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<H1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Retina</H1>			<DIV id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content">
				<DIV id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</DIV>				<DIV id="contentSub"></DIV>
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				<DIV id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><DIV class="mw-parser-output"><DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <A href="/wiki/Retina_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Retina (disambiguation)">Retina (disambiguation)</A>.</DIV>
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<DIV style="width:52px"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" width="40" height="40" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></DIV>
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<DIV class="mbox-text-span">This article <B>needs attention from an expert in medicine</B>. <SPAN class="hide-when-compact">Please add a <I>reason</I> or a <I>talk</I> parameter to this template to explain the issue with the article. <A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Medicine" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Medicine">WikiProject Medicine</A> may be able to help recruit an expert.</SPAN></DIV>
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<TH colspan="2" style="text-align:center;font-size:125%;font-weight:bold;background-color:dimgray; color: white"><I>Retina</I></TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center"><A href="/wiki/File:Human_eye_cross-sectional_view_grayscale.png" class="image"><IMG alt="Human eye cross-sectional view grayscale.png" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Human_eye_cross-sectional_view_grayscale.png/250px-Human_eye_cross-sectional_view_grayscale.png" width="250" height="179" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Human_eye_cross-sectional_view_grayscale.png 1.5x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="250" /></A>
<DIV>Right <A href="/wiki/Human_eye" title="Human eye">human eye</A> cross-sectional view; eyes vary significantly among animals.</DIV>
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<TR>
<TH colspan="2" style="text-align:center;background-color: #efefef">Details</TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em">Pronunciation</TH>
<TD><SPAN class="nowrap"><SMALL><A href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">UK</A>:</SMALL> <SPAN class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt"><A href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<SPAN style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><SPAN title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</SPAN><SPAN title="'r' in 'rye'">r</SPAN><SPAN title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</SPAN><SPAN title="'t' in 'tie'">t</SPAN><SPAN title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</SPAN><SPAN title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</SPAN><SPAN title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</SPAN></SPAN>/</A></SPAN></SPAN> <A href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><I title="English pronunciation respelling"><SPAN style="font-size:90%">RET</SPAN>-i-nə</I></A>,<BR />
<SPAN class="nowrap"><SMALL><A href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">US</A>:</SMALL> <SPAN class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt"><A href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<SPAN style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><SPAN title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</SPAN><SPAN title="'r' in 'rye'">r</SPAN><SPAN title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</SPAN><SPAN title="'t' in 'tie'">t</SPAN></SPAN>(<SPAN style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><SPAN title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</SPAN></SPAN>)<SPAN style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><SPAN title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</SPAN><SPAN title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</SPAN></SPAN>/</A></SPAN></SPAN> <A href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><I title="English pronunciation respelling"><SPAN style="font-size:90%">RET</SPAN>-(i-)nə</I></A>,<BR />
<A href="/wiki/Plural" title="Plural">pl.</A> retinae, <SPAN class="nowrap"><SPAN class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt"><A href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/-<SPAN style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><SPAN title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</SPAN><SPAN title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</SPAN></SPAN>/</A></SPAN></SPAN> <A href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><I title="English pronunciation respelling">-nee</I></A></TD>
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<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em">Part of</TH>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Eye" title="Eye">Eye</A></TD>
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<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em"><A href="/wiki/Organ_system" title="Organ system">System</A></TH>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Visual_system" title="Visual system">Visual system</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em"><A href="/wiki/Artery" title="Artery">Artery</A></TH>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Central_retinal_artery" title="Central retinal artery">Central retinal artery</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH colspan="2" style="text-align:center;background-color: #efefef">Identifiers</TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em"><A href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</A></TH>
<TD><I>Rēte</I></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em"><A href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</A></TH>
<TD><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012160">D012160</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em"><A href="/wiki/Terminologia_Anatomica" title="Terminologia Anatomica">TA</A></TH>
<TD><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unifr.ch/ifaa/Public/EntryPage/TA98%20Tree/Entity%20TA98%20EN/15.2.04.002%20Entity%20TA98%20EN.htm">A15.2.04.002</A></TD>
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<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em"><A href="/wiki/Foundational_Model_of_Anatomy" title="Foundational Model of Anatomy">FMA</A></TH>
<TD><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bioportal.bioontology.org/ontologies/FMA/?p=classes&conceptid=http%3A%2F%2Fpurl.org%2Fsig%2Font%2Ffma%2Ffma58301">58301</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center"><B><I><A href="/wiki/Anatomical_terminology" title="Anatomical terminology">Anatomical terminology</A></I></B>
<DIV style="text-align: right;"><SMALL class="noprint">[<A href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q169342" class="extiw" title="d:Q169342">edit on Wikidata</A>]</SMALL></DIV>
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<P>The <B>retina</B> is the innermost, light-sensitive "coat", or layer, of shell tissue of the <A href="/wiki/Eye" title="Eye">eye</A> of most <A href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</A> and some <A href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">molluscs</A>. The optics of the eye create a focused two-dimentional image of the visual world on the retina, which translates that image into electrical neural impulses to the brain to create <A href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">visual perception</A>, the retina serving much the same function as film or a <A href="/wiki/Charge-coupled_device" title="Charge-coupled device">CCD</A> in a <A href="/wiki/Camera" title="Camera">camera</A>.</P>
<P>The retina consists of several layers of <A href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neurons</A> interconnected by <A href="/wiki/Chemical_synapse" title="Chemical synapse">synapses</A>. The neural retina refers to the three layers of neural cells (photo receptor cells, bipolar cells, and ganglion cells) within the retina, which in its entirety comprises ten distinct layers, including an outer layer of pigmented epithelial cells. The only neural cells that are directly sensitive to light are the <A href="/wiki/Photoreceptor_cell" title="Photoreceptor cell">photoreceptor cells</A>, which are of two types: <A href="/wiki/Rod_cell" title="Rod cell">rods</A> and <A href="/wiki/Cone_cell" title="Cone cell">cones</A>. Rods function mainly in dim light and provide black-and-white vision while cones are responsible for the perception of colour. A third type of photoreceptor, the <A href="/wiki/Intrinsically_photosensitive_retinal_ganglion_cells" title="Intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells">photosensitive ganglion cells</A>, is important for <A href="/wiki/Entrainment_(chronobiology)" title="Entrainment (chronobiology)">entrainment</A> and reflexive responses to the brightness of light.</P>
