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<TITLE>Forensic firearm examination - Wikipedia</TITLE>

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<H1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Forensic firearm examination</H1>			<DIV id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content">
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<P><B>Forensic firearm examination</B> is the <A href="/wiki/Forensic" class="mw-redirect" title="Forensic">forensic</A> process of examining the characteristics of <A href="/wiki/Firearm" title="Firearm">firearms</A> as well as any <A href="/wiki/Cartridge_(firearms)" title="Cartridge (firearms)">cartridges</A> or <A href="/wiki/Bullet" title="Bullet">bullets</A> left behind at a <A href="/wiki/Crime_scene" title="Crime scene">crime scene</A>. Specialists in this field are tasked with linking bullets and cartridges to weapons and weapons to individuals. Obliterated serial numbers can be raised and recorded in an attempt to find the registered owner of the weapon. Examiners can also look for fingerprints on the weapon and cartridges, and then viable prints can be processed through fingerprint databases for a potential match.</P>
<P>By examining unique striations, or markings, left behind on the bullet as it passes through the barrel and on the cartridge as it is hit by the firing pin, individual spent rounds can be linked back to a specific weapon. Known exemplars taken from a seized weapon can be directly compared to samples recovered from the scene using a <A href="/wiki/Comparison_microscope" title="Comparison microscope">comparison microscope</A>. Striation images can also be uploaded to any existing national databases. Furthermore, these markings can be compared to other images in an attempt to link one weapon to multiple crime scenes. Like all forensic specialties, forensic firearm examiners are subject to being called to testify in court as <A href="/wiki/Expert_witness" title="Expert witness">expert witnesses</A>.</P>
<P></P>
<DIV id="toc" class="toc">
<DIV class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr" xml:lang="en">
<H2>Contents</H2>
<SPAN class="toctoggle"> [<A role="button" tabindex="0" class="togglelink">hide</A>] </SPAN></DIV>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><A href="#History"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">History</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><A href="#Examination_of_the_firearm"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Examination of the firearm</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><A href="#Fingerprint_recovery"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Fingerprint recovery</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><A href="#Serial_number_recovery"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Serial number recovery</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><A href="#Magnetic_particle_inspection"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.2.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Magnetic particle inspection</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-6"><A href="#Chemical_restoration"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.2.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Chemical restoration</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><A href="#Examination_of_cartridges"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Examination of cartridges</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><A href="#Examination_of_bullets"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Examination of bullets</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><A href="#Class_characteristics"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Class characteristics</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><A href="#Individual_characteristics"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Individual characteristics</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><A href="#Striation_databasing"><SPAN class="tocnumber">5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Striation databasing</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><A href="#Criticisms"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Criticisms</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><A href="#See_also"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">See also</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><A href="#References"><SPAN class="tocnumber">8</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">References</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<P></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="History">History</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Forensic_firearm_examination&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>The ability to compare ammunition is a direct result of the invention of <A href="/wiki/Rifling" title="Rifling">rifling</A> around the turn of the 16th century.<SUP id="cite_ref-firearmsid_1-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-firearmsid-1">[1]</A></SUP> By forcing the bullet to spin as it travels down the <A href="/wiki/Gun_barrel" title="Gun barrel">barrel</A> of the weapon the bullet's accuracy greatly increases. At the same time, the rifling leaves marks on the bullet that are indicative of that particular barrel. Prior to mass production of firearms, each barrel and bullet mold was hand made by <A href="/wiki/Gunsmith" title="Gunsmith">gunsmiths</A> making them unique.<SUP id="cite_ref-ABA_2-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-ABA-2">[2]</A></SUP> The first successful documented case of forensic firearm examination occurred in 1835 when a member of the <A href="/wiki/Bow_Street_Runners" title="Bow Street Runners">Bow Street Runners</A> in London matched a recovered bullet from a murder victim to a specific mold in a suspect's home confirming that he made the bullet. Further evidence that the bullet maker was the perpetrator was found in his home and he was convicted.<SUP id="cite_ref-firearmsid_1-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-firearmsid-1">[1]</A></SUP> As manufacturing and automation replaced hand tools, the ability to compare bullets became impossible due to the standardization of molds within a specific company. However, experts in the field postulated that there were microscopic differences on each barrel left during the manufacturing process. These differences were a result of wear on the machines and since each new weapon caused a tiny amount of wear, each barrel would be slightly different from every other barrel produced by that company.<SUP id="cite_ref-ABA_2-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-ABA-2">[2]</A></SUP> Also, each bullet fired from a specific barrel would be printed with the same marks, allowing investigators to identify the weapon that fired a specific bullet.<SUP id="cite_ref-adaa_3-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-adaa-3">[3]</A></SUP></P>
<P>One of the first uses of this knowledge was in 1915 to exonerate Charles Stielow of the murder of his neighbors. Stielow was sentenced to death and appealed to <A href="/wiki/Charles_S._Whitman" title="Charles S. Whitman">Charles S. Whitman</A>, the Governor of New York, who was not convinced by the evidence used to convict Stielow. Whitman halted the execution until an inquiry could be conducted and after further examination it was shown that Stielow's firearm could not have fired the bullets recovered from the victims.<SUP id="cite_ref-Borchard_4-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Borchard-4">[4]</A></SUP> The invention of the <A href="/wiki/Comparison_microscope" title="Comparison microscope">comparison microscope</A> by <A href="/wiki/Calvin_Goddard_(ballistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvin Goddard (ballistics)">Calvin Goddard</A> and <A href="/w/index.php?title=Phillip_O._Gravelle&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phillip O. Gravelle (page does not exist)">Phillip O. Gravelle</A> in 1925 modernized the forensic examination of firearms.<SUP id="cite_ref-Cominvent_5-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Cominvent-5">[5]</A></SUP> Simultaneous comparison of two different objects at the same time allowed to closely examine striations for matches and therefore make a more definitive statement as to whether or not they matched.</P>
