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<H1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Brain</H1>			<DIV id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content">
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				<DIV id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><DIV class="mw-parser-output"><DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the brains of all types of animals, including humans. For information specific to the human brain, see <A href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">Human brain</A>. For other uses, see <A href="/wiki/Brain_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Brain (disambiguation)">Brain (disambiguation)</A> and <A href="/wiki/Brains_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Brains (disambiguation)">Brains (disambiguation)</A>.</DIV>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <A href="/wiki/Brane" title="Brane">Brane</A>.</DIV>
<TABLE class="infobox" style="width:22em">
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<TH colspan="2" style="text-align:center;font-size:125%;font-weight:bold;background-color:dimgray; color: white"><I>Brain</I></TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center"><A href="/wiki/File:Chimp_Brain_in_a_jar.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Chimp Brain in a jar.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Chimp_Brain_in_a_jar.jpg/250px-Chimp_Brain_in_a_jar.jpg" width="250" height="315" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Chimp_Brain_in_a_jar.jpg/375px-Chimp_Brain_in_a_jar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Chimp_Brain_in_a_jar.jpg/500px-Chimp_Brain_in_a_jar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2540" data-file-height="3200" /></A>
<DIV>A <A href="/wiki/Chimpanzee" title="Chimpanzee">chimpanzee</A> brain</DIV>
</TD>
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<TR>
<TH colspan="2" style="text-align:center;background-color: #efefef">Identifiers</TH>
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<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em"><A href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</A></TH>
<TD><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001921">D001921</A></TD>
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<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em"><A href="/wiki/NeuroNames" title="NeuroNames">NeuroNames</A></TH>
<TD><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://braininfo.rprc.washington.edu/centraldirectory.aspx?ID=21">21</A></TD>
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<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em"><A href="/wiki/Terminologia_Anatomica" title="Terminologia Anatomica">TA</A></TH>
<TD><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unifr.ch/ifaa/Public/EntryPage/TA98%20Tree/Entity%20TA98%20EN/14.1.03.001%20Entity%20TA98%20EN.htm">A14.1.03.001</A></TD>
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<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em"><A href="/wiki/Foundational_Model_of_Anatomy" title="Foundational Model of Anatomy">FMA</A></TH>
<TD><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bioportal.bioontology.org/ontologies/FMA/?p=classes&conceptid=http%3A%2F%2Fpurl.org%2Fsig%2Font%2Ffma%2Ffma50801">50801</A></TD>
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<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center"><B><I><A href="/wiki/Anatomical_terminology" title="Anatomical terminology">Anatomical terminology</A></I></B>
<DIV style="text-align: right;"><SMALL class="noprint">[<A href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1073" class="extiw" title="d:Q1073">edit on Wikidata</A>]</SMALL></DIV>
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<P>The <B>brain</B> is an <A href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" title="Organ (anatomy)">organ</A> that serves as the center of the <A href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</A> in all <A href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrate</A> and most <A href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrate</A> animals. The brain is located in the <A href="/wiki/Head" title="Head">head</A>, usually close to the sensory organs for <A href="/wiki/Sense" title="Sense">senses</A> such as <A href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">vision</A>. The brain is the most complex organ in a vertebrate's body. In a human, the <A href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">cerebral cortex</A> contains approximately 15–33 billion <A href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neurons</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-1">[1]</A></SUP> each connected by <A href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">synapses</A> to several thousand other neurons. These neurons communicate with one another by means of long <A href="/wiki/Protoplasm" title="Protoplasm">protoplasmic</A> fibers called <A href="/wiki/Axon" title="Axon">axons</A>, which carry trains of signal pulses called <A href="/wiki/Action_potential" title="Action potential">action potentials</A> to distant parts of the brain or body targeting specific recipient cells.</P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiologically</A>, the function of the brain is to exert centralized control over the other organs of the body. The brain acts on the rest of the body both by generating patterns of muscle activity and by driving the secretion of chemicals called <A href="/wiki/Hormone" title="Hormone">hormones</A>. This centralized control allows rapid and coordinated responses to changes in the <A href="/wiki/Environment_(biophysical)" title="Environment (biophysical)">environment</A>. Some basic types of responsiveness such as <A href="/wiki/Reflex" title="Reflex">reflexes</A> can be mediated by the spinal cord or peripheral <A href="/wiki/Ganglion" title="Ganglion">ganglia</A>, but sophisticated purposeful control of behavior based on complex sensory input requires the information integrating capabilities of a centralized brain.</P>
<P>The operations of individual brain cells are now understood in considerable detail but the way they cooperate in ensembles of millions is yet to be solved.<SUP id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-2">[2]</A></SUP> Recent models in modern neuroscience treat the brain as a biological computer, very different in mechanism from an electronic computer, but similar in the sense that it acquires information from the surrounding world, stores it, and processes it in a variety of ways.</P>
<P>This article compares the properties of brains across the entire range of animal species, with the greatest attention to vertebrates. It deals with the <A href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">human brain</A> insofar as it shares the properties of other brains. The ways in which the human brain differs from other brains are covered in the human brain article. Several topics that might be covered here are instead covered there because much more can be said about them in a human context. The most important is <A href="/wiki/Brain_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain disease">brain disease</A> and the effects of brain damage, that are covered in the human brain article.</P>
<DIV class="toclimit-3">
<DIV id="toc" class="toc">
<DIV class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr">
<H2>Contents</H2>
<SPAN class="toctoggle"> [<A role="button" tabindex="0" class="togglelink">hide</A>] </SPAN></DIV>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><A href="#Anatomy"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Anatomy</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><A href="#Cellular_structure"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Cellular structure</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><A href="#Evolution"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Evolution</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-4"><A href="#Generic_bilaterian_nervous_system"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1.2.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Generic bilaterian nervous system</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><A href="#Invertebrates"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1.2.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Invertebrates</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-6"><A href="#Vertebrates"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1.2.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Vertebrates</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7"><A href="#Mammals"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1.2.4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Mammals</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-4 tocsection-8"><A href="#Primates"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1.2.4.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Primates</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><A href="#Development"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Development</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><A href="#Physiology"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Physiology</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><A href="#Neurotransmitters_and_receptors"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Neurotransmitters and receptors</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><A href="#Electrical_activity"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Electrical activity</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><A href="#Metabolism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Metabolism</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><A href="#Functions"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Functions</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><A href="#Perception"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Perception</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><A href="#Motor_control"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Motor control</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><A href="#Arousal"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Arousal</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><A href="#Homeostasis"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Homeostasis</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><A href="#Motivation"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Motivation</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><A href="#Learning_and_memory"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.6</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Learning and memory</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><A href="#Research"><SPAN class="tocnumber">5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Research</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><A href="#History"><SPAN class="tocnumber">5.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">History</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><A href="#Other_uses"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Other uses</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><A href="#As_food"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">As food</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><A href="#In_rituals"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">In rituals</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><A href="#For_tanning"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">For tanning</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-27"><A href="#See_also"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">See also</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28"><A href="#References"><SPAN class="tocnumber">8</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">References</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><A href="#External_links"><SPAN class="tocnumber">9</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">External links</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Anatomy">Anatomy</SPAN></H2>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Section_through_olfactory_bulb_16_days_old_rat_brain.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="a blob with a blue patch in the center, surrounded by a white area, surrounded by a thin strip of dark-colored material" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Section_through_olfactory_bulb_16_days_old_rat_brain.jpg/220px-Section_through_olfactory_bulb_16_days_old_rat_brain.jpg" width="220" height="131" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Section_through_olfactory_bulb_16_days_old_rat_brain.jpg/330px-Section_through_olfactory_bulb_16_days_old_rat_brain.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Section_through_olfactory_bulb_16_days_old_rat_brain.jpg/440px-Section_through_olfactory_bulb_16_days_old_rat_brain.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="356" /></A>
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Cross section of the <A href="/wiki/Olfactory_bulb" title="Olfactory bulb">olfactory bulb</A> of a rat, stained in two different ways at the same time: one stain shows neuron cell bodies, the other shows receptors for the <A href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">neurotransmitter</A> <A href="/wiki/GABA" class="mw-redirect" title="GABA">GABA</A>.</DIV>
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<P>The shape and size of the brain varies greatly between species, and identifying common features is often difficult.<SUP id="cite_ref-Shepherd_3-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Shepherd-3">[3]</A></SUP> Nevertheless, there are a number of principles of brain architecture that apply across a wide range of species.<SUP id="cite_ref-Sporns2010_4-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Sporns2010-4">[4]</A></SUP> Some aspects of brain structure are common to almost the entire range of animal species;<SUP id="cite_ref-Başar2010_5-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Başar2010-5">[5]</A></SUP> others distinguish "advanced" brains from more primitive ones, or distinguish vertebrates from invertebrates.<SUP id="cite_ref-Shepherd_3-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Shepherd-3">[3]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The simplest way to gain information about brain anatomy is by visual inspection, but many more sophisticated techniques have been developed. Brain tissue in its natural state is too soft to work with, but it can be hardened by immersion in alcohol or other <A href="/wiki/Fixation_(histology)" title="Fixation (histology)">fixatives</A>, and then sliced apart for examination of the interior. Visually, the interior of the brain consists of areas of so-called <A href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">grey matter</A>, with a dark color, separated by areas of <A href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">white matter</A>, with a lighter color. Further information can be gained by staining slices of brain tissue with a variety of chemicals that bring out areas where specific types of molecules are present in high concentrations. It is also possible to <A href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">examine the microstructure</A> of brain tissue using a microscope, and to trace the pattern of connections from one brain area to another.<SUP id="cite_ref-Singh2006_6-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Singh2006-6">[6]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Cellular_structure">Cellular structure</SPAN></H3>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Chemical_synapse_schema_cropped.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="drawing showing a neuron with a fiber emanating from it labeled "axon" and making contact with another cell. An inset shows an enlargement of the contact zone." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Chemical_synapse_schema_cropped.jpg/250px-Chemical_synapse_schema_cropped.jpg" width="250" height="312" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Chemical_synapse_schema_cropped.jpg/375px-Chemical_synapse_schema_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Chemical_synapse_schema_cropped.jpg/500px-Chemical_synapse_schema_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="544" data-file-height="678" /></A>
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Neurons generate electrical signals that travel along their axons. When a pulse of electricity reaches a junction called a <A href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">synapse</A>, it causes a neurotransmitter chemical to be released, which binds to receptors on other cells and thereby alters their electrical activity.</DIV>
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<P>The brains of all species are composed primarily of two broad classes of cells: <A href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neurons</A> and <A href="/wiki/Neuroglia" title="Neuroglia">glial cells</A>. Glial cells (also known as <I>glia</I> or <I>neuroglia</I>) come in several types, and perform a number of critical functions, including structural support, metabolic support, insulation, and guidance of development. Neurons, however, are usually considered the most important cells in the brain.<SUP id="cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Kandel_2000-7">[7]</A></SUP> The property that makes neurons unique is their ability to send signals to specific target cells over long distances.<SUP id="cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Kandel_2000-7">[7]</A></SUP> They send these signals by means of an axon, which is a thin protoplasmic fiber that extends from the cell body and projects, usually with numerous branches, to other areas, sometimes nearby, sometimes in distant parts of the brain or body. The length of an axon can be extraordinary: for example, if a <A href="/wiki/Pyramidal_cell" title="Pyramidal cell">pyramidal cell</A>, (an excitatory neuron) of the cerebral cortex were magnified so that its cell body became the size of a human body, its axon, equally magnified, would become a cable a few centimeters in diameter, extending more than a kilometer.<SUP id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-8">[8]</A></SUP> These axons transmit signals in the form of electrochemical pulses called action potentials, which last less than a thousandth of a second and travel along the axon at speeds of 1–100 meters per second. Some neurons emit action potentials constantly, at rates of 10–100 per second, usually in irregular patterns; other neurons are quiet most of the time, but occasionally emit a burst of action potentials.<SUP id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-9">[9]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Axons transmit signals to other neurons by means of specialized junctions called <A href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">synapses</A>. A single axon may make as many as several thousand synaptic connections with other cells.<SUP id="cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Kandel_2000-7">[7]</A></SUP> When an action potential, traveling along an axon, arrives at a synapse, it causes a chemical called a <A href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">neurotransmitter</A> to be released. The neurotransmitter binds to <A href="/wiki/Receptor_(biochemistry)" title="Receptor (biochemistry)">receptor</A> molecules in the membrane of the target cell.<SUP id="cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Kandel_2000-7">[7]</A></SUP></P>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:PLoSBiol4.e126.Fig6fNeuron.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="A bright green cell is seen against a red and black background, with long, highly branched, green processes extending out from it in multiple directions." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/PLoSBiol4.e126.Fig6fNeuron.jpg/220px-PLoSBiol4.e126.Fig6fNeuron.jpg" width="220" height="192" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/PLoSBiol4.e126.Fig6fNeuron.jpg/330px-PLoSBiol4.e126.Fig6fNeuron.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/PLoSBiol4.e126.Fig6fNeuron.jpg/440px-PLoSBiol4.e126.Fig6fNeuron.jpg 2x" data-file-width="915" data-file-height="799" /></A>
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Neurons often have extensive networks of <A href="/wiki/Dendrite" title="Dendrite">dendrites</A>, which receive synaptic connections. Shown is a <A href="/wiki/Pyramidal_cell" title="Pyramidal cell">pyramidal neuron</A> from the hippocampus, stained for <A href="/wiki/Green_fluorescent_protein" title="Green fluorescent protein">green fluorescent protein</A>.</DIV>
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<P>Synapses are the key functional elements of the brain.<SUP id="cite_ref-ShepherdSOB_10-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-ShepherdSOB-10">[10]</A></SUP> The essential function of the brain is <A href="/wiki/Cell%E2%80%93cell_interaction" title="Cell–cell interaction">cell-to-cell communication</A>, and synapses are the points at which communication occurs. The human brain has been estimated to contain approximately 100 trillion synapses;<SUP id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-11">[11]</A></SUP> even the brain of a fruit fly contains several million.<SUP id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-12">[12]</A></SUP> The functions of these synapses are very diverse: some are excitatory (exciting the target cell); others are inhibitory; others work by activating <A href="/wiki/Second_messenger_system" title="Second messenger system">second messenger systems</A> that change the internal <A href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</A> of their target cells in complex ways.<SUP id="cite_ref-ShepherdSOB_10-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-ShepherdSOB-10">[10]</A></SUP> A large number of synapses are dynamically modifiable; that is, they are capable of changing strength in a way that is controlled by the patterns of signals that pass through them. It is widely believed that <A href="/wiki/Synaptic_plasticity" title="Synaptic plasticity">activity-dependent modification of synapses</A> is the brain's primary mechanism for learning and memory.<SUP id="cite_ref-ShepherdSOB_10-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-ShepherdSOB-10">[10]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Most of the space in the brain is taken up by axons, which are often bundled together in what are called <I>nerve fiber tracts</I>. A myelinated axon is wrapped in a fatty insulating sheath of <A href="/wiki/Myelin" title="Myelin">myelin</A>, which serves to greatly increase the speed of signal propagation. (There are also unmyelinated axons). Myelin is white, making parts of the brain filled exclusively with nerve fibers appear as light-colored <A href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">white matter</A>, in contrast to the darker-colored <A href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">grey matter</A> that marks areas with high densities of neuron cell bodies.<SUP id="cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Kandel_2000-7">[7]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Evolution">Evolution</SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">Evolution of the brain</A></DIV>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Generic_bilaterian_nervous_system">Generic bilaterian nervous system</SPAN></H4>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Bilaterian-plan.svg" class="image"><IMG alt="A rod-shaped body contains a digestive system running from the mouth at one end to the anus at the other. Alongside the digestive system is a nerve cord with a brain at the end, near to the mouth." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Bilaterian-plan.svg/300px-Bilaterian-plan.svg.png" width="300" height="88" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Bilaterian-plan.svg/450px-Bilaterian-plan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Bilaterian-plan.svg/600px-Bilaterian-plan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="218" /></A>
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Nervous system of a generic bilaterian animal, in the form of a nerve cord with segmental enlargements, and a "brain" at the front.</DIV>
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<P>Except for a few primitive organisms such as sponges (which have no nervous system)<SUP id="cite_ref-Jacobs_13-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Jacobs-13">[13]</A></SUP> and <A href="/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">cnidarians</A> (which have a nervous system consisting of a diffuse nerve net<SUP id="cite_ref-Jacobs_13-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Jacobs-13">[13]</A></SUP>), all living multicellular animals are <A href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">bilaterians</A>, meaning animals with a <A href="/wiki/Bilateral_symmetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilateral symmetry">bilaterally symmetric</A> body shape (that is, left and right sides that are approximate mirror images of each other).<SUP id="cite_ref-Urbilateria_14-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Urbilateria-14">[14]</A></SUP> All bilaterians are thought to have descended from a common ancestor that appeared early in the <A href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</A> period, 485-540 million years ago, and it has been hypothesized that this common ancestor had the shape of a simple tubeworm with a segmented body.<SUP id="cite_ref-Urbilateria_14-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Urbilateria-14">[14]</A></SUP> At a schematic level, that basic worm-shape continues to be reflected in the body and nervous system architecture of all modern bilaterians, including vertebrates.<SUP id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-15">[15]</A></SUP> The fundamental bilateral body form is a tube with a hollow gut cavity running from the mouth to the anus, and a nerve cord with an enlargement (a <A href="/wiki/Ganglion" title="Ganglion">ganglion</A>) for each body segment, with an especially large ganglion at the front, called the brain. The brain is small and simple in some species, such as <A href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">nematode</A> worms; in other species, including vertebrates, it is the most complex organ in the body.<SUP id="cite_ref-Shepherd_3-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Shepherd-3">[3]</A></SUP> Some types of worms, such as <A href="/wiki/Leech" title="Leech">leeches</A>, also have an enlarged ganglion at the back end of the nerve cord, known as a "tail brain".<SUP id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-16">[16]</A></SUP></P>
<P>There are a few types of existing bilaterians that lack a recognizable brain, including <A href="/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm">echinoderms</A> and <A href="/wiki/Tunicate" title="Tunicate">tunicates</A>. It has not been definitively established whether the existence of these brainless species indicates that the earliest <A href="/wiki/Bilaterians" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilaterians">bilaterians</A> lacked a brain, or whether their ancestors evolved in a way that led to the disappearance of a previously existing brain structure.</P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Invertebrates">Invertebrates</SPAN></H4>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Drosophila_melanogaster_-_side_(aka).jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="A fly resting on a reflective surface. A large, red eye faces the camera. The body appears transparent, apart from black pigment at the end of its abdomen." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Drosophila_melanogaster_-_side_%28aka%29.jpg/220px-Drosophila_melanogaster_-_side_%28aka%29.jpg" width="220" height="171" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Drosophila_melanogaster_-_side_%28aka%29.jpg/330px-Drosophila_melanogaster_-_side_%28aka%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Drosophila_melanogaster_-_side_%28aka%29.jpg/440px-Drosophila_melanogaster_-_side_%28aka%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="546" data-file-height="424" /></A>
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Fruit flies (<I><A href="/wiki/Drosophila" title="Drosophila">Drosophila</A></I>) have been extensively studied to gain insight into the role of genes in brain development.</DIV>
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<P>This category includes <A href="/wiki/Tardigrade" title="Tardigrade">tardigrades</A>, <A href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">arthropods</A>, <A href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">molluscs</A>, and numerous types of worms. The diversity of invertebrate body plans is matched by an equal diversity in brain structures.<SUP id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-17">[17]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Two groups of invertebrates have notably complex brains: arthropods (insects, <A href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</A>, <A href="/wiki/Arachnid" title="Arachnid">arachnids</A>, and others), and <A href="/wiki/Cephalopod" title="Cephalopod">cephalopods</A> (octopuses, <A href="/wiki/Squid" title="Squid">squids</A>, and similar molluscs).<SUP id="cite_ref-Butler_18-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Butler-18">[18]</A></SUP> The brains of arthropods and cephalopods arise from twin parallel nerve cords that extend through the body of the animal. Arthropods have a central brain, the <A href="/wiki/Supraesophageal_ganglion" title="Supraesophageal ganglion">supraesophageal ganglion</A>, with three divisions and large <A href="/wiki/Optic_lobe_(arthropod)" class="mw-redirect" title="Optic lobe (arthropod)">optical lobes</A> behind each eye for visual processing.<SUP id="cite_ref-Butler_18-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Butler-18">[18]</A></SUP> Cephalopods such as the octopus and squid have the largest brains of any invertebrates.<SUP id="cite_ref-Bulloch1995_19-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Bulloch1995-19">[19]</A></SUP></P>
<P>There are several invertebrate species whose brains have been studied intensively because they have properties that make them convenient for experimental work:</P>
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<LI>Fruit flies (<I>Drosophila</I>), because of the large array of techniques available for studying their <A href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</A>, have been a natural subject for studying the role of genes in brain development.<SUP id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-20">[20]</A></SUP> In spite of the large evolutionary distance between insects and mammals, many aspects of <I>Drosophila</I> <A href="/wiki/Neurogenetics" title="Neurogenetics">neurogenetics</A> have been shown to be relevant to humans. The first biological <A href="/wiki/Clock_gene" class="mw-redirect" title="Clock gene">clock genes</A>, for example, were identified by examining <I>Drosophila</I> mutants that showed disrupted daily activity cycles.<SUP id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-21">[21]</A></SUP> A search in the genomes of vertebrates revealed a set of analogous genes, which were found to play similar roles in the mouse biological clock—and therefore almost certainly in the human biological clock as well.<SUP id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-22">[22]</A></SUP> Studies done on Drosophila, also show that most <A href="/wiki/Neuropil" title="Neuropil">neuropil</A> regions of the brain are continuously reorganized throughout life in response to specific living conditions.<SUP id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-23">[23]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI>The nematode worm <I><A href="/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans" title="Caenorhabditis elegans">Caenorhabditis elegans</A></I>, like <I>Drosophila</I>, has been studied largely because of its importance in genetics.<SUP id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-24">[24]</A></SUP> In the early 1970s, <A href="/wiki/Sydney_Brenner" title="Sydney Brenner">Sydney Brenner</A> chose it as a <A href="/wiki/Model_organism" title="Model organism">model organism</A> for studying the way that genes control development. One of the advantages of working with this worm is that the body plan is very stereotyped: the nervous system of the <A href="/wiki/Hermaphrodite" title="Hermaphrodite">hermaphrodite</A> contains exactly 302 neurons, always in the same places, making identical synaptic connections in every worm.<SUP id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-25">[25]</A></SUP> Brenner's team sliced worms into thousands of ultrathin sections and photographed each one under an electron microscope, then visually matched fibers from section to section, to map out every neuron and synapse in the entire body.<SUP id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-26">[26]</A></SUP> The complete neuronal <I>wiring diagram</I> of <I>C.elegans</I> – its <A href="/wiki/Connectome" title="Connectome">connectome</A> was achieved.<SUP id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-27">[27]</A></SUP> Nothing approaching this level of detail is available for any other organism, and the information gained has enabled a multitude of studies that would otherwise have not been possible.<SUP id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-28">[28]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI>The sea slug <I><A href="/wiki/Aplysia" title="Aplysia">Aplysia</A> californica</I> was chosen by Nobel Prize-winning neurophysiologist <A href="/wiki/Eric_Kandel" title="Eric Kandel">Eric Kandel</A> as a model for studying the cellular basis of <A href="/wiki/Learning" title="Learning">learning</A> and <A href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">memory</A>, because of the simplicity and accessibility of its nervous system, and it has been examined in hundreds of experiments.<SUP id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-29">[29]</A></SUP></LI>
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<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Vertebrates">Vertebrates</SPAN></H4>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Shark_brain.png" class="image"><IMG alt="A T-shaped object is made up of the cord at the bottom which feeds into a lower central mass. This is topped by a larger central mass with an arm extending from either side." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Shark_brain.png/170px-Shark_brain.png" width="170" height="177" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Shark_brain.png/255px-Shark_brain.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Shark_brain.png/340px-Shark_brain.png 2x" data-file-width="348" data-file-height="362" /></A>
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The brain of a <A href="/wiki/Shark" title="Shark">shark</A>.</DIV>