<P>Light striking the retina initiates a cascade of chemical and electrical events that ultimately trigger nerve impulses that are sent to various visual centres of the <A href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</A> through the fibres of the <A href="/wiki/Optic_nerve" title="Optic nerve">optic nerve</A>. Neural signals from the rods and cones undergo processing by other neurons, whose output takes the form of <A href="/wiki/Action_potential" title="Action potential">action potentials</A> in <A href="/wiki/Retinal_ganglion_cell" title="Retinal ganglion cell">retinal ganglion cells</A> whose <A href="/wiki/Axon" title="Axon">axons</A> form the optic nerve.<SUP id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-1">[1]</A></SUP> Several important features of <A href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">visual perception</A> can be traced to the retinal encoding and processing of light.</P>
<P>In vertebrate <A href="/wiki/Embryonic_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Embryonic development">embryonic development</A>, the retina and the optic nerve originate as outgrowths of the developing brain, specifically the embryonic <A href="/wiki/Diencephalon" title="Diencephalon">diencephalon</A>; thus, the retina is considered part of the <A href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</A> (CNS) and is actually brain tissue.<SUP id="cite_ref-eb_2-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-eb-2">[2]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-3">[3]</A></SUP> It is the only part of the CNS that can be visualized <A href="/wiki/Invasiveness_of_surgical_procedures#Non-invasive_procedure" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasiveness of surgical procedures">non-invasively</A>.</P>
<P></P>
<DIV id="toc" class="toc">
<DIV class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr">
<H2>Contents</H2>
<SPAN class="toctoggle"> [<A role="button" tabindex="0" class="togglelink">hide</A>] </SPAN></DIV>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><A href="#Structure"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Structure</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><A href="#Inverted_versus_non-inverted_retina"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Inverted versus non-inverted retina</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><A href="#Retinal_layers"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Retinal layers</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-4"><A href="#Layers_imagable_with_Optical_Coherence_Tomography_(OCT)"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1.2.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Layers imagable with Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT)</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><A href="#Development"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Development</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><A href="#Blood_supply"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1.4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Blood supply</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7"><A href="#Circulatory_mechanisms"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1.4.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Circulatory mechanisms</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-4 tocsection-8"><A href="#In_birds"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1.4.1.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">In birds</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><A href="#Biometric_identification_and_diagnosis_of_disease"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1.5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Biometric identification and diagnosis of disease</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><A href="#Function"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Function</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><A href="#Spatial_encoding"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Spatial encoding</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><A href="#Clinical_significance"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Clinical significance</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><A href="#Diagnosis"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Diagnosis</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><A href="#Treatment"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Treatment</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-15"><A href="#Common_treatment_modalities"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.2.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Common treatment modalities</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-16"><A href="#Uncommon_treatment_modalities"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.2.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Uncommon treatment modalities</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><A href="#Notable_researchers_and_discoveries"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Notable researchers and discoveries</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><A href="#Additional_images"><SPAN class="tocnumber">5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Additional images</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><A href="#See_also"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">See also</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><A href="#References"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">References</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><A href="#Further_reading"><SPAN class="tocnumber">8</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Further reading</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><A href="#External_links"><SPAN class="tocnumber">9</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">External links</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<P></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Structure">Structure</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Retina&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Structure">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Inverted_versus_non-inverted_retina">Inverted versus non-inverted retina</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Retina&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Inverted versus non-inverted retina">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>The vertebrate retina is <I>inverted</I> in the sense that the light sensing cells are in back of the retina, so that light has to pass through layers of neurons and capillaries before it reaches the rods and cones. In contrast, in the <A href="/wiki/Cephalopod" title="Cephalopod">cephalopod</A> retina the photoreceptors are in front, with processing neurons and capillaries behind them. Because of this, cephalopods do not have a <A href="/wiki/Blind_spot_(vision)" title="Blind spot (vision)">blind spot</A>.</P>
<P>The overlying neural fibre layer does not degrade vision in the inverted retina. The neurons are transparent and the accompanying glial cells have been shown to act as <A href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">fibre-optic</A> channels to transport photons directly to the photoreceptors.<SUP id="cite_ref-pmid17485670_4-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-pmid17485670-4">[4]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-5">[5]</A></SUP> In any case, the <A href="/wiki/Fovea_centralis" title="Fovea centralis">fovea centralis</A>, the part of the retina with the highest resolution, does not have a layer of blood vessels and nerve cells over it, so there is no possibility of image degradation here.</P>
<P>The cephalopods have a non-inverted retina which is comparable in resolving power to the eyes of many vertebrates. Squid eyes do not have an analog of the vertebrate <A href="/wiki/Retinal_pigment_epithelium" title="Retinal pigment epithelium">retinal pigment epithelium</A> (RPE). Although their photoreceptors contain a protein, retinochrome, that recycles retinal and replicates one of the functions of the vertebrate RPE, one could argue that cephalopod photoreceptors are not maintained as well as in vertebrates and that, as a result, the useful lifetime of photoreceptors in invertebrates is much shorter than in vertebrates.<SUP id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-6">[6]</A></SUP> Having easily replaced stalk-eyes (some lobsters) or retinae (some spiders, such as Deinopis<SUP id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-7">[7]</A></SUP>) rarely occurs.</P>
<P>The cephalopod retina does not originate as an outgrowth of the brain, as the vertebrate one does. It is arguable that this difference shows that vertebrate and cephalopod eyes are not <A href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">homologous</A> but have evolved separately. From an evolutionary perspective, a more complex structure such as the inverted retina can generally come about as a consequence of two alternate processes: (a) an advantageous "good" compromise between competing functional limitations, or (b) as a historical maladaptive relic of the convoluted path of organ evolution and transformation. Vision is an important adaptation in higher vertebrates.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Retinal_layers">Retinal layers</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Retina&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Retinal layers">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Gray881.png" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Gray881.png/300px-Gray881.png" width="300" height="201" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Gray881.png/450px-Gray881.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Gray881.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="335" /></A>