<P>One of the first true tests of this new technology was in the aftermath of the <A href="/wiki/Saint_Valentine%27s_Day_Massacre" title="Saint Valentine's Day Massacre">Saint Valentine's Day Massacre</A> in 1929. During the <A href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States" title="Prohibition in the United States">Prohibition Era</A>, competing gang members were fighting over <A href="/wiki/Rum-running" title="Rum-running">bootlegging</A> operations within the city of <A href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</A>. Members of the <A href="/wiki/Chicago_Outfit" title="Chicago Outfit">Chicago Outfit</A> and the <A href="/wiki/Egan%27s_Rats" title="Egan's Rats">Egan's Rats</A> led by <A href="/wiki/Al_Capone" title="Al Capone">Al Capone</A> attempted to remove all competition from Chicago by eliminating the <A href="/wiki/North_Side_Gang" title="North Side Gang">North Side Gang</A> leader <A href="/wiki/Bugs_Moran" title="Bugs Moran">Bugs Moran</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Massacre2_6-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Massacre2-6">[6]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Massacre_7-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Massacre-7">[7]</A></SUP> The massacre missed Moran, who was not present, but killed seven members of the North Side Gang. The murderers attempted to cover up their crime by posing as police officers, even dressing in police uniforms.<SUP id="cite_ref-Massacre_7-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Massacre-7">[7]</A></SUP> Witnesses saw two "officers" leaving the scene, which implicated the Chicago police department as the perpetrators of the massacre. High levels of police corruption during that time period made it seem likely that the police department committed the killings.<SUP id="cite_ref-Massacre_7-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Massacre-7">[7]</A></SUP> The investigation stalled until December 1929 when <A href="/wiki/Fred_Burke" title="Fred Burke">Fred Burke</A>, a member of the Egan's Rats, shot and killed a police officer in <A href="/wiki/St._Joseph,_Michigan" title="St. Joseph, Michigan">St. Joseph, Michigan</A>. Officers searching for Burke were led to a home in nearby <A href="/wiki/Stevensville,_Michigan" title="Stevensville, Michigan">Stevensville</A>. While Burke was not there, inside officers found an arsenal of weapons including two <A href="/wiki/Thompson_submachine_gun" title="Thompson submachine gun">Thompson submachine guns</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Massacre_7-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Massacre-7">[7]</A></SUP> The Chicago police department was contacted and the weapons were brought back to Chicago for testing. Goddard was asked to compare the weapons to collected evidence found at the massacre using his new "ballistic-forensics" technique. After test firing the guns, Goddard proved that the weapons were those used to kill the members of the North Side Gang, absolving the Chicago police department of all involvement.<SUP id="cite_ref-Massacre_7-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Massacre-7">[7]</A></SUP> The successful use of Goddard's technique resulted in the solidification of his place as the father of forensic firearm examination.<SUP id="cite_ref-father_8-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-father-8">[8]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Examination_of_the_firearm">Examination of the firearm</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Forensic_firearm_examination&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Examination of the firearm">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="thumb tleft">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Pistol_serial_number.png" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Pistol_serial_number.png/220px-Pistol_serial_number.png" width="220" height="186" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Pistol_serial_number.png/330px-Pistol_serial_number.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Pistol_serial_number.png/440px-Pistol_serial_number.png 2x" data-file-width="3184" data-file-height="2692" /></A>
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<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:Pistol_serial_number.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
Multiple serial numbers provide redundancy and make it difficult to fully remove the numbers from a weapon.</DIV>
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<P>Any firearm collected during the course of an investigation could yield viable evidence if examined. For forensic firearm examination specific evidence that can be recovered include weapon <A href="/wiki/Serial_number" class="mw-redirect" title="Serial number">serial numbers</A> and potentially <A href="/wiki/Fingerprint" title="Fingerprint">fingerprints</A> left on the weapon's surface.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Fingerprint_recovery">Fingerprint recovery</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Forensic_firearm_examination&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Fingerprint recovery">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>Fingerprint recovery from the surface of firearms is done with <A href="/wiki/Cyanoacrylate" title="Cyanoacrylate">cyanoacrylate</A> (more commonly known as superglue) fuming.<SUP id="cite_ref-Fomagpring_9-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Fomagpring-9">[9]</A></SUP> Firearms are placed in a specially designed <A href="/wiki/Fume_hood" title="Fume hood">fume hood</A> designed to evenly distribute fumes instead of removing them. Liquid superglue is placed in a container and heated until it is in a gaseous state. The circulating fumes adhere to the oils left behind by the fingerprint, turning the print white.<SUP id="cite_ref-BCAprint_10-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-BCAprint-10">[10]</A></SUP> The resulting white print can be enhanced with <A href="/wiki/Fingerprint_powder" title="Fingerprint powder">fingerprint powder</A> to increase the contrast of the white print against the weapon's finish.<SUP id="cite_ref-Fomagpring_9-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Fomagpring-9">[9]</A></SUP> While using the fuming technique on recovered guns is commonplace, the recovery of fingerprints from the surfaces of a firearm is challenging due to the textured grip and the general condition of recovered weapons.<SUP id="cite_ref-Fomagpring_9-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Fomagpring-9">[9]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-print_diff_11-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-print_diff-11">[11]</A></SUP> If fingerprints are recovered, they can be processed through fingerprint databases such as the <A href="/wiki/Integrated_Automated_Fingerprint_Identification_System" title="Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System">Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System</A> (IAFIS). Various parts of the recovered weapon can also be tested for touch DNA left by whomever handled it. However, the low levels of DNA that can be recovered presents numerous issues such as contamination and analysis anomalies such as <A href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">allele</A> drop-out and drop-in.<SUP id="cite_ref-GunDNA_12-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-GunDNA-12">[12]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Serial_number_recovery">Serial number recovery</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Forensic_firearm_examination&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Serial number recovery">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>Serial numbers became commonplace after the United States passed the <A href="/wiki/Gun_Control_Act_of_1968" title="Gun Control Act of 1968">Gun Control Act of 1968</A>. This law mandated that all guns manufactured or imported into the country have a serial number.<SUP id="cite_ref-GunAct_13-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-GunAct-13">[13]</A></SUP><SUP class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<SPAN>1223</SPAN></SUP> Prior to 1968, many firearms either did not have a serial number or the serial numbers were not unique and were reused by a manufacturer on multiple firearms.<SUP id="cite_ref-ATF_14-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-ATF-14">[14]</A></SUP> If a recovered weapon has had the serial numbers altered or destroyed, examiners can attempt to recover the original numbers. The two main methods for the restoration of serial numbers are <A href="/wiki/Magnetic_particle_inspection" title="Magnetic particle inspection">magnetic particle inspection</A> and chemical restoration.<SUP id="cite_ref-restore_15-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-restore-15">[15]</A></SUP> It is recommended that magnetic particle inspection be performed first due to the <A href="/wiki/Nondestructive_testing" title="Nondestructive testing">nondestructive</A> nature of the method.<SUP id="cite_ref-MPIBook_16-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-MPIBook-16">[16]</A></SUP> If magnetic particle inspection fails, chemical restoration is the next step in the forensic analysis.</P>
<P>If the serial number is successfully restored it can be used to help investigators track the weapon's history, as well as potentially determine who owns the weapon. Firearm databases such as the <A href="/wiki/National_Crime_Information_Center" title="National Crime Information Center">National Crime Information Center</A> of the United States and <A href="/wiki/INTERPOL" class="mw-redirect" title="INTERPOL">INTERPOL's</A> Firearm Reference Table can be used by investigators to track weapons that have been lost, stolen, or used previously in other crimes.<SUP id="cite_ref-IFRT_17-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-IFRT-17">[17]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-NCIC_18-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-NCIC-18">[18]</A></SUP></P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Magnetic_particle_inspection">Magnetic particle inspection</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Forensic_firearm_examination&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Magnetic particle inspection">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<P>Originally developed as a method to detect flaws or irregularities in <A href="/wiki/Ferromagnetism" title="Ferromagnetism">magnetic</A> materials, magnetic particle inspection can be used on firearms to visualize the serial number underneath the obliterated area.<SUP id="cite_ref-MPIBook_16-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-MPIBook-16">[16]</A></SUP> When performing this technique, examiners place the weapon in a <A href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic field</A>. The irregularities in the metal, in this case the serial number, cause the field to deform.<SUP id="cite_ref-MPIBook_16-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-MPIBook-16">[16]</A></SUP> When a solution of ferrous particles is added to the weapon's magnetized surface they will be attracted to the area where the magnetic field has deformed and will build up in the area.