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<P>The first <A href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</A> appeared over 500 million years ago (<A href="/wiki/Mya_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mya (unit)">Mya</A>), during the <A href="/wiki/Cambrian_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambrian period">Cambrian period</A>, and may have resembled the modern <A href="/wiki/Hagfish" title="Hagfish">hagfish</A> in form.<SUP id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-30">[30]</A></SUP> Sharks appeared about 450 Mya, amphibians about 400 Mya, reptiles about 350 Mya, and mammals about 200 Mya. Each species has an equally long <A href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolutionary history</A>, but the brains of modern hagfishes, <A href="/wiki/Lamprey" title="Lamprey">lampreys</A>, sharks, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals show a gradient of size and complexity that roughly follows the evolutionary sequence. All of these brains contain the same set of basic anatomical components, but many are rudimentary in the hagfish, whereas in mammals the foremost part (the <A href="/wiki/Cerebrum" title="Cerebrum">telencephalon</A>) is greatly elaborated and expanded.<SUP id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-31">[31]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Brains are most simply compared in terms of their size. The relationship between <A href="/wiki/Brain_size" title="Brain size">brain size</A>, body size and other variables has been studied across a wide range of vertebrate species. As a rule, brain size increases with body size, but not in a simple linear proportion. In general, smaller animals tend to have larger brains, measured as a fraction of body size. For mammals, the relationship between brain volume and body mass essentially follows a <A href="/wiki/Power_law" title="Power law">power law</A> with an <A href="/wiki/Exponentiation" title="Exponentiation">exponent</A> of about 0.75.<SUP id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-32">[32]</A></SUP> This formula describes the central tendency, but every family of mammals departs from it to some degree, in a way that reflects in part the complexity of their behavior. For example, primates have brains 5 to 10 times larger than the formula predicts. Predators tend to have larger brains than their prey, relative to body size.<SUP id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-33">[33]</A></SUP></P>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><A href="/wiki/File:EmbryonicBrain.svg" class="image"><IMG alt="The nervous system is shown as a rod with protrusions along its length. The spinal cord at the bottom connects to the hindbrain which widens out before narrowing again. This is connected to the midbrain, which again bulges, and which finally connects to the forebrain which has two large protrusions." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/EmbryonicBrain.svg/250px-EmbryonicBrain.svg.png" width="250" height="188" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/EmbryonicBrain.svg/375px-EmbryonicBrain.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/EmbryonicBrain.svg/500px-EmbryonicBrain.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" /></A>
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The main subdivisions of the <A href="/wiki/Embryogenesis" title="Embryogenesis">embryonic</A> vertebrate brain, which later differentiate into the forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain.</DIV>
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<P>All vertebrate brains share a common underlying form, which appears most clearly during early stages of embryonic development. In its earliest form, the brain appears as three swellings at the front end of the <A href="/wiki/Neural_tube" title="Neural tube">neural tube</A>; these swellings eventually become the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain (the <A href="/wiki/Prosencephalon" class="mw-redirect" title="Prosencephalon">prosencephalon</A>, <A href="/wiki/Mesencephalon" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesencephalon">mesencephalon</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Rhombencephalon" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhombencephalon">rhombencephalon</A>, respectively). At the earliest stages of brain development, the three areas are roughly equal in size. In many classes of vertebrates, such as fish and amphibians, the three parts remain similar in size in the adult, but in mammals the forebrain becomes much larger than the other parts, and the midbrain becomes very small.<SUP id="cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Kandel_2000-7">[7]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The brains of vertebrates are made of very soft tissue.<SUP id="cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-6" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Kandel_2000-7">[7]</A></SUP> Living brain tissue is pinkish on the outside and mostly white on the inside, with subtle variations in color. Vertebrate brains are surrounded by a system of <A href="/wiki/Connective_tissue" title="Connective tissue">connective tissue</A> <A href="/wiki/Biological_membrane" title="Biological membrane">membranes</A> called <A href="/wiki/Meninges" title="Meninges">meninges</A> that separate the skull from the brain. <A href="/wiki/Blood_vessel" title="Blood vessel">Blood vessels</A> enter the central nervous system through holes in the meningeal layers. The cells in the blood vessel walls are joined tightly to one another, forming the <A href="/wiki/Blood%E2%80%93brain_barrier" title="Blood–brain barrier">blood–brain barrier</A>, which blocks the passage of many <A href="/wiki/Toxin" title="Toxin">toxins</A> and <A href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogens</A><SUP id="cite_ref-CarpenterCh1_34-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-CarpenterCh1-34">[34]</A></SUP> (though at the same time blocking <A href="/wiki/Antibody" title="Antibody">antibodies</A> and some drugs, thereby presenting special challenges in treatment of diseases of the brain).<SUP id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-35">[35]</A></SUP></P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Neuroanatomy" title="Neuroanatomy">Neuroanatomists</A> usually divide the vertebrate brain into six main regions: the <A href="/wiki/Cerebrum" title="Cerebrum">telencephalon</A> (cerebral hemispheres), <A href="/wiki/Diencephalon" title="Diencephalon">diencephalon</A> (thalamus and hypothalamus), <A href="/wiki/Midbrain" title="Midbrain">mesencephalon</A> (midbrain), <A href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">cerebellum</A>, <A href="/wiki/Pons" title="Pons">pons</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Medulla_oblongata" title="Medulla oblongata">medulla oblongata</A>. Each of these areas has a complex internal structure. Some parts, such as the cerebral cortex and the cerebellar cortex, consist of layers that are folded or convoluted to fit within the available space. Other parts, such as the thalamus and hypothalamus, consist of clusters of many small nuclei. Thousands of distinguishable areas can be identified within the vertebrate brain based on fine distinctions of neural structure, chemistry, and connectivity.<SUP id="cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-7" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Kandel_2000-7">[7]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Although the same basic components are present in all vertebrate brains, some branches of vertebrate evolution have led to substantial distortions of brain geometry, especially in the forebrain area. The brain of a shark shows the basic components in a straightforward way, but in <A href="/wiki/Teleostei" class="mw-redirect" title="Teleostei">teleost</A> fishes (the great majority of existing fish species), the forebrain has become "everted", like a sock turned inside out. In birds, there are also major changes in forebrain structure.<SUP id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-36">[36]</A></SUP> These distortions can make it difficult to match brain components from one species with those of another species.<SUP id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-37">[37]</A></SUP></P>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Vertebrate-brain-regions_small.png" class="image"><IMG alt="Corresponding regions of human and shark brain are shown. The shark brain is splayed out, while the human brain is more compact. The shark brain starts with the medulla, which is surrounded by various structures, and ends with the telencephalon. The cross-section of the human brain shows the medulla at the bottom surrounded by the same structures, with the telencephalon thickly coating the top of the brain." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Vertebrate-brain-regions_small.png/220px-Vertebrate-brain-regions_small.png" width="220" height="317" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/Vertebrate-brain-regions_small.png 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="432" /></A>
<DIV class="thumbcaption">
<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:Vertebrate-brain-regions_small.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
The main anatomical regions of the vertebrate brain, shown for shark and human. The same parts are present, but they differ greatly in size and shape.</DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<P>Here is a list of some of the most important vertebrate brain components, along with a brief description of their functions as currently understood:</P>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <A href="/wiki/List_of_regions_in_the_human_brain" title="List of regions in the human brain">List of regions in the human brain</A></DIV>
<UL>
<LI>The <B><A href="/wiki/Medulla_oblongata" title="Medulla oblongata">medulla</A></B>, along with the spinal cord, contains many small nuclei involved in a wide variety of sensory and involuntary motor functions such as vomiting, heart rate and digestive processes.<SUP id="cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-8" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Kandel_2000-7">[7]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI>The <B><A href="/wiki/Pons" title="Pons">pons</A></B> lies in the brainstem directly above the medulla. Among other things, it contains nuclei that control often voluntary but simple acts such as sleep, respiration, swallowing, bladder function, equilibrium, eye movement, facial expressions, and posture.<SUP id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-38">[38]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI>The <B><A href="/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">hypothalamus</A></B> is a small region at the base of the forebrain, whose complexity and importance belies its size. It is composed of numerous small nuclei, each with distinct connections and neurochemistry. The hypothalamus is engaged in additional involuntary or partially voluntary acts such as sleep and wake cycles, eating and drinking, and the release of some hormones.<SUP id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-39">[39]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI>The <B><A href="/wiki/Thalamus" title="Thalamus">thalamus</A></B> is a collection of nuclei with diverse functions: some are involved in relaying information to and from the cerebral hemispheres, while others are involved in motivation. The subthalamic area (<A href="/wiki/Zona_incerta" title="Zona incerta">zona incerta</A>) seems to contain action-generating systems for several types of "consummatory" behaviors such as eating, drinking, defecation, and copulation.<SUP id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-40">[40]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI>The <B><A href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">cerebellum</A></B> modulates the outputs of other brain systems, whether motor related or thought related, to make them certain and precise. Removal of the cerebellum does not prevent an animal from doing anything in particular, but it makes actions hesitant and clumsy. This precision is not built-in, but learned by trial and error. The muscle coordination learned while riding a bicycle is an example of a type of <A href="/wiki/Neuroplasticity" title="Neuroplasticity">neural plasticity</A> that may take place largely within the cerebellum.<SUP id="cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-9" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Kandel_2000-7">[7]</A></SUP> 10% of the brain's total volume consists of the cerebellum and 50% of all neurons are held within its structure.<SUP id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-41">[41]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI>The <B><A href="/wiki/Superior_colliculus" title="Superior colliculus">optic tectum</A></B> allows actions to be directed toward points in space, most commonly in response to visual input. In mammals it is usually referred to as the <A href="/wiki/Superior_colliculus" title="Superior colliculus">superior colliculus</A>, and its best-studied function is to direct eye movements. It also directs reaching movements and other object-directed actions. It receives strong visual inputs, but also inputs from other senses that are useful in directing actions, such as auditory input in owls and input from the thermosensitive <A href="/wiki/Pit_organ" class="mw-redirect" title="Pit organ">pit organs</A> in snakes. In some primitive fishes, such as <A href="/wiki/Lamprey" title="Lamprey">lampreys</A>, this region is the largest part of the brain.<SUP id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-42">[42]</A></SUP> The superior colliculus is part of the midbrain.</LI>
<LI>The <B><A href="/wiki/Pallium_(neuroanatomy)" title="Pallium (neuroanatomy)">pallium</A></B> is a layer of gray matter that lies on the surface of the forebrain and is the most complex and most recent evolutionary development of the brain as an organ.<SUP id="cite_ref-LullFerris1922_43-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-LullFerris1922-43">[43]</A></SUP> In reptiles and mammals, it is called the <I>cerebral cortex</I>. Multiple functions involve the pallium, including <A href="/wiki/Olfaction" title="Olfaction">smell</A> and <A href="/wiki/Spatial_memory" title="Spatial memory">spatial memory</A>. In mammals, where it becomes so large as to dominate the brain, it takes over functions from many other brain areas. In many mammals, the cerebral cortex consists of folded bulges called <A href="/wiki/Gyrus" title="Gyrus">gyri</A> that create deep furrows or fissures called <A href="/wiki/Sulcus_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulcus (anatomy)">sulci</A>. The folds increase the surface area of the cortex and therefore increase the amount of gray matter and the amount of information that can be stored and processed.<SUP id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-44">[44]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI>The <B><A href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">hippocampus</A></B>, strictly speaking, is found only in mammals. However, the area it derives from, the medial pallium, has counterparts in all vertebrates. There is evidence that this part of the brain is involved in complex events such as spatial memory and navigation in fishes, birds, reptiles, and mammals.<SUP id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-45">[45]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI>The <B><A href="/wiki/Basal_ganglia" title="Basal ganglia">basal ganglia</A></B> are a group of interconnected structures in the forebrain. The primary function of the basal ganglia appears to be <A href="/wiki/Action_selection" title="Action selection">action selection</A>: they send inhibitory signals to all parts of the brain that can generate motor behaviors, and in the right circumstances can release the inhibition, so that the action-generating systems are able to execute their actions. Reward and punishment exert their most important neural effects by altering connections within the basal ganglia.<SUP id="cite_ref-Grillner2005_46-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Grillner2005-46">[46]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI>The <B><A href="/wiki/Olfactory_bulb" title="Olfactory bulb">olfactory bulb</A></B> is a special structure that processes olfactory sensory signals and sends its output to the olfactory part of the pallium. It is a major brain component in many vertebrates, but is greatly reduced in humans and other primates (whose senses are dominated by information acquired by sight rather than smell).<SUP id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-47">[47]</A></SUP></LI>
</UL>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Mammals">Mammals</SPAN></H4>
<P>The most obvious difference between the brains of mammals and other vertebrates is in terms of size. On average, a mammal has a brain roughly twice as large as that of a bird of the same body size, and ten times as large as that of a reptile of the same body size.<SUP id="cite_ref-Northcutt2002_48-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Northcutt2002-48">[48]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Size, however, is not the only difference: there are also substantial differences in shape. The hindbrain and midbrain of mammals are generally similar to those of other vertebrates, but dramatic differences appear in the forebrain, which is greatly enlarged and also altered in structure.<SUP id="cite_ref-Barton_49-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Barton-49">[49]</A></SUP> The cerebral cortex is the part of the brain that most strongly distinguishes mammals. In non-mammalian vertebrates, the surface of the <A href="/wiki/Cerebrum" title="Cerebrum">cerebrum</A> is lined with a comparatively simple three-layered structure called the <A href="/wiki/Pallium_(neuroanatomy)" title="Pallium (neuroanatomy)">pallium</A>. In mammals, the pallium evolves into a complex six-layered structure called <A href="/wiki/Neocortex" title="Neocortex">neocortex</A> or <I>isocortex</I>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Aboitiz_50-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Aboitiz-50">[50]</A></SUP> Several areas at the edge of the neocortex, including the hippocampus and <A href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">amygdala</A>, are also much more extensively developed in mammals than in other vertebrates.<SUP id="cite_ref-Barton_49-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Barton-49">[49]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The elaboration of the cerebral cortex carries with it changes to other brain areas. The <A href="/wiki/Superior_colliculus" title="Superior colliculus">superior colliculus</A>, which plays a major role in visual control of behavior in most vertebrates, shrinks to a small size in mammals, and many of its functions are taken over by visual areas of the cerebral cortex.<SUP id="cite_ref-Northcutt2002_48-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Northcutt2002-48">[48]</A></SUP> The cerebellum of mammals contains a large portion (the <A href="/wiki/Neocerebellum" class="mw-redirect" title="Neocerebellum">neocerebellum</A>) dedicated to supporting the cerebral cortex, which has no counterpart in other vertebrates.<SUP id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-51">[51]</A></SUP></P>
<H5><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Primates">Primates</SPAN></H5>
<TABLE class="wikitable" align="right" style="margin-left: 10px;">
<CAPTION>Encephalization Quotient</CAPTION>
<TBODY><TR>
<TH>Species</TH>
<TH>EQ<SUP id="cite_ref-Roth2005_52-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Roth2005-52">[52]</A></SUP></TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>Human</TD>
<TD>7.4–7.8</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Chimpanzee" title="Chimpanzee">Chimpanzee</A></TD>
<TD>2.2–2.5</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Rhesus_macaque" title="Rhesus macaque">Rhesus monkey</A></TD>
<TD>2.1</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Bottlenose_dolphin" title="Bottlenose dolphin">Bottlenose dolphin</A></TD>
<TD>4.14<SUP id="cite_ref-Marino_53-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Marino-53">[53]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>Elephant</TD>
<TD>1.13–2.36<SUP id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-54">[54]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>Dog</TD>
<TD>1.2</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>Horse</TD>
<TD>0.9</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Rat" title="Rat">Rat</A></TD>
<TD>0.4</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <A href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">Human brain</A></DIV>
<P>The brains of humans and other <A href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">primates</A> contain the same structures as the brains of other mammals, but are generally larger in proportion to body size.<SUP id="cite_ref-Finlay_55-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Finlay-55">[55]</A></SUP> The <A href="/wiki/Encephalization_quotient" title="Encephalization quotient">encephalization quotient</A> (EQ) is used to compare brain sizes across species. It takes into account the nonlinearity of the brain-to-body relationship.<SUP id="cite_ref-Roth2005_52-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Roth2005-52">[52]</A></SUP> Humans have an average EQ in the 7-to-8 range, while most other primates have an EQ in the 2-to-3 range. Dolphins have values higher than those of primates other than humans,<SUP id="cite_ref-Marino_53-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Marino-53">[53]</A></SUP> but nearly all other mammals have EQ values that are substantially lower.</P>
<P>Most of the enlargement of the primate brain comes from a massive expansion of the cerebral cortex, especially the <A href="/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex" title="Prefrontal cortex">prefrontal cortex</A> and the parts of the cortex involved in <A href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">vision</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-56">[56]</A></SUP> The visual processing network of primates includes at least 30 distinguishable brain areas, with a complex web of interconnections. It has been estimated that visual processing areas occupy more than half of the total surface of the primate neocortex.<SUP id="cite_ref-Sereno1995_57-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Sereno1995-57">[57]</A></SUP> The <A href="/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex" title="Prefrontal cortex">prefrontal cortex</A> carries out functions that include <A href="/wiki/Foresight_(psychology)" title="Foresight (psychology)">planning</A>, <A href="/wiki/Working_memory" title="Working memory">working memory</A>, <A href="/wiki/Motivation" title="Motivation">motivation</A>, <A href="/wiki/Attention" title="Attention">attention</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Executive_functions" title="Executive functions">executive control</A>. It takes up a much larger proportion of the brain for primates than for other species, and an especially large fraction of the human brain.<SUP id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-58">[58]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Development">Development</SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Neural_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Neural development">Neural development</A></DIV>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><A href="/wiki/File:6_week_embryo_brain.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Very simple drawing of the front end of a human embryo, showing each vesicle of the developing brain in a different color." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/6_week_embryo_brain.jpg/300px-6_week_embryo_brain.jpg" width="300" height="221" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/6_week_embryo_brain.jpg/450px-6_week_embryo_brain.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/6_week_embryo_brain.jpg 2x" data-file-width="544" data-file-height="401" /></A>
<DIV class="thumbcaption">
<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:6_week_embryo_brain.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
Brain of a human embryo in the sixth week of development.</DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<P>The brain develops in an intricately orchestrated sequence of stages.<SUP id="cite_ref-Purves_1985_59-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Purves_1985-59">[59]</A></SUP> It changes in shape from a simple swelling at the front of the nerve cord in the earliest embryonic stages, to a complex array of areas and connections. Neurons are created in special zones that contain <A href="/wiki/Stem_cell" title="Stem cell">stem cells</A>, and then migrate through the tissue to reach their ultimate locations. Once neurons have positioned themselves, their axons sprout and navigate through the brain, branching and extending as they go, until the tips reach their targets and form synaptic connections. In a number of parts of the nervous system, neurons and synapses are produced in excessive numbers during the early stages, and then the unneeded ones are pruned away.<SUP id="cite_ref-Purves_1985_59-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Purves_1985-59">[59]</A></SUP></P>
<P>For vertebrates, the early stages of neural development are similar across all species.<SUP id="cite_ref-Purves_1985_59-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Purves_1985-59">[59]</A></SUP> As the embryo transforms from a round blob of cells into a wormlike structure, a narrow strip of <A href="/wiki/Ectoderm" title="Ectoderm">ectoderm</A> running along the midline of the back is <A href="/wiki/Cellular_differentiation" title="Cellular differentiation">induced</A> to become the <A href="/wiki/Neural_plate" title="Neural plate">neural plate</A>, the precursor of the nervous system. The neural plate folds inward to form the <A href="/wiki/Neural_groove" title="Neural groove">neural groove</A>, and then the lips that line the groove merge to enclose the <A href="/wiki/Neural_tube" title="Neural tube">neural tube</A>, a hollow cord of cells with a fluid-filled ventricle at the center. At the front end, the ventricles and cord swell to form three vesicles that are the precursors of the <A href="/wiki/Prosencephalon" class="mw-redirect" title="Prosencephalon">forebrain</A>, <A href="/wiki/Mesencephalon" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesencephalon">midbrain</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Rhombencephalon" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhombencephalon">hindbrain</A>. At the next stage, the forebrain splits into two vesicles called the <A href="/wiki/Cerebrum" title="Cerebrum">telencephalon</A> (which will contain the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and related structures) and the <A href="/wiki/Diencephalon" title="Diencephalon">diencephalon</A> (which will contain the thalamus and hypothalamus). At about the same time, the hindbrain splits into the <A href="/wiki/Metencephalon" title="Metencephalon">metencephalon</A> (which will contain the cerebellum and pons) and the <A href="/wiki/Myelencephalon" title="Myelencephalon">myelencephalon</A> (which will contain the <A href="/wiki/Medulla_oblongata" title="Medulla oblongata">medulla oblongata</A>). Each of these areas contains proliferative zones where neurons and glial cells are generated; the resulting cells then migrate, sometimes for long distances, to their final positions.<SUP id="cite_ref-Purves_1985_59-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Purves_1985-59">[59]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Once a neuron is in place, it extends dendrites and an axon into the area around it. Axons, because they commonly extend a great distance from the cell body and need to reach specific targets, grow in a particularly complex way. The tip of a growing axon consists of a blob of protoplasm called a <A href="/wiki/Growth_cone" title="Growth cone">growth cone</A>, studded with chemical receptors. These receptors sense the local environment, causing the growth cone to be attracted or repelled by various cellular elements, and thus to be pulled in a particular direction at each point along its path. The result of this pathfinding process is that the growth cone navigates through the brain until it reaches its destination area, where other chemical cues cause it to begin generating synapses. Considering the entire brain, thousands of <A href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</A> create products that influence axonal pathfinding.<SUP id="cite_ref-Purves_1985_59-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Purves_1985-59">[59]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The synaptic network that finally emerges is only partly determined by genes, though. In many parts of the brain, axons initially "overgrow", and then are "pruned" by mechanisms that depend on neural activity.<SUP id="cite_ref-Purves_1985_59-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Purves_1985-59">[59]</A></SUP> In the projection from the eye to the midbrain, for example, the structure in the adult contains a very precise mapping, connecting each point on the surface of the <A href="/wiki/Retina" title="Retina">retina</A> to a corresponding point in a midbrain layer. In the first stages of development, each axon from the retina is guided to the right general vicinity in the midbrain by chemical cues, but then branches very profusely and makes initial contact with a wide swath of midbrain neurons. The retina, before birth, contains special mechanisms that cause it to generate waves of activity that originate spontaneously at a random point and then propagate slowly across the retinal layer. These waves are useful because they cause neighboring neurons to be active at the same time; that is, they produce a neural activity pattern that contains information about the spatial arrangement of the neurons. This information is exploited in the midbrain by a mechanism that causes synapses to weaken, and eventually vanish, if activity in an axon is not followed by activity of the target cell. The result of this sophisticated process is a gradual tuning and tightening of the map, leaving it finally in its precise adult form.<SUP id="cite_ref-Wong_60-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Wong-60">[60]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Similar things happen in other brain areas: an initial synaptic matrix is generated as a result of genetically determined chemical guidance, but then gradually refined by activity-dependent mechanisms, partly driven by internal dynamics, partly by external sensory inputs. In some cases, as with the retina-midbrain system, activity patterns depend on mechanisms that operate only in the developing brain, and apparently exist solely to guide development.<SUP id="cite_ref-Wong_60-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Wong-60">[60]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In humans and many other mammals, new neurons are created mainly before birth, and the infant brain contains substantially more neurons than the adult brain.<SUP id="cite_ref-Purves_1985_59-6" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Purves_1985-59">[59]</A></SUP> There are, however, a few areas where new neurons continue to be generated throughout life. The two areas for which adult <A href="/wiki/Neurogenesis" title="Neurogenesis">neurogenesis</A> is well established are the olfactory bulb, which is involved in the sense of smell, and the <A href="/wiki/Dentate_gyrus" title="Dentate gyrus">dentate gyrus</A> of the hippocampus, where there is evidence that the new neurons play a role in storing newly acquired memories. With these exceptions, however, the set of neurons that is present in early childhood is the set that is present for life. Glial cells are different: as with most types of cells in the body, they are generated throughout the lifespan.<SUP id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-61">[61]</A></SUP></P>
<P>There has long been debate about whether the qualities of <A href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</A>, personality, and intelligence can be attributed to heredity or to upbringing—this is the <A href="/wiki/Nature_and_nurture" class="mw-redirect" title="Nature and nurture">nature and nurture</A> controversy.<SUP id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-62">[62]</A></SUP> Although many details remain to be settled, neuroscience research has clearly shown that both factors are important. Genes determine the general form of the brain, and genes determine how the brain reacts to experience. Experience, however, is required to refine the matrix of synaptic connections, which in its developed form contains far more information than the genome does. In some respects, all that matters is the presence or absence of experience during critical periods of development.<SUP id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-63">[63]</A></SUP> In other respects, the quantity and quality of experience are important; for example, there is substantial evidence that animals raised in <A href="/wiki/Environmental_enrichment_(neural)" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental enrichment (neural)">enriched environments</A> have thicker cerebral cortices, indicating a higher density of synaptic connections, than animals whose levels of stimulation are restricted.<SUP id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-64">[64]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Physiology">Physiology</SPAN></H2>
<P>The functions of the brain depend on the ability of neurons to transmit electrochemical signals to other cells, and their ability to respond appropriately to electrochemical signals received from other cells. The <A href="/wiki/Membrane_potential" title="Membrane potential">electrical properties</A> of neurons are controlled by a wide variety of biochemical and metabolic processes, most notably the interactions between neurotransmitters and receptors that take place at synapses.<SUP id="cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-10" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Kandel_2000-7">[7]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Neurotransmitters_and_receptors">Neurotransmitters and receptors</SPAN></H3>
<P><A href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">Neurotransmitters</A> are chemicals that are released at synapses when an action potential activates them—neurotransmitters attach themselves to receptor molecules on the membrane of the synapse's target cell, and thereby alter the electrical or chemical properties of the receptor molecules. With few exceptions, each neuron in the brain releases the same chemical neurotransmitter, or combination of neurotransmitters, at all the synaptic connections it makes with other neurons; this rule is known as <A href="/wiki/Dale%27s_principle" title="Dale's principle">Dale's principle</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-11" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Kandel_2000-7">[7]</A></SUP> Thus, a neuron can be characterized by the neurotransmitters that it releases. The great majority of <A href="/wiki/Psychoactive_drug" title="Psychoactive drug">psychoactive drugs</A> exert their effects by altering specific neurotransmitter systems. This applies to drugs such as <A href="/wiki/Cannabinoids" class="mw-redirect" title="Cannabinoids">cannabinoids</A>, <A href="/wiki/Nicotine" title="Nicotine">nicotine</A>, heroin, <A href="/wiki/Cocaine" title="Cocaine">cocaine</A>, alcohol, <A href="/wiki/Fluoxetine" title="Fluoxetine">fluoxetine</A>, <A href="/wiki/Chlorpromazine" title="Chlorpromazine">chlorpromazine</A>, and many others.<SUP id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-65">[65]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The two neurotransmitters that are used most widely in the vertebrate brain are <A href="/wiki/Glutamic_acid" title="Glutamic acid">glutamate</A>, which almost always exerts excitatory effects on target neurons, and <A href="/wiki/Gamma-aminobutyric_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma-aminobutyric acid">gamma-aminobutyric acid</A> (GABA), which is almost always inhibitory. Neurons using these transmitters can be found in nearly every part of the brain.<SUP id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-66">[66]</A></SUP> Because of their ubiquity, drugs that act on glutamate or GABA tend to have broad and powerful effects. Some general anesthetics act by reducing the effects of glutamate; most tranquilizers exert their sedative effects by enhancing the effects of GABA.<SUP id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-67">[67]</A></SUP></P>
<P>There are dozens of other chemical neurotransmitters that are used in more limited areas of the brain, often areas dedicated to a particular function. <A href="/wiki/Serotonin" title="Serotonin">Serotonin</A>, for example—the primary target of antidepressant drugs and many dietary aids—comes exclusively from a small brainstem area called the <A href="/wiki/Raphe_nuclei" title="Raphe nuclei">raphe nuclei</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-68">[68]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Norepinephrine" title="Norepinephrine">Norepinephrine</A>, which is involved in arousal, comes exclusively from a nearby small area called the <A href="/wiki/Locus_coeruleus" title="Locus coeruleus">locus coeruleus</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Mehler_69-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Mehler-69">[69]</A></SUP> Other neurotransmitters such as <A href="/wiki/Acetylcholine" title="Acetylcholine">acetylcholine</A> and <A href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">dopamine</A> have multiple sources in the brain, but are not as ubiquitously distributed as glutamate and GABA.<SUP id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-70">[70]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Electrical_activity">Electrical activity</SPAN></H3>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Spike-waves.png" class="image"><IMG alt="Graph showing 16 voltage traces going across the page from left to right, each showing a different signal. At the middle of the page all of the traces abruptly begin to show sharp jerky spikes, which continue to the end of the plot." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Spike-waves.png/220px-Spike-waves.png" width="220" height="230" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Spike-waves.png/330px-Spike-waves.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Spike-waves.png/440px-Spike-waves.png 2x" data-file-width="478" data-file-height="500" /></A>