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Section of retina</DIV>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Retina-diagram.svg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Retina-diagram.svg/300px-Retina-diagram.svg.png" width="300" height="134" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Retina-diagram.svg/450px-Retina-diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Retina-diagram.svg/600px-Retina-diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="743" data-file-height="331" /></A>
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<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:Retina-diagram.svg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
Rods, cones and nerve layers in the retina. The front (anterior) of the eye is on the left. Light (from the left) passes through several transparent nerve layers to reach the rods and cones (far right). A chemical change in the rods and cones send a signal back to the nerves. The signal goes first to the <A href="/wiki/Retina_bipolar_cell" title="Retina bipolar cell">bipolar</A> and <A href="/wiki/Retina_horizontal_cell" title="Retina horizontal cell">horizontal cells</A> (yellow layer), then to the <A href="/wiki/Retina_amacrine_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Retina amacrine cell">amacrine cells</A> and <A href="/wiki/Retinal_ganglion_cell" title="Retinal ganglion cell">ganglion cells</A> (purple layer), then to the optic nerve fibres. The signals are processed in these layers. First, the signals start as raw outputs of points in the rod and cone cells. Then the nerve layers identify simple shapes, such as bright points surrounded by dark points, edges, and movement. (Based on a drawing by <A href="/wiki/Santiago_Ram%C3%B3n_y_Cajal" title="Santiago Ramón y Cajal">Ramón y Cajal</A>, 1911.)</DIV>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><A href="/wiki/File:ConeMosaics.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/ConeMosaics.jpg/300px-ConeMosaics.jpg" width="300" height="169" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/ConeMosaics.jpg/450px-ConeMosaics.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/ConeMosaics.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="338" /></A>
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Illustration of the distribution of cone cells in the fovea of an individual with normal color vision (left), and a color blind (protanopic) retina. Note that the center of the fovea holds very few blue-sensitive cones.</DIV>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Human_photoreceptor_distribution.svg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Human_photoreceptor_distribution.svg/300px-Human_photoreceptor_distribution.svg.png" width="300" height="300" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Human_photoreceptor_distribution.svg/450px-Human_photoreceptor_distribution.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Human_photoreceptor_distribution.svg/600px-Human_photoreceptor_distribution.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></A>
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Distribution of rods and cones along a line passing through the fovea and the blind spot of a human eye<SUP id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-8">[8]</A></SUP></DIV>
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<P>The vertebrate retina has ten distinct layers.<SUP id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-9">[9]</A></SUP> From closest to farthest from the vitreous body:</P>
<OL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Inner_limiting_membrane" title="Inner limiting membrane">Inner limiting membrane</A> – basement membrane elaborated by <A href="/wiki/Muller_glia" title="Muller glia">Müller cells</A>.</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Nerve_fiber_layer" title="Nerve fiber layer">Nerve fibre layer</A> – axons of the <A href="/wiki/Retinal_ganglion_cell" title="Retinal ganglion cell">ganglion cell</A> nuclei (note that a thin layer of Müller cell footplates exists between this layer and the inner limiting membrane).</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ganglion_cell_layer" title="Ganglion cell layer">Ganglion cell layer</A> – contains nuclei of ganglion cells, the axons of which become the optic nerve fibres for messages and some displaced <A href="/wiki/Retina_amacrine_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Retina amacrine cell">amacrine cells</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-eb_2-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-eb-2">[2]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Inner_plexiform_layer" title="Inner plexiform layer">Inner plexiform layer</A> – contains the synapse between the <A href="/wiki/Retina_bipolar_cell" title="Retina bipolar cell">bipolar cell</A> axons and the dendrites of the <A href="/wiki/Retinal_ganglion_cell" title="Retinal ganglion cell">ganglion</A> and amacrine cells.<SUP id="cite_ref-eb_2-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-eb-2">[2]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Inner_nuclear_layer" title="Inner nuclear layer">Inner nuclear layer</A> – contains the nuclei and surrounding cell bodies (perikarya) of the <A href="/wiki/Amacrine_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Amacrine cells">amacrine cells</A>, bipolar cells, and <A href="/wiki/Retina_horizontal_cell" title="Retina horizontal cell">horizontal cells</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-eb_2-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-eb-2">[2]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Outer_plexiform_layer" title="Outer plexiform layer">Outer plexiform layer</A> – projections of rods and cones ending in the rod spherule and cone pedicle, respectively. These make synapses with dendrites of bipolar cells.<SUP id="cite_ref-eb_2-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-eb-2">[2]</A></SUP> In the <A href="/wiki/Macula" class="mw-redirect" title="Macula">macular</A> region, this is known as the <I>Fiber layer of <A href="/wiki/Friedrich_Gustav_Jakob_Henle" title="Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle">Henle</A></I>.</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Outer_nuclear_layer" title="Outer nuclear layer">Outer nuclear layer</A> – cell bodies of rods and cones.</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/External_limiting_membrane" title="External limiting membrane">External limiting membrane</A> – layer that separates the inner segment portions of the photoreceptors from their cell nucleus.</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Layer_of_rods_and_cones" title="Layer of rods and cones">Layer of rods and cones</A> – layer of <A href="/wiki/Rod_cell" title="Rod cell">rod cells</A> and <A href="/wiki/Cone_cell" title="Cone cell">cone cells</A>.</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Retinal_pigment_epithelium" title="Retinal pigment epithelium">Retinal pigment epithelium</A> – single layer of cuboidal cells (with extrusions not shown in diagram). This is closest to the choroid.</LI>
</OL>
<P>These layers can be grouped into 4 main processing stages: photoreception; transmission to <A href="/wiki/Retina_bipolar_cell" title="Retina bipolar cell">bipolar cells</A>; transmission to <A href="/wiki/Retinal_ganglion_cell" title="Retinal ganglion cell">ganglion cells</A>, which also contain photoreceptors, the <A href="/wiki/Photosensitive_ganglion_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Photosensitive ganglion cell">photosensitive ganglion cells</A>; and transmission along the optic nerve. At each synaptic stage there are also laterally connecting <A href="/wiki/Retina_horizontal_cell" title="Retina horizontal cell">horizontal</A> and <A href="/wiki/Retina_amacrine_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Retina amacrine cell">amacrine cells</A>.</P>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/Optic_nerve" title="Optic nerve">optic nerve</A> is a central tract of many axons of ganglion cells connecting primarily to the <A href="/wiki/Lateral_geniculate_body" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral geniculate body">lateral geniculate body</A>, a visual relay station in the <A href="/wiki/Diencephalon" title="Diencephalon">diencephalon</A> (the rear of the forebrain). It also projects to the <A href="/wiki/Superior_colliculus" title="Superior colliculus">superior colliculus</A>, the <A href="/wiki/Suprachiasmatic_nucleus" title="Suprachiasmatic nucleus">suprachiasmatic nucleus</A>, and the <A href="/w/index.php?title=Nucleus_of_the_optic_tract&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nucleus of the optic tract (page does not exist)">nucleus of the optic tract</A>. It passes through the other layers, creating the <A href="/wiki/Optic_disc" title="Optic disc">optic disc</A> in primates.<SUP id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-10">[10]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Additional structures, not directly associated with vision, are found as outgrowths of the retina in some vertebrate groups. In <A href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</A>, the <A href="/wiki/Pecten_oculi" title="Pecten oculi">pecten</A> is a vascular structure of complex shape that projects from the retina into the <A href="/wiki/Vitreous_humour" class="mw-redirect" title="Vitreous humour">vitreous humour</A>; it supplies oxygen and nutrients to the eye, and may also aid in vision. <A href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">Reptiles</A> have a similar, but much simpler, structure.