<SUP id="cite_ref-MPIUV_19-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-MPIUV-19">[19]</A></SUP> If <A href="/wiki/Fluorescence" title="Fluorescence">fluorescent</A> particles are added to the ferrous solution, <A href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet light">ultraviolet light</A> can be used to make it easier to visualize any recovered serial number.<SUP id="cite_ref-MPIUV_19-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-MPIUV-19">[19]</A></SUP></P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Chemical_restoration">Chemical restoration</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Forensic_firearm_examination&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Chemical restoration">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<P>Chemical restoration is a type of <A href="/wiki/Chemical_milling" title="Chemical milling">chemical milling</A>. Typically, chemical milling is used to slowly remove material to create a desired shape. In serial number restoration, small amounts of metal are removed until the serial number is brought back to the surface. This can be performed due to the depth that serial numbers are engraved into the weapon. However, chemical restoration is limited by that depth and is only successful when the obliteration of the serial number is superficial.<SUP id="cite_ref-depth_20-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-depth-20">[20]</A></SUP> Examiners performing a restoration first sand the area where the serial number used to be. This removes any debris from the area left when the serial number was obliterated.<SUP id="cite_ref-acids_21-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-acids-21">[21]</A></SUP> The examiner then chooses a chemical, usually an <A href="/wiki/Acid" title="Acid">acid</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-acids_21-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-acids-21">[21]</A></SUP> that will be used to slowly bring the number back to the surface. The type of chemical that is used depends on the material the weapon is made of. These acids can range from <A href="/w/index.php?title=Fry%27s_Reagent&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fry's Reagent (page does not exist)">Fry's Reagent</A> for a magnetic metal,<SUP id="cite_ref-restore_15-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-restore-15">[15]</A></SUP> which is a mixture of <A href="/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid" title="Hydrochloric acid">hydrochloric acid</A>, <A href="/wiki/Cupric_chloride" class="mw-redirect" title="Cupric chloride">cupric chloride</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Distilled_water" title="Distilled water">distilled water</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-Fry_22-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Fry-22">[22]</A></SUP> to an acidic <A href="/wiki/Ferric_chloride" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferric chloride">ferric chloride</A> solution for a non-magnetic, non-aluminum material.<SUP id="cite_ref-restore_15-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-restore-15">[15]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Examination_of_cartridges">Examination of cartridges</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Forensic_firearm_examination&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Examination of cartridges">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Fired_cartridge_comparison.png" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Fired_cartridge_comparison.png/220px-Fired_cartridge_comparison.png" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Fired_cartridge_comparison.png/330px-Fired_cartridge_comparison.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Fired_cartridge_comparison.png 2x" data-file-width="436" data-file-height="327" /></A>
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Two test-fired cartridges under magnification. Matching striations can be seen.</DIV>
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<P>Spent cartridges found at a scene can be examined for physical evidence such as fingerprints or compared to samples that match them to a weapon. The examination of the cartridge relies on the unique tool marks left by the various parts of the weapon including the <A href="/wiki/Firing_pin" title="Firing pin">firing pin</A> and the ejector in semi and fully automatic firearms. These markings can be compared and matched to known exemplars fired from the same weapon using the same parts.<SUP id="cite_ref-NASReport_23-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-NASReport-23">[23]</A></SUP><SUP class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<SPAN>151</SPAN></SUP> The examination of the marks left on the cartridge is done using a <A href="/wiki/Comparison_microscope" title="Comparison microscope">comparison microscope</A>. Examiners view the questioned cartridge and the known exemplar simultaneously, looking for similar microscopic marks left during the firing process.<SUP id="cite_ref-NASReport_23-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-NASReport-23">[23]</A></SUP><SUP class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<SPAN>152</SPAN></SUP></P>
<DIV class="thumb tleft">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:8digit_NanoTest.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/8digit_NanoTest.jpg/220px-8digit_NanoTest.jpg" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/8digit_NanoTest.jpg/330px-8digit_NanoTest.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/8digit_NanoTest.jpg/440px-8digit_NanoTest.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></A>
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Example of microstamping. Insert shows a close up of the serial number imprinted into the cartridge.</DIV>
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<P>Cartridges are also routinely examined for fingerprints as the act of loading the ammunition into the magazine, or chamber, leaves recoverable impressions. These fingerprints can survive the firing processes and, while a rare occurrence, fingerprints have been obtained from cartridges recovered from the scene.<SUP id="cite_ref-Cartprints_24-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Cartprints-24">[24]</A></SUP> Cartridges are subjected to cyanoacrylate fuming and examined for any usable prints. Usable prints are photographed and can be uploaded to fingerprint databases such as IAFIS for comparison with known exemplars. Cartridges can also be swabbed for trace DNA left by the individual who loaded the magazine. The extremely low levels of recoverable DNA present the same issues as swabbing a firearm for DNA.<SUP id="cite_ref-GunDNA_12-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-GunDNA-12">[12]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Advancements in microscopic stamping have led to a push for the inclusion of firing pin <A href="/wiki/Microstamping" title="Microstamping">microstamping</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Stampreport_25-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Stampreport-25">[25]</A></SUP><SUP class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<SPAN>16</SPAN></SUP> The microstamp is etched onto the firing pin and is transferred to the cartridge during the firing process. Each firing pin would have a unique serial number allowing investigators to trace casings found at a crime scene to a known firearm.<SUP id="cite_ref-Stampreport_25-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Stampreport-25">[25]</A></SUP><SUP class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<SPAN>17</SPAN></SUP> The practice is not in use as of 2018<SUP class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><A class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Forensic_firearm_examination&action=edit">[update]</A></SUP>, although California has enacted legislation that requires microstamping on all newly sold firearms.<SUP id="cite_ref-Calstamplaw_26-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Calstamplaw-26">[26]</A></SUP> The law, and microstamping in general, has received significant opposition from gun manufacturers due to increased costs associated with introducing the microstamps into the manufacturing lines.<SUP id="cite_ref-Nomicro_27-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Nomicro-27">[27]</A></SUP></P>
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<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Examination_of_bullets">Examination of bullets</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Forensic_firearm_examination&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Examination of bullets">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="thumb tleft">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Marlin_35_rem_2.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Marlin_35_rem_2.jpg/220px-Marlin_35_rem_2.jpg" width="220" height="204" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Marlin_35_rem_2.jpg/330px-Marlin_35_rem_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Marlin_35_rem_2.jpg/440px-Marlin_35_rem_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="625" data-file-height="580" /></A>
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Rifing pattern for a <A href="/wiki/Remington_Arms" title="Remington Arms">Remington</A> rifle showing a clockwise (right-handed) twist.</DIV>