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Brain electrical activity recorded from a human patient during an <A href="/wiki/Epilepsy" title="Epilepsy">epileptic seizure</A>.</DIV>
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<P>As a side effect of the electrochemical processes used by neurons for signaling, brain tissue generates electric fields when it is active. When large numbers of neurons show synchronized activity, the electric fields that they generate can be large enough to detect outside the skull, using <A href="/wiki/Electroencephalography" title="Electroencephalography">electroencephalography</A> (EEG)<SUP id="cite_ref-Niedermeyer_71-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Niedermeyer-71">[71]</A></SUP> or <A href="/wiki/Magnetoencephalography" title="Magnetoencephalography">magnetoencephalography</A> (MEG). EEG recordings, along with recordings made from electrodes implanted inside the brains of animals such as rats, show that the brain of a living animal is constantly active, even during sleep.<SUP id="cite_ref-Buzsaki_72-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Buzsaki-72">[72]</A></SUP> Each part of the brain shows a mixture of rhythmic and nonrhythmic activity, which may vary according to behavioral state. In mammals, the cerebral cortex tends to show large slow <A href="/wiki/Delta_wave" title="Delta wave">delta waves</A> during sleep, faster <A href="/wiki/Alpha_wave" title="Alpha wave">alpha waves</A> when the animal is awake but inattentive, and chaotic-looking irregular activity when the animal is actively engaged in a task. During an <A href="/wiki/Epilepsy" title="Epilepsy">epileptic seizure</A>, the brain's inhibitory control mechanisms fail to function and electrical activity rises to pathological levels, producing EEG traces that show large wave and spike patterns not seen in a healthy brain. Relating these population-level patterns to the computational functions of individual neurons is a major focus of current research in <A href="/wiki/Neurophysiology" title="Neurophysiology">neurophysiology</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Buzsaki_72-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Buzsaki-72">[72]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Metabolism">Metabolism</SPAN></H3>
<P>All vertebrates have a blood–brain barrier that allows metabolism inside the brain to operate differently from metabolism in other parts of the body. <A href="/wiki/Neuroglia" title="Neuroglia">Glial cells</A> play a major role in brain metabolism by controlling the chemical composition of the fluid that surrounds neurons, including levels of ions and nutrients.<SUP id="cite_ref-Nieuwenhuys_73-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Nieuwenhuys-73">[73]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Brain tissue consumes a large amount of energy in proportion to its volume, so large brains place severe metabolic demands on animals. The need to limit body weight in order, for example, to fly, has apparently led to selection for a reduction of brain size in some species, such as bats.<SUP id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-74">[74]</A></SUP> Most of the brain's energy consumption goes into sustaining the electric charge (<A href="/wiki/Membrane_potential" title="Membrane potential">membrane potential</A>) of neurons.<SUP id="cite_ref-Nieuwenhuys_73-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Nieuwenhuys-73">[73]</A></SUP> Most vertebrate species devote between 2% and 8% of basal metabolism to the brain. In primates, however, the percentage is much higher—in humans it rises to 20–25%.<SUP id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-75">[75]</A></SUP> The energy consumption of the brain does not vary greatly over time, but active regions of the cerebral cortex consume somewhat more energy than inactive regions; this forms the basis for the functional brain imaging methods <A href="/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography" title="Positron emission tomography">PET</A>, <A href="/wiki/FMRI" class="mw-redirect" title="FMRI">fMRI</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-76">[76]</A></SUP> and <A href="/wiki/Near_infrared_spectroscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Near infrared spectroscopy">NIRS</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-77">[77]</A></SUP> The brain typically gets most of its energy from oxygen-dependent metabolism of <A href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</A> (i.e., blood sugar),<SUP id="cite_ref-Nieuwenhuys_73-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Nieuwenhuys-73">[73]</A></SUP> but <A href="/wiki/Ketone_bodies" title="Ketone bodies">ketones</A> provide a major alternative source, together with contributions from medium chain <A href="/wiki/Fatty_acid" title="Fatty acid">fatty acids</A> (<A href="/wiki/Caprylic_acid" title="Caprylic acid">caprylic</A><SUP id="cite_ref-Ebert_2003_78-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Ebert_2003-78">[78]</A></SUP> and <A href="/wiki/Heptanoic_acid" title="Heptanoic acid">heptanoic</A><SUP id="cite_ref-Marin_Valencia_2013_79-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Marin_Valencia_2013-79">[79]</A></SUP> acids), <A href="/wiki/Lactic_acid" title="Lactic acid">lactate</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-Boumezbeur_2010_80-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Boumezbeur_2010-80">[80]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Acetate" title="Acetate">acetate</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-Deelchand_2009_81-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Deelchand_2009-81">[81]</A></SUP> and possibly <A href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-82">[82]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Functions">Functions</SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Model_of_Cerebellar_Perceptron.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Model_of_Cerebellar_Perceptron.jpg/220px-Model_of_Cerebellar_Perceptron.jpg" width="220" height="180" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Model_of_Cerebellar_Perceptron.jpg/330px-Model_of_Cerebellar_Perceptron.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Model_of_Cerebellar_Perceptron.jpg/440px-Model_of_Cerebellar_Perceptron.jpg 2x" data-file-width="464" data-file-height="379" /></A>
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Model of a neural circuit in the cerebellum, as proposed by <A href="/wiki/James_S._Albus" title="James S. Albus">James S. Albus</A>.</DIV>
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<P>Information from the sense organs is collected in the brain. There it is used to determine what actions the organism is to take. The brain <A href="/wiki/Multisensory_integration" title="Multisensory integration">processes</A> the raw data to extract information about the structure of the environment. Next it combines the processed information with information about the current needs of the animal and with memory of past circumstances. Finally, on the basis of the results, it generates motor response patterns. These signal-processing tasks require intricate interplay between a variety of functional subsystems.<SUP id="cite_ref-CarewCh1_83-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-CarewCh1-83">[83]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The function of the brain is to provide coherent control over the actions of an animal. A centralized brain allows groups of muscles to be co-activated in complex patterns; it also allows stimuli impinging on one part of the body to evoke responses in other parts, and it can prevent different parts of the body from acting at cross-purposes to each other.<SUP id="cite_ref-CarewCh1_83-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-CarewCh1-83">[83]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Perception">Perception</SPAN></H3>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Hearing_mechanics_cropped.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Drawing showing the ear, inner ear, and brain areas involved in hearing. A series of light blue arrows shows the flow of signals through the system." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Hearing_mechanics_cropped.jpg/220px-Hearing_mechanics_cropped.jpg" width="220" height="187" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Hearing_mechanics_cropped.jpg/330px-Hearing_mechanics_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Hearing_mechanics_cropped.jpg/440px-Hearing_mechanics_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="574" data-file-height="489" /></A>
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Diagram of signal processing in the <A href="/wiki/Auditory_system" title="Auditory system">auditory system</A>.</DIV>
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<P>The human brain is provided with information about light, sound, the chemical composition of the atmosphere, temperature, head orientation, limb position, the chemical composition of the bloodstream, and more. In other animals additional senses are present, such as the infrared heat-sense of snakes, the <A href="/wiki/Magnetoception" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetoception">magnetic field sense</A> of some birds, or the electric field sense of some types of fish.</P>
<P>Each sensory system begins with specialized receptor cells,<SUP id="cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-12" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Kandel_2000-7">[7]</A></SUP> such as light-receptive neurons in the <A href="/wiki/Retina" title="Retina">retina</A> of the eye, or vibration-sensitive neurons in the <A href="/wiki/Cochlea" title="Cochlea">cochlea</A> of the ear. The axons of sensory receptor cells travel into the spinal cord or brain, where they transmit their signals to a <A href="/wiki/Sensory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory system">first-order sensory nucleus</A> dedicated to one specific <A href="/wiki/Stimulus_modality" title="Stimulus modality">sensory modality</A>. This primary sensory nucleus sends information to higher-order sensory areas that are dedicated to the same modality. Eventually, via a way-station in the <A href="/wiki/Thalamus" title="Thalamus">thalamus</A>, the signals are sent to the cerebral cortex, where they are processed to extract the relevant features, and <A href="/wiki/Multisensory_integration" title="Multisensory integration">integrated</A> with signals coming from other sensory systems.<SUP id="cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-13" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Kandel_2000-7">[7]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Motor_control">Motor control</SPAN></H3>
<P><A href="/wiki/Motor_system" title="Motor system">Motor systems</A> are areas of the brain that are involved in <A href="/wiki/Motor_control" title="Motor control">initiating body movements</A>, that is, in activating muscles. Except for the muscles that control the eye, which are driven by nuclei in the midbrain, all the voluntary muscles in the body are directly innervated by <A href="/wiki/Motor_neuron" title="Motor neuron">motor neurons</A> in the spinal cord and hindbrain.<SUP id="cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-14" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Kandel_2000-7">[7]</A></SUP> Spinal motor neurons are controlled both by neural circuits intrinsic to the spinal cord, and by inputs that descend from the brain. The intrinsic spinal circuits implement many <A href="/wiki/Reflex" title="Reflex">reflex</A> responses, and contain <A href="/wiki/Central_pattern_generator" title="Central pattern generator">pattern generators</A> for rhythmic movements such as walking or swimming. The descending connections from the brain allow for more sophisticated control.<SUP id="cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-15" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Kandel_2000-7">[7]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The brain contains several motor areas that project directly to the spinal cord. At the lowest level are motor areas in the medulla and pons, which control stereotyped movements such as walking, breathing, or swallowing. At a higher level are areas in the midbrain, such as the <A href="/wiki/Red_nucleus" title="Red nucleus">red nucleus</A>, which is responsible for coordinating movements of the arms and legs. At a higher level yet is the <A href="/wiki/Primary_motor_cortex" title="Primary motor cortex">primary motor cortex</A>, a strip of tissue located at the posterior edge of the frontal lobe. The primary motor cortex sends projections to the subcortical motor areas, but also sends a massive projection directly to the spinal cord, through the <A href="/wiki/Pyramidal_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyramidal tract">pyramidal tract</A>. This direct corticospinal projection allows for precise voluntary control of the fine details of movements. Other motor-related brain areas exert secondary effects by projecting to the primary motor areas. Among the most important secondary areas are the premotor cortex, basal ganglia, and cerebellum.<SUP id="cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-16" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Kandel_2000-7">[7]</A></SUP></P>
<TABLE class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;">
<CAPTION>Major areas involved in controlling movement</CAPTION>
<TBODY><TR>
<TH>Area</TH>
<TH width="100">Location</TH>
<TH>Function</TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="text-align:left"><A href="/wiki/Anterior_horn_of_spinal_cord" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterior horn of spinal cord">Ventral horn</A></TH>
<TD style="background: tan">Spinal cord</TD>
<TD style="background:#ffdead">Contains motor neurons that directly activate muscles<SUP id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-84">[84]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="text-align:left"><A href="/wiki/Oculomotor_nucleus" title="Oculomotor nucleus">Oculomotor nuclei</A></TH>
<TD style="background: tan">Midbrain</TD>
<TD style="background:#ffdead">Contains motor neurons that directly activate the eye muscles<SUP id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-85">[85]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="text-align:left"><A href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">Cerebellum</A></TH>
<TD style="background: tan">Hindbrain</TD>
<TD style="background:#ffdead">Calibrates precision and timing of movements<SUP id="cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-17" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Kandel_2000-7">[7]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="text-align:left"><A href="/wiki/Basal_ganglia" title="Basal ganglia">Basal ganglia</A></TH>
<TD style="background: tan">Forebrain</TD>
<TD style="background:#ffdead">Action selection on the basis of motivation<SUP id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-86">[86]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="text-align:left"><A href="/wiki/Motor_cortex" title="Motor cortex">Motor cortex</A></TH>
<TD style="background: tan">Frontal lobe</TD>
<TD style="background:#ffdead">Direct cortical activation of spinal motor circuits</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="text-align:left"><A href="/wiki/Premotor_cortex" title="Premotor cortex">Premotor cortex</A></TH>
<TD style="background: tan">Frontal lobe</TD>
<TD style="background:#ffdead">Groups elementary movements into coordinated patterns<SUP id="cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-18" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Kandel_2000-7">[7]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="text-align:left"><A href="/wiki/Supplementary_motor_area" title="Supplementary motor area">Supplementary motor area</A></TH>
<TD style="background: tan">Frontal lobe</TD>
<TD style="background:#ffdead">Sequences movements into temporal patterns<SUP id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-87">[87]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="text-align:left"><A href="/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex" title="Prefrontal cortex">Prefrontal cortex</A></TH>
<TD style="background: tan">Frontal lobe</TD>
<TD style="background:#ffdead">Planning and other <A href="/wiki/Executive_functions" title="Executive functions">executive functions</A><SUP id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-88">[88]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
<P>In addition to all of the above, the brain and spinal cord contain extensive circuitry to control the <A href="/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system" title="Autonomic nervous system">autonomic nervous system</A>, which works by secreting hormones and by modulating the "smooth" muscles of the gut.<SUP id="cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-19" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Kandel_2000-7">[7]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Arousal">Arousal</SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <A href="/wiki/Sleep" title="Sleep">Sleep</A></DIV>
<P>Many animals alternate between sleeping and waking in a daily cycle. Arousal and alertness are also modulated on a finer time scale by a network of brain areas.<SUP id="cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-20" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Kandel_2000-7">[7]</A></SUP></P>
<P>A key component of the arousal system is the <A href="/wiki/Suprachiasmatic_nucleus" title="Suprachiasmatic nucleus">suprachiasmatic nucleus</A> (SCN), a tiny part of the hypothalamus located directly above the point at which the <A href="/wiki/Optic_nerves" class="mw-redirect" title="Optic nerves">optic nerves</A> from the two eyes cross. The SCN contains the body's central biological clock. Neurons there show activity levels that rise and fall with a period of about 24 hours, <A href="/wiki/Circadian_rhythm" title="Circadian rhythm">circadian rhythms</A>: these activity fluctuations are driven by rhythmic changes in expression of a set of "clock genes". The SCN continues to keep time even if it is excised from the brain and placed in a dish of warm nutrient solution, but it ordinarily receives input from the optic nerves, through the <A href="/wiki/Retinohypothalamic_tract" title="Retinohypothalamic tract">retinohypothalamic tract</A> (RHT), that allows daily light-dark cycles to calibrate the clock.<SUP id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-89">[89]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The SCN projects to a set of areas in the hypothalamus, brainstem, and midbrain that are involved in implementing sleep-wake cycles. An important component of the system is the <A href="/wiki/Reticular_formation" title="Reticular formation">reticular formation</A>, a group of neuron-clusters scattered diffusely through the core of the lower brain. Reticular neurons send signals to the thalamus, which in turn sends activity-level-controlling signals to every part of the cortex. Damage to the reticular formation can produce a permanent state of coma.<SUP id="cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-21" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Kandel_2000-7">[7]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Sleep involves great changes in brain activity.<SUP id="cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-22" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Kandel_2000-7">[7]</A></SUP> Until the 1950s it was generally believed that the brain essentially shuts off during sleep,<SUP id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-90">[90]</A></SUP> but this is now known to be far from true; activity continues, but patterns become very different. There are two types of sleep: <I><A href="/wiki/Rapid_eye_movement_sleep" title="Rapid eye movement sleep">REM sleep</A></I> (with dreaming) and <I><A href="/wiki/Non-rapid_eye_movement_sleep" title="Non-rapid eye movement sleep">NREM</A></I> (non-REM, usually without dreaming) sleep, which repeat in slightly varying patterns throughout a sleep episode. Three broad types of distinct brain activity patterns can be measured: REM, light NREM and deep NREM. During deep NREM sleep, also called <A href="/wiki/Slow_wave_sleep" class="mw-redirect" title="Slow wave sleep">slow wave sleep</A>, activity in the cortex takes the form of large synchronized waves, whereas in the waking state it is noisy and desynchronized. Levels of the neurotransmitters <A href="/wiki/Norepinephrine" title="Norepinephrine">norepinephrine</A> and <A href="/wiki/Serotonin" title="Serotonin">serotonin</A> drop during slow wave sleep, and fall almost to zero during REM sleep; levels of acetylcholine show the reverse pattern.<SUP id="cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-23" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Kandel_2000-7">[7]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Homeostasis">Homeostasis</SPAN></H3>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:LocationOfHypothalamus.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/LocationOfHypothalamus.jpg/220px-LocationOfHypothalamus.jpg" width="220" height="157" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/LocationOfHypothalamus.jpg/330px-LocationOfHypothalamus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/LocationOfHypothalamus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="250" /></A>
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Cross-section of a human head, showing location of the <A href="/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">hypothalamus</A>.</DIV>
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<P>For any animal, survival requires maintaining a variety of parameters of bodily state within a limited range of variation: these include temperature, water content, salt concentration in the bloodstream, blood glucose levels, blood oxygen level, and others.<SUP id="cite_ref-Dougherty_91-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Dougherty-91">[91]</A></SUP> The ability of an animal to regulate the internal environment of its body—the <A href="/wiki/Milieu_int%C3%A9rieur" title="Milieu intérieur">milieu intérieur</A>, as pioneering physiologist <A href="/wiki/Claude_Bernard" title="Claude Bernard">Claude Bernard</A> called it—is known as <A href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">homeostasis</A> (<A href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</A> for "standing still").<SUP id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-92">[92]</A></SUP> Maintaining homeostasis is a crucial function of the brain. The basic principle that underlies homeostasis is <A href="/wiki/Negative_feedback" title="Negative feedback">negative feedback</A>: any time a parameter diverges from its set-point, sensors generate an error signal that evokes a response that causes the parameter to shift back toward its optimum value.<SUP id="cite_ref-Dougherty_91-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Dougherty-91">[91]</A></SUP> (This principle is widely used in engineering, for example in the control of temperature using a <A href="/wiki/Thermostat" title="Thermostat">thermostat</A>.)</P>
<P>In vertebrates, the part of the brain that plays the greatest role is the <A href="/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">hypothalamus</A>, a small region at the base of the forebrain whose size does not reflect its complexity or the importance of its function.<SUP id="cite_ref-Dougherty_91-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Dougherty-91">[91]</A></SUP> The hypothalamus is a collection of small nuclei, most of which are involved in basic biological functions. Some of these functions relate to arousal or to social interactions such as sexuality, aggression, or maternal behaviors; but many of them relate to homeostasis. Several hypothalamic nuclei receive input from sensors located in the lining of blood vessels, conveying information about temperature, sodium level, glucose level, blood oxygen level, and other parameters. These hypothalamic nuclei send output signals to motor areas that can generate actions to rectify deficiencies. Some of the outputs also go to the <A href="/wiki/Pituitary_gland" title="Pituitary gland">pituitary gland</A>, a tiny gland attached to the brain directly underneath the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland secretes hormones into the bloodstream, where they circulate throughout the body and induce changes in cellular activity.<SUP id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-93">[93]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Motivation">Motivation</SPAN></H3>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:352px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Basal_ganglia.svg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Basal_ganglia.svg/350px-Basal_ganglia.svg.png" width="350" height="153" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Basal_ganglia.svg/525px-Basal_ganglia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Basal_ganglia.svg/700px-Basal_ganglia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="350" /></A>
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Components of the basal ganglia, shown in two cross-sections of the human brain. Blue: <A href="/wiki/Caudate_nucleus" title="Caudate nucleus">caudate nucleus</A> and <A href="/wiki/Putamen" title="Putamen">putamen</A>. Green: <A href="/wiki/Globus_pallidus" title="Globus pallidus">globus pallidus</A>. Red: <A href="/wiki/Subthalamic_nucleus" title="Subthalamic nucleus">subthalamic nucleus</A>. Black: <A href="/wiki/Substantia_nigra" title="Substantia nigra">substantia nigra</A>.</DIV>
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<P>The individual animals need to express survival-promoting behaviors, such as seeking food, water, shelter, and a mate.<SUP id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-94">[94]</A></SUP> The motivational system in the brain monitors the current state of satisfaction of these goals, and activates behaviors to meet any needs that arise. The motivational system works largely by a reward–punishment mechanism. When a particular behavior is followed by favorable consequences, the <A href="/wiki/Reward_system" title="Reward system">reward mechanism</A> in the brain is activated, which induces structural changes inside the brain that cause the same behavior to be repeated later, whenever a similar situation arises. Conversely, when a behavior is followed by unfavorable consequences, the brain's punishment mechanism is activated, inducing structural changes that cause the behavior to be suppressed when similar situations arise in the future.<SUP id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-95">[95]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Most organisms studied to date utilize a reward–punishment mechanism: for instance, worms and insects can alter their behavior to seek food sources or to avoid dangers.<SUP id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-96">[96]</A></SUP> In vertebrates, the reward-punishment system is implemented by a specific set of brain structures, at the heart of which lie the basal ganglia, a set of interconnected areas at the base of the forebrain.<SUP id="cite_ref-Grillner2005_46-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Grillner2005-46">[46]</A></SUP> The basal ganglia are the central site at which decisions are made: the basal ganglia exert a sustained inhibitory control over most of the motor systems in the brain; when this inhibition is released, a motor system is permitted to execute the action it is programmed to carry out. Rewards and punishments function by altering the relationship between the inputs that the basal ganglia receive and the decision-signals that are emitted. The reward mechanism is better understood than the punishment mechanism, because its role in drug abuse has caused it to be studied very intensively. Research has shown that the neurotransmitter dopamine plays a central role: addictive drugs such as cocaine, amphetamine, and nicotine either cause dopamine levels to rise or cause the effects of dopamine inside the brain to be enhanced.<SUP id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-97">[97]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Learning_and_memory">Learning and memory</SPAN></H3>
<P>Almost all animals are capable of modifying their behavior as a result of experience—even the most primitive types of worms. Because behavior is driven by brain activity, changes in behavior must somehow correspond to changes inside the brain. Already in the late 19th century theorists like <A href="/wiki/Santiago_Ram%C3%B3n_y_Cajal" title="Santiago Ramón y Cajal">Santiago Ramón y Cajal</A> argued that the most plausible explanation is that learning and memory are expressed as changes in the synaptic connections between neurons.<SUP id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-98">[98]</A></SUP> Until 1970, however, experimental evidence to support the <A href="/wiki/Synaptic_plasticity" title="Synaptic plasticity">synaptic plasticity</A> hypothesis was lacking. In 1971 <A href="/wiki/Tim_Bliss" class="mw-redirect" title="Tim Bliss">Tim Bliss</A> and <A href="/wiki/Terje_L%C3%B8mo" title="Terje Lømo">Terje Lømo</A> published a paper on a phenomenon now called <A href="/wiki/Long-term_potentiation" title="Long-term potentiation">long-term potentiation</A>: the paper showed clear evidence of activity-induced synaptic changes that lasted for at least several days.<SUP id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-99">[99]</A></SUP> Since then technical advances have made these sorts of experiments much easier to carry out, and thousands of studies have been made that have clarified the mechanism of synaptic change, and uncovered other types of activity-driven synaptic change in a variety of brain areas, including the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, basal ganglia, and cerebellum.<SUP id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-100">[100]</A></SUP> Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (<A href="/wiki/BDNF" class="mw-redirect" title="BDNF">BDNF</A>) and <A href="/wiki/Physical_activity" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical activity">physical activity</A> appear to play a beneficial role in the process.<SUP id="cite_ref-AirpollutionPhysicalactivity_101-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-AirpollutionPhysicalactivity-101">[101]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Neuroscientists currently distinguish several types of learning and memory that are implemented by the brain in distinct ways:</P>
<UL>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Working_memory" title="Working memory">Working memory</A></B> is the ability of the brain to maintain a temporary representation of information about the task that an animal is currently engaged in. This sort of dynamic memory is thought to be mediated by the formation of <A href="/wiki/Hebbian_theory" title="Hebbian theory">cell assemblies</A>—groups of activated neurons that maintain their activity by constantly stimulating one another.<SUP id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-102">[102]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Episodic_memory" title="Episodic memory">Episodic memory</A></B> is the ability to remember the details of specific events. This sort of memory can last for a lifetime. Much evidence implicates the hippocampus in playing a crucial role: people with severe damage to the hippocampus sometimes show <A href="/wiki/Amnesia" title="Amnesia">amnesia</A>, that is, inability to form new long-lasting episodic memories.<SUP id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-103">[103]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Semantic_memory" title="Semantic memory">Semantic memory</A></B> is the ability to learn facts and relationships. This sort of memory is probably stored largely in the cerebral cortex, mediated by changes in connections between cells that represent specific types of information.<SUP id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-104">[104]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Operant_conditioning" title="Operant conditioning">Instrumental learning</A></B> is the ability for rewards and punishments to modify behavior. It is implemented by a network of brain areas centered on the basal ganglia.<SUP id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-105">[105]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Motor_learning" title="Motor learning">Motor learning</A></B> is the ability to refine patterns of body movement by practicing, or more generally by repetition. A number of brain areas are involved, including the <A href="/wiki/Premotor_cortex" title="Premotor cortex">premotor cortex</A>, basal ganglia, and especially the cerebellum, which functions as a large memory bank for microadjustments of the parameters of movement.<SUP id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-106">[106]</A></SUP></LI>
</UL>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Research">Research</SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</A></DIV>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Henry_Markram_-_Visualizing_Synaptic_Maps_onto_Neocrortical_Neurons.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Henry_Markram_-_Visualizing_Synaptic_Maps_onto_Neocrortical_Neurons.jpg/220px-Henry_Markram_-_Visualizing_Synaptic_Maps_onto_Neocrortical_Neurons.jpg" width="220" height="176" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Henry_Markram_-_Visualizing_Synaptic_Maps_onto_Neocrortical_Neurons.jpg/330px-Henry_Markram_-_Visualizing_Synaptic_Maps_onto_Neocrortical_Neurons.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Henry_Markram_-_Visualizing_Synaptic_Maps_onto_Neocrortical_Neurons.jpg/440px-Henry_Markram_-_Visualizing_Synaptic_Maps_onto_Neocrortical_Neurons.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2322" data-file-height="1861" /></A>
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The <A href="/wiki/Human_Brain_Project" title="Human Brain Project">Human Brain Project</A> is a large scientific research project, starting in 2013, which aims to simulate the complete human brain.</DIV>