<SUP id="cite_ref-VB_11-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-VB-11">[11]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In adult humans, the entire retina is approximately 72% of a sphere about 22 mm in diameter. The entire retina contains about 7 million cones and 75 to 150 million rods. The optic disc, a part of the retina sometimes called "the blind spot" because it lacks photoreceptors, is located at the <A href="/wiki/Optic_disc" title="Optic disc">optic papilla</A>, where the optic-nerve fibres leave the eye. It appears as an oval white area of 3 mm². Temporal (in the direction of the temples) to this disc is the <A href="/wiki/Macula" class="mw-redirect" title="Macula">macula</A>, at whose centre is the <A href="/wiki/Fovea_centralis" title="Fovea centralis">fovea</A>, a pit that is responsible for our sharp central vision but is actually less sensitive to light because of its lack of rods. Human and non-human <A href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">primates</A> possess one fovea, as opposed to certain bird species, such as hawks, who are bifoviate, and dogs and cats, who possess no fovea but a central band known as the visual streak.<SUP class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><SPAN title="Citations are needed for some of these statements, esp. bifoviate hawks and the lack of fovea in cats and dogs (March 2018)">citation needed</SPAN></A></I>]</SUP> Around the fovea extends the central retina for about 6 mm and then the peripheral retina. The farthest edge of the retina is defined by the <A href="/wiki/Ora_serrata" title="Ora serrata">ora serrata</A>. The distance from one ora to the other (or macula), the most sensitive area along the horizontal <A href="/w/index.php?title=Meridian_(eye)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Meridian (eye) (page does not exist)">meridian</A> is about 32 mm.<SUP class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><SPAN title="sentence is confusing; is all the area between the ora the macula, and are we talking length of curvature or that of a straight line? (April 2018)">clarification needed</SPAN></A></I>]</SUP></P>
<P>In section, the retina is no more than 0.5 mm thick. It has three layers of <A href="/wiki/Nerve" title="Nerve">nerve</A> cells and two of <A href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">synapses</A>, including the unique <A href="/wiki/Ribbon_synapse" title="Ribbon synapse">ribbon synapse</A>. The optic nerve carries the <A href="/wiki/Retinal_ganglion_cell" title="Retinal ganglion cell">ganglion cell</A> <A href="/wiki/Axon" title="Axon">axons</A> to the brain, and the blood vessels that supply the retina. The ganglion cells lie innermost in the eye while the photoreceptive cells lie beyond. Because of this counter-intuitive arrangement, light must first pass through and around the ganglion cells and through the thickness of the retina, (including its capillary vessels, not shown) before reaching the rods and cones. Light is absorbed by the <A href="/wiki/Retinal_pigment_epithelium" title="Retinal pigment epithelium">retinal pigment epithelium</A> or the <A href="/wiki/Choroid" title="Choroid">choroid</A> (both of which are opaque).</P>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/White_blood_cell" title="White blood cell">white blood cells</A> in the <A href="/wiki/Capillaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Capillaries">capillaries</A> in front of the photoreceptors can be perceived as tiny bright moving dots when looking into blue light. This is known as the <A href="/wiki/Blue_field_entoptic_phenomenon" title="Blue field entoptic phenomenon">blue field entoptic phenomenon</A> (or Scheerer's phenomenon).</P>
<P>Between the <A href="/wiki/Retinal_ganglion_cell" title="Retinal ganglion cell">ganglion cell</A> layer and the rods and cones there are two layers of <A href="/wiki/Neuropil" title="Neuropil">neuropils</A> where synaptic contacts are made. The neuropil layers are the <A href="/wiki/Outer_plexiform_layer" title="Outer plexiform layer">outer plexiform layer</A> and the <A href="/wiki/Inner_plexiform_layer" title="Inner plexiform layer">inner plexiform layer</A>. In the outer neuropil layer, the rods and cones connect to the vertically running <A href="/wiki/Retina_bipolar_cell" title="Retina bipolar cell">bipolar cells</A>, and the horizontally oriented <A href="/wiki/Retina_horizontal_cell" title="Retina horizontal cell">horizontal cells</A> connect to ganglion cells.</P>
<P>The central retina predominantly contains cones, while the peripheral retina predominantly contains rods. In total, there are about seven million cones and a hundred million rods. At the centre of the macula is the foveal pit where the cones are narrow and long, and, arranged in a hexagonal mosaic, the most dense. At the foveal pit the other retinal layers are displaced, before building up along the foveal slope until the rim of the fovea, or <A href="/wiki/Parafovea" title="Parafovea">parafovea</A>, is reached, which is the thickest portion of the retina. The macula has a yellow pigmentation, from screening pigments, and is known as the macula lutea. The area directly surrounding the fovea has the highest density of rods converging on single bipolar cells. Since its cones have a much lesser convergence of signals, the fovea allows for the sharpest vision the eye can attain.<SUP id="cite_ref-eb_2-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-eb-2">[2]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Though the rod and cones are a mosaic of sorts, transmission from receptors, to bipolars, to <A href="/wiki/Retinal_ganglion_cell" title="Retinal ganglion cell">ganglion cells</A> is not direct. Since there are about 150 million receptors and only 1 million optic nerve fibres, there must be convergence and thus mixing of signals. Moreover, the horizontal action of the <A href="/wiki/Retina_horizontal_cell" title="Retina horizontal cell">horizontal</A> and <A href="/wiki/Retina_amacrine_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Retina amacrine cell">amacrine cells</A> can allow one area of the retina to control another (e.g. one stimulus inhibiting another). This inhibition is key to lessening the sum of messages sent to the higher regions of the brain. In some lower vertebrates (e.g. the <A href="/wiki/Pigeon" class="mw-redirect" title="Pigeon">pigeon</A>), there is a "centrifugal" control of messages – that is, one layer can control another, or higher regions of the brain can drive the retinal nerve cells, but in primates this does not occur.<SUP id="cite_ref-eb_2-6" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-eb-2">[2]</A></SUP></P>
<H4><SPAN id="Layers_imagable_with_Optical_Coherence_Tomography_.28OCT.29"></SPAN><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Layers_imagable_with_Optical_Coherence_Tomography_(OCT)">Layers imagable with <A href="/wiki/Optical_Coherence_Tomography" class="mw-redirect" title="Optical Coherence Tomography">Optical Coherence Tomography</A> (OCT)</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Retina&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Layers imagable with Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT)">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<P>On OCT there are 18 layers that can be identified in the retina. The layers and anatomical correlation are as follows:<SUP id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-12">[12]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-:0_13-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-:0-13">[13]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-14">[14]</A></SUP></P>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Retina-OCT800.png" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Retina-OCT800.png/220px-Retina-OCT800.png" width="220" height="69" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Retina-OCT800.png/330px-Retina-OCT800.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Retina-OCT800.png/440px-Retina-OCT800.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="250" /></A>
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OCT scan of the macular area of a retina at 800 nm, axial resolution 3 µm</DIV>
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<P>From innermost to outermost, the layers identifiable by OCT are as follows:</P>
<TABLE class="wikitable">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH>#</TH>
<TH>OCT Layer / Conventional Label</TH>
<TH>Anatomical Correlate</TH>
<TH><A href="/wiki/Reflectivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Reflectivity">Reflectivity</A>
<P><A href="/wiki/Optical_coherence_tomography" title="Optical coherence tomography">on OCT</A></P>
</TH>
<TH>Specific
<P>anatomical</P>
<P>boundaries?</P>
</TH>
<TH>Additional
<P>references</P>
</TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>1</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Vitreous_body" title="Vitreous body">Posterior cortical vitreous</A></TD>
<TD>Posterior cortical vitreous</TD>
<TD>Hyper-reflective</TD>
<TD>Yes</TD>
<TD><SUP id="cite_ref-:0_13-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-:0-13">[13]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><I>2</I></TD>
<TD><I><A href="/w/index.php?title=Preretinal_space&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Preretinal space (page does not exist)">Preretinal space</A></I></TD>
<TD><I>In eyes where the <A href="/wiki/Vitreous_body" title="Vitreous body">vitreous</A> has fully or partially <A href="/wiki/Posterior_vitreous_detachment" title="Posterior vitreous detachment">detached</A> from the retina, this is the space created between the posterior cortical vitreous face and the internal limiting membrane of the retina.</I></TD>
