;;;;width:10em;">
<DIV>
<P><B><A href="/wiki/Extremely_high_frequency" title="Extremely high frequency">EHF</A></B><BR />
30 GHz/10 mm<BR />
300 GHz/1 mm</P>
</DIV>
</TD>
<TD class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;;;;width:10em;">
<DIV>
<P><B><A href="/wiki/Tremendously_high_frequency" class="mw-redirect" title="Tremendously high frequency">THF</A></B><BR />
300 GHz/1 mm<BR />
3 THz/0.1 mm</P>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</DIV>
<DIV role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Electromagnetic_spectrum" style="padding:3px">
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<DIV id="Electromagnetic_spectrum" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><A href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">Electromagnetic spectrum</A></DIV>
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<TD class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="padding:0.3em 0.5em 0.4em;line-height:1.25em;font-weight:bold;">
<DIV>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">Gamma rays</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-rays</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">Ultraviolet</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Visible_spectrum" title="Visible spectrum">Visible</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">Infrared</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Terahertz_radiation" title="Terahertz radiation">Terahertz radiation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">Microwave</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">Radio</A>
<DIV class="center">
<DIV class="floatnone"><A href="/wiki/File:Frequency_vs._wave_length.svg" class="image"><IMG alt="Frequency vs. wave length.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Frequency_vs._wave_length.svg/500px-Frequency_vs._wave_length.svg.png" width="500" height="66" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Frequency_vs._wave_length.svg/750px-Frequency_vs._wave_length.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Frequency_vs._wave_length.svg/1000px-Frequency_vs._wave_length.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="105" /></A></DIV>
</DIV>
<DIV style="clear:both;"></DIV>
<SPAN style="font-weight:normal;"><I><SPAN style="font-size: 120%;">←</SPAN> higher <A href="/wiki/Frequency" title="Frequency">frequencies</A><SPAN class="nowrap">       </SPAN>longer <A href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelengths</A> <SPAN style="font-size: 120%;">→</SPAN></I></SPAN></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lavender;"><A href="/wiki/Visible_spectrum" title="Visible spectrum">Visible (optical)</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Violet_(color)" title="Violet (color)">Violet</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Blue" title="Blue">Blue</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Green" title="Green">Green</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Yellow" title="Yellow">Yellow</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Orange_(colour)" title="Orange (colour)">Orange</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Red" title="Red">Red</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lavender;"><A href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">Microwaves</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/W_band" title="W band">W band</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/V_band" title="V band">V band</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Q_band" title="Q band">Q band</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ka_band" title="Ka band">K<SUB>a</SUB> band</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/K_band_(IEEE)" title="K band (IEEE)">K band</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ku_band" title="Ku band">K<SUB>u</SUB> band</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/X_band" title="X band">X band</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/S_band" title="S band">S band</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/C_band_(IEEE)" title="C band (IEEE)">C band</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/L_band" title="L band">L band</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lavender;"><A href="/wiki/Radio_frequency" title="Radio frequency">Radio</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Extremely_high_frequency" title="Extremely high frequency">EHF</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Super_high_frequency" title="Super high frequency">SHF</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ultra_high_frequency" title="Ultra high frequency">UHF</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Very_high_frequency" title="Very high frequency">VHF</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/High_frequency" title="High frequency">HF</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Medium_frequency" title="Medium frequency">MF</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Low_frequency" title="Low frequency">LF</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Very_low_frequency" title="Very low frequency">VLF</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ultra_low_frequency" title="Ultra low frequency">ULF</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Super_low_frequency" title="Super low frequency">SLF</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Extremely_low_frequency" title="Extremely low frequency">ELF</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lavender;"><A href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">Wavelength types</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">Microwave</A></LI>
<LI><A class="mw-selflink selflink">Shortwave</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Medium_wave" title="Medium wave">Medium wave</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Longwave" title="Longwave">Longwave</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</DIV>
<DIV role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Telecommunications" style="padding:3px">
<TABLE class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit" id="collapsibleTable4">
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<LI class="nv-view"><A href="/wiki/Template:Telecommunications" title="Template:Telecommunications"><ABBR title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none;">v</ABBR></A></LI>
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<DIV id="Telecommunications" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><A href="/wiki/Telecommunication" title="Telecommunication">Telecommunications</A></DIV>
</TH>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">History</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<DIV class="floatright"><A href="/wiki/File:Telecom-icon.svg" class="image" title="Telecommunications symbol"><IMG alt="Telecommunications symbol" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/50px-Telecom-icon.svg.png" width="50" height="50" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/75px-Telecom-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/100px-Telecom-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></A></DIV>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Beacon#For_defensive_communications" title="Beacon">Beacon</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_broadcasting" title="History of broadcasting">Broadcasting</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cable_protection_system" title="Cable protection system">Cable protection system</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cable_television" title="Cable television">Cable TV</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Communications_satellite#History" title="Communications satellite">Communications satellite</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Computer_network#History" title="Computer network">Computer network</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Drums_in_communication" title="Drums in communication">Drums</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph#History" title="Electrical telegraph">Electrical telegraph</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fax#History" title="Fax">Fax</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Heliograph#History" title="Heliograph">Heliographs</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hydraulic_telegraph#Greek_hydraulic_semaphore_system" title="Hydraulic telegraph">Hydraulic telegraph</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" title="History of the Internet">Internet</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mass_media#History" title="Mass media">Mass media</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_mobile_phones" title="History of mobile phones">Mobile