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<P>The field of neuroscience encompasses all approaches that seek to understand the brain and the rest of the nervous system.<SUP id="cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-24" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Kandel_2000-7">[7]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</A> seeks to understand mind and behavior, and <A href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">neurology</A> is the medical discipline that diagnoses and treats diseases of the nervous system. The brain is also the most important organ studied in <A href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">psychiatry</A>, the branch of medicine that works to study, prevent, and treat <A href="/wiki/Mental_disorder" title="Mental disorder">mental disorders</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Starrow_1969_107-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Starrow_1969-107">[107]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</A> seeks to unify neuroscience and psychology with other fields that concern themselves with the brain, such as <A href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</A> (<A href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</A> and similar fields) and philosophy.<SUP id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-108">[108]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The oldest method of studying the brain is <A href="/wiki/Neuroanatomy" title="Neuroanatomy">anatomical</A>, and until the middle of the 20th century, much of the progress in neuroscience came from the development of better cell stains and better microscopes. Neuroanatomists study the large-scale structure of the brain as well as the microscopic structure of neurons and their components, especially synapses. Among other tools, they employ a plethora of stains that reveal neural structure, chemistry, and connectivity. In recent years, the development of <A href="/wiki/Immunostaining" title="Immunostaining">immunostaining</A> techniques has allowed investigation of neurons that express specific sets of genes. Also, <I>functional neuroanatomy</I> uses <A href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">medical imaging</A> techniques to correlate variations in human brain structure with differences in cognition or behavior.<SUP id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-109">[109]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Neurophysiologists study the chemical, pharmacological, and electrical properties of the brain: their primary tools are drugs and recording devices. Thousands of experimentally developed drugs affect the nervous system, some in highly specific ways. Recordings of brain activity can be made using electrodes, either glued to the scalp as in <A href="/wiki/Electroencephalography" title="Electroencephalography">EEG</A> studies, or implanted inside the brains of animals for <A href="/wiki/Extracellular" title="Extracellular">extracellular</A> recordings, which can detect action potentials generated by individual neurons.<SUP id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-110">[110]</A></SUP> Because the brain does not contain pain receptors, it is possible using these techniques to record brain activity from animals that are awake and behaving without causing distress. The same techniques have occasionally been used to study brain activity in human patients suffering from intractable <A href="/wiki/Epilepsy" title="Epilepsy">epilepsy</A>, in cases where there was a medical necessity to implant electrodes to localize the brain area responsible for <A href="/wiki/Epileptic_seizure" title="Epileptic seizure">epileptic seizures</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-111">[111]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Functional_imaging" title="Functional imaging">Functional imaging</A> techniques such as <A href="/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Functional magnetic resonance imaging">functional magnetic resonance imaging</A> are also used to study brain activity; these techniques have mainly been used with human subjects, because they require a conscious subject to remain motionless for long periods of time, but they have the great advantage of being noninvasive.<SUP id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-112">[112]</A></SUP></P>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Brain-computer_interface_(schematic).jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="Drawing showing a monkey in a restraint chair, a computer monitor, a rototic arm, and three pieces of computer equipment, with arrows between them to show the flow of information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Brain-computer_interface_%28schematic%29.jpg/300px-Brain-computer_interface_%28schematic%29.jpg" width="300" height="190" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Brain-computer_interface_%28schematic%29.jpg/450px-Brain-computer_interface_%28schematic%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Brain-computer_interface_%28schematic%29.jpg/600px-Brain-computer_interface_%28schematic%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="632" data-file-height="400" /></A>
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Design of an experiment in which brain activity from a monkey was used to control a robotic arm.<SUP id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-113">[113]</A></SUP></DIV>
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<P>Another approach to brain function is to examine the consequences of <A href="/wiki/Brain_damage" title="Brain damage">damage</A> to specific brain areas. Even though it is protected by the skull and <A href="/wiki/Meninges" title="Meninges">meninges</A>, surrounded by <A href="/wiki/Cerebrospinal_fluid" title="Cerebrospinal fluid">cerebrospinal fluid</A>, and isolated from the bloodstream by the blood–brain barrier, the delicate nature of the brain makes it vulnerable to numerous diseases and several types of damage. In humans, the effects of strokes and other types of brain damage have been a key source of information about brain function. Because there is no ability to experimentally control the nature of the damage, however, this information is often difficult to interpret. In animal studies, most commonly involving rats, it is possible to use electrodes or locally injected chemicals to produce precise patterns of damage and then examine the consequences for behavior.<SUP id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-114">[114]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Computational neuroscience encompasses two approaches: first, the use of computers to study the brain; second, the study of how brains perform computation. On one hand, it is possible to write a computer program to simulate the operation of a group of neurons by making use of systems of equations that describe their electrochemical activity; such simulations are known as <I>biologically realistic neural networks</I>. On the other hand, it is possible to study algorithms for neural computation by simulating, or mathematically analyzing, the operations of simplified "units" that have some of the properties of neurons but abstract out much of their biological complexity. The computational functions of the brain are studied both by computer scientists and neuroscientists.<SUP id="cite_ref-Abbott_115-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Abbott-115">[115]</A></SUP></P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Computational_neurogenetic_modeling" title="Computational neurogenetic modeling">Computational neurogenetic modeling</A> is concerned with the study and development of dynamic neuronal models for modeling brain functions with respect to genes and dynamic interactions between genes.</P>
<P>Recent years have seen increasing applications of genetic and genomic techniques to the study of the brain <SUP id="cite_ref-Tonegawa_116-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Tonegawa-116">[116]</A></SUP> and a focus on the roles of neurotrophic factors and physical activity in <A href="/wiki/Neuroplasticity" title="Neuroplasticity">neuroplasticity</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-AirpollutionPhysicalactivity_101-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-AirpollutionPhysicalactivity-101">[101]</A></SUP> The most common subjects are mice, because of the availability of technical tools. It is now possible with relative ease to "knock out" or mutate a wide variety of genes, and then examine the effects on brain function. More sophisticated approaches are also being used: for example, using <A href="/wiki/Cre-Lox_recombination" title="Cre-Lox recombination">Cre-Lox recombination</A> it is possible to activate or deactivate genes in specific parts of the brain, at specific times.<SUP id="cite_ref-Tonegawa_116-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Tonegawa-116">[116]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="History">History</SPAN></H3>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Descartes-reflex.JPG" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Descartes-reflex.JPG/220px-Descartes-reflex.JPG" width="220" height="233" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Descartes-reflex.JPG/330px-Descartes-reflex.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Descartes-reflex.JPG 2x" data-file-width="418" data-file-height="442" /></A>
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Illustration by <A href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</A> of how the brain implements a reflex response.</DIV>
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<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <A href="/wiki/History_of_neuroscience" title="History of neuroscience">History of neuroscience</A></DIV>
<P>The oldest brain to have been discovered was in <A href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</A> in the <A href="/wiki/Areni-1_cave_complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Areni-1 cave complex">Areni-1 cave complex</A>. The brain, estimated to be over 5,000 years old, was found in the skull of a 12 to 14-year-old girl. Although the brains were shriveled, they were well preserved due to the climate found inside the cave.<SUP id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-117">[117]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Early philosophers were divided as to whether the seat of the soul lies in the brain or heart. Aristotle favored the heart, and thought that the function of the brain was merely to cool the blood. Democritus, the inventor of the atomic theory of matter, argued for a three-part soul, with intellect in the head, emotion in the heart, and lust near the liver.<SUP id="cite_ref-Finger14_118-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Finger14-118">[118]</A></SUP> Hippocrates, the "father of medicine", came down unequivocally in favor of the brain. In his treatise on epilepsy he wrote:</P>
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<P>Men ought to know that from nothing else but the brain come joys, delights, laughter and sports, and sorrows, griefs, despondency, and lamentations. ... And by the same organ we become mad and delirious, and fears and terrors assail us, some by night, and some by day, and dreams and untimely wanderings, and cares that are not suitable, and ignorance of present circumstances, desuetude, and unskillfulness. All these things we endure from the brain, when it is not healthy...</P>
<DL>
<DD><A href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</A>, <I>On the Sacred Disease</I><SUP id="cite_ref-Hippocrates_119-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Hippocrates-119">[119]</A></SUP></DD>
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</BLOCKQUOTE>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><A href="/wiki/File:1543,_Andreas_Vesalius%27_Fabrica,_Base_Of_The_Brain.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/1543%2C_Andreas_Vesalius%27_Fabrica%2C_Base_Of_The_Brain.jpg/170px-1543%2C_Andreas_Vesalius%27_Fabrica%2C_Base_Of_The_Brain.jpg" width="170" height="179" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/1543%2C_Andreas_Vesalius%27_Fabrica%2C_Base_Of_The_Brain.jpg/255px-1543%2C_Andreas_Vesalius%27_Fabrica%2C_Base_Of_The_Brain.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/1543%2C_Andreas_Vesalius%27_Fabrica%2C_Base_Of_The_Brain.jpg 2x" data-file-width="292" data-file-height="308" /></A>
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<A href="/wiki/Andreas_Vesalius" title="Andreas Vesalius">Andreas Vesalius</A>' <I>Fabrica</I>, published in 1543, showing the base of the human brain, including <A href="/wiki/Optic_chiasm" title="Optic chiasm">optic chiasma</A>, cerebellum, <A href="/wiki/Olfactory_bulb" title="Olfactory bulb">olfactory bulbs</A>, etc.</DIV>
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<P>The Roman physician <A href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</A> also argued for the importance of the brain, and theorized in some depth about how it might work. Galen traced out the anatomical relationships among brain, nerves, and muscles, demonstrating that all muscles in the body are connected to the brain through a branching network of nerves. He postulated that nerves activate muscles mechanically by carrying a mysterious substance he called <I>pneumata psychikon</I>, usually translated as "animal spirits".<SUP id="cite_ref-Finger14_118-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Finger14-118">[118]</A></SUP> Galen's ideas were widely known during the Middle Ages, but not much further progress came until the Renaissance, when detailed anatomical study resumed, combined with the theoretical speculations of <A href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</A> and those who followed him. Descartes, like Galen, thought of the nervous system in hydraulic terms. He believed that the highest cognitive functions are carried out by a non-physical <I>res cogitans</I>, but that the majority of behaviors of humans, and all behaviors of animals, could be explained mechanistically.<SUP id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-120">[120]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The first real progress toward a modern understanding of nervous function, though, came from the investigations of <A href="/wiki/Luigi_Galvani" title="Luigi Galvani">Luigi Galvani</A>, who discovered that a shock of static electricity applied to an exposed nerve of a dead frog could cause its leg to contract. Since that time, each major advance in understanding has followed more or less directly from the development of a new technique of investigation. Until the early years of the 20th century, the most important advances were derived from new methods for <A href="/wiki/Staining" title="Staining">staining</A> cells.<SUP id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-121">[121]</A></SUP> Particularly critical was the invention of the <A href="/wiki/Golgi%27s_method" title="Golgi's method">Golgi stain</A>, which (when correctly used) stains only a small fraction of neurons, but stains them in their entirety, including cell body, dendrites, and axon. Without such a stain, brain tissue under a microscope appears as an impenetrable tangle of protoplasmic fibers, in which it is impossible to determine any structure. In the hands of <A href="/wiki/Camillo_Golgi" title="Camillo Golgi">Camillo Golgi</A>, and especially of the Spanish neuroanatomist <A href="/wiki/Santiago_Ram%C3%B3n_y_Cajal" title="Santiago Ramón y Cajal">Santiago Ramón y Cajal</A>, the new stain revealed hundreds of distinct types of neurons, each with its own unique dendritic structure and pattern of connectivity.<SUP id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-122">[122]</A></SUP></P>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:PurkinjeCell.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="A drawing on yellowing paper with an archiving stamp in the corner. A spidery tree branch structure connects to the top of a mass. A few narrow processes follow away from the bottom of the mass." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/PurkinjeCell.jpg/220px-PurkinjeCell.jpg" width="220" height="257" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/PurkinjeCell.jpg/330px-PurkinjeCell.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/PurkinjeCell.jpg/440px-PurkinjeCell.jpg 2x" data-file-width="611" data-file-height="715" /></A>
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Drawing by <A href="/wiki/Santiago_Ram%C3%B3n_y_Cajal" title="Santiago Ramón y Cajal">Santiago Ramón y Cajal</A> of two types of Golgi-stained neurons from the cerebellum of a pigeon.</DIV>
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<P>In the first half of the 20th century, advances in electronics enabled investigation of the electrical properties of nerve cells, culminating in work by <A href="/wiki/Alan_Lloyd_Hodgkin" title="Alan Lloyd Hodgkin">Alan Hodgkin</A>, <A href="/wiki/Andrew_Huxley" title="Andrew Huxley">Andrew Huxley</A>, and others on the biophysics of the action potential, and the work of <A href="/wiki/Bernard_Katz" title="Bernard Katz">Bernard Katz</A> and others on the electrochemistry of the synapse.<SUP id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-123">[123]</A></SUP> These studies complemented the anatomical picture with a conception of the brain as a dynamic entity. Reflecting the new understanding, in 1942 <A href="/wiki/Charles_Scott_Sherrington" title="Charles Scott Sherrington">Charles Sherrington</A> visualized the workings of the brain waking from sleep:</P>
<BLOCKQUOTE class="templatequote">
<P>The great topmost sheet of the mass, that where hardly a light had twinkled or moved, becomes now a sparkling field of rhythmic flashing points with trains of traveling sparks hurrying hither and thither. The brain is waking and with it the mind is returning. It is as if the Milky Way entered upon some cosmic dance. Swiftly the head mass becomes an enchanted loom where millions of flashing shuttles weave a dissolving pattern, always a meaningful pattern though never an abiding one; a shifting harmony of subpatterns.</P>
<DL>
<DD>—Sherrington, 1942, <I>Man on his Nature</I><SUP id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-124">[124]</A></SUP></DD>
</DL>
</BLOCKQUOTE>
<P>The invention of electronic computers in the 1940s, along with the development of mathematical <A href="/wiki/Information_theory" title="Information theory">information theory</A>, led to a realization that brains can potentially be understood as information processing systems. This concept formed the basis of the field of <A href="/wiki/Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">cybernetics</A>, and eventually gave rise to the field now known as <A href="/wiki/Computational_neuroscience" title="Computational neuroscience">computational neuroscience</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-CKS1993_125-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-CKS1993-125">[125]</A></SUP> The earliest attempts at cybernetics were somewhat crude in that they treated the brain as essentially a digital computer in disguise, as for example in <A href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</A>'s 1958 book, <I><A href="/wiki/The_Computer_and_the_Brain" title="The Computer and the Brain">The Computer and the Brain</A></I>.<SUP id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-126">[126]</A></SUP> Over the years, though, accumulating information about the electrical responses of brain cells recorded from behaving animals has steadily moved theoretical concepts in the direction of increasing realism.<SUP id="cite_ref-CKS1993_125-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-CKS1993-125">[125]</A></SUP></P>
<P>One of the most influential early contributions was a 1959 paper titled <I>What the frog's eye tells the frog's brain</I>: the paper examined the visual responses of neurons in the <A href="/wiki/Retina" title="Retina">retina</A> and <A href="/wiki/Superior_colliculus" title="Superior colliculus">optic tectum</A> of frogs, and came to the conclusion that some neurons in the tectum of the frog are wired to combine elementary responses in a way that makes them function as "bug perceivers".<SUP id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-127">[127]</A></SUP> A few years later <A href="/wiki/David_H._Hubel" title="David H. Hubel">David Hubel</A> and <A href="/wiki/Torsten_Wiesel" title="Torsten Wiesel">Torsten Wiesel</A> discovered cells in the primary visual cortex of monkeys that become active when sharp edges move across specific points in the field of view—a discovery for which they won a Nobel Prize.<SUP id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-128">[128]</A></SUP> Follow-up studies in higher-order visual areas found cells that detect <A href="/wiki/Binocular_disparity" title="Binocular disparity">binocular disparity</A>, color, movement, and aspects of shape, with areas located at increasing distances from the primary visual cortex showing increasingly complex responses.<SUP id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-129">[129]</A></SUP> Other investigations of brain areas unrelated to vision have revealed cells with a wide variety of response correlates, some related to memory, some to abstract types of cognition such as space.<SUP id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-130">[130]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Theorists have worked to understand these response patterns by constructing mathematical <A href="/wiki/Nervous_system_network_models" title="Nervous system network models">models of neurons and neural networks</A>, which can be simulated using computers.<SUP id="cite_ref-CKS1993_125-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-CKS1993-125">[125]</A></SUP> Some useful models are abstract, focusing on the conceptual structure of neural algorithms rather than the details of how they are implemented in the brain; other models attempt to incorporate data about the biophysical properties of real neurons.<SUP id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-131">[131]</A></SUP> No model on any level is yet considered to be a fully valid description of brain function, though. The essential difficulty is that sophisticated computation by neural networks requires distributed processing in which hundreds or thousands of neurons work cooperatively—current methods of brain activity recording are only capable of isolating action potentials from a few dozen neurons at a time.<SUP id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-132">[132]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Furthermore, even single neurons appear to be complex and capable of performing computations.<SUP id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-133">[133]</A></SUP> So, brain models that don't reflect this are too abstract to be representative of brain operation; models that do try to capture this are very computationally expensive and arguably intractable with present computational resources. However, the <A href="/wiki/Human_Brain_Project" title="Human Brain Project">Human Brain Project</A> is trying to build a realistic, detailed computational model of the entire human brain. The wisdom of this approach has been publicly contested, with high-profile scientists on both sides of the argument.</P>
<P>In the second half of the 20th century, developments in chemistry, electron microscopy, genetics, computer science, functional brain imaging, and other fields progressively opened new windows into brain structure and function. In the United States, the 1990s were officially designated as the "<A href="/wiki/Decade_of_the_Brain" title="Decade of the Brain">Decade of the Brain</A>" to commemorate advances made in brain research, and to promote funding for such research.<SUP id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-134">[134]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In the 21st century, these trends have continued, and several new approaches have come into prominence, including <A href="/wiki/Multielectrode_array" title="Multielectrode array">multielectrode recording</A>, which allows the activity of many brain cells to be recorded all at the same time;<SUP id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-135">[135]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">genetic engineering</A>, which allows molecular components of the brain to be altered experimentally;<SUP id="cite_ref-Tonegawa_116-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Tonegawa-116">[116]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">genomics</A>, which allows variations in brain structure to be correlated with variations in <A href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</A> properties<SUP id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-136">[136]</A></SUP> and <A href="/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">neuroimaging</A>.</P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Other_uses">Other uses</SPAN></H2>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="As_food">As food</SPAN></H3>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Gulai_Otak.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Gulai_Otak.jpg/220px-Gulai_Otak.jpg" width="220" height="146" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Gulai_Otak.jpg/330px-Gulai_Otak.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Gulai_Otak.jpg/440px-Gulai_Otak.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2268" data-file-height="1509" /></A>
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<I><A href="/wiki/Gulai" title="Gulai">Gulai</A> otak</I>, cattle's brain curry from Indonesia</DIV>
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<P>Animal brains are <A href="/wiki/Brain_as_food" title="Brain as food">used as food</A> in numerous cuisines.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="In_rituals">In rituals</SPAN></H3>
<P>Some <A href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeological</A> evidence suggests that the mourning rituals of <A href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">European</A> <A href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">Neanderthals</A> also involved the consumption of the brain.<SUP id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-137">[137]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/Fore_(people)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fore (people)">Fore</A> people of <A href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</A> are known to eat human brains. In funerary rituals, those close to the dead would eat the brain of the deceased to create a sense of <A href="/wiki/Immortality" title="Immortality">immortality</A>. A <A href="/wiki/Prion" title="Prion">prion</A> disease called <A href="/wiki/Kuru_(disease)" title="Kuru (disease)">kuru</A> has been traced to this.<SUP id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-138">[138]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="For_tanning">For tanning</SPAN></H3>
<P>The brain can be useful to hunters: most animals have enough brain matter for use in the <A href="/wiki/Tanning_(leather)" title="Tanning (leather)">tanning</A> of their own hides.<SUP id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-139">[139]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-140">[140]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-141">[141]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="div-col columns column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 20em; -webkit-column-width: 20em; column-width: 20em;">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface" title="Brain–computer interface">Brain–computer interface</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system_disease" title="Central nervous system disease">Central nervous system disease</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_neuroscience_databases" title="List of neuroscience databases">List of neuroscience databases</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Neurological_disorder" title="Neurological disorder">Neurological disorder</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Neuroplasticity" title="Neuroplasticity">Neuroplasticity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Optogenetics" title="Optogenetics">Optogenetics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Outline_of_neuroscience" title="Outline of neuroscience">Outline of neuroscience</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="References">References</SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<OL class="references">
<LI id="cite_note-1"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-1"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Pelvig, DP; Pakkenberg, H; Stark, AK; Pakkenberg, B (2008). "Neocortical glial cell numbers in human brains". <I>Neurobiology of Aging</I>. <B>29</B> (11): 1754–1762. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neurobiolaging.2007.04.013">10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2007.04.013</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17544173">17544173</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neurobiology+of+Aging&rft.atitle=Neocortical+glial+cell+numbers+in+human+brains&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=1754-1762&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.neurobiolaging.2007.04.013&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17544173&rft.aulast=Pelvig&rft.aufirst=DP&rft.au=Pakkenberg%2C+H&rft.au=Stark%2C+AK&rft.au=Pakkenberg%2C+B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-2"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-2"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Yuste, Rafael; Church, George M. (March 2014). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190157/http://www.columbia.edu/cu/biology/faculty/yuste/Publications/Yuste_Church_SciAm14.pdf">"The new century of the brain"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>Scientific American</I>. <B>310</B> (3): 38–45. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014SciAm.310c..38Y">2014SciAm.310c..38Y</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0314-38">10.1038/scientificamerican0314-38</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24660326">24660326</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.columbia.edu/cu/biology/faculty/yuste/Publications/Yuste_Church_SciAm14.pdf">the original</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN> on 2014-07-14.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=The+new+century+of+the+brain&rft.volume=310&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=38-45&rft.date=2014-03&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24660326&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0314-38&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014SciAm.310c..38Y&rft.aulast=Yuste&rft.aufirst=Rafael&rft.au=Church%2C+George+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.columbia.edu%2Fcu%2Fbiology%2Ffaculty%2Fyuste%2FPublications%2FYuste_Church_SciAm14.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Shepherd-3"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Shepherd_3-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Shepherd_3-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Shepherd_3-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Shepherd, GM (1994). <I>Neurobiology</I>. Oxford University Press. p. 3. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-508843-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-508843-4">978-0-19-508843-4</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neurobiology&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-19-508843-4&rft.aulast=Shepherd&rft.aufirst=GM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Sporns2010-4"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Sporns2010_4-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Sporns, O (2010). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=v1DBKE7-UrYC&pg=PA143"><I>Networks of the Brain</I></A>. MIT Press. p. 143. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-01469-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-01469-4">978-0-262-01469-4</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Networks+of+the+Brain&rft.pages=143&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-262-01469-4&rft.aulast=Sporns&rft.aufirst=O&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dv1DBKE7-UrYC%26pg%3DPA143&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Başar2010-5"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Başar2010_5-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Başar, E (2010). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NAbMHo-ux58C&pg=PA225"><I>Brain-Body-Mind in the Nebulous Cartesian System: A Holistic Approach by Oscillations</I></A>. Springer. p. 225. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-6134-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-6134-1">978-1-4419-6134-1</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brain-Body-Mind+in+the+Nebulous+Cartesian+System%3A+A+Holistic+Approach+by+Oscillations&rft.pages=225&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4419-6134-1&rft.aulast=Ba%C5%9Far&rft.aufirst=E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNAbMHo-ux58C%26pg%3DPA225&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Singh2006-6"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Singh2006_6-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Singh, I (2006). "A Brief Review of the Techniques Used in the Study of Neuroanatomy". <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bBMS013dmycC&pg=PA24"><I>Textbook of Human Neuroanatomy</I></A>. Jaypee Brothers. p. 24. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788180618086" title="Special:BookSources/9788180618086">9788180618086</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Brief+Review+of+the+Techniques+Used+in+the+Study+of+Neuroanatomy&rft.btitle=Textbook+of+Human+Neuroanatomy&rft.pages=24&rft.pub=Jaypee+Brothers&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9788180618086&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=I&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbBMS013dmycC%26pg%3DPA24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Kandel_2000-7"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-4"><SUP><I><B>e</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-5"><SUP><I><B>f</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-6"><SUP><I><B>g</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-7"><SUP><I><B>h</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-8"><SUP><I><B>i</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-9"><SUP><I><B>j</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-10"><SUP><I><B>k</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-11"><SUP><I><B>l</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-12"><SUP><I><B>m</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-13"><SUP><I><B>n</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-14"><SUP><I><B>o</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-15"><SUP><I><B>p</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-16"><SUP><I><B>q</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-17"><SUP><I><B>r</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-18"><SUP><I><B>s</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-19"><SUP><I><B>t</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-20"><SUP><I><B>u</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-21"><SUP><I><B>v</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-22"><SUP><I><B>w</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-23"><SUP><I><B>x</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_7-24"><SUP><I><B>y</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Kandel, Eric R.; Schwartz, James Harris; Jessell, Thomas M. (2000). <I>Principles of neural science</I>. New York: McGraw-Hill. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8385-7701-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8385-7701-1">978-0-8385-7701-1</A>. <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/42073108">42073108</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+neural+science&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F42073108&rft.isbn=978-0-8385-7701-1&rft.aulast=Kandel&rft.aufirst=Eric+R.&rft.au=Schwartz%2C+James+Harris&rft.au=Jessell%2C+Thomas+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-8"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-8"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Douglas, RJ; Martin, KA (2004). "Neuronal circuits of the neocortex". <I>Annual Review of Neuroscience</I>. <B>27</B>: 419–451. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.neuro.27.070203.144152">10.1146/annurev.neuro.27.070203.144152</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15217339">15217339</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Neuronal+circuits+of+the+neocortex&rft.volume=27&rft.pages=419-451&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.neuro.27.070203.144152&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15217339&rft.aulast=Douglas&rft.aufirst=RJ&rft.au=Martin%2C+KA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-9"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-9"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Barnett, MW; Larkman, PM (2007). "The action potential". <I>Practical Neurology</I>. <B>7</B> (3): 192–197. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17515599">17515599</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Practical+Neurology&rft.atitle=The+action+potential&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=192-197&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17515599&rft.aulast=Barnett&rft.aufirst=MW&rft.au=Larkman%2C+PM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-ShepherdSOB-10"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-ShepherdSOB_10-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-ShepherdSOB_10-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-ShepherdSOB_10-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Shepherd, GM (2004). "Ch. 1: Introduction to synaptic circuits". <I>The Synaptic Organization of the Brain</I>. Oxford University Press US. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-515956-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-515956-1">978-0-19-515956-1</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ch.