<TD><I>Hypo-reflective</I></TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><I><SUP id="cite_ref-:0_13-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-:0-13">[13]</A></SUP></I></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD rowspan="2">3</TD>
<TD><A href="/w/index.php?title=Internal_limiting_membrane&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Internal limiting membrane (page does not exist)">Internal limiting membrane</A> (ILM)</TD>
<TD>Formed by <A href="/wiki/M%C3%BCller_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Müller cell">Müller cell</A> endfeet
<P><I>(unclear if it can be observed on OCT)</I></P>
</TD>
<TD rowspan="2">Hyper-reflective</TD>
<TD rowspan="2">No</TD>
<TD rowspan="2"><SUP id="cite_ref-:0_13-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-:0-13">[13]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Nerve_fiber_layer" title="Nerve fiber layer">Nerve fiber layer</A> (NFL)</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Ganglion_cell" title="Ganglion cell">Ganglion cell</A> <A href="/wiki/Axons" class="mw-redirect" title="Axons">axons</A> travelling towards the <A href="/wiki/Optic_nerve" title="Optic nerve">optic nerve</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>4</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Ganglion_cell_layer" title="Ganglion cell layer">Ganglion cell layer</A> (GCL)</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Ganglion_cell" title="Ganglion cell">Ganglion cell</A> bodies (and some displaced <A href="/wiki/Amacrine_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Amacrine cells">amacrine cells</A>)</TD>
<TD>Hypo-reflective</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><SUP id="cite_ref-:0_13-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-:0-13">[13]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>5</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Inner_plexiform_layer" title="Inner plexiform layer">Inner plexiform layer</A> (IPL)</TD>
<TD>Synapses between <A href="/wiki/Retina_bipolar_cell" title="Retina bipolar cell">bipolar</A>, <A href="/w/index.php?title=Amacrine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Amacrine (page does not exist)">amacrine</A> and <A href="/wiki/Ganglion_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Ganglion cells">ganglion cells</A></TD>
<TD>Hyper-reflective</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><SUP id="cite_ref-:0_13-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-:0-13">[13]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>6</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Inner_nuclear_layer" title="Inner nuclear layer">Inner nuclear layer</A> (INL)</TD>
<TD>a) <A href="/wiki/Retina_horizontal_cell" title="Retina horizontal cell">Horizontal</A>, <A href="/wiki/Retina_bipolar_cell" title="Retina bipolar cell">bipolar</A> and <A href="/w/index.php?title=Amacrine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Amacrine (page does not exist)">amacrine</A> cell bodies
<P>b) <A href="/wiki/M%C3%BCller_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Müller cell">Müller cell</A> nuclei</P>
</TD>
<TD>Hypo-reflective</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><SUP id="cite_ref-:0_13-6" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-:0-13">[13]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>7</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Outer_plexiform_layer" title="Outer plexiform layer">Outer plexiform layer</A> (OPL)</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Synapses" class="mw-redirect" title="Synapses">Synapses</A> between <A href="/wiki/Photoreceptor_cell" title="Photoreceptor cell">photoreceptor</A>, <A href="/wiki/Retina_bipolar_cell" title="Retina bipolar cell">bipolar</A> and <A href="/wiki/Horizontal_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Horizontal cells">horizontal cells</A></TD>
<TD>Hyper-reflective</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><SUP id="cite_ref-:0_13-7" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-:0-13">[13]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD rowspan="2">8</TD>
<TD>(Inner half) <A href="/w/index.php?title=Henle%E2%80%99s_fiber_layer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Henle’s fiber layer (page does not exist)">Henle’s nerve fiber layer</A> (HL)</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Photoreceptor_cell" title="Photoreceptor cell">Photoreceptor</A> axons
<P>(obliquely orientated fibres; not present in mid-peripheral or peripheral retina)</P>
</TD>
<TD rowspan="2">Hypo-reflective</TD>
<TD rowspan="2">No</TD>
<TD rowspan="2"><SUP id="cite_ref-:0_13-8" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-:0-13">[13]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>(Outer half) <A href="/wiki/Outer_nuclear_layer" title="Outer nuclear layer">Outer nuclear layer</A> (ONL)</TD>
<TD>The <A href="/wiki/Photoreceptor_cell" title="Photoreceptor cell">photoreceptor</A> cell bodies</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>9</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/External_limiting_membrane" title="External limiting membrane">External limiting membrane</A> (ELM)</TD>
<TD>Made of <A href="/w/index.php?title=Zonulae_adherens&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zonulae adherens (page does not exist)">zonulae adherens</A> between <A href="/wiki/M%C3%BCller_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Müller cells">Müller cells</A> and <A href="/w/index.php?title=Photoreceptor_inner_segments&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Photoreceptor inner segments (page does not exist)">photoreceptor inner segments</A></TD>
<TD>Hyper-reflective</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><SUP id="cite_ref-:0_13-9" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-:0-13">[13]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>10</TD>
<TD><A href="/w/index.php?title=Myoid_zone&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Myoid zone (page does not exist)">Myoid zone (MZ)</A></TD>
<TD>The innermost portion of the <A href="/wiki/Photoreceptor_cell" title="Photoreceptor cell">photoreceptor inner segment (IS)</A> containing:
<UL>
<LI>Smooth and rough <A href="/wiki/Endoplasmic_reticulum" title="Endoplasmic reticulum">endoplasmic reticulum</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ribosomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Ribosomes">Ribosomes</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Golgi_bodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Golgi bodies">Golgi bodies</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Microtubules" class="mw-redirect" title="Microtubules">Microtubules</A></LI>
<LI><I>(rarely: mitochondria)</I></LI>
</UL>
</TD>
<TD>Hypo-reflective</TD>
<TD>No</TD>
<TD><SUP id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-15">[15]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-16">[16]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD rowspan="2">11</TD>
<TD><A href="/w/index.php?title=Ellipsoid_zone&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ellipsoid zone (page does not exist)">Ellipsoid zone (EZ)</A></TD>
<TD>The outermost portion of the <A href="/wiki/Photoreceptor_cell" title="Photoreceptor cell">photoreceptor inner segment (IS)</A> packed with <A href="/wiki/Mitochondria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitochondria">mitochondria</A></TD>
<TD rowspan="2"><B>Very Hyper-reflective</B></TD>
<TD rowspan="2">No</TD>
<TD rowspan="2"><SUP id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-17">[17]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-18">[18]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-19">[19]</A></SUP> <SUP id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-20">[20]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-21">[21]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-22">[22]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/w/index.php?title=IS/OS_junction&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IS/OS junction (page does not exist)">IS/OS junction</A> or <A href="/w/index.php?title=Photoreceptor_integrity_line&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Photoreceptor integrity line (page does not exist)">Photoreceptor integrity line (PIL)</A></TD>
<TD>The photoreceptor <A href="/wiki/Photoreceptor_cell" title="Photoreceptor cell">connecting cilia</A> which bridge the inner and outer segments of the photoreceptor cells.</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>12</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Photoreceptor_cell" title="Photoreceptor cell">Photoreceptor outer segments (OS)</A></TD>
<TD>The <A href="/wiki/Photoreceptor_cell" title="Photoreceptor cell">photoreceptor outer segments (OS)</A> which contain disks filled with <A href="/wiki/Opsin" title="Opsin">opsin</A>, the molecule that absorbs photons.</TD>
<TD>Hypo-reflective</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD rowspan="2"><SUP id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-23">[23]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-:0_13-10" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-:0-13">[13]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>13</TD>
<TD><A href="/w/index.php?title=Interdigitation_zone&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Interdigitation zone (page does not exist)">Interdigitation zone (IZ)</A></TD>
<TD>Apices of the <A href="/wiki/Retinal_pigment_epithelium" title="Retinal pigment epithelium">RPE</A> cells which encase part of the cone OSs.