phone</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Optical_communication" title="Optical communication">Optical telecommunication</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Semaphore_line#History" title="Semaphore line">Optical telegraphy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pager" title="Pager">Pager</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Photophone" title="Photophone">Photophone</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_prepay_mobile_phones" title="History of prepay mobile phones">Prepay mobile phone</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_radio" title="History of radio">Radio</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Radiotelephone" title="Radiotelephone">Radiotelephone</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">Satellite communications</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Flag_semaphore" title="Flag semaphore">Semaphore</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">Smartphone</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Smoke_signal" title="Smoke signal">Smoke signals</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">Telecommunications history</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Telautograph" title="Telautograph">Telautograph</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">Telegraphy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Teleprinter" title="Teleprinter">Teleprinter</A> (teletype)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_the_telephone" title="History of the telephone">Telephone</A></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/The_Telephone_Cases" title="The Telephone Cases">The Telephone Cases</A></I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_television" title="History of television">Television</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Timeline_of_communication_technology" title="Timeline of communication technology">Timeline of communication technology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Submarine_communications_cable#Early_history:_telegraph_and_coaxial_cables" title="Submarine communications cable">Undersea telegraph line</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Videoconferencing#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Videoconferencing">Videoconferencing</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Videophone#Early_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Videophone">Videophone</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_videotelephony" title="History of videotelephony">Videotelephony</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Whistled_language" title="Whistled language">Whistled language</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pioneers</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Edwin_Howard_Armstrong" title="Edwin Howard Armstrong">Edwin Howard Armstrong</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/John_Logie_Baird" title="John Logie Baird">John Logie Baird</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Paul_Baran" title="Paul Baran">Paul Baran</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Graham Bell</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Jagadish_Chandra_Bose" title="Jagadish Chandra Bose">Jagadish Chandra Bose</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Vint_Cerf" title="Vint Cerf">Vint Cerf</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Claude_Chappe" title="Claude Chappe">Claude Chappe</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Donald_Davies" title="Donald Davies">Donald Davies</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lee_de_Forest" title="Lee de Forest">Lee de Forest</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philo_Farnsworth" title="Philo Farnsworth">Philo Farnsworth</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Reginald_Fessenden" title="Reginald Fessenden">Reginald Fessenden</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Elisha_Gray" title="Elisha Gray">Elisha Gray</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Erna_Schneider_Hoover" title="Erna Schneider Hoover">Erna Schneider Hoover</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Charles_K._Kao" title="Charles K. Kao">Charles K. Kao</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hedy_Lamarr" title="Hedy Lamarr">Hedy Lamarr</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Innocenzo_Manzetti" title="Innocenzo Manzetti">Innocenzo Manzetti</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Antonio_Meucci" title="Antonio Meucci">Antonio Meucci</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Radia_Perlman" title="Radia Perlman">Radia Perlman</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Alexander_Stepanovich_Popov" title="Alexander Stepanovich Popov">Alexander Stepanovich Popov</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Johann_Philipp_Reis" title="Johann Philipp Reis">Johann Philipp Reis</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Camille_Tissot" title="Camille Tissot">Camille Tissot</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Alfred_Vail" title="Alfred Vail">Alfred Vail</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Charles_Wheatstone" title="Charles Wheatstone">Charles Wheatstone</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Vladimir_K._Zworykin" title="Vladimir K. Zworykin">Vladimir K. Zworykin</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Transmission_medium" title="Transmission medium">Transmission<BR />
media</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Coaxial_cable" title="Coaxial cable">Coaxial cable</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication" title="Fiber-optic communication">Fiber-optic communication</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">Optical fiber</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Free-space_optical_communication" title="Free-space optical communication">Free-space optical communication</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Molecular_communication" title="Molecular communication">Molecular communication</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">Radio waves</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Transmission_line" title="Transmission line">Transmission line</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Network_topology" title="Network topology">Network topology</A><BR />
and switching</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Telecommunications_link" title="Telecommunications link">Links</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Node_(networking)" title="Node (networking)">Nodes</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Terminal_(telecommunication)" title="Terminal (telecommunication)">Terminal node</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Network_switch" title="Network switch">Network switching</A> (<A href="/wiki/Circuit_switching" title="Circuit switching">circuit</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Packet_switching" title="Packet switching">packet</A>)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Telephone_exchange" title="Telephone exchange">Telephone exchange</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Multiplexing" title="Multiplexing">Multiplexing</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Space-division_multiple_access" title="Space-division multiple access">Space-division</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Frequency-division_multiplexing" title="Frequency-division multiplexing">Frequency-division</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Time-division_multiplexing" title="Time-division multiplexing">Time-division</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Polarization-division_multiplexing" title="Polarization-division multiplexing">Polarization-division</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Orbital_angular_momentum_multiplexing" title="Orbital angular momentum multiplexing">Orbital angular-momentum</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Code-division_multiple_access" title="Code-division multiple access">Code-division</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">Networks</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
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document_title: Shortwave radio

token: Shortwave

token: radio

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token: above

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token: broadcast

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token: waves

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token: can

token: be

token: reflected

token: or

token: refracted

token: a

token: layer

question_text: which mode is used for short wave broadcast service