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<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Class_characteristics">Class characteristics</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Forensic_firearm_examination&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Class characteristics">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>Preliminary examination of the bullet can exclude a large number of weapons by examining the general characteristics of a recovered bullet. By determining general aspects of the fired ammunition, a number of weapons can be immediately excluded as being incapable of firing that type of bullet. The make and model of the weapon can also be inferred from the combination of different class characteristics that are common to specific manufactures.<SUP id="cite_ref-BulletBook_28-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-BulletBook-28">[28]</A></SUP><SUP class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<SPAN>32</SPAN></SUP> The three main class characteristics of all bullets are the lands and grooves, the <A href="/wiki/Caliber" title="Caliber">caliber</A> of the bullet, and the rifling twist.<SUP id="cite_ref-ncdoj_29-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-ncdoj-29">[29]</A></SUP> All three can be tied directly to the type of barrel that was used to fire the bullet.<SUP id="cite_ref-ncdoj_29-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-ncdoj-29">[29]</A></SUP> The lands and grooves of barrel are the bumps and valleys created when the <A href="/wiki/Rifling" title="Rifling">rifling</A> is created. The caliber is the diameter of the barrel. The twist is the direction of the striations left by the barrel's rifling, clockwise (right-handed) or counterclockwise (left-handed). Most barrels will have a right-handed twist with the exception of weapons created by the <A href="/wiki/Colt%27s_Manufacturing_Company" title="Colt's Manufacturing Company">Colt's Manufacturing Company</A> which uses left-handed twists.<SUP id="cite_ref-BulletBook_28-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-BulletBook-28">[28]</A></SUP><SUP class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<SPAN>29</SPAN></SUP> Weapon barrels that match the class characteristics of recovered bullets can be examined further for individual characteristics to determine if the bullet came from that particular weapon.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Individual_characteristics">Individual characteristics</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Forensic_firearm_examination&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Individual characteristics">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>In order to compare individual striations, examiners must obtain a known sample using the seized weapon. For slower-traveling bullets, such as pistols or revolvers, known bullet exemplars are created by firing the weapon into a water tank.<SUP id="cite_ref-FBIfirearms_30-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FBIfirearms-30">[30]</A></SUP> The spent bullet can be recovered, intact, as the water slows down the bullet before it can reach the tank walls, allowing for it to be recovered. For faster traveling bullets, such as those fired from high-powered rifles and military style weapons, water tanks cannot be used as the tank will not provide enough stopping power for the projectiles.<SUP id="cite_ref-Tankbook_31-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Tankbook-31">[31]</A></SUP> To examine these weapons, investigators must fire them at a target at a <A href="/wiki/Shooting_range" title="Shooting range">controlled range</A> with enough backing to stop the bullet and collect the spent round after it has been fired.<SUP id="cite_ref-FBIfirearms_30-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FBIfirearms-30">[30]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Once a known exemplar is produced, the evidence sample can be compared to the known by examining both at the same time with a comparison microscope. Striations that line up are examined more closely, looking for multiple consecutive matches. There is no set number of consecutive matches that equates to a match declaration, and examiners are trained to use the phrase "sufficient agreement" when testifying. The degree to which an examiner can make that determination is based on their training and expertise.<SUP id="cite_ref-NASReport_23-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-NASReport-23">[23]</A></SUP><SUP class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<SPAN>153</SPAN></SUP> All findings by examiners are subject to questioning by both sides, prosecution and defense, during testimony in court.</P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Striation_databasing">Striation databasing</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Forensic_firearm_examination&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Striation databasing">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>Bullets and casings found at a scene require a known example to compare to in order to match them to a weapon. Without a weapon, the striation pattern can be uploaded to a database such as the <A href="/wiki/National_Integrated_Ballistic_Identification_Network" title="National Integrated Ballistic Identification Network">National Integrated Ballistic Identification Network</A> (NIBIN) maintained by the <A href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Alcohol,_Tobacco,_Firearms_and_Explosives" title="Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives">ATF</A> or the United Kingdom's <A href="/wiki/National_Ballistics_Intelligence_Service" title="National Ballistics Intelligence Service">National Ballistics Intelligence Service</A> (NABIS). Information uploaded to these databases can be used to track gun crimes and to link crimes together.<SUP id="cite_ref-NIBINNews_32-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-NIBINNews-32">[32]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-BBCGun_33-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-BBCGun-33">[33]</A></SUP> Maintainers of these databases recommend that every recovered firearm be test fired and the resulting known exemplar be uploaded into the database.<SUP id="cite_ref-ATFHelp_34-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-ATFHelp-34">[34]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Criticisms">Criticisms</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Forensic_firearm_examination&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Criticisms">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>Firearm examiners have attempted to determine the shooter's position by the location of spent bullet casings. The use of ejection pattern studies were originally part of incident reconstruction and methods for determining shooter location continue to be explained in major crime scene examination books.<SUP id="cite_ref-EjectionBook_35-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-EjectionBook-35">[35]</A></SUP> However, the validity of ejection pattern analysis has been brought into question by multiple studies that look at the <A href="/wiki/Reproducibility" title="Reproducibility">reproducibility</A> and end determination of shooter position by qualified examiners. Studies have shown that over 25% of spent casings land somewhere other than to the right and rear of the shooter.<SUP id="cite_ref-ISJShooter_36-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-ISJShooter-36">[36]</A></SUP> This is the most commonly accepted location for where spent cartridge casings should fall, and the large percentage of casings that end up somewhere else raises concerns for the validity of the examination technique. Investigators should only present a location gained from an ejection pattern study as a tentative estimate when using the information in a courtroom setting.<SUP id="cite_ref-ISJShooter_36-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-ISJShooter-36">[36]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Prior to September 2005, <A href="/wiki/Comparative_bullet-lead_analysis" title="Comparative bullet-lead analysis">comparative bullet-lead analysis</A> was performed on bullets found at a scene that were too destroyed for striation comparison. The technique would attempt to determine the unique elemental breakdown of the bullet and compare it to seized bullets possessed by a suspect.<SUP id="cite_ref-CBLA_37-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-CBLA-37">[37]</A></SUP> Review of the method found that the breakdown of elements found in bullets could be significantly different enough to potentially allow for two bullets from separate sources to be correlated to each other. However, there are not enough differences to definitely match a bullet from a crime scene to one taken from a suspect's possession.<SUP id="cite_ref-Metallurgical_38-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Metallurgical-38">[38]</A></SUP> An additional report in 2004 from the <A href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</A> (NAS) found that the testimony given regarding comparative bullet-lead analysis was overstated and potentially "misleading under the federal rules of evidence".<SUP id="cite_ref-CBLA_37-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-CBLA-37">[37]</A></SUP> In 2005, the <A href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">Federal Bureau of Investigation</A> indicated that they would no longer be performing this type of analysis.<SUP id="cite_ref-CBLA_FBI_39-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-CBLA_FBI-39">[39]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Further criticism came from the 2009 NAS report on the current state of various forensic fields in the United States. The report's section on firearm examination focused on the lack of defined requirements that are necessary in order to determine "matches" between known and unknown striations. The NAS stated that, "sufficient studies have not been done to understand the reliability and repeatability of the methods."<SUP id="cite_ref-NASReport_23-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-NASReport-23">[23]</A></SUP><SUP class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<SPAN>154</SPAN></SUP> Without defined procedures on what is and what isn't considered "sufficient agreement" the report states that forensic firearm examination contains fundamental problems that need to be addressed by the forensic community through a set of repeatable scientific studies that outline standard operating procedures that should be adopted by all firearm examiners.<SUP id="cite_ref-NASReport_23-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-NASReport-23">[23]</A></SUP><SUP class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<SPAN>155</SPAN></SUP> Another report issued in 2016 by the <A href="/wiki/United_States_President%27s_Council_of_Advisors_on_Science_and_Technology" title="United States President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology">United States President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology</A> confirmed the NAS's findings, finding only one appropriately designed study that examined the rate of false positives and reliability amongst firearm examiners.<SUP id="cite_ref-PCASTReport_40-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-PCASTReport-40">[40]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Forensic_firearm_examination&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ballistics" title="Ballistics">Ballistics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Crime_reconstruction" title="Crime reconstruction">Crime reconstruction</A></LI>