<P><I>Poorly distinguishable from RPE.</I> <I>Previously: "cone outer segment tips line"</I> <I>(COST)</I></P>
</TD>
<TD>Hyper-reflective</TD>
<TD>No</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD rowspan="3">14</TD>
<TD rowspan="3"><A href="/wiki/Retinal_pigment_epithelium" title="Retinal pigment epithelium">RPE</A>/<A href="/w/index.php?title=Bruch%E2%80%99s&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bruch’s (page does not exist)">Bruch’s</A> complex</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Retinal_pigment_epithelium" title="Retinal pigment epithelium">RPE</A> phagosome zone</TD>
<TD><B>Very Hyper-reflective</B></TD>
<TD rowspan="3">No</TD>
<TD rowspan="3"><SUP id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-24">[24]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-:0_13-11" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-:0-13">[13]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Retinal_pigment_epithelium" title="Retinal pigment epithelium">RPE</A> melanosome zone</TD>
<TD>Hypo-reflective</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Retinal_pigment_epithelium" title="Retinal pigment epithelium">RPE</A> mitochondria zone + Junction between the RPE & <A href="/wiki/Bruch%27s_membrane" title="Bruch's membrane">Bruch's membrane</A></TD>
<TD><B>Very Hyper-reflective</B></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>15</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Choriocapillaris" class="mw-redirect" title="Choriocapillaris">Choriocapillaris</A></TD>
<TD colspan="2">Thin layer of moderate reflectivity in inner choroid</TD>
<TD>No</TD>
<TD><SUP id="cite_ref-:0_13-12" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-:0-13">[13]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>16</TD>
<TD><A href="/w/index.php?title=Sattler%E2%80%99s_layer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sattler’s layer (page does not exist)">Sattler’s layer</A></TD>
<TD colspan="2">Thick layer of round or ovalshaped hyperreflective profiles, with hyporeflective cores in mid-choroid</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><SUP id="cite_ref-:0_13-13" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-:0-13">[13]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>17</TD>
<TD><A href="/w/index.php?title=Haller%E2%80%99s_layer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Haller’s layer (page does not exist)">Haller’s layer</A></TD>
<TD colspan="2">Thick layer of oval-shaped hyperreflective profiles, with hyporeflective cores in outer choroid</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><SUP id="cite_ref-:0_13-14" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-:0-13">[13]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>18</TD>
<TD><A href="/w/index.php?title=Choroidal-scleral_juncture&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Choroidal-scleral juncture (page does not exist)">Choroidal-scleral juncture</A></TD>
<TD colspan="2">Zone at the outer choroid with a marked change in texture, in which large circular or ovoid profiles abut a
<P>homogenous region of variable reflectivity</P>
</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><SUP id="cite_ref-:0_13-15" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-:0-13">[13]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Development">Development</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Retina&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Development">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>Retinal development begins with the establishment of the eye fields mediated by the <A href="/wiki/Sonic_hedgehog" title="Sonic hedgehog">SHH</A> and <A href="/wiki/SIX3" title="SIX3">SIX3</A> proteins, with subsequent development of the optic vesicles regulated by the <A href="/wiki/PAX6" title="PAX6">PAX6</A> and <A href="/wiki/LHX2" title="LHX2">LHX2</A> proteins.<SUP id="cite_ref-Heavner_25-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Heavner-25">[25]</A></SUP> The role of Pax6 in eye development was elegantly demonstrated by Walter Gehring and colleagues, who showed that ectopic expression of Pax6 can lead to eye formation on <A href="/wiki/Drosophila" title="Drosophila">Drosophila</A> antennae, wings, and legs.<SUP id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-26">[26]</A></SUP> The optic vesicle gives rise to three structures: the neural retina, the retinal pigmented epithelium, and the optic stalk. The neural retina contains the retinal progenitor cells (RPCs) that give rise to the seven cell types of the retina. Differentiation begins with the <A href="/wiki/Retinal_ganglion_cell" title="Retinal ganglion cell">retinal ganglion cells</A> and concludes with production of the Muller glia. Although each cell type differentiates from the RPCs in a sequential order, there is considerable overlap in the timing of when individual cell types differentiate.<SUP id="cite_ref-Heavner_25-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Heavner-25">[25]</A></SUP> The cues that determine a RPC daughter cell fate are coded by multiple transcription factor families including the <A href="/wiki/Basic_helix-loop-helix" title="Basic helix-loop-helix">bHLH</A> and <A href="/wiki/Homeobox" title="Homeobox">homeodomain</A> factors.<SUP id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-27">[27]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In addition to guiding cell fate determination, cues exist in the retina to determine the dorsal-ventral (D-V) and nasal-temporal (N-T) axes. The D-V axis is established by a ventral to dorsal gradient of <A href="/wiki/VAX1" title="VAX1">VAX2</A>, whereas the N-T axis is coordinated by expression of the forkhead transcription factors <A href="/wiki/FOXD1" class="mw-redirect" title="FOXD1">FOXD1</A> and <A href="/wiki/FOXG1" title="FOXG1">FOXG1</A>. Additional gradients are formed within the retina that aid in proper targeting of RGC axons that function to establish the retinotopic map.<SUP id="cite_ref-Heavner_25-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Heavner-25">[25]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Blood_supply">Blood supply</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Retina&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Blood supply">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
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<A href="/wiki/Fundus_photograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundus photograph">Fundus photograph</A> showing the blood vessels in a normal human retina. Veins are darker and slightly wider than corresponding arteries. The <A href="/wiki/Optic_disc" title="Optic disc">optic disc</A> is at right, and the <A href="/wiki/Macula_lutea" class="mw-redirect" title="Macula lutea">macula lutea</A> is near the centre.</DIV>
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<P>The retina is stratified into distinct layers, each containing specific cell types or cellular compartments<SUP id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-28">[28]</A></SUP> that have metabolisms with different nutritional requirements.<SUP id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-29">[29]</A></SUP> To satisfy these requirements, the <A href="/wiki/Ophthalmic_artery" title="Ophthalmic artery">ophthalmic artery</A> bifurcates and supplies the retina via two distinct vascular networks: the choroidal network, which supplies the choroid and the outer retina, and the retinal network, which supplies the retina's inner layer.<SUP id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-30">[30]</A></SUP></P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Circulatory_mechanisms">Circulatory mechanisms</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Retina&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Circulatory mechanisms">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<P>At first glance, one may think that the vertebrate retina is "wired wrongly" or "badly designed"; but in fact, the retina could not function if it were not inverted. The photoreceptor layer must be embedded in the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), which performs at least seven vital functions,<SUP id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-31">[31]</A></SUP> one of the most obvious being to supply oxygen and other necessary nutrients needed for the photoreceptors to function. These nutrients include glucose, fatty acids, and retinal. The mammalian photoreceptor amplification process uses large quantities energy for vision in photopic conditions (requiring less under scotopic conditions) and, thus, requires the large supply nutrients supplied by the blood vessels in the choroid, which lies beyond the RPE. The choroid supplies about 75% of these nutrients to the retina and the retinal vasculature only 25%.<SUP id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-32">[32]</A></SUP></P>