+1%3A+Introduction+to+synaptic+circuits&rft.btitle=The+Synaptic+Organization+of+the+Brain&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press+US&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-19-515956-1&rft.aulast=Shepherd&rft.aufirst=GM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-11"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-11"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Williams, RW; Herrup, K (1988). "The control of neuron number". <I>Annual Review of Neuroscience</I>. <B>11</B>: 423–453. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.ne.11.030188.002231">10.1146/annurev.ne.11.030188.002231</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3284447">3284447</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=The+control+of+neuron+number&rft.volume=11&rft.pages=423-453&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.ne.11.030188.002231&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F3284447&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=RW&rft.au=Herrup%2C+K&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-12"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-12"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Heisenberg, M (2003). "Mushroom body memoir: from maps to models". <I>Nature Reviews Neuroscience</I>. <B>4</B> (4): 266–275. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrn1074">10.1038/nrn1074</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12671643">12671643</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Mushroom+body+memoir%3A+from+maps+to+models&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=266-275&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnrn1074&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12671643&rft.aulast=Heisenberg&rft.aufirst=M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Jacobs-13"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Jacobs_13-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Jacobs_13-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Jacobs, DK; Nakanishi, N; Yuan, D; et al. (2007). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/47/5/712">"Evolution of sensory structures in basal metazoa"</A>. <I>Integrative and Comparative Biology</I>. <B>47</B> (5): 712–723. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1093%2Ficb%2Ficm094">10.1093/icb/icm094</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21669752">21669752</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Integrative+and+Comparative+Biology&rft.atitle=Evolution+of+sensory+structures+in+basal+metazoa&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=712-723&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Ficb%2Ficm094&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21669752&rft.aulast=Jacobs&rft.aufirst=DK&rft.au=Nakanishi%2C+N&rft.au=Yuan%2C+D&rft.au=Camara%2C+A.&rft.au=Nichols%2C+S.+A.&rft.au=Hartenstein%2C+V.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ficb.oxfordjournals.org%2Fcgi%2Fcontent%2Ffull%2F47%2F5%2F712&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Urbilateria-14"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Urbilateria_14-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Urbilateria_14-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Balavoine, G (2003). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/43/1/137">"The segmented Urbilateria: A testable scenario"</A>. <I>Integrative and Comparative Biology</I>. <B>43</B> (1): 137–147. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1093%2Ficb%2F43.1.137">10.1093/icb/43.1.137</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Integrative+and+Comparative+Biology&rft.atitle=The+segmented+Urbilateria%3A+A+testable+scenario&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=137-147&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Ficb%2F43.1.137&rft.aulast=Balavoine&rft.aufirst=G&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ficb.oxfordjournals.org%2Fcgi%2Fcontent%2Ffull%2F43%2F1%2F137&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-15"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-15"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Schmidt-Rhaesa, A (2007). <I>The Evolution of Organ Systems</I>. Oxford University Press. p. 110. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-856669-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-856669-4">978-0-19-856669-4</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Evolution+of+Organ+Systems&rft.pages=110&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-19-856669-4&rft.aulast=Schmidt-Rhaesa&rft.aufirst=A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-16"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-16"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Kristan Jr, WB; Calabrese, RL; Friesen, WO (2005). "Neuronal control of leech behavior". <I>Prog Neurobiology</I>. <B>76</B> (5): 279–327. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.pneurobio.2005.09.004">10.1016/j.pneurobio.2005.09.004</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16260077">16260077</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Prog+Neurobiology&rft.atitle=Neuronal+control+of+leech+behavior&rft.volume=76&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=279-327&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.pneurobio.2005.09.004&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16260077&rft.aulast=Kristan+Jr&rft.aufirst=WB&rft.au=Calabrese%2C+RL&rft.au=Friesen%2C+WO&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-17"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-17"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Barnes, RD (1987). <I>Invertebrate Zoology</I> (5th ed.). Saunders College Pub. p. 1. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-03-008914-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-03-008914-5">978-0-03-008914-5</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Invertebrate+Zoology&rft.pages=1&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Saunders+College+Pub.&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-03-008914-5&rft.aulast=Barnes&rft.aufirst=RD&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Butler-18"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Butler_18-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Butler_18-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Butler, AB (2000). "Chordate Evolution and the Origin of Craniates: An Old Brain in a New Head". <I>Anatomical Record</I>. <B>261</B> (3): 111–125. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1002%2F1097-0185%2820000615%29261%3A3%3C111%3A%3AAID-AR6%3E3.0.CO%3B2-F">10.1002/1097-0185(20000615)261:3<111::AID-AR6>3.0.CO;2-F</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10867629">10867629</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Anatomical+Record&rft.atitle=Chordate+Evolution+and+the+Origin+of+Craniates%3A+An+Old+Brain+in+a+New+Head&rft.volume=261&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=111-125&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F1097-0185%2820000615%29261%3A3%3C111%3A%3AAID-AR6%3E3.0.CO%3B2-F&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10867629&rft.aulast=Butler&rft.aufirst=AB&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Bulloch1995-19"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Bulloch1995_19-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Bulloch, TH; Kutch, W (1995). "Are the main grades of brains different principally in numbers of connections or also in quality?". In Breidbach O. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dW5e6FHOH-4C&pg=PA439"><I>The nervous systems of invertebrates: an evolutionary and comparative approach</I></A>. Birkhäuser. p. 439. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7643-5076-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7643-5076-5">978-3-7643-5076-5</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Are+the+main+grades+of+brains+different+principally+in+numbers+of+connections+or+also+in+quality%3F&rft.btitle=The+nervous+systems+of+invertebrates%3A+an+evolutionary+and+comparative+approach&rft.pages=439&rft.pub=Birkh%C3%A4user&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-3-7643-5076-5&rft.aulast=Bulloch&rft.aufirst=TH&rft.au=Kutch%2C+W&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdW5e6FHOH-4C%26pg%3DPA439&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-20"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-20"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19980109184708/http://flybrain.neurobio.arizona.edu/">"Flybrain: An online atlas and database of the <I>drosophila</I> nervous system"</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://flybrain.neurobio.arizona.edu">the original</A> on 1998-01-09<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2011-10-14</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Flybrain%3A+An+online+atlas+and+database+of+the+drosophila+nervous+system&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fflybrain.neurobio.arizona.edu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-21"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-21"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Konopka, RJ; Benzer, S (1971). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC389363">"Clock Mutants of Drosophila melanogaster"</A>. <I>Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A</I>. <B>68</B> (9): 2112–6. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1971PNAS...68.2112K">1971PNAS...68.2112K</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.68.9.2112">10.1073/pnas.68.9.2112</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC389363">389363</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5002428">5002428</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proc.+Natl.+Acad.+Sci.+U.S.A.&rft.atitle=Clock+Mutants+of+Drosophila+melanogaster&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=2112-6&rft.date=1971&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC389363&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F5002428&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.68.9.2112&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1971PNAS...68.2112K&rft.aulast=Konopka&rft.aufirst=RJ&rft.au=Benzer%2C+S&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC389363&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-22"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-22"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Shin, Hee-Sup; et al. (1985). "An unusual coding sequence from a Drosophila clock gene is conserved in vertebrates". <I>Nature</I>. <B>317</B> (6036): 445–8. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1985Natur.317..445S">1985Natur.317..445S</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2F317445a0">10.1038/317445a0</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2413365">2413365</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=An+unusual+coding+sequence+from+a+Drosophila+clock+gene+is+conserved+in+vertebrates&rft.volume=317&rft.issue=6036&rft.pages=445-8&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F2413365&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F317445a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1985Natur.317..445S&rft.aulast=Shin&rft.aufirst=Hee-Sup&rft.au=Bargiello%2C+Thaddeus+A.&rft.au=Clark%2C+Brian+T.&rft.au=Jackson%2C+F.+Rob&rft.au=Young%2C+Michael+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-23"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-23"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Heisenberg, M; Heusipp, M; Wanke, C. (1995). "Structural plasticity in the Drosophila brain". <I>J. Neurosci</I>. <B>15</B>: 1951–1960.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J.+Neurosci.&rft.atitle=Structural+plasticity+in+the+Drosophila+brain&rft.volume=15&rft.pages=1951-1960&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Heisenberg&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Heusipp%2C+M&rft.au=Wanke%2C+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-24"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-24"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wormbook.org">"WormBook: The online review of <I>C. elegans</I> biology"</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2011-10-14</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=WormBook%3A+The+online+review+of+C.+elegans+biology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wormbook.org&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-25"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-25"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Hobert, O (2005). The <I>C. elegans</I> Research Community, ed. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wormbook.org/chapters/www_specnervsys/specnervsys.html">"Specification of the nervous system"</A>. <I>WormBook</I>: 1–19. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1895%2Fwormbook.1.12.1">10.1895/wormbook.1.12.1</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4781215">4781215</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18050401">18050401</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=WormBook&rft.atitle=Specification+of+the+nervous+system&rft.pages=1-19&rft.date=2005&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4781215&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18050401&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1895%2Fwormbook.1.12.1&rft.aulast=Hobert&rft.aufirst=O&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wormbook.org%2Fchapters%2Fwww_specnervsys%2Fspecnervsys.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-26"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-26"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">White, JG; Southgate, E; Thomson, JN; Brenner, S (1986). "The Structure of the Nervous System of the Nematode Caenorhabditis elegans". <I><A href="/wiki/Philosophical_Transactions_of_the_Royal_Society_B" title="Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B</A></I>. <B>314</B> (1165): 1–340. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1986RSPTB.314....1W">1986RSPTB.314....1W</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.1986.0056">10.1098/rstb.1986.0056</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22462104">22462104</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+B&rft.atitle=The+Structure+of+the+Nervous+System+of+the+Nematode+Caenorhabditis+elegans&rft.volume=314&rft.issue=1165&rft.pages=1-340&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22462104&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.1986.0056&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1986RSPTB.314....1W&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=JG&rft.au=Southgate%2C+E&rft.au=Thomson%2C+JN&rft.au=Brenner%2C+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-27"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-27"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Jabr, Ferris (2012-10-02). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=c-elegans-connectome">"The Connectome Debate: Is Mapping the Mind of a Worm Worth It?"</A>. <I>Scientific American</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2014-01-18</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=The+Connectome+Debate%3A+Is+Mapping+the+Mind+of+a+Worm+Worth+It%3F&rft.date=2012-10-02&rft.aulast=Jabr&rft.aufirst=Ferris&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle.cfm%3Fid%3Dc-elegans-connectome&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-28"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-28"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Hodgkin, J (2001). "<I>Caenorhabditis elegans</I>". In Brenner S, Miller JH. <I>Encyclopedia of Genetics</I>. Elsevier. pp. 251–256. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-227080-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-227080-2">978-0-12-227080-2</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Caenorhabditis+elegans&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Genetics&rft.pages=251-256&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-12-227080-2&rft.aulast=Hodgkin&rft.aufirst=J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN><SPAN class="citation-comment" style="display:none; color:#33aa33; margin-left:0.3em">CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (<A href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_Uses_editors_parameter" title="Category:CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter">link</A>)</SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-29"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-29"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Kandel, ER (2007). <I>In Search of Memory: The Emergence of a New Science of Mind</I>. WW Norton. pp. 145–150. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-32937-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-32937-7">978-0-393-32937-7</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Search+of+Memory%3A+The+Emergence+of+a+New+Science+of+Mind&rft.pages=145-150&rft.pub=WW+Norton&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-393-32937-7&rft.aulast=Kandel&rft.aufirst=ER&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-30"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-30"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Shu, D.-G.; Conway Morris, S.; Han, J.; Zhang, Z.-F.; Yasui, K.; Janvier, P.; Chen, L.; Zhang, X.-L.; Liu, J.-N.; et al. (2003). "Head and backbone of the Early Cambrian vertebrate <I>Haikouichthys</I>". <I>Nature</I>. <B>421</B> (6922): 526–529. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003Natur.421..526S">2003Natur.421..526S</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature01264">10.1038/nature01264</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12556891">12556891</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Head+and+backbone+of+the+Early+Cambrian+vertebrate+Haikouichthys&rft.volume=421&rft.issue=6922&rft.pages=526-529&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12556891&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature01264&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003Natur.421..526S&rft.aulast=Shu&rft.aufirst=D.-G.&rft.au=Conway+Morris%2C+S.&rft.au=Han%2C+J.&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Z.-F.&rft.au=Yasui%2C+K.&rft.au=Janvier%2C+P.&rft.au=Chen%2C+L.&rft.au=Zhang%2C+X.-L.&rft.au=Liu%2C+J.-N.&rft.au=Li%2C+Y.&rft.au=Liu%2C+H.-Q.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-31"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-31"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Striedter, GF (2005). "Ch. 3: Conservation in vertebrate brains". <I>Principles of Brain Evolution</I>. Sinauer Associates. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87893-820-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87893-820-9">978-0-87893-820-9</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ch.+3%3A+Conservation+in+vertebrate+brains&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Brain+Evolution&rft.pub=Sinauer+Associates&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-87893-820-9&rft.aulast=Striedter&rft.aufirst=GF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-32"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-32"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Armstrong, E (1983). "Relative brain size and metabolism in mammals". <I>Science</I>. <B>220</B> (4603): 1302–1304. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1983Sci...220.1302A">1983Sci...220.1302A</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.6407108">10.1126/science.6407108</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6407108">6407108</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Relative+brain+size+and+metabolism+in+mammals&rft.volume=220&rft.issue=4603&rft.pages=1302-1304&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F6407108&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.6407108&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1983Sci...220.1302A&rft.aulast=Armstrong&rft.aufirst=E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-33"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-33"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Jerison, HJ (1973). <I>Evolution of the Brain and Intelligence</I>. Academic Press. pp. 55–74. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-385250-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-385250-2">978-0-12-385250-2</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution+of+the+Brain+and+Intelligence&rft.pages=55-74&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-12-385250-2&rft.aulast=Jerison&rft.aufirst=HJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-CarpenterCh1-34"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-CarpenterCh1_34-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Parent, A; Carpenter, MB (1995). "Ch. 1". <I>Carpenter's Human Neuroanatomy</I>. Williams & Wilkins. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-683-06752-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-683-06752-1">978-0-683-06752-1</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ch.+1&rft.btitle=Carpenter%27s+Human+Neuroanatomy&rft.pub=Williams+%26+Wilkins&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-683-06752-1&rft.aulast=Parent&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Carpenter%2C+MB&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-35"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-35"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Pardridge, W (2005). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC539316">"The Blood-Brain Barrier: Bottleneck in Brain Drug Development"</A>. <I>NeuroRx</I>. <B>2</B> (1): 3–14. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1602%2Fneurorx.2.1.3">10.1602/neurorx.2.1.3</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC539316">539316</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15717053">15717053</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NeuroRx&rft.atitle=The+Blood-Brain+Barrier%3A+Bottleneck+in+Brain+Drug+Development&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3-14&rft.date=2005&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC539316&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15717053&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1602%2Fneurorx.2.1.3&rft.aulast=Pardridge&rft.aufirst=W&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC539316&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-36"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-36"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Northcutt, RG (2008). "Forebrain evolution in bony fishes". <I>Brain Research Bulletin</I>. <B>75</B> (2–4): 191–205. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.brainresbull.2007.10.058">10.1016/j.brainresbull.2007.10.058</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18331871">18331871</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Brain+Research+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Forebrain+evolution+in+bony+fishes&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=2%E2%80%934&rft.pages=191-205&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.brainresbull.2007.10.058&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18331871&rft.aulast=Northcutt&rft.aufirst=RG&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-37"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-37"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Reiner, A; Yamamoto, K; Karten, HJ (2005). "Organization and evolution of the avian forebrain". <I>The Anatomical Record Part A: Discoveries in Molecular, Cellular, and Evolutionary Biology</I>. <B>287</B> (1): 1080–1102. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1002%2Far.a.20253">10.1002/ar.a.20253</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16206213">16206213</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Anatomical+Record+Part+A%3A+Discoveries+in+Molecular%2C+Cellular%2C+and+Evolutionary+Biology&rft.atitle=Organization+and+evolution+of+the+avian+forebrain&rft.volume=287&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1080-1102&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Far.a.20253&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16206213&rft.aulast=Reiner&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Yamamoto%2C+K&rft.au=Karten%2C+HJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-38"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-38"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Siegel, A; Sapru, HN (2010). <I>Essential Neuroscience</I>. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 184–189. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7817-8383-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7817-8383-5">978-0-7817-8383-5</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essential+Neuroscience&rft.pages=184-189&rft.pub=Lippincott+Williams+%26+Wilkins&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-7817-8383-5&rft.aulast=Siegel&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Sapru%2C+HN&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-39"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-39"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Swaab, DF; Boller, F; Aminoff, MJ (2003). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=Js81Pr1PmaAC"><I>The Human Hypothalamus</I></A>. Elsevier. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-444-51357-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-444-51357-1">978-0-444-51357-1</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Human+Hypothalamus&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-444-51357-1&rft.aulast=Swaab&rft.aufirst=DF&rft.au=Boller%2C+F&rft.au=Aminoff%2C+MJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DJs81Pr1PmaAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-40"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-40"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Jones, EG (1985). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=WMxqAAAAMAAJ"><I>The Thalamus</I></A>. Plenum Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-41856-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-306-41856-3">978-0-306-41856-3</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Thalamus&rft.pub=Plenum+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-306-41856-3&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=EG&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DWMxqAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-41"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-41"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Knierim, James. "Cerebellum (Section 3, Chapter 5) Neuroscience Online: An Electronic Textbook for the Neurosciences | Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy - The University of Texas Medical School at Houston." Cerebellum (Section 3, Chapter 5) Neuroscience Online: An Electronic Textbook for the Neurosciences | Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy - The University of Texas Medical School at Houston. The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth), 2015. Web. 2 June 2015. <<A rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s3/chapter05.html">http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s3/chapter05.html</A>>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-42"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-42"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Saitoh, K; Ménard, A; Grillner, S (2007). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jn.physiology.org/cgi/content/full/97/4/3093">"Tectal control of locomotion, steering, and eye movements in lamprey"</A>. <I>Journal of Neurophysiology</I>. <B>97</B> (4): 3093–3108. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1152%2Fjn.00639.2006">10.1152/jn.00639.2006</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17303814">17303814</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Neurophysiology&rft.atitle=Tectal+control+of+locomotion%2C+steering%2C+and+eye+movements+in+lamprey&rft.volume=97&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=3093-3108&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1152%2Fjn.00639.2006&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17303814&rft.aulast=Saitoh&rft.aufirst=K&rft.au=M%C3%A9nard%2C+A&rft.au=Grillner%2C+S&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjn.physiology.org%2Fcgi%2Fcontent%2Ffull%2F97%2F4%2F3093&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-LullFerris1922-43"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-LullFerris1922_43-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Richard Swann Lull; Harry Burr Ferris; George Howard Parker; James Rowland Angell; Albert Galloway Keller; Edwin Grant Conklin (1922). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J3AFAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA50"><I>The evolution of man: a series of lectures delivered before the Yale chapter of the Sigma xi during the academic year 1921–1922</I></A>. Yale University Press. p. 50.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+evolution+of+man%3A+a+series+of+lectures+delivered+before+the+Yale+chapter+of+the+Sigma+xi+during+the+academic+year+1921%E2%80%931922&rft.pages=50&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1922&rft.au=Richard+Swann+Lull&rft.au=Harry+Burr+Ferris&rft.au=George+Howard+Parker&rft.au=James+Rowland+Angell&rft.au=Albert+Galloway+Keller&rft.au=Edwin+Grant+Conklin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJ3AFAQAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA50&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-44"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-44"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Puelles, L (2001). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1088538">"Thoughts on the development, structure and evolution of the mammalian and avian telencephalic pallium"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/Philosophical_Transactions_of_the_Royal_Society_B" title="Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B</A></I>. <B>356</B> (1414): 1583–1598. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2001.0973">10.1098/rstb.2001.0973</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1088538">1088538</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11604125">11604125</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+B&rft.atitle=Thoughts+on+the+development%2C+structure+and+evolution+of+the+mammalian+and+avian+telencephalic+pallium&rft.volume=356&rft.issue=1414&rft.pages=1583-1598&rft.date=2001&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1088538&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11604125&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.2001.0973&rft.aulast=Puelles&rft.aufirst=L&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1088538&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-45"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-45"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Salas, C; Broglio, C; Rodríguez, F (2003). "Evolution of forebrain and spatial cognition in vertebrates: conservation across diversity". <I>Brain, Behavior and Evolution</I>. <B>62</B> (2): 72–82. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1159%2F000072438">10.1159/000072438</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12937346">12937346</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Brain%2C+Behavior+and+Evolution&rft.atitle=Evolution+of+forebrain+and+spatial+cognition+in+vertebrates%3A+conservation+across+diversity&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=72-82&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1159%2F000072438&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12937346&rft.aulast=Salas&rft.aufirst=C&rft.au=Broglio%2C+C&rft.au=Rodr%C3%ADguez%2C+F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Grillner2005-46"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Grillner2005_46-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Grillner2005_46-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Grillner, S; et al. (2005). "Mechanisms for selection of basic motor programs—roles for the striatum and pallidum". <I>Trends in Neurosciences</I>. <B>28</B> (7): 364–370. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tins.2005.05.004">10.1016/j.tins.2005.05.004</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15935487">15935487</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Neurosciences&rft.atitle=Mechanisms+for+selection+of+basic+motor+programs%E2%80%94roles+for+the+striatum+and+pallidum&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=364-370&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tins.2005.05.004&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15935487&rft.aulast=Grillner&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Hellgren%2C+J&rft.au=M%C3%A9nard%2C+A&rft.au=Saitoh%2C+K&rft.au=Wikstr%C3%B6m%2C+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-47"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-47"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Northcutt, RG (1981). "Evolution of the telencephalon in nonmammals". <I>Annual Review of Neuroscience</I>. <B>4</B>: 301–350. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.ne.04.030181.001505">10.1146/annurev.ne.04.030181.001505</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7013637">7013637</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Evolution+of+the+telencephalon+in+nonmammals&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=301-350&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.ne.04.030181.001505&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7013637&rft.aulast=Northcutt&rft.aufirst=RG&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Northcutt2002-48"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Northcutt2002_48-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Northcutt2002_48-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Northcutt, RG (2002). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/content/42/4/743.full">"Understanding vertebrate brain evolution"</A>. <I>Integrative and Comparative Biology</I>. <B>42</B> (4): 743–756. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1093%2Ficb%2F42.4.743">10.1093/icb/42.4.743</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21708771">21708771</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Integrative+and+Comparative+Biology&rft.atitle=Understanding+vertebrate+brain+evolution&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=743-756&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Ficb%2F42.4.743&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21708771&rft.aulast=Northcutt&rft.aufirst=RG&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ficb.oxfordjournals.org%2Fcontent%2F42%2F4%2F743.full&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Barton-49"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Barton_49-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Barton_49-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Barton, RA; Harvey, PH (2000). "Mosaic evolution of brain structure in mammals". <I>Nature</I>. <B>405</B> (6790): 1055–1058. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2F35016580">10.1038/35016580</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10890446">10890446</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Mosaic+evolution+of+brain+structure+in+mammals&rft.volume=405&rft.issue=6790&rft.pages=1055-1058&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F35016580&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10890446&rft.aulast=Barton&rft.aufirst=RA&rft.au=Harvey%2C+PH&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Aboitiz-50"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Aboitiz_50-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Aboitiz, F; Morales, D; Montiel, J (2003). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080807165804/http://www.bbsonline.org/Preprints/Aboitiz/Referees/">"The evolutionary origin of the mammalian isocortex: Towards an integrated developmental and functional approach"</A>. <I>Behavioral and Brain Sciences</I>. <B>26</B> (5): 535–552. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1017%2FS0140525X03000128">10.1017/S0140525X03000128</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15179935">15179935</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bbsonline.org/Preprints/Aboitiz/Referees">the original</A> on 2008-08-07.