</UL>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="References">References</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Forensic_firearm_examination&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<OL class="references">
<LI id="cite_note-firearmsid-1"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-firearmsid_1-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-firearmsid_1-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Hamby, James (Summer 1999). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.firearmsid.com/A_historyoffirearmsID.htm">"The History of Firearm and Toolmark Identification"</A>. <I>Association of Firearm and Tool Mark Examiners Journal</I>. <B>31</B> (3)<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">January 16,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Association+of+Firearm+and+Tool+Mark+Examiners+Journal&rft.atitle=The+History+of+Firearm+and+Toolmark+Identification&rft.ssn=summer&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=3&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Hamby&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.firearmsid.com%2FA_historyoffirearmsID.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+firearm+examination" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-ABA-2"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-ABA_2-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-ABA_2-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Steele, Lisa (2008). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apps.americanbar.org/abastore/products/books/abstracts/5450051chap1_abs.pdf">"Ballistics"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>Science for Lawyers</I>. American Bar Association<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">January 19,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ballistics&rft.btitle=Science+for+Lawyers&rft.pub=American+Bar+Association&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Steele&rft.aufirst=Lisa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapps.americanbar.org%2Fabastore%2Fproducts%2Fbooks%2Fabstracts%2F5450051chap1_abs.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+firearm+examination" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-adaa-3"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-adaa_3-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Thompson, Robert (2010). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ndaa.org/pdf/Firearms_identity_NDAAsm.pdf">"Firearm Identification in the Forensic Science Laboratory"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. National District Attorneys Association<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">January 19,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Firearm+Identification+in+the+Forensic+Science+Laboratory&rft.pub=National+District+Attorneys+Association&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ndaa.org%2Fpdf%2FFirearms_identity_NDAAsm.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+firearm+examination" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Borchard-4"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Borchard_4-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Borchard, Edwin (1932). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.albany.edu/preservation/brittle_bks/Borchard_Convicting/chpt39.pdf">"Stielow and Green"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>Convicting the Innocent: Errors of Criminal Justice</I>. New Haven Yale University Press<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">January 20,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Stielow+and+Green&rft.btitle=Convicting+the+Innocent%3A+Errors+of+Criminal+Justice&rft.pub=New+Haven+Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1932&rft.aulast=Borchard&rft.aufirst=Edwin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibrary.albany.edu%2Fpreservation%2Fbrittle_bks%2FBorchard_Convicting%2Fchpt39.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+firearm+examination" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
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<LI id="cite_note-Massacre2-6"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Massacre2_6-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">O'Brien, John (February 14, 2014). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/politics/chi-chicagodays-valentinesmassacre-story-story.html">"The St. Valentine's Day Massacre"</A>. The Chicago Tribune. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160305023624/http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/politics/chi-chicagodays-valentinesmassacre-story-story.html">Archived</A> from the original on March 5, 2016<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">June 25,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+St.+Valentine%27s+Day+Massacre&rft.pub=The+Chicago+Tribune&rft.date=2014-02-14&rft.aulast=O%27Brien&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chicagotribune.com%2Fnews%2Fnationworld%2Fpolitics%2Fchi-chicagodays-valentinesmassacre-story-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+firearm+examination" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Massacre-7"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Massacre_7-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Massacre_7-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Massacre_7-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Massacre_7-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Massacre_7-4"><SUP><I><B>e</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Ashcroft, Brent. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wzzm13.com/news/local/michigan-life/st-valentines-day-massacre-tale-of-two-guns/28246308">"St. Valentine's Day Massacre: Tale of two guns"</A>. WZZM13<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">June 25,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=St.+Valentine%27s+Day+Massacre%3A+Tale+of+two+guns&rft.pub=WZZM13&rft.aulast=Ashcroft&rft.aufirst=Brent&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wzzm13.com%2Fnews%2Flocal%2Fmichigan-life%2Fst-valentines-day-massacre-tale-of-two-guns%2F28246308&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+firearm+examination" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-father-8"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-father_8-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Rasmussen, Frederick N. (February 12, 2011). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://articles.baltimoresun.com/2011-02-12/news/bs-md-backstory-st.-valentines-day-20110213_1_goddard-comparison-microscope-firearms">"Baltimore native helped solve 1929 St. Valentine's Day Massacre"</A>. The Baltimore Sun<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">June 25,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Baltimore+native+helped+solve+1929+St.+Valentine%27s+Day+Massacre&rft.pub=The+Baltimore+Sun&rft.date=2011-02-12&rft.aulast=Rasmussen&rft.aufirst=Frederick+N.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farticles.baltimoresun.com%2F2011-02-12%2Fnews%2Fbs-md-backstory-st.-valentines-day-20110213_1_goddard-comparison-microscope-firearms&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+firearm+examination" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Fomagpring-9"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Fomagpring_9-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Fomagpring_9-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Fomagpring_9-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.forensicmag.com/videos/2015/09/public-eye-finding-fingerprints-firearms-actually-very-rare">"In the Public Eye: Finding Fingerprints on Firearms is Actually Very Rare"</A>. Forensic Magazine. September 2, 2015<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">May 31,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=In+the+Public+Eye%3A+Finding+Fingerprints+on+Firearms+is+Actually+Very+Rare&rft.pub=Forensic+Magazine&rft.date=2015-09-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.forensicmag.com%2Fvideos%2F2015%2F09%2Fpublic-eye-finding-fingerprints-firearms-actually-very-rare&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+firearm+examination" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-BCAprint-10"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-BCAprint_10-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dps.mn.gov/divisions/bca/bca-divisions/forensic-science/Pages/forensic-programs-crime-scene-superglue.aspx">"CYANOACRYLATE (SUPERGLUE) FUMING"</A>. Minnesota Bureau of Criminal Apprehension<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">May 31,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=CYANOACRYLATE+%28SUPERGLUE%29+FUMING&rft.pub=Minnesota+Bureau+of+Criminal+Apprehension&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdps.mn.gov%2Fdivisions%2Fbca%2Fbca-divisions%2Fforensic-science%2FPages%2Fforensic-programs-crime-scene-superglue.