<P>When light strikes 11-cis-retinal (in the disks in the rods and cones), 11-cis-retinal changes to all-trans-retinal which then triggers changes in the opsins. Now, the outer segments do not regenerate the retinal back into the cis- form once it has been changed by light. Instead the retinal is pumped out to the surrounding RPE where it is regenerated and transported back into the outer segments of the photoreceptors. This recycling function of the RPE protects the photoreceptors against photo-oxidative damage<SUP id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-33">[33]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-34">[34]</A></SUP> and allows the photoreceptor cells to have decades-long useful lives.</P>
<H5><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="In_birds">In birds</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Retina&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: In birds">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H5>
<P>The bird retina is devoid of blood vessels, perhaps to give unobscured passage of light for forming images, thus giving better resolution. It is, therefore, a considered view that the bird retina depends for nutrition and oxygen supply on a specialized organ, called the "pecten" or <A href="/wiki/Pecten_oculi" title="Pecten oculi">pecten oculi</A>, located on the blind spot or optic disk. This organ is extremely rich in blood vessels and is thought to supply nutrition and oxygen to the bird retina by diffusion through the vitreous body. The pecten is highly rich in alkaline phosphatase activity and polarized cells in its bridge portion – both befitting its secretory role.<SUP id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-35">[35]</A></SUP> Pecten cells are packed with dark melanin granules, which have been theorized to keep this organ warm with the absorption of stray light falling on the pecten. This is considered to enhance metabolic rate of the pecten, thereby exporting more nutritive molecules to meet the stringent energy requirements of the retina during long periods of exposure to light.<SUP id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-36">[36]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Biometric_identification_and_diagnosis_of_disease">Biometric identification and diagnosis of disease</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Retina&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Biometric identification and diagnosis of disease">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <A href="/wiki/Retinal_scan" title="Retinal scan">Retinal scan</A> and <A href="/wiki/Biometrics" title="Biometrics">Biometrics</A></DIV>
<P>The bifurcations and other physical characteristics of the inner retinal vascular network are known to vary among individuals,<SUP id="cite_ref-Sherman81_37-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Sherman81-37">[37]</A></SUP> and these individual variances have been used for <A href="/wiki/Retinal_scan" title="Retinal scan">biometric identification</A> and for early detection of the onset of disease. The mapping of vascular bifurcations is one of the basic steps in biometric identification.<SUP id="cite_ref-Azzopardi2011_38-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Azzopardi2011-38">[38]</A></SUP> Results of such analyses of retinal blood vessel structure can be evaluated against the ground truth data<SUP id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-39">[39]</A></SUP> of vascular bifurcations of retinal fundus images that are obtained from the DRIVE dataset.<SUP id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-40">[40]</A></SUP> In addition, the classes of vessels of the DRIVE dataset have also been identified,<SUP id="cite_ref-Qureshi2013_41-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Qureshi2013-41">[41]</A></SUP> and an automated method for accurate extraction of these bifurcations is also available.<SUP id="cite_ref-Qureshi2014_42-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Qureshi2014-42">[42]</A></SUP> Changes in retinal blood circulation are seen with aging<SUP id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-43">[43]</A></SUP> and exposure to air pollution,<SUP id="cite_ref-Louwies_44-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Louwies-44">[44]</A></SUP> and may indicate cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension and atherosclerosis.<SUP id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-45">[45]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Chapman2002_46-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Chapman2002-46">[46]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Patton06_47-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Patton06-47">[47]</A></SUP> Determining the equivalent width of arterioles and venules near the optic disc is also a widely used technique to identify cardiovascular risks.<SUP id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-48">[48]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Function">Function</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Retina&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Function">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <A href="/wiki/Adaptation_(eye)" title="Adaptation (eye)">Adaptation (eye)</A> and <A href="/wiki/Visual_acuity" title="Visual acuity">Visual acuity</A></DIV>
<P>The retina translates an optical image into neural impulses by the patterned excitation of the colour-sensitive pigments of its rods and cones, the retina's <A href="/wiki/Photoreceptor_cell" title="Photoreceptor cell">photoreceptor cells</A>. The excitation is processed by the neural system and various parts of the brain working in parallel to form a representation of the external environment in the brain.</P>
<P>The cones respond to bright light and mediate high-resolution colour vision during daylight illumination (also called <A href="/wiki/Photopic_vision" title="Photopic vision">photopic vision</A>). The rods are <A href="/wiki/Color_saturation" class="mw-redirect" title="Color saturation">saturated</A> at daylight levels and don't contribute to pattern vision. However, rods do respond to dim light and mediate lower-resolution, monochromatic vision under very low levels of illumination (called <A href="/wiki/Scotopic_vision" title="Scotopic vision">scotopic vision</A>). The illumination in most office settings falls between these two levels and is called <A href="/wiki/Mesopic_vision" title="Mesopic vision">mesopic vision</A>. At mesopic light levels, both the rods and cones are actively contributing pattern information. What contribution the rod information makes to pattern vision under these circumstances is unclear.</P>
<P>The response of cones to various wavelengths of light is called their spectral sensitivity. In normal human vision, the spectral sensitivity of a cone falls into one of three subtypes, often called blue, green, or red but more accurately known as short, medium, or long wavelength-sensitive cone subtypes. It is a lack of one or more of the cone subtypes that causes individuals to have deficiencies in colour vision or various kinds of <A href="/wiki/Color_blindness" title="Color blindness">colour blindness</A>. These individuals are not blind to objects of a particular colour but are unable to distinguish between colours that can be distinguished by people with normal vision. Humans have this <A href="/wiki/Trichromatic_vision" class="mw-redirect" title="Trichromatic vision">trichromatic vision</A>, while most other mammals lack cones with red sensitive pigment and therefore have poorer dichromatic colour vision. However, some animals have four spectral subtypes, e.g. the trout adds an ultraviolet subgroup to short, medium, and long subtypes that are similar to humans. Some fish are sensitive to the polarization of light as well.</P>
<P>In the photoreceptors, exposure to light hyperpolarizes the membrane in a series of graded shifts. The outer cell segment contains a <A href="/wiki/Photopigment" title="Photopigment">photopigment</A>. Inside the cell the normal levels of <A href="/wiki/Cyclic_guanosine_monophosphate" title="Cyclic guanosine monophosphate">cyclic guanosine monophosphate</A> (cGMP) keep the Na+ channel open, and thus in the resting state the cell is depolarised. The <A href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photon</A> causes the <A href="/wiki/Retinal" title="Retinal">retinal</A> bound to the receptor protein to <A href="/wiki/Isomerism" class="mw-redirect" title="Isomerism">isomerise</A> to <A href="/wiki/Retinal" title="Retinal">trans-retinal</A>. This causes the receptor to activate multiple <A href="/wiki/G-protein" class="mw-redirect" title="G-protein">G-proteins</A>. This in turn causes the Ga-subunit of the protein to activate a phosphodiesterase (PDE6), which degrades cGMP, resulting in the closing of Na+ <A href="/wiki/Cyclic_nucleotide-gated_ion_channel" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channel">cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels</A> (CNGs). Thus the cell is hyperpolarised. The amount of neurotransmitter released is reduced in bright light and increases as light levels fall. The actual photopigment is bleached away in bright light and only replaced as a chemical process, so in a transition from bright light to darkness the eye can take up to thirty minutes to reach full sensitivity.</P>