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Behavioral+and+Brain+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+evolutionary+origin+of+the+mammalian+isocortex%3A+Towards+an+integrated+developmental+and+functional+approach&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=535-552&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0140525X03000128&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15179935&rft.aulast=Aboitiz&rft.aufirst=F&rft.au=Morales%2C+D&rft.au=Montiel%2C+J&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbsonline.org%2FPreprints%2FAboitiz%2FReferees&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-51"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-51"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Romer, AS; Parsons, TS (1977). <I>The Vertebrate Body</I>. Holt-Saunders International. p. 531. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-03-910284-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-03-910284-X">0-03-910284-X</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Vertebrate+Body&rft.pages=531&rft.pub=Holt-Saunders+International&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=0-03-910284-X&rft.aulast=Romer&rft.aufirst=AS&rft.au=Parsons%2C+TS&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Roth2005-52"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Roth2005_52-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Roth2005_52-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Roth, G; Dicke, U (2005). "Evolution of the brain and Intelligence". <I>Trends in Cognitive Sciences</I>. <B>9</B> (5): 250–257. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tics.2005.03.005">10.1016/j.tics.2005.03.005</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15866152">15866152</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Cognitive+Sciences&rft.atitle=Evolution+of+the+brain+and+Intelligence&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=250-257&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tics.2005.03.005&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15866152&rft.aulast=Roth&rft.aufirst=G&rft.au=Dicke%2C+U&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Marino-53"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Marino_53-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Marino_53-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Marino, Lori (2004). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cogs.indiana.edu/spackled/2005readings/CetaceanBrainEvolution.pdf">"Cetacean Brain Evolution: Multiplication Generates Complexity"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>International Society for Comparative Psychology</I> (17): 1–16<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2010-08-29</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Society+for+Comparative+Psychology&rft.atitle=Cetacean+Brain+Evolution%3A+Multiplication+Generates+Complexity&rft.issue=17&rft.pages=1-16&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Marino&rft.aufirst=Lori&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cogs.indiana.edu%2Fspackled%2F2005readings%2FCetaceanBrainEvolution.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-54"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-54"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Shoshani, J; Kupsky, WJ; Marchant, GH (2006). "Elephant brain Part I: Gross morphology, functions, comparative anatomy, and evolution". <I>Brain Research Bulletin</I>. <B>70</B> (2): 124–157. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.brainresbull.2006.03.016">10.1016/j.brainresbull.2006.03.016</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16782503">16782503</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Brain+Research+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Elephant+brain+Part+I%3A+Gross+morphology%2C+functions%2C+comparative+anatomy%2C+and+evolution&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=124-157&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.brainresbull.2006.03.016&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16782503&rft.aulast=Shoshani&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Kupsky%2C+WJ&rft.au=Marchant%2C+GH&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Finlay-55"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Finlay_55-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Finlay, BL; Darlington, RB; Nicastro, N (2001). "Developmental structure in brain evolution". <I>Behavioral and Brain Sciences</I>. <B>24</B> (2): 263–308. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1017%2FS0140525X01003958">10.1017/S0140525X01003958</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11530543">11530543</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Behavioral+and+Brain+Sciences&rft.atitle=Developmental+structure+in+brain+evolution&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=263-308&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0140525X01003958&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11530543&rft.aulast=Finlay&rft.aufirst=BL&rft.au=Darlington%2C+RB&rft.au=Nicastro%2C+N&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-56"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-56"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Calvin, WH (1996). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=z1r03ECL5A8C"><I>How Brains Think</I></A>. Basic Books. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-07278-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-07278-1">978-0-465-07278-1</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Brains+Think&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-465-07278-1&rft.aulast=Calvin&rft.aufirst=WH&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3Dz1r03ECL5A8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Sereno1995-57"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Sereno1995_57-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Sereno, MI; Dale, AM; Reppas, AM; Kwong, KK; Belliveau, JW; Brady, TJ; Rosen, BR; Tootell, RBH (1995). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cogsci.ucsd.edu/~sereno/papers/HumanRetin95.pdf">"Borders of multiple visual areas in human revealed by functional magnetic resonance imaging"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>Science</I>. AAAS. <B>268</B> (5212): 889–893. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995Sci...268..889S">1995Sci...268..889S</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.7754376">10.1126/science.7754376</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7754376">7754376</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Borders+of+multiple+visual+areas+in+human+revealed+by+functional+magnetic+resonance+imaging&rft.volume=268&rft.issue=5212&rft.pages=889-893&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7754376&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.7754376&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1995Sci...268..889S&rft.aulast=Sereno&rft.aufirst=MI&rft.au=Dale%2C+AM&rft.au=Reppas%2C+AM&rft.au=Kwong%2C+KK&rft.au=Belliveau%2C+JW&rft.au=Brady%2C+TJ&rft.au=Rosen%2C+BR&rft.au=Tootell%2C+RBH&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cogsci.ucsd.edu%2F~sereno%2Fpapers%2FHumanRetin95.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-58"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-58"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Fuster, JM (2008). <I>The Prefrontal Cortex</I>. Elsevier. pp. 1–7. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-373644-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-373644-4">978-0-12-373644-4</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Prefrontal+Cortex&rft.pages=1-7&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-12-373644-4&rft.aulast=Fuster&rft.aufirst=JM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Purves_1985-59"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Purves_1985_59-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Purves_1985_59-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Purves_1985_59-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Purves_1985_59-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Purves_1985_59-4"><SUP><I><B>e</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Purves_1985_59-5"><SUP><I><B>f</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Purves_1985_59-6"><SUP><I><B>g</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Purves, Dale.; Lichtman, Jeff W. (1985). <I>Principles of neural development</I>. Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87893-744-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87893-744-8">978-0-87893-744-8</A>. <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/10798963">10798963</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+neural+development&rft.place=Sunderland%2C+Mass.&rft.pub=Sinauer+Associates&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F10798963&rft.isbn=978-0-87893-744-8&rft.aulast=Purves&rft.aufirst=Dale.&rft.au=Lichtman%2C+Jeff+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Wong-60"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Wong_60-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Wong_60-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Wong, R (1999). "Retinal waves and visual system development". <I>Annual Review of Neuroscience</I>. <B>22</B>: 29–47. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.neuro.22.1.29">10.1146/annurev.neuro.22.1.29</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10202531">10202531</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Retinal+waves+and+visual+system+development&rft.volume=22&rft.pages=29-47&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.neuro.22.1.29&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10202531&rft.aulast=Wong&rft.aufirst=R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-61"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-61"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Rakic, P (2002). "Adult neurogenesis in mammals: an identity crisis". <I>Journal of Neuroscience</I>. <B>22</B> (3): 614–618. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11826088">11826088</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Adult+neurogenesis+in+mammals%3A+an+identity+crisis&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=614-618&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11826088&rft.aulast=Rakic&rft.aufirst=P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-62"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-62"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Ridley, M (2003). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=9TkUHQAACAAJ"><I>Nature via Nurture: Genes, Experience, and What Makes Us Human</I></A>. Forth Estate. pp. 1–6. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-000678-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-000678-5">978-0-06-000678-5</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nature+via+Nurture%3A+Genes%2C+Experience%2C+and+What+Makes+Us+Human&rft.pages=1-6&rft.pub=Forth+Estate&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-06-000678-5&rft.aulast=Ridley&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3D9TkUHQAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-63"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-63"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Wiesel, T (1982). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nobel.se/medicine/laureates/1981/wiesel-lecture.pdf">"Postnatal development of the visual cortex and the influence of environment"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>Nature</I>. <B>299</B> (5884): 583–591. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1982Natur.299..583W">1982Natur.299..583W</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2F299583a0">10.1038/299583a0</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6811951">6811951</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Postnatal+development+of+the+visual+cortex+and+the+influence+of+environment&rft.volume=299&rft.issue=5884&rft.pages=583-591&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F6811951&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F299583a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1982Natur.299..583W&rft.aulast=Wiesel&rft.aufirst=T&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobel.se%2Fmedicine%2Flaureates%2F1981%2Fwiesel-lecture.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-64"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-64"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">van Praag, H; Kempermann, G; Gage, FH (2000). "Neural consequences of environmental enrichment". <I>Nature Reviews Neuroscience</I>. <B>1</B> (3): 191–198. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2F35044558">10.1038/35044558</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11257907">11257907</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Neural+consequences+of+environmental+enrichment&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=191-198&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F35044558&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11257907&rft.aulast=van+Praag&rft.aufirst=H&rft.au=Kempermann%2C+G&rft.au=Gage%2C+FH&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-65"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-65"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Cooper, JR; Bloom, FE; Roth, RH (2003). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=e5I5gOwxVMkC"><I>The Biochemical Basis of Neuropharmacology</I></A>. <A href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</A> US. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514008-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514008-8">978-0-19-514008-8</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Biochemical+Basis+of+Neuropharmacology&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press+US&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-514008-8&rft.aulast=Cooper&rft.aufirst=JR&rft.au=Bloom%2C+FE&rft.au=Roth%2C+RH&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3De5I5gOwxVMkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-66"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-66"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">McGeer, PL; McGeer, EG (1989). "Chapter 15, <I>Amino acid neurotransmitters</I>". In G. Siegel; et al. <I>Basic Neurochemistry</I>. Raven Press. pp. 311–332. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88167-343-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88167-343-2">978-0-88167-343-2</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+15%2C+Amino+acid+neurotransmitters&rft.btitle=Basic+Neurochemistry&rft.pages=311-332&rft.pub=Raven+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-88167-343-2&rft.aulast=McGeer&rft.aufirst=PL&rft.au=McGeer%2C+EG&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-67"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-67"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Foster, AC; Kemp, JA (2006). "Glutamate- and GABA-based CNS therapeutics". <I>Current Opinion in Pharmacology</I>. <B>6</B> (1): 7–17. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.coph.2005.11.005">10.1016/j.coph.2005.11.005</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16377242">16377242</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Opinion+in+Pharmacology&rft.atitle=Glutamate-+and+GABA-based+CNS+therapeutics&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=7-17&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.coph.2005.11.005&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16377242&rft.aulast=Foster&rft.aufirst=AC&rft.au=Kemp%2C+JA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-68"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-68"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Frazer, A; Hensler, JG (1999). "Understanding the neuroanatomical organization of serotonergic cells in the brain provides insight into the functions of this neurotransmitter". In Siegel, GJ. <I>Basic Neurochemistry</I> (Sixth ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-397-51820-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-397-51820-X">0-397-51820-X</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Understanding+the+neuroanatomical+organization+of+serotonergic+cells+in+the+brain+provides+insight+into+the+functions+of+this+neurotransmitter&rft.btitle=Basic+Neurochemistry&rft.edition=Sixth&rft.pub=Lippincott+Williams+%26+Wilkins&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-397-51820-X&rft.aulast=Frazer&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Hensler%2C+JG&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Mehler-69"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Mehler_69-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Mehler, MF; Purpura, DP (2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2668953">"Autism, fever, epigenetics and the locus coeruleus"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/Brain_Research_Reviews" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain Research Reviews">Brain Research Reviews</A></I>. <B>59</B> (2): 388–392. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.brainresrev.2008.11.001">10.1016/j.brainresrev.2008.11.001</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2668953">2668953</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19059284">19059284</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Brain+Research+Reviews&rft.atitle=Autism%2C+fever%2C+epigenetics+and+the+locus+coeruleus&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=388-392&rft.date=2009&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2668953&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19059284&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.brainresrev.2008.11.001&rft.aulast=Mehler&rft.aufirst=MF&rft.au=Purpura%2C+DP&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2668953&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-70"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-70"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Rang, HP (2003). <I>Pharmacology</I>. Churchill Livingstone. pp. 476–483. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-443-07145-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-443-07145-4">0-443-07145-4</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pharmacology&rft.pages=476-483&rft.pub=Churchill+Livingstone&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-443-07145-4&rft.aulast=Rang&rft.aufirst=HP&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Niedermeyer-71"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Niedermeyer_71-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Speckmann, E-J; Elger, CE (2004). "Introduction to the neurophysiological basis of the EEG and DC potentials". In Niedermeyer E, Lopes da Silva FH. <I>Electroencephalography: Basic Principles, Clinical Applications, and Related Fields</I>. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 17–31. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7817-5126-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7817-5126-8">0-7817-5126-8</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+the+neurophysiological+basis+of+the+EEG+and+DC+potentials&rft.btitle=Electroencephalography%3A+Basic+Principles%2C+Clinical+Applications%2C+and+Related+Fields&rft.pages=17-31&rft.pub=Lippincott+Williams+%26+Wilkins&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-7817-5126-8&rft.aulast=Speckmann&rft.aufirst=E-J&rft.au=Elger%2C+CE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN><SPAN class="citation-comment" style="display:none; color:#33aa33; margin-left:0.3em">CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (<A href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_Uses_editors_parameter" title="Category:CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter">link</A>)</SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Buzsaki-72"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Buzsaki_72-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Buzsaki_72-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Buzsáki, G (2006). <I>Rhythms of the Brain</I>. Oxford University Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530106-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530106-9">978-0-19-530106-9</A>. <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/63279497">63279497</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rhythms+of+the+Brain&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F63279497&rft.isbn=978-0-19-530106-9&rft.aulast=Buzs%C3%A1ki&rft.aufirst=G&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Nieuwenhuys-73"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Nieuwenhuys_73-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Nieuwenhuys_73-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Nieuwenhuys_73-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Nieuwenhuys, R; Donkelaar, HJ; Nicholson, C (1998). <I>The Central Nervous System of Vertebrates, Volume 1</I>. Springer. pp. 11–14. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-56013-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-56013-5">978-3-540-56013-5</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Central+Nervous+System+of+Vertebrates%2C+Volume+1&rft.pages=11-14&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-3-540-56013-5&rft.aulast=Nieuwenhuys&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Donkelaar%2C+HJ&rft.au=Nicholson%2C+C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-74"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-74"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Safi, K; Seid, MA; Dechmann, DK (2005). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1617168">"Bigger is not always better: when brains get smaller"</A>. <I>Biology Letters</I>. <B>1</B> (3): 283–286. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbl.2005.0333">10.1098/rsbl.2005.0333</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1617168">1617168</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17148188">17148188</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biology+Letters&rft.atitle=Bigger+is+not+always+better%3A+when+brains+get+smaller&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=283-286&rft.date=2005&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1617168&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17148188&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsbl.2005.0333&rft.aulast=Safi&rft.aufirst=K&rft.au=Seid%2C+MA&rft.au=Dechmann%2C+DK&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1617168&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-75"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-75"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Mink, JW; Blumenschine, RJ; Adams, DB (1981). "Ratio of central nervous system to body metabolism in vertebrates: its constancy and functional basis". <I>American Journal of Physiology</I>. <B>241</B> (3): R203–212. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7282965">7282965</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Physiology&rft.atitle=Ratio+of+central+nervous+system+to+body+metabolism+in+vertebrates%3A+its+constancy+and+functional+basis&rft.volume=241&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=R203-212&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7282965&rft.aulast=Mink&rft.aufirst=JW&rft.au=Blumenschine%2C+RJ&rft.au=Adams%2C+DB&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-76"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-76"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Raichle, M; Gusnard, DA (2002). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC124895">"Appraising the brain's energy budget"</A>. <I>Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A</I>. <B>99</B> (16): 10237–10239. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002PNAS...9910237R">2002PNAS...9910237R</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.172399499">10.1073/pnas.172399499</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC124895">124895</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12149485">12149485</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proc.+Natl.+Acad.+Sci.+U.S.A.&rft.atitle=Appraising+the+brain%27s+energy+budget&rft.volume=99&rft.issue=16&rft.pages=10237-10239&rft.date=2002&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC124895&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12149485&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.172399499&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002PNAS...9910237R&rft.aulast=Raichle&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Gusnard%2C+DA&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC124895&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-77"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-77"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Mehagnoul-Schipper, DJ; Van Der Kallen, BF; Colier, WNJM; Van Der Sluijs, MC; Van Erning, LJ; Thijssen, HO; Oeseburg, B; Hoefnagels, WH; Jansen, RW (2002). "Simultaneous measurements of cerebral oxygenation changes during brain activation by near-infrared spectroscopy and functional magnetic resonance imaging in healthy young and elderly subjects". <I>Hum Brain Mapp</I>. <B>16</B> (1): 14–23. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1002%2Fhbm.10026">10.1002/hbm.10026</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11870923">11870923</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hum+Brain+Mapp&rft.atitle=Simultaneous+measurements+of+cerebral+oxygenation+changes+during+brain+activation+by+near-infrared+spectroscopy+and+functional+magnetic+resonance+imaging+in+healthy+young+and+elderly+subjects&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=14-23&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fhbm.10026&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11870923&rft.aulast=Mehagnoul-Schipper&rft.aufirst=DJ&rft.au=Van+Der+Kallen%2C+BF&rft.au=Colier%2C+WNJM&rft.au=Van+Der+Sluijs%2C+MC&rft.au=Van+Erning%2C+LJ&rft.au=Thijssen%2C+HO&rft.au=Oeseburg%2C+B&rft.au=Hoefnagels%2C+WH&rft.au=Jansen%2C+RW&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Ebert_2003-78"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Ebert_2003_78-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Ebert, D.; Haller, RG.; Walton, ME. (Jul 2003). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jneurosci.org/content/23/13/5928.full">"Energy contribution of octanoate to intact rat brain metabolism measured by 13C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy"</A>. <I>J Neurosci</I>. <B>23</B> (13): 5928–35. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12843297">12843297</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J+Neurosci&rft.atitle=Energy+contribution+of+octanoate+to+intact+rat+brain+metabolism+measured+by+13C+nuclear+magnetic+resonance+spectroscopy&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=13&rft.pages=5928-35&rft.date=2003-07&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12843297&rft.aulast=Ebert&rft.aufirst=D.&rft.au=Haller%2C+RG.&rft.au=Walton%2C+ME.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jneurosci.org%2Fcontent%2F23%2F13%2F5928.full&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Marin_Valencia_2013-79"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Marin_Valencia_2013_79-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Marin-Valencia, I.; Good, LB.; Ma, Q.; Malloy, CR.; Pascual, JM. (Feb 2013). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3564188">"Heptanoate as a neural fuel: energetic and neurotransmitter precursors in normal and glucose transporter I-deficient (G1D) brain"</A>. <I>J Cereb Blood Flow Metab</I>. <B>33</B> (2): 175–82. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2Fjcbfm.2012.151">10.1038/jcbfm.2012.151</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3564188">3564188</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23072752">23072752</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J+Cereb+Blood+Flow+Metab&rft.atitle=Heptanoate+as+a+neural+fuel%3A+energetic+and+neurotransmitter+precursors+in+normal+and+glucose+transporter+I-deficient+%28G1D%29+brain&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=175-82&rft.date=2013-02&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3564188&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23072752&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fjcbfm.2012.151&rft.aulast=Marin-Valencia&rft.aufirst=I.&rft.au=Good%2C+LB.&rft.au=Ma%2C+Q.&rft.au=Malloy%2C+CR.&rft.au=Pascual%2C+JM.&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3564188&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Boumezbeur_2010-80"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Boumezbeur_2010_80-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Boumezbeur, F.; Petersen, KF.; Cline, GW.; Mason, GF.; Behar, KL.; Shulman, GI.; Rothman, DL. (Oct 2010). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2996729">"The contribution of blood lactate to brain energy metabolism in humans measured by dynamic 13C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy"</A>. <I>J Neurosci</I>. <B>30</B> (42): 13983–91. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1523%2FJNEUROSCI.2040-10.2010">10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2040-10.2010</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2996729">2996729</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20962220">20962220</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J+Neurosci&rft.atitle=The+contribution+of+blood+lactate+to+brain+energy+metabolism+in+humans+measured+by+dynamic+13C+nuclear+magnetic+resonance+spectroscopy&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=42&rft.pages=13983-91&rft.date=2010-10&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2996729&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20962220&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1523%2FJNEUROSCI.2040-10.2010&rft.aulast=Boumezbeur&rft.aufirst=F.&rft.au=Petersen%2C+KF.&rft.au=Cline%2C+GW.&rft.au=Mason%2C+GF.&rft.au=Behar%2C+KL.&rft.au=Shulman%2C+GI.&rft.au=Rothman%2C+DL.&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2996729&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Deelchand_2009-81"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Deelchand_2009_81-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Deelchand, DK.; Shestov, AA.; Koski, DM.; Uğurbil, K.; Henry, PG. (May 2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2722917">"Acetate transport and utilization in the rat brain"</A>. <I>J Neurochem</I>. 109 Suppl 1 (Suppl 1): 46–54. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1471-4159.2009.05895.x">10.1111/j.1471-4159.2009.05895.x</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2722917">2722917</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19393008">19393008</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J+Neurochem&rft.atitle=Acetate+transport+and+utilization+in+the+rat+brain&rft.volume=109+Suppl+1&rft.issue=Suppl+1&rft.pages=46-54&rft.date=2009-05&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2722917&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19393008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1471-4159.2009.05895.x&rft.aulast=Deelchand&rft.aufirst=DK.&rft.au=Shestov%2C+AA.&rft.au=Koski%2C+DM.&rft.au=U%C4%9Furbil%2C+K.&rft.au=Henry%2C+PG.&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2722917&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-82"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-82"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Soengas, JL; Aldegunde, M (2002). "Energy metabolism of fish brain". <I>Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology B</I>. <B>131</B> (3): 271–296. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2FS1096-4959%2802%2900022-2">10.1016/S1096-4959(02)00022-2</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11959012">11959012</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comparative+Biochemistry+and+Physiology+B&rft.atitle=Energy+metabolism+of+fish+brain&rft.volume=131&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=271-296&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS1096-4959%2802%2900022-2&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11959012&rft.aulast=Soengas&rft.aufirst=JL&rft.au=Aldegunde%2C+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-CarewCh1-83"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-CarewCh1_83-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-CarewCh1_83-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Carew, TJ (2000). "Ch. 1". <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=wEMTGwAACAAJ"><I>Behavioral Neurobiology: the Cellular Organization of Natural Behavior</I></A>. Sinauer Associates. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87893-092-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87893-092-0">978-0-87893-092-0</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ch.+1&rft.btitle=Behavioral+Neurobiology%3A+the+Cellular+Organization+of+Natural+Behavior&rft.pub=Sinauer+Associates&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-87893-092-0&rft.aulast=Carew&rft.aufirst=TJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DwEMTGwAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-84"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-84"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Dafny, N. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111008172218/http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s2/chapter03.html">"Anatomy of the spinal cord"</A>. Neuroscience Online. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s2/chapter03.html">the original</A> on 2011-10-08<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2011-10-10</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Anatomy+of+the+spinal+cord&rft.pub=Neuroscience+Online&rft.aulast=Dafny&rft.aufirst=N&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fneuroscience.uth.tmc.edu%2Fs2%2Fchapter03.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-85"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-85"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Dragoi, V. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s3/chapter07.html">"Ocular motor system"</A>. Neuroscience Online<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2011-10-10</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ocular+motor+system&rft.pub=Neuroscience+Online&rft.aulast=Dragoi&rft.aufirst=V&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fneuroscience.uth.tmc.edu%2Fs3%2Fchapter07.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-86"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-86"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Gurney, K; Prescott, TJ; Wickens, JR; Redgrave, P (2004). "Computational models of the basal ganglia: from robots to membranes". <I>Trends in Neurosciences</I>. <B>27</B> (8): 453–459. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tins.2004.06.003">10.1016/j.tins.2004.06.003</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15271492">15271492</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Neurosciences&rft.atitle=Computational+models+of+the+basal+ganglia%3A+from+robots+to+membranes&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=453-459&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tins.2004.06.003&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15271492&rft.aulast=Gurney&rft.aufirst=K&rft.au=Prescott%2C+TJ&rft.au=Wickens%2C+JR&rft.au=Redgrave%2C+P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-87"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-87"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Shima, K; Tanji, J (1998). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jn.physiology.org/cgi/content/abstract/80/6/3247">"Both supplementary and presupplementary motor areas are crucial for the temporal organization of multiple movements"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/Journal_of_Neurophysiology" title="Journal of Neurophysiology">Journal of Neurophysiology</A></I>. <B>80</B> (6): 3247–3260. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9862919">9862919</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Neurophysiology&rft.atitle=Both+supplementary+and+presupplementary+motor+areas+are+crucial+for+the+temporal+organization+of+multiple+movements&rft.volume=80&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=3247-3260&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9862919&rft.aulast=Shima&rft.aufirst=K&rft.au=Tanji%2C+J&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjn.physiology.org%2Fcgi%2Fcontent%2Fabstract%2F80%2F6%2F3247&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-88"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-88"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Miller, EK; Cohen, JD (2001). "An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function". <I>Annual Review of Neuroscience</I>. <B>24</B> (1): 167–202. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.neuro.24.1.167">10.1146/annurev.neuro.24.1.167</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11283309">11283309</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=An+integrative+theory+of+prefrontal+cortex+function&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=167-202&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.neuro.24.1.167&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11283309&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=EK&rft.au=Cohen%2C+JD&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-89"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-89"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Antle, MC; Silver, R (2005). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081031120051/http://www.columbia.edu/cu/psychology/silver/publications2/149%20antle%20et%20al.pdf">"Orchestrating time: arrangements of the brain circadian clock"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>Trends in Neurosciences</I>. <B>28</B> (3): 145–151. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tins.2005.01.003">10.1016/j.tins.2005.01.003</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15749168">15749168</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.columbia.edu/cu/psychology/silver/publications2/149%20antle%20et%20al.pdf">the original</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN> on 2008-10-31.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Neurosciences&rft.atitle=Orchestrating+time%3A+arrangements+of+the+brain+circadian+clock&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=145-151&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tins.2005.01.003&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15749168&rft.aulast=Antle&rft.aufirst=MC&rft.au=Silver%2C+R&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.columbia.edu%2Fcu%2Fpsychology%2Fsilver%2Fpublications2%2F149%2520antle%2520et%2520al.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-90"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-90"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Kleitman, N (1938). <I>Sleep and Wakefulness</I>. revised 1963, reprinted 1987. The University of Chicago Press, Midway Reprints series. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-44073-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-44073-7">0-226-44073-7</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sleep+and+Wakefulness&rft.pub=The+University+of+Chicago+Press%2C+Midway+Reprints+series&rft.date=1938&rft.isbn=0-226-44073-7&rft.aulast=Kleitman&rft.aufirst=N&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Dougherty-91"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Dougherty_91-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Dougherty_91-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Dougherty_91-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Dougherty, P. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s4/chapter01.html">"Hypothalamus: structural organization"</A>. Neuroscience Online<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2011-10-11</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hypothalamus%3A+structural+organization&rft.pub=Neuroscience+Online&rft.aulast=Dougherty&rft.aufirst=P&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fneuroscience.uth.tmc.edu%2Fs4%2Fchapter01.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-92"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-92"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Gross, CG (1998). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.princeton.edu/~cggross/Neuroscientist_98_Bernard.pdf">"Claude Bernard and the constancy of the internal environment"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>The Neuroscientist</I>. <B>4</B> (5): 380–385. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1177%2F107385849800400520">10.1177/107385849800400520</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Neuroscientist&rft.atitle=Claude+Bernard+and+the+constancy+of+the+internal+environment&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=380-385&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F107385849800400520&rft.aulast=Gross&rft.aufirst=CG&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.princeton.edu%2F~cggross%2FNeuroscientist_98_Bernard.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-93"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-93"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Dougherty, P. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s4/chapter02.html">"Hypothalamic control of pituitary hormone"</A>. Neuroscience Online<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2011-10-11</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hypothalamic+control+of+pituitary+hormone&rft.pub=Neuroscience+Online&rft.aulast=Dougherty&rft.aufirst=P&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fneuroscience.uth.tmc.edu%2Fs4%2Fchapter02.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-94"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-94"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Chiel, HJ; Beer, RD (1997). "The brain has a body: adaptive behavior emerges from interactions of nervous system, body, and environment". <I>Trends in Neurosciences</I>. <B>20</B> (12): 553–557. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2FS0166-2236%2897%2901149-1">10.1016/S0166-2236(97)01149-1</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9416664">9416664</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Neurosciences&rft.atitle=The+brain+has+a+body%3A+adaptive+behavior+emerges+from+interactions+of+nervous+system%2C+body%2C+and+environment&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=553-557&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0166-2236%2897%2901149-1&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9416664&rft.aulast=Chiel&rft.aufirst=HJ&rft.au=Beer%2C+RD&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-95"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-95"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Berridge, KC (2004). "Motivation concepts in behavioral neuroscience". <I>Physiology & Behavior</I>. <B>81</B> (2): 179–209. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.physbeh.2004.02.004">10.1016/j.physbeh.2004.02.004</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15159167">15159167</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physiology+%26+Behavior&rft.atitle=Motivation+concepts+in+behavioral+neuroscience&rft.volume=81&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=179-209&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.physbeh.2004.02.004&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15159167&rft.aulast=Berridge&rft.aufirst=KC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-96"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-96"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Ardiel, EL; Rankin, CH (2010). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://learnmem.cshlp.org/content/17/4/191.long">"An elegant mind: learning and memory in <I>Caenorhabditis elegans</I>"</A>. <I>Learning and Memory</I>. <B>17</B> (4): 191–201. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1101%2Flm.960510">10.1101/lm.960510</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20335372">20335372</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Learning+and+Memory&rft.atitle=An+elegant+mind%3A+learning+and+memory+in+Caenorhabditis+elegans&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=191-201&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1101%2Flm.960510&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20335372&rft.aulast=Ardiel&rft.aufirst=EL&rft.au=Rankin%2C+CH&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flearnmem.cshlp.org%2Fcontent%2F17%2F4%2F191.long&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-97"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-97"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Hyman, SE; Malenka, RC (2001). "Addiction and the brain: the neurobiology of compulsion and its persistence". <I>Nature Reviews Neuroscience</I>. <B>2</B> (10): 695–703. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2F35094560">10.1038/35094560</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11584307">11584307</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Addiction+and+the+brain%3A+the+neurobiology+of+compulsion+and+its+persistence&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=695-703&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F35094560&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11584307&rft.aulast=Hyman&rft.aufirst=SE&rft.au=Malenka%2C+RC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-98"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-98"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Ramón y Cajal, S (1894). "The Croonian Lecture: La Fine Structure des Centres Nerveux". <I>Proceedings of the Royal Society</I>. <B>55</B> (331–335): 444–468. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1098%2Frspl.1894.0063">10.1098/rspl.1894.0063</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society&rft.atitle=The+Croonian+Lecture%3A+La+Fine+Structure+des+Centres+Nerveux&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=331%E2%80%93335&rft.pages=444-468&rft.date=1894&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspl.1894.0063&rft.aulast=Ram%C3%B3n+y+Cajal&rft.aufirst=S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-99"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-99"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Lømo, T (2003). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1693150">"The discovery of long-term potentiation"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/Philosophical_Transactions_of_the_Royal_Society_B" title="Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B</A></I>. <B>358</B> (1432): 617–620. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2002.1226">10.1098/rstb.2002.1226</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1693150">1693150</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12740104">12740104</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+B&rft.atitle=The+discovery+of+long-term+potentiation&rft.volume=358&rft.issue=1432&rft.pages=617-620&rft.date=2003&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1693150&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12740104&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.2002.1226&rft.aulast=L%C3%B8mo&rft.aufirst=T&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1693150&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-100"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-100"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Malenka, R; Bear, M (2004). "LTP and LTD: an embarrassment of riches". <I>Neuron</I>. <B>44</B> (1): 5–21. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neuron.2004.09.012">10.1016/j.neuron.2004.09.012</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15450156">15450156</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neuron&rft.atitle=LTP+and+LTD%3A+an+embarrassment+of+riches&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=5-21&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.neuron.2004.09.012&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15450156&rft.aulast=Malenka&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Bear%2C+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-AirpollutionPhysicalactivity-101"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-AirpollutionPhysicalactivity_101-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-AirpollutionPhysicalactivity_101-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Bos, I; De Boever, P; Int Panis, L; Meeusen, R (August 2014). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264793941_Physical_Activity_Air_Pollution_and_the_Brain">"Physical Activity, Air Pollution and the Brain"</A>. <I>Sports Medicine</I>. <B>44</B>: 1505–1518. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1007%2Fs40279-014-0222-6">10.1007/s40279-014-0222-6</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25119155">25119155</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sports+Medicine&rft.atitle=Physical+Activity%2C+Air+Pollution+and+the+Brain&rft.volume=44&rft.pages=1505-1518&rft.date=2014-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs40279-014-0222-6&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25119155&rft.aulast=Bos&rft.aufirst=I&rft.au=De+Boever%2C+P&rft.au=Int+Panis%2C+L&rft.au=Meeusen%2C+R&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F264793941_Physical_Activity_Air_Pollution_and_the_Brain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-102"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-102"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Curtis, CE; D'Esposito, M (2003). "Persistent activity in the prefrontal cortex during working memory". <I>Trends in Cognitive Sciences</I>. <B>7</B> (9): 415–423. <A href="/wiki/CiteSeerX" title="CiteSeerX">CiteSeerX</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.457.9723">10.1.1.457.9723</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2FS1364-6613%2803%2900197-9">10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00197-9</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12963473">12963473</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Cognitive+Sciences&rft.atitle=Persistent+activity+in+the+prefrontal+cortex+during+working+memory&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=415-423&rft.date=2003&rft_id=%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.457.9723&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12963473&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS1364-6613%2803%2900197-9&rft.aulast=Curtis&rft.aufirst=CE&rft.au=D%27Esposito%2C+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-103"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-103"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Tulving, E; Markowitsch, HJ (1998). "Episodic and declarative memory: role of the hippocampus". <I>Hippocampus</I>. <B>8</B> (3): 198–204. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1002%2F%28SICI%291098-1063%281998%298%3A3%3C198%3A%3AAID-HIPO2%3E3.0.CO%3B2-G">10.1002/(SICI)1098-1063(1998)8:3<198::AID-HIPO2>3.0.CO;2-G</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9662134">9662134</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hippocampus&rft.atitle=Episodic+and+declarative+memory%3A+role+of+the+hippocampus&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=198-204&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F%28SICI%291098-1063%281998%298%3A3%3C198%3A%3AAID-HIPO2%3E3.0.CO%3B2-G&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9662134&rft.aulast=Tulving&rft.aufirst=E&rft.au=Markowitsch%2C+HJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-104"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-104"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Martin, A; Chao, LL (2001). "Semantic memory and the brain: structures and processes". <I>Current Opinion in Neurobiology</I>. <B>11</B> (2): 194–201. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2FS0959-4388%2800%2900196-3">10.1016/S0959-4388(00)00196-3</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11301239">11301239</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Opinion+in+Neurobiology&rft.atitle=Semantic+memory+and+the+brain%3A+structures+and+processes&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=194-201&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0959-4388%2800%2900196-3&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11301239&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Chao%2C+LL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-105"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-105"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Balleine, BW; Liljeholm, Mimi; Ostlund, SB (2009). "The integrative function of the basal ganglia in instrumental learning". <I>Behavioral Brain Research</I>. <B>199</B> (1): 43–52. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.bbr.2008.10.034">10.1016/j.bbr.2008.10.034</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19027797">19027797</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Behavioral+Brain+Research&rft.atitle=The+integrative+function+of+the+basal+ganglia+in+instrumental+learning&rft.volume=199&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=43-52&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.bbr.2008.10.034&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19027797&rft.aulast=Balleine&rft.aufirst=BW&rft.au=Liljeholm%2C+Mimi&rft.au=Ostlund%2C+SB&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-106"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-106"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Doya, K (2000). "Complementary roles of basal ganglia and cerebellum in learning and motor control". <I>Current Opinion in Neurobiology</I>. <B>10</B> (6): 732–739. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2FS0959-4388%2800%2900153-7">10.1016/S0959-4388(00)00153-7</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11240282">11240282</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Opinion+in+Neurobiology&rft.atitle=Complementary+roles+of+basal+ganglia+and+cerebellum+in+learning+and+motor+control&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=732-739&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0959-4388%2800%2900153-7&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11240282&rft.aulast=Doya&rft.aufirst=K&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Starrow_1969-107"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Starrow_1969_107-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Storrow, Hugh A. (1969). <I>Outline of clinical psychiatry</I>. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Educational Division. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-390-85075-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-390-85075-1">978-0-390-85075-1</A>. <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/47198">47198</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Outline+of+clinical+psychiatry&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Appleton-Century-Crofts%2C+Educational+Division&rft.date=1969&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F47198&rft.isbn=978-0-390-85075-1&rft.aulast=Storrow&rft.aufirst=Hugh+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-108"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-108"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Thagard, P (2008). Zalta, EN, ed. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2008/entries/cognitive-science/">"Cognitive Science"</A>. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2011-10-14</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cognitive+Science&rft.pub=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Thagard&rft.aufirst=P&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Ffall2008%2Fentries%2Fcognitive-science%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-109"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-109"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Bear, MF; Connors, BW; Paradiso, MA (2007). "Ch. 2". <I>Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain</I>. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7817-6003-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7817-6003-4">978-0-7817-6003-4</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ch.+2&rft.btitle=Neuroscience%3A+Exploring+the+Brain&rft.pub=Lippincott+Williams+%26+Wilkins&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7817-6003-4&rft.aulast=Bear&rft.aufirst=MF&rft.au=Connors%2C+BW&rft.au=Paradiso%2C+MA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-110"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-110"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Dowling, JE (2001). <I>Neurons and Networks</I>. Harvard University Press. pp. 15–24. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-00462-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-00462-7">978-0-674-00462-7</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neurons+and+Networks&rft.pages=15-24&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-674-00462-7&rft.aulast=Dowling&rft.aufirst=JE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-111"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-111"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Wyllie, E; Gupta, A; Lachhwani, DK (2005). "Ch. 77". <I>The Treatment of Epilepsy: Principles and Practice</I>. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7817-4995-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7817-4995-4">978-0-7817-4995-4</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ch.+77&rft.btitle=The+Treatment+of+Epilepsy%3A+Principles+and+Practice&rft.pub=Lippincott+Williams+%26+Wilkins&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7817-4995-4&rft.aulast=Wyllie&rft.aufirst=E&rft.au=Gupta%2C+A&rft.au=Lachhwani%2C+DK&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-112"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-112"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Laureys, S; Boly, M; Tononi, G (2009). "Functional neuroimaging". In Laureys S, Tononi G. <I>The Neurology of Consciousness: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuropathology</I>. Academic Press. pp. 31–42. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-374168-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-374168-4">978-0-12-374168-4</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Functional+neuroimaging&rft.btitle=The+Neurology+of+Consciousness%3A+Cognitive+Neuroscience+and+Neuropathology&rft.pages=31-42&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-12-374168-4&rft.aulast=Laureys&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Boly%2C+M&rft.au=Tononi%2C+G&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN><SPAN class="citation-comment" style="display:none; color:#33aa33; margin-left:0.3em">CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (<A href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_Uses_editors_parameter" title="Category:CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter">link</A>)</SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-113"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-113"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Carmena, JM; et al. (2003). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC261882">"Learning to Control a Brain–Machine Interface for Reaching and Grasping by Primates"</A>. <I>PLoS Biology</I>. <B>1</B> (2): 193–208. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0000042">10.1371/journal.pbio.0000042</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC261882">261882</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14624244">14624244</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLoS+Biology&rft.atitle=Learning+to+Control+a+Brain%E2%80%93Machine+Interface+for+Reaching+and+Grasping+by+Primates&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=193-208&rft.date=2003&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC261882&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14624244&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0000042&rft.aulast=Carmena&rft.aufirst=JM&rft.au=Lebedev%2C+Mikhail+A.&rft.au=Crist%2C+Roy+E.&rft.au=O%27Doherty%2C+Joseph+E.&rft.au=Santucci%2C+David+M.&rft.au=Dimitrov%2C+Dragan+F.&rft.au=Patil%2C+Parag+G.&rft.au=Henriquez%2C+Craig+S.&rft.au=Nicolelis%2C+Miguel+A.+L.&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC261882&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-114"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-114"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Kolb, B; Whishaw, I (2008). "Ch. 1". <I>Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology</I>. Macmillan. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-9586-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-9586-5">978-0-7167-9586-5</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ch.+1&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Human+Neuropsychology&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-9586-5&rft.aulast=Kolb&rft.aufirst=B&rft.au=Whishaw%2C+I&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Abbott-115"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Abbott_115-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Abbott, LF; Dayan, P (2001). "Preface". <I>Theoretical Neuroscience: Computational and Mathematical Modeling of Neural Systems</I>. MIT Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-54185-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-54185-5">978-0-262-54185-5</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Preface&rft.btitle=Theoretical+Neuroscience%3A+Computational+and+Mathematical+Modeling+of+Neural+Systems&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-262-54185-5&rft.aulast=Abbott&rft.aufirst=LF&rft.au=Dayan%2C+P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Tonegawa-116"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Tonegawa_116-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Tonegawa_116-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Tonegawa_116-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Tonegawa, S; Nakazawa, K; Wilson, MA (2003). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1693163">"Genetic neuroscience of mammalian learning and memory"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/Philosophical_Transactions_of_the_Royal_Society_B" title="Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B</A></I>. <B>358</B> (1432): 787–795. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2002.1243">10.1098/rstb.2002.1243</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1693163">1693163</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12740125">12740125</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+B&rft.atitle=Genetic+neuroscience+of+mammalian+learning+and+memory&rft.volume=358&rft.issue=1432&rft.pages=787-795&rft.date=2003&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1693163&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12740125&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.2002.1243&rft.aulast=Tonegawa&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Nakazawa%2C+K&rft.au=Wilson%2C+MA&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1693163&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-117"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-117"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Bower, Bruce (12 January 2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencenews.org/article/armenian-cave-yields-ancient-human-brain">"Armenian cave yields ancient human brain"</A>. ScienceNews.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Armenian+cave+yields+ancient+human+brain&rft.date=2009-01-12&rft.aulast=Bower&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencenews.org%2Farticle%2Farmenian-cave-yields-ancient-human-brain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Finger14-118"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Finger14_118-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Finger14_118-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Finger, S (2001). <I>Origins of Neuroscience</I>. Oxford University Press. pp. 14–15. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514694-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514694-3">978-0-19-514694-3</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Origins+of+Neuroscience&rft.pages=14-15&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-514694-3&rft.aulast=Finger&rft.aufirst=S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Hippocrates-119"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Hippocrates_119-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">*<CITE id="CITEREFHippocrates2006" class="citation">Hippocrates (2006) [400 BCE], <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070926213032/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/mirror/classics.mit.edu/Hippocrates/sacred.html"><I>On the Sacred Disease</I></A>, Translated by Francis Adams, Internet Classics Archive: The University of Adelaide Library, archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/mirror/classics.mit.edu/Hippocrates/sacred.html">the original</A> on September 26, 2007</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+the+Sacred+Disease&rft.pub=Internet+Classics+Archive%3A+The+University+of+Adelaide+Library&rft.date=2006&rft.au=Hippocrates&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fetext.library.adelaide.edu.au%2Fmirror%2Fclassics.mit.edu%2FHippocrates%2Fsacred.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-120"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-120"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Finger, S (2001). <I>Origins of Neuroscience</I>. Oxford University Press. pp. 193–195. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514694-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514694-3">978-0-19-514694-3</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Origins+of+Neuroscience&rft.pages=193-195&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-514694-3&rft.aulast=Finger&rft.aufirst=S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-121"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-121"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Bloom, FE (1975). Schmidt FO, Worden FG, Swazey JP, Adelman G, eds. <I>The Neurosciences, Paths of Discovery</I>. MIT Press. p. 211. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-23072-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-23072-8">978-0-262-23072-8</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Neurosciences%2C+Paths+of+Discovery&rft.pages=211&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-262-23072-8&rft.aulast=Bloom&rft.aufirst=FE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN><SPAN class="citation-comment" style="display:none; color:#33aa33; margin-left:0.3em">CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (<A href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_Uses_editors_parameter" title="Category:CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter">link</A>)</SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-122"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-122"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Shepherd, GM (1991). "Ch.1 : Introduction and Overview". <I>Foundations of the Neuron Doctrine</I>. Oxford University Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-506491-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-506491-9">978-0-19-506491-9</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ch.1+%3A+Introduction+and+Overview&rft.btitle=Foundations+of+the+Neuron+Doctrine&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-19-506491-9&rft.aulast=Shepherd&rft.aufirst=GM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-123"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-123"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Piccolino, M (2002). "Fifty years of the Hodgkin-Huxley era". <I>Trends in Neurosciences</I>. <B>25</B> (11): 552–553. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2FS0166-2236%2802%2902276-2">10.1016/S0166-2236(02)02276-2</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12392928">12392928</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Neurosciences&rft.atitle=Fifty+years+of+the+Hodgkin-Huxley+era&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=552-553&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0166-2236%2802%2902276-2&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12392928&rft.aulast=Piccolino&rft.aufirst=M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-124"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-124"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Sherrington, CS (1942). <I>Man on his nature</I>. Cambridge University Press. p. 178. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8385-7701-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8385-7701-1">978-0-8385-7701-1</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Man+on+his+nature&rft.pages=178&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1942&rft.isbn=978-0-8385-7701-1&rft.aulast=Sherrington&rft.aufirst=CS&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-CKS1993-125"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-CKS1993_125-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-CKS1993_125-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-CKS1993_125-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Churchland, PS; Koch, C; Sejnowski, TJ (1993). "What is computational neuroscience?". In Schwartz EL. <I>Computational Neuroscience</I>. MIT Press. pp. 46–55. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-69164-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-69164-2">978-0-262-69164-2</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=What+is+computational+neuroscience%3F&rft.btitle=Computational+Neuroscience&rft.pages=46-55&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-262-69164-2&rft.aulast=Churchland&rft.aufirst=PS&rft.au=Koch%2C+C&rft.au=Sejnowski%2C+TJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-126"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-126"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">von Neumann, J; Churchland, PM; Churchland, PS (2000). <I>The Computer and the Brain</I>. Yale University Press. pp. xi–xxii. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-08473-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-08473-3">978-0-300-08473-3</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Computer+and+the+Brain&rft.pages=xi-xxii&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-300-08473-3&rft.aulast=von+Neumann&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Churchland%2C+PM&rft.au=Churchland%2C+PS&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-127"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-127"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Lettvin, JY; Maturana, HR; McCulloch, WS; Pitts, WH (1959). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110928024235/http://jerome.lettvin.info/lettvin/Jerome/WhatTheFrogsEyeTellsTheFrogsBrain.pdf">"What the frog's eye tells the frog's brain"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers</I>. <B>47</B>: 1940–1951. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1109%2Fjrproc.1959.287207">10.1109/jrproc.1959.287207</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jerome.lettvin.info/lettvin/Jerome/WhatTheFrogsEyeTellsTheFrogsBrain.pdf">the original</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(pdf)</SPAN> on 2011-09-28.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Institute+of+Radio+Engineers&rft.atitle=What+the+frog%27s+eye+tells+the+frog%27s+brain&rft.volume=47&rft.pages=1940-1951&rft.date=1959&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2Fjrproc.1959.287207&rft.aulast=Lettvin&rft.aufirst=JY&rft.au=Maturana%2C+HR&rft.au=McCulloch%2C+WS&rft.au=Pitts%2C+WH&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjerome.lettvin.info%2Flettvin%2FJerome%2FWhatTheFrogsEyeTellsTheFrogsBrain.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-128"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-128"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Hubel, DH; Wiesel, TN (2005). <I>Brain and visual perception: the story of a 25-year collaboration</I>. Oxford University Press US. pp. 657–704. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517618-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517618-6">978-0-19-517618-6</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brain+and+visual+perception%3A+the+story+of+a+25-year+collaboration&rft.pages=657-704&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press+US&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-517618-6&rft.aulast=Hubel&rft.aufirst=DH&rft.au=Wiesel%2C+TN&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-129"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-129"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Farah, MJ (2000). <I>The Cognitive Neuroscience of Vision</I>. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 1–29. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-21403-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-21403-8">978-0-631-21403-8</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cognitive+Neuroscience+of+Vision&rft.pages=1-29&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-631-21403-8&rft.aulast=Farah&rft.aufirst=MJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-130"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-130"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Engel, AK; Singer, W (2001). "Temporal binding and the neural correlates of sensory awareness". <I>Trends in Cognitive Sciences</I>. <B>5</B> (1): 16–25. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2FS1364-6613%2800%2901568-0">10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01568-0</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11164732">11164732</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Cognitive+Sciences&rft.atitle=Temporal+binding+and+the+neural+correlates+of+sensory+awareness&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=16-25&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS1364-6613%2800%2901568-0&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11164732&rft.aulast=Engel&rft.aufirst=AK&rft.au=Singer%2C+W&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-131"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-131"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Dayan, P; Abbott, LF (2005). "Ch.7: Network models". <I>Theoretical Neuroscience</I>. MIT Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-54185-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-54185-5">978-0-262-54185-5</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ch.7%3A+Network+models&rft.btitle=Theoretical+Neuroscience&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-262-54185-5&rft.aulast=Dayan&rft.aufirst=P&rft.au=Abbott%2C+LF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-132"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-132"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Averbeck, BB; Lee, D (2004). "Coding and transmission of information by neural ensembles". <I>Trends in Neurosciences</I>. <B>27</B> (4): 225–230. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tins.2004.02.006">10.1016/j.tins.2004.02.006</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15046882">15046882</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Neurosciences&rft.atitle=Coding+and+transmission+of+information+by+neural+ensembles&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=225-230&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tins.2004.02.006&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15046882&rft.aulast=Averbeck&rft.aufirst=BB&rft.au=Lee%2C+D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-133"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-133"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Forrest, MD (2014). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journal.frontiersin.org/Journal/10.3389/fncom.2014.00086/full">"Intracellular Calcium Dynamics Permit a Purkinje Neuron Model to Perform Toggle and Gain Computations Upon its Inputs"</A>. <I>Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience</I>. <B>8</B>: 86. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.3389%2Ffncom.2014.00086">10.3389/fncom.2014.00086</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4138505">4138505</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25191262">25191262</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Computational+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Intracellular+Calcium+Dynamics+Permit+a+Purkinje+Neuron+Model+to+Perform+Toggle+and+Gain+Computations+Upon+its+Inputs.&rft.volume=8&rft.pages=86&rft.date=2014&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4138505&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25191262&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffncom.2014.00086&rft.au=Forrest%2C+MD&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournal.frontiersin.org%2FJournal%2F10.3389%2Ffncom.2014.00086%2Ffull&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-134"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-134"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal"><A href="/wiki/Edward_G._Jones" title="Edward G. Jones">Jones, EG</A>; Mendell, LM (1999). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/284/5415/739">"Assessing the Decade of the Brain"</A>. <I>Science</I>. <B>284</B> (5415): 739. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999Sci...284..739J">1999Sci...284..739J</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.284.5415.739">10.1126/science.284.5415.739</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10336393">10336393</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Assessing+the+Decade+of+the+Brain&rft.volume=284&rft.issue=5415&rft.pages=739&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10336393&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.284.5415.739&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999Sci...284..739J&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=EG&rft.au=Mendell%2C+LM&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencemag.org%2Fcgi%2Fcontent%2Fsummary%2F284%2F5415%2F739&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-135"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-135"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Buzsáki, G (2004). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060910225619/http://osiris.rutgers.edu/BuzsakiHP/Publications/PDFs/Buzsaki2004NatNeurosci.pdf">"Large-scale recording of neuronal ensembles"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>Nature Neuroscience</I>. <B>7</B> (5): 446–451. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2Fnn1233">10.1038/nn1233</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15114356">15114356</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://osiris.rutgers.edu/BuzsakiHP/Publications/PDFs/Buzsaki2004NatNeurosci.pdf">the original</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN> on 2006-09-10.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Large-scale+recording+of+neuronal+ensembles&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=446-451&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnn1233&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15114356&rft.aulast=Buzs%C3%A1ki&rft.aufirst=G&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fosiris.rutgers.edu%2FBuzsakiHP%2FPublications%2FPDFs%2FBuzsaki2004NatNeurosci.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-136"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-136"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Geschwind, DH; Konopka, G (2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3645852">"Neuroscience in the era of functional genomics and systems biology"</A>. <I>Nature</I>. <B>461</B> (7266): 908–915. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009Natur.461..908G">2009Natur.461..908G</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature08537">10.1038/nature08537</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3645852">3645852</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19829370">19829370</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Neuroscience+in+the+era+of+functional+genomics+and+systems+biology&rft.volume=461&rft.issue=7266&rft.pages=908-915&rft.date=2009&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3645852&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19829370&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature08537&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009Natur.461..908G&rft.aulast=Geschwind&rft.aufirst=DH&rft.au=Konopka%2C+G&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3645852&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-137"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-137"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Connell, Evan S. (2001). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://search.barnesandnoble.com/booksearch/isbninquiry.asp?ean=9781582432533&displayonly=CHP"><I>The Aztec Treasure House</I></A>. Counterpoint Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58243-162-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-58243-162-0">1-58243-162-0</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Aztec+Treasure+House&rft.pub=Counterpoint+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=1-58243-162-0&rft.aulast=Connell&rft.aufirst=Evan+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsearch.barnesandnoble.com%2Fbooksearch%2Fisbninquiry.asp%3Fean%3D9781582432533%26displayonly%3DCHP&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-138"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-138"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Collins, S; McLean CA; Masters CL (2001). "Gerstmann-Straussler-Scheinker syndrome, fatal familial insomnia, and kuru: a review of these less common human transmissible spongiform encephalopathies". <I>Journal of Clinical Neuroscience</I>. <B>8</B> (5): 387–97. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1054%2Fjocn.2001.0919">10.1054/jocn.2001.0919</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11535002">11535002</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Clinical+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Gerstmann-Straussler-Scheinker+syndrome%2C+fatal+familial+insomnia%2C+and+kuru%3A+a+review+of+these+less+common+human+transmissible+spongiform+encephalopathies&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=387-97&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1054%2Fjocn.2001.0919&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11535002&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=McLean+CA&rft.au=Masters+CL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-139"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-139"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.braintan.com/articles/history/history.html">"The History of Brain Tan: page 1"</A>. Braintan.com<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2013-12-07</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Brain+Tan%3A+page+1&rft.pub=Braintan.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.braintan.com%2Farticles%2Fhistory%2Fhistory.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-140"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-140"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Mammals (2008-08-26). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.is/20130629023827/http://animal.discovery.com/mammals/deer-tan-own-hide1.htm">"Brain Tanning: Animal Planet"</A>. Animal.discovery.com. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://animal.discovery.com/mammals/deer-tan-own-hide1.htm">the original</A> on 2013-06-29<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2013-12-07</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Brain+Tanning%3A+Animal+Planet&rft.pub=Animal.discovery.com&rft.date=2008-08-26&rft.au=Mammals&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fanimal.discovery.com%2Fmammals%2Fdeer-tan-own-hide1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-141"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-141"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tn.gov/twra/pdfs/tanninghides.pdf">"Tanning Deer Hides and Small Fur Skins"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. The Official Site of the Tennessee Government<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2013-12-07</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tanning+Deer+Hides+and+Small+Fur+Skins&rft.pub=The+Official+Site+of+the+Tennessee+Government&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tn.gov%2Ftwra%2Fpdfs%2Ftanninghides.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
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					<LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af" style="display: none;"><A href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brein" title="Brein – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als" style="display: none;"><A href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gehirn" title="Gehirn – Alemannisch" lang="als" hreflang="als" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am" style="display: none;"><A href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%A0%E1%8A%95%E1%8C%8E%E1%88%8D" title="አንጎል – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Br%C3%A6gen" title="Brægen – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar"><A href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%BA" title="دماغ – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an" style="display: none;"><A href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebro" title="Cerebro – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc" style="display: none;"><A href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%A1%DC%98%DC%9A%DC%90" title="ܡܘܚܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" class="interlanguage-link-target">ܐܪܡܝܐ</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as" style="display: none;"><A href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95" title="মস্তিষ্ক – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebru" title="Cerebru – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-atj" style="display: none;"><A href="https://atj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wirtip" title="Wirtip – Atikamekw" lang="atj" hreflang="atj" class="interlanguage-link-target">Atikamekw</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av" style="display: none;"><A href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D3%80%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%85" title="ГӀадалнах – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lixwi" title="Lixwi – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aymar aru</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az" style="display: none;"><A href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyin" title="Beyin – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bm" style="display: none;"><A href="https://bm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunkolos%C9%9Bm%C9%9B" title="Kunkolosɛmɛ – Bambara" lang="bm" hreflang="bm" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bamanankan</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn" style="display: none;"><A href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95" title="মস্তিষ্ক – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan" style="display: none;"><A href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A1u" title="Náu – Chinese (Min Nan)" lang="zh-min-nan" hreflang="zh-min-nan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bân-lâm-gú</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%88_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%B5%D2%BB%D0%B5" title="Баш мейеһе – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be" style="display: none;"><A href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%9E%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B3" title="Галаўны мозг – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old" style="display: none;"><A href="https://be-x-old.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%9E%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B3" title="Галаўны мозаг – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-x-old" hreflang="be-x-old" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bi" style="display: none;"><A href="https://bi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bren" title="Bren – Bislama" lang="bi" hreflang="bi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bislama</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg" style="display: none;"><A href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BA" title="Главен мозък – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs" style="display: none;"><A href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozak" title="Mozak – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br" style="display: none;"><A href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empenn" title="Empenn – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr" style="display: none;"><A href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B8" title="Тархи – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervell" title="Cervell – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle" title="good article"><A href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozek" title="Mozek – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn" style="display: none;"><A href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huropi" title="Huropi – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy" style="display: none;"><A href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ymennydd" title="Ymennydd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da" style="display: none;"><A href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hjerne" title="Hjerne – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se" style="display: none;"><A href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vuoig%C5%8Ba%C5%A1at" title="Vuoigŋašat – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" class="interlanguage-link-target">Davvisámegiella</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de" style="display: none;"><A href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gehirn" title="Gehirn – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv" style="display: none;"><A href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%90%DE%A8%DE%86%DE%AA%DE%82%DE%91%DE%A8" title="ސިކުނޑި – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" class="interlanguage-link-target">ދިވެހިބަސް</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb" style="display: none;"><A href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%B3rzgi" title="Mórzgi – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dolnoserbski</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et" style="display: none;"><A href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peaaju" title="Peaaju – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es"><A href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebro" title="Cerebro – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo" style="display: none;"><A href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerbo" title="Cerbo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu" style="display: none;"><A href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garun" title="Garun – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa" style="display: none;"><A href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%B2" title="مغز – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr" style="display: none;"><A href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerveau" title="Cerveau – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy" style="display: none;"><A href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harsens" title="Harsens – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inchinn" title="Inchinn – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl" style="display: none;"><A href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebro" title="Cerebro – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu" style="display: none;"><A href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%AE%E0%AA%97%E0%AA%9C" title="મગજ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak" style="display: none;"><A href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A8u-n%C3%B3" title="Thèu-nó – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%87%8C" title="뇌 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle" title="good article"><A href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%AC%D5%AD%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B2%D5%A5%D5%B2" title="Գլխուղեղ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi"><A href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95" title="मस्तिष्क – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb" style="display: none;"><A href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozy" title="Mozy – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr" style="display: none;"><A href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozak" title="Mozak – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io" style="display: none;"><A href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebro" title="Cerebro – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utek" title="Utek – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id"><A href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otak" title="Otak – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebro" title="Cerebro – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ik" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ik.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qaqisaq" title="Qaqisaq – Inupiaq" lang="ik" hreflang="ik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Iñupiak</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is" style="display: none;"><A href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heili" title="Heili – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it" style="display: none;"><A href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervello" title="Cervello – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he" style="display: none;"><A href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%97" title="מוח – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv" style="display: none;"><A href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utek" title="Utek – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Jawa</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn" style="display: none;"><A href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%B3%E0%B3%81" title="ಮೆದುಳು – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam" style="display: none;"><A href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utak" title="Utak – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%97%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A2%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="თავის ტვინი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk" style="display: none;"><A href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8" title="Ми – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw" style="display: none;"><A href="https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubwonko" title="Ubwonko – Kinyarwanda" lang="rw" hreflang="rw" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kinyarwanda</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw" style="display: none;"><A href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubongo" title="Ubongo – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A8vo" title="Sèvo – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%88_%D0%BC%D1%8D%D1%8D_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Баш мээ нервдери – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lbe" style="display: none;"><A href="https://lbe.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%8F" title="Ня – Lak" lang="lbe" hreflang="lbe" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лакку</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez" style="display: none;"><A href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%8C%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%84%D1%82%D3%80" title="Кьилин мефтӀ – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la" style="display: none;"><A href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebrum" title="Cerebrum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv" style="display: none;"><A href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smadzenes" title="Smadzenes – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb" style="display: none;"><A href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gehir" title="Gehir – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt" style="display: none;"><A href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galvos_smegenys" title="Galvos smegenys – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li" style="display: none;"><A href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herre" title="Herre – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C9%94ng%C9%94%CC%81_(enama)" title="Bɔngɔ́ (enama) – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingála</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo" style="display: none;"><A href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/besna" title="besna – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu" style="display: none;"><A href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agy" title="Agy – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk" style="display: none;"><A href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%BA" title="Мозок – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B7%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%82" title="മസ്തിഷ്കം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr" style="display: none;"><A href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%82" title="मेंदू – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf" style="display: none;"><A href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%93%E1%83%A3%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%A2%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="დუდიშ ტვინი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otak" title="Otak – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn" style="display: none;"><A href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B8" title="Тархи – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my" style="display: none;"><A href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A6%E1%80%B8%E1%80%94%E1%80%BE%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA" title="ဦးနှောက် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah" style="display: none;"><A href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cu%C4%81y%C5%8Dll%C5%8Dtl" title="Cuāyōllōtl – Nāhuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nāhuatl</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl" style="display: none;"><A href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hersenen" title="Hersenen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95" title="मस्तिष्क – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new" style="display: none;"><A href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81" title="न्हेपु – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%84%B3" title="脳 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%8C%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D1%85%D1%8C%D0%B5" title="Коьртан хье – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no" style="display: none;"><A href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hjerne" title="Hjerne – Norwegian" lang="no" hreflang="no" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn" style="display: none;"><A href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hjerne" title="Hjerne – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm" style="display: none;"><A href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%A8rv%C3%A9" title="Chèrvé – Norman" lang="nrm" hreflang="nrm" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc" style="display: none;"><A href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerv%C3%A8l" title="Cervèl – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr" style="display: none;"><A href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%83%D0%B9%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Вуйдорык – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Олык марий</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or" style="display: none;"><A href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AE%E0%AC%B8%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%A4%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%B7%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%95" title="ମସ୍ତିଷ୍କ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz" style="display: none;"><A href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosh_miya" title="Bosh miya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa" style="display: none;"><A href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BC" title="ਦਿਮਾਗ਼ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pag" style="display: none;"><A href="https://pag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utek" title="Utek – Pangasinan" lang="pag" hreflang="pag" class="interlanguage-link-target">Pangasinan</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb" style="display: none;"><A href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%BA" title="دماغ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%BA%D8%B2%D9%87" title="ماغزه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam" style="display: none;"><A href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brien" title="Brien – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds" style="display: none;"><A href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bregen" title="Bregen – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl" style="display: none;"><A href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%B3zg" title="Mózg – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt" style="display: none;"><A href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A9rebro" title="Cérebro – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creier" title="Creier – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu" style="display: none;"><A href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%91utqu" title="Ñutqu – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue" style="display: none;"><A href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D2%91" title="Мозоґ – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru"><A href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B3" title="Головной мозг – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah" style="display: none;"><A href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%8D%D0%B9%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="Мэйии – Sakha" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa" style="display: none;"><A href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="मस्तिष्कम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco" style="display: none;"><A href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harn" title="Harn – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq" style="display: none;"><A href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brainge" title="Brainge – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq" style="display: none;"><A href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truri" title="Truri – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn" style="display: none;"><A href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciriveddu" title="Ciriveddu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple" style="display: none;"><A href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain" title="Brain – Simple English" lang="simple" hreflang="simple" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd" style="display: none;"><A href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%BA" title="دماغ – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk" style="display: none;"><A href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozog" title="Mozog – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl" style="display: none;"><A href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mo%C5%BEgani" title="Možgani – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so" style="display: none;"><A href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maskax" title="Maskax – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8E%D8%B4%DA%A9" title="مێشک – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr" style="display: none;"><A href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BA" title="Мозак – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh" style="display: none;"><A href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozak" title="Mozak – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su" style="display: none;"><A href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uteuk" title="Uteuk – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Sunda</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi" style="display: none;"><A href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aivot" title="Aivot – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv" style="display: none;"><A href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hj%C3%A4rna" title="Hjärna – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl" style="display: none;"><A href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utak" title="Utak – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A4_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%88" title="மனித மூளை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt" style="display: none;"><A href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%88_%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Баш мие – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча/tatarça</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te" style="display: none;"><A href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%A6%E0%B0%A1%E0%B1%81" title="మెదడు – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th" style="display: none;"><A href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87" title="สมอง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg" style="display: none;"><A href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D2%93%D0%B7%D0%B8_%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Мағзи сар – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr" style="display: none;"><A href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyin" title="Beyin – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk" style="display: none;"><A href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%BA" title="Головний мозок – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur"><A href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%BA" title="دماغ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec" style="display: none;"><A href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serve%C5%82o" title="Serveło – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi" style="display: none;"><A href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A3o" title="Não – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro" style="display: none;"><A href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ai" title="Ai – Võro" lang="fiu-vro" hreflang="fiu-vro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa" style="display: none;"><A href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervea" title="Cervea – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical" style="display: none;"><A href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%85%A6" title="腦 – Classical Chinese" lang="zh-classical" hreflang="zh-classical" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war" style="display: none;"><A href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utok" title="Utok – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi" style="display: none;"><A href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%97" title="מוח – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue" style="display: none;"><A href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%85%A6" title="腦 – Cantonese" lang="zh-yue" hreflang="zh-yue" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq" style="display: none;"><A href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezg" title="Mezg – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh"><A href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%84%91" title="脑 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp" style="display: none;"><A href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C9%A9t%C9%A9y%C9%A9m" title="Fɩtɩyɩm – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</A></LI>				<BUTTON class="mw-interlanguage-selector mw-ui-button" title="All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)">136 more</BUTTON></UL>
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document_title: Brain

token: Brain

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token: Jump

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token: This

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token: is

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token: brains

token: of

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token: types

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token: including

token: humans

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token: information

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token: edit

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token: organ

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token: center

token: nervous

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token: vertebrate

token: српскохрватски

question_text: where does the brain get its energy from