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+firearm+examination" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-print_diff-11"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-print_diff_11-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Gulick, Gary (May–June 2008). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.evidencemagazine.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=22">"Lifting Latent Fingerprints from Difficult Surfaces"</A>. <I>Evidence Technology Magazine</I>. <B>6</B> (3)<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">January 9,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evidence+Technology+Magazine&rft.atitle=Lifting+Latent+Fingerprints+from+Difficult+Surfaces&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=3&rft.date=2008-05%2F2008-06&rft.aulast=Gulick&rft.aufirst=Gary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.evidencemagazine.com%2Findex.php%3Foption%3Dcom_content%26task%3Dview%26id%3D22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+firearm+examination" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-GunDNA-12"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-GunDNA_12-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-GunDNA_12-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">"Development of STR profiles from firearms and fired cartridge cases". <I>Forensic Science International: Genetics</I>. <B>3</B> (4): 242–250. September 2009. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.fsigen.2009.02.007">10.1016/j.fsigen.2009.02.007</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Forensic+Science+International%3A+Genetics&rft.atitle=Development+of+STR+profiles+from+firearms+and+fired+cartridge+cases&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=242-250&rft.date=2009-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.fsigen.2009.02.007&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+firearm+examination" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-GunAct-13"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-GunAct_13-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-82/pdf/STATUTE-82-Pg1213-2.pdf">"Public Law 90-618: To amend title 18, United States Code, to provide for better control of the interstate traffic in firearms"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. October 22, 1968. pp. 1213–1236<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">May 31,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Public+Law+90-618%3A+To+amend+title+18%2C+United+States+Code%2C+to+provide+for+better+control+of+the+interstate+traffic+in+firearms&rft.pages=1213-1236&rft.date=1968-10-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gpo.gov%2Ffdsys%2Fpkg%2FSTATUTE-82%2Fpdf%2FSTATUTE-82-Pg1213-2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+firearm+examination" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-ATF-14"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-ATF_14-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.atf.gov/file/58631/download">"Firearms Tracing Guide"</A>. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives. November 2011<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">January 9,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Firearms+Tracing+Guide&rft.pub=Bureau+of+Alcohol%2C+Tobacco%2C+Firearms%2C+and+Explosives&rft.date=2011-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.atf.gov%2Ffile%2F58631%2Fdownload&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+firearm+examination" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-restore-15"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-restore_15-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-restore_15-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-restore_15-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncdoj.gov/getdoc/c985eebb-36bd-46e0-94e2-b091b1496df2/Serial-Number-Restoration-11-15-2013.aspx">"Technical Procedure for Serial Number Restoration"</A>. North Carolina State Crime Laboratory. September 5, 2014<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">January 10,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Technical+Procedure+for+Serial+Number+Restoration&rft.pub=North+Carolina+State+Crime+Laboratory&rft.date=2014-09-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncdoj.gov%2Fgetdoc%2Fc985eebb-36bd-46e0-94e2-b091b1496df2%2FSerial-Number-Restoration-11-15-2013.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+firearm+examination" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-MPIBook-16"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-MPIBook_16-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-MPIBook_16-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-MPIBook_16-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Walker, Robert E. (2013). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=THQ1iG8fSG8C&pg=PT573&lpg=PT573&dq=magnetic+particle+inspection+firearm+serial+number&source=bl&ots=bfaoXCH7ZH&sig=WzdQKCW_NhRXGKvmyoD2MOJ6i_4&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwipw7rM7tjNAhUq5oMKHfVXAewQ6AEIRTAG#v=onepage&q&f=false"><I>Cartridges and Firearm Identification</I></A>. CRC Press<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">July 3,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cartridges+and+Firearm+Identification&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=Robert+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTHQ1iG8fSG8C%26pg%3DPT573%26lpg%3DPT573%26dq%3Dmagnetic%2Bparticle%2Binspection%2Bfirearm%2Bserial%2Bnumber%26source%3Dbl%26ots%3DbfaoXCH7ZH%26sig%3DWzdQKCW_NhRXGKvmyoD2MOJ6i_4%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DX%26ved%3D0ahUKEwipw7rM7tjNAhUq5oMKHfVXAewQ6AEIRTAG%23v%3Donepage%26q%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+firearm+examination" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-IFRT-17"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-IFRT_17-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.interpol.int/Crime-areas/Firearms/INTERPOL-Firearms-Reference-Table-IFRT">"INTERPOL Firearms Reference Table (IFRT)"</A>. <I>INTERPOL</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">January 12,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=INTERPOL&rft.atitle=INTERPOL+Firearms+Reference+Table+%28IFRT%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.interpol.int%2FCrime-areas%2FFirearms%2FINTERPOL-Firearms-Reference-Table-IFRT&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+firearm+examination" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-NCIC-18"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-NCIC_18-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160220085359/https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ncic/ncic_files">"NCIC Files"</A>. <I>Federal Bureau of Investigation</I>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ncic/ncic_files">the original</A> on February 20, 2016<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">January 12,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Federal+Bureau+of+Investigation&rft.atitle=NCIC+Files&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fbi.gov%2Fabout-us%2Fcjis%2Fncic%2Fncic_files&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+firearm+examination" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-MPIUV-19"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-MPIUV_19-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-MPIUV_19-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Utrata, Dave; Johnson, Marcus (October 2003). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.osti.gov/scitech/servlets/purl/832893-zGpBRD/webviewable/">"Magnetic Particle Recovery of Serial Numbers"</A>. Midwest Forensics Resource Center<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">July 4,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Magnetic+Particle+Recovery+of+Serial+Numbers&rft.pub=Midwest+Forensics+Resource+Center&rft.date=2003-10&rft.aulast=Utrata&rft.aufirst=Dave&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Marcus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.osti.gov%2Fscitech%2Fservlets%2Fpurl%2F832893-zGpBRD%2Fwebviewable%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+firearm+examination" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-depth-20"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-depth_20-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dps.state.ia.us/DCI/lab/firearms/restoration.shtml">"Iowa Division of Criminal Investigation Criminalistics Laboratory Firearm & Toolmark Section Restoration of Obliterated Serial Numbers"</A>. Iowa Division of Criminal Investigation<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">July 2,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Iowa+Division+of+Criminal+Investigation+Criminalistics+Laboratory+Firearm+%26+Toolmark+Section+Restoration+of+Obliterated+Serial+Numbers&rft.pub=Iowa+Division+of+Criminal+Investigation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dps.state.ia.us%2FDCI%2Flab%2Ffirearms%2Frestoration.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+firearm+examination" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-acids-21"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-acids_21-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-acids_21-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dps.mn.gov/divisions/bca/bca-divisions/forensic-science/Pages/serial-number-restoration.aspx">"Serial Number Restoration"</A>. Minnesota Bureau of Criminal Apprehension<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">July 2,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Serial+Number+Restoration&rft.pub=Minnesota+Bureau+of+Criminal+Apprehension&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdps.mn.gov%2Fdivisions%2Fbca%2Fbca-divisions%2Fforensic-science%2FPages%2Fserial-number-restoration.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+firearm+examination" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Fry-22"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Fry_22-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dfs.dc.gov/sites/default/files/dc/sites/dfs/page_content/attachments/FEUS08%20Serial%20Number%20Restoration.pdf">"FEU08 – SOP for Serial Number Restoration of Obliterated Stampings in Various Metal Surfaces"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. District of Columbia Department of Forensic Sciences. November 26, 2013. p. 2<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">December 17,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=FEU08+%E2%80%93+SOP+for+Serial+Number+Restoration+of+Obliterated+Stampings+in+Various+Metal+Surfaces&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=District+of+Columbia+Department+of+Forensic+Sciences&rft.date=2013-11-26&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdfs.dc.gov%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fdc%2Fsites%2Fdfs%2Fpage_content%2Fattachments%2FFEUS08%2520Serial%2520Number%2520Restoration.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+firearm+examination" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-NASReport-23"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-NASReport_23-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-NASReport_23-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-NASReport_23-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-NASReport_23-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-NASReport_23-4"><SUP><I><B>e</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">National Research Council (2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/228091.pdf"><I>Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A Path Forward</I></A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. National Academies Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-309-13131-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-309-13131-6">0-309-13131-6</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">June 12,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Strengthening+Forensic+Science+in+the+United+States%3A+A+Path+Forward&rft.pub=National+Academies+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=0-309-13131-6&rft.au=National+Research+Council&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncjrs.gov%2Fpdffiles1%2Fnij%2Fgrants%2F228091.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+firearm+examination" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Cartprints-24"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Cartprints_24-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Randerson, James (June 3, 2008). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2008/jun/03/fingerprints.bullets">"Forensics: Fingerprints can be recovered from fired bullet casings"</A>. The Guardian<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">June 18,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Forensics%3A+Fingerprints+can+be+recovered+from+fired+bullet+casings&rft.pub=The+Guardian&rft.date=2008-06-03&rft.aulast=Randerson&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fscience%2F2008%2Fjun%2F03%2Ffingerprints.bullets&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+firearm+examination" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Stampreport-25"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Stampreport_25-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Stampreport_25-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation report"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080414135906/http://www.csgv.org/atf/cf/%7B23E96A35-4C75-41EE-BDDD-4BD3A3B59010%7D/FINAL%20report.pdf">Cracking the Case: The Crime-Solving Promise of Ballistic Identification</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN> (Report). The Education Fund to Stop Gun Violence. June 2004. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://csgv.org/atf/cf/%7B23E96A35-4C75-41EE-BDDD-4BD3A3B59010%7D/FINAL%20report.pdf">the original</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN> on April 14, 2008<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">June 18,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Cracking+the+Case%3A+The+Crime-Solving+Promise+of+Ballistic+Identification&rft.pub=The+Education+Fund+to+Stop+Gun+Violence&rft.date=2004-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcsgv.org%2Fatf%2Fcf%2F%257B23E96A35-4C75-41EE-BDDD-4BD3A3B59010%257D%2FFINAL%2520report.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+firearm+examination" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Calstamplaw-26"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Calstamplaw_26-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation act"><I>Crime Gun Identification</I>,<SPAN class="nowrap"> </SPAN><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billNavClient.xhtml?bill_id=200720080AB1471">Bill No. 1471 of 2007</A>. Retrieved on June 18, 2016.</CITE></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Nomicro-27"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Nomicro_27-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Mather, Kate (January 23, 2014). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-ln-smith-wesson-microstamping-law-20140123-story.html#axzz2rLgnuhU8">"Smith & Wesson says it won't follow California 'microstamping' law"</A>. Los Angeles Times<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">June 18,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Smith+%26+Wesson+says+it+won%27t+follow+California+%27microstamping%27+law&rft.pub=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.date=2014-01-23&rft.aulast=Mather&rft.aufirst=Kate&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Flocal%2Flanow%2Fla-me-ln-smith-wesson-microstamping-law-20140123-story.html%23axzz2rLgnuhU8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+firearm+examination" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-BulletBook-28"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-BulletBook_28-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-BulletBook_28-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">DiMaio, Vincent J.M. (2016). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=8eCYCgAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false"><I>Gunshot Wounds: Practical Aspects of Firearms, Ballistics, and Forensic Techniques</I></A> (3rd ed.). CRC Press<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">June 4,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gunshot+Wounds%3A+Practical+Aspects+of+Firearms%2C+Ballistics%2C+and+Forensic+Techniques&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=DiMaio&rft.aufirst=Vincent+J.M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fhl%3Den%26lr%3D%26id%3D8eCYCgAAQBAJ%26oi%3Dfnd%26pg%3DPP1%23v%3Donepage%26q%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+firearm+examination" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-ncdoj-29"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-ncdoj_29-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-ncdoj_29-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncdoj.gov/About-DOJ/Crime-Lab/Firearms-and-Tool-Mark.aspx">"Firearms & Tool Mark"</A>. <I>North Carolina Department of Justice</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">June 4,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=North+Carolina+Department+of+Justice&rft.atitle=Firearms+%26+Tool+Mark&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncdoj.gov%2FAbout-DOJ%2FCrime-Lab%2FFirearms-and-Tool-Mark.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+firearm+examination" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-FBIfirearms-30"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-FBIfirearms_30-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-FBIfirearms_30-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150920000559/https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/lab/forensic-science-communications/fsc/april2000/index.htm/schehl1.htm">"Firearms and Toolmarks in the FBI Laboratory"</A>. <I>Forensic Science Communications</I>. <B>2</B> (2). April 2000. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/lab/forensic-science-communications/fsc/april2000/index.htm/schehl1.htm">the original</A> on September 20, 2015<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">June 5,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Forensic+Science+Communications&rft.atitle=Firearms+and+Toolmarks+in+the+FBI+Laboratory&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2000-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fbi.gov%2Fabout-us%2Flab%2Fforensic-science-communications%2Ffsc%2Fapril2000%2Findex.htm%2Fschehl1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+firearm+examination" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Tankbook-31"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Tankbook_31-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Fisher, Barry A.J.; Tilstone, William J.; Woytowicz, Catherine (2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JeheoVz6cWwC&pg=PT51&lpg=PT51&source=bl&ots=JyfrXlrEpj&sig=VhNVQ41vIT0qfUYuzmBQlwwHZTM&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjWhY2r5pHNAhUIdlIKHVUCCVYQ6AEIPDAF#v=onepage&q&f=false"><I>Introduction to Criminalistics: The Foundation of Forensic Science</I></A>. Elsevier Academic Press. p. 39<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">June 5,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Criminalistics%3A+The+Foundation+of+Forensic+Science&rft.pages=39&rft.pub=Elsevier+Academic+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Fisher&rft.aufirst=Barry+A.J.&rft.au=Tilstone%2C+William+J.&rft.au=Woytowicz%2C+Catherine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJeheoVz6cWwC%26pg%3DPT51%26lpg%3DPT51%26source%3Dbl%26ots%3DJyfrXlrEpj%26sig%3DVhNVQ41vIT0qfUYuzmBQlwwHZTM%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DX%26ved%3D0ahUKEwjWhY2r5pHNAhUIdlIKHVUCCVYQ6AEIPDAF%23v%3Donepage%26q%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+firearm+examination" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-NIBINNews-32"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-NIBINNews_32-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Thomas, Dylan (February 25, 2016). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.southwestjournal.com/news/special-report/2016/02/a-high-tech-approach-to-tracking-gun-crimes/">"A high-tech approach to tracking gun crimes"</A>. Southwest Journal<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">June 20,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+high-tech+approach+to+tracking+gun+crimes&rft.pub=Southwest+Journal&rft.date=2016-02-25&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Dylan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.southwestjournal.com%2Fnews%2Fspecial-report%2F2016%2F02%2Fa-high-tech-approach-to-tracking-gun-crimes%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+firearm+examination" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-BBCGun-33"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-BBCGun_33-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/8451079.stm">"Intelligence service links 350 guns to crimes"</A>. BBC News. January 11, 2010<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">June 20,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Intelligence+service+links+350+guns+to+crimes&rft.pub=BBC+News&rft.date=2010-01-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fuk_news%2F8451079.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+firearm+examination" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-ATFHelp-34"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-ATFHelp_34-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.atf.gov/firearms/docs/guide/bullets-casings-and-you-atf-p-33152/download">"Bullets, Casings, and You"</A>. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">June 21,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bullets%2C+Casings%2C+and+You&rft.pub=Bureau+of+Alcohol%2C+Tobacco%2C+Firearms+and+Explosives&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.atf.gov%2Ffirearms%2Fdocs%2Fguide%2Fbullets-casings-and-you-atf-p-33152%2Fdownload&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+firearm+examination" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-EjectionBook-35"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-EjectionBook_35-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Gardner, Ross (2012). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QEzOBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA300&lpg=PA300&dq=case+ejection+pattern+studies&source=bl&ots=-cZo0BIUsx&sig=4iLECkYBRQDlDAFZHDQwYtcxhL4&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwii4ODE2f3MAhUSQFIKHZj8C9oQ6AEIQzAE#v=onepage&q&f=false"><I>Practical Crime Scene Processing and Investigation</I></A> (2nd ed.). CRC Press. pp. 300–301<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">May 28,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Practical+Crime+Scene+Processing+and+Investigation&rft.pages=300-301&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Gardner&rft.aufirst=Ross&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQEzOBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA300%26lpg%3DPA300%26dq%3Dcase%2Bejection%2Bpattern%2Bstudies%26source%3Dbl%26ots%3D-cZo0BIUsx%26sig%3D4iLECkYBRQDlDAFZHDQwYtcxhL4%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DX%26ved%3D0ahUKEwii4ODE2f3MAhUSQFIKHZj8C9oQ6AEIQzAE%23v%3Donepage%26q%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+firearm+examination" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-ISJShooter-36"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-ISJShooter_36-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-ISJShooter_36-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Lewinski, William; Hudson, William; Karwoski, David; Redmann, Christa (November 2010). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.forcescience.org/articles/ShellCasingStudy.pdf">"Fired Cartridge Case Ejection Patterns From Semi-Automatic Firearms"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>Investigative Sciences Journal</I>. <B>2</B> (3)<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">May 28,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Investigative+Sciences+Journal&rft.atitle=Fired+Cartridge+Case+Ejection+Patterns+From+Semi-Automatic+Firearms&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=3&rft.date=2010-11&rft.aulast=Lewinski&rft.aufirst=William&rft.au=Hudson%2C+William&rft.au=Karwoski%2C+David&rft.au=Redmann%2C+Christa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.forcescience.org%2Farticles%2FShellCasingStudy.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+firearm+examination" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-CBLA-37"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-CBLA_37-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-CBLA_37-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Solomon, John (November 18, 2007). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/11/17/AR2007111701681.html">"FBI's Forensic Test Full of Holes"</A>. <I>The Washington Post</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">December 28,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=FBI%27s+Forensic+Test+Full+of+Holes&rft.date=2007-11-18&rft.aulast=Solomon&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2007%2F11%2F17%2FAR2007111701681.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+firearm+examination" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Metallurgical-38"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Metallurgical_38-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Randich, Erik; Duerfeldt, Wayne; McLendon, Wade; Tobin, William (July 17, 2002). "A Metallurgical Review of the Interpretation of Bullet Lead Compositional Analysis". <I>Forensic Science International</I>. <B>127</B> (3): 174–191. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2FS0379-0738%2802%2900118-4">10.1016/S0379-0738(02)00118-4</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Forensic+Science+International&rft.atitle=A+Metallurgical+Review+of+the+Interpretation+of+Bullet+Lead+Compositional+Analysis&rft.volume=127&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=174-191&rft.date=2002-07-17&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0379-0738%2802%2900118-4&rft.aulast=Randich&rft.aufirst=Erik&rft.au=Duerfeldt%2C+Wayne&rft.au=McLendon%2C+Wade&rft.au=Tobin%2C+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+firearm+examination" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-CBLA_FBI-39"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-CBLA_FBI_39-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation pressrelease"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fbi.gov/news/pressrel/press-releases/fbi-laboratory-announces-discontinuation-of-bullet-lead-examinations">"FBI Laboratory Announces Discontinuation of Bullet Lead Examinations"</A> (Press release). FBI National Press Office. September 1, 2005<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">December 28,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=FBI+Laboratory+Announces+Discontinuation+of+Bullet+Lead+Examinations&rft.pub=FBI+National+Press+Office&rft.date=2005-09-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fbi.gov%2Fnews%2Fpressrel%2Fpress-releases%2Ffbi-laboratory-announces-discontinuation-of-bullet-lead-examinations&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+firearm+examination" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-PCASTReport-40"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-PCASTReport_40-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation report"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170112213013/https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/microsites/ostp/PCAST/pcast_forensic_science_report_final.pdf">Forensic Science in Criminal Courts: Ensuring Scientific Validity of Feature-Comparison Methods</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN> (Report). President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology. September 2016. pp. 104–114. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/microsites/ostp/PCAST/pcast_forensic_science_report_final.pdf">the original</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN> on January 12, 2017<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">December 31,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Forensic+Science+in+Criminal+Courts%3A+Ensuring+Scientific+Validity+of+Feature-Comparison+Methods&rft.pages=104-114&rft.pub=President%27s+Council+of+Advisors+on+Science+and+Technology&rft.date=2016-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.whitehouse.gov%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fmicrosites%2Fostp%2FPCAST%2Fpcast_forensic_science_report_final.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+firearm+examination" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
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document_title: Forensic firearm examination

token: Forensic

token: firearm

token: examination

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token: Footwear

question_text: when was the first documented case of tool mark identification