<P>When thus excited by light, the photoceptor sends a proportional response <A href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">synaptically</A> to <A href="/wiki/Bipolar_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Bipolar cell">bipolar cells</A> which in turn signal the <A href="/wiki/Retinal_ganglion_cell" title="Retinal ganglion cell">retinal ganglion cells</A>. The photoreceptors are also cross-linked by <A href="/wiki/Horizontal_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Horizontal cell">horizontal cells</A> and <A href="/wiki/Amacrine_cell" title="Amacrine cell">amacrine cells</A>, which modify the synaptic signal before it reaches the ganglion cells, the neural signals being intermixed and combined. Of the retina's nerve cells, only the retinal ganglion cells and few amacrine cells create <A href="/wiki/Action_potential" title="Action potential">action potentials</A>.</P>
<P>In the retinal ganglion cells there are two types of response, depending on the <A href="/wiki/Receptive_field" title="Receptive field">receptive field</A> of the cell. The receptive fields of retinal ganglion cells comprise a central, approximately circular area, where light has one effect on the firing of the cell, and an annular surround, where light has the opposite effect. In ON cells, an increment in light intensity in the centre of the receptive field causes the firing rate to increase. In OFF cells, it makes it decrease. In a linear model, this response profile is well described by a <A href="/wiki/Difference_of_Gaussians" title="Difference of Gaussians">difference of Gaussians</A> and is the basis for <A href="/wiki/Edge_detection" title="Edge detection">edge detection</A> algorithms. Beyond this simple difference, ganglion cells are also differentiated by chromatic sensitivity and the type of spatial summation. Cells showing linear spatial summation are termed X cells (also called parvocellular, P, or midget ganglion cells), and those showing non-linear summation are Y cells (also called magnocellular, M, or parasol retinal ganglion cells), although the correspondence between X and Y cells (in the cat retina) and P and M cells (in the primate retina) is not as simple as it once seemed.</P>
<P>In the transfer of visual signals to the brain, the <A href="/wiki/Visual_pathway" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual pathway">visual pathway</A>, the retina is vertically divided in two, a temporal (nearer to the temple) half and a nasal (nearer to the nose) half. The axons from the nasal half cross the brain at the <A href="/wiki/Optic_chiasma" class="mw-redirect" title="Optic chiasma">optic chiasma</A> to join with axons from the temporal half of the other eye before passing into the <A href="/wiki/Lateral_geniculate_body" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral geniculate body">lateral geniculate body</A>.</P>
<P>Although there are more than 130 million retinal receptors, there are only approximately 1.2 million fibres (axons) in the optic nerve. So, a large amount of pre-processing is performed within the retina. The <A href="/wiki/Fovea_centralis" title="Fovea centralis">fovea</A> produces the most accurate information. Despite occupying about 0.01% of the visual field (less than 2° of <A href="/wiki/Visual_angle" title="Visual angle">visual angle</A>), about 10% of axons in the optic nerve are devoted to the fovea. The resolution limit of the fovea has been determined to be around 10,000 points.<SUP class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><SPAN title="do you mean 10,000 lines of resolution? What does "points" mean in this context? (June 2013)">clarification needed</SPAN></A></I>]</SUP> The information capacity is estimated at 500,000 bits per second (for more information on bits, see <A href="/wiki/Information_theory" title="Information theory">information theory</A>) without colour or around 600,000 bits per second including colour.<SUP class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><SPAN title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2011)">citation needed</SPAN></A></I>]</SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Spatial_encoding">Spatial encoding</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Retina&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Spatial encoding">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <A href="/wiki/Receptive_field" title="Receptive field">Receptive field, for figures and more information on centre–surround structures</A></DIV>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Receptive_field.png" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Receptive_field.png/300px-Receptive_field.png" width="300" height="549" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Receptive_field.png 1.5x" data-file-width="403" data-file-height="737" /></A>
<DIV class="thumbcaption">
<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:Receptive_field.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
On-centres and off-centres of the retina</DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<P>When the retina sends neural impulses representing an image to the brain, it spatially encodes (compresses) those impulses to fit the limited capacity of the optic nerve. Compression is necessary because there are 100 times more <A href="/wiki/Photoreceptor_cell" title="Photoreceptor cell">photoreceptor cells</A> than <A href="/wiki/Ganglion_cell" title="Ganglion cell">ganglion cells</A>. This is done by "<A href="/wiki/Decorrelation" title="Decorrelation">decorrelation</A>", which is carried out by the "centre–surround structures", which are implemented by the bipolar and ganglion cells.</P>
<P>There are two types of centre–surround structures in the retina – on-centres and off-centres. On-centres have a positively weighted centre and a negatively weighted surround. Off-centres are just the opposite. Positive weighting is more commonly known as <A href="/wiki/Chemical_synapse#Receptor_binding" title="Chemical synapse">excitatory</A>, and negative weighting as <A href="/wiki/Chemical_synapse#Receptor_binding" title="Chemical synapse">inhibitory</A>.</P>
<P>These centre–surround structures are not physical apparent, in the sense that one cannot see them by staining samples of tissue and examining the retina's anatomy. The centre–surround structures are logical (i.e., mathematically abstract) in the sense that they depend on the connection strengths between bipolar and ganglion cells. It is believed that the connection strengths between cells is caused by the number and types of <A href="/wiki/Ion_channel" title="Ion channel">ion channels</A> embedded in the <A href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">synapses</A> between the bipolar and ganglion cells.</P>
<P>The centre–surround structures are mathematically equivalent to the <A href="/wiki/Edge_detection" title="Edge detection">edge detection</A> algorithms used by computer programmers to extract or enhance the edges in a digital photograph. Thus, the retina performs operations on the image-representing impulses to enhance the edges of objects within its visual field. For example, in a picture of a dog, a cat and a car, it is the edges of these objects that contain the most information. In order for higher functions in the brain (or in a computer for that matter) to extract and classify objects such as a dog and a cat, the retina is the first step to separating out the various objects within the scene.</P>
<P>As an example, the following <A href="/wiki/Matrix_(mathematics)" title="Matrix (mathematics)">matrix</A> is at the heart of the computer <A href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithm</A> that implements edge detection. This matrix is the computer equivalent to the centre–surround structure. In this example, each box (element) within this matrix would be connected to one photoreceptor. The photoreceptor in the centre is the current receptor being processed. The centre photoreceptor is multiplied by the +1 weight factor. The surrounding photoreceptors are the "nearest neighbors" to the centre and are multiplied by the -1/8 value. The sum of all nine of these elements is finally calculated. This summation is repeated for every photoreceptor in the image by shifting left to the end of a row and then down to the next line.</P>
<TABLE class="wikitable">
<TBODY><TR>
<TD style="background:lightyellow;">-1/8</TD>
<TD style="background:lightyellow;">-1/8</TD>
<TD style="background:lightyellow;">-1/8</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD style="background:lightyellow;">-1/8</TD>
<TD style="background:lightblue;">+1</TD>
<TD style="background:lightyellow;">-1/8</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD style="background:lightyellow;">-1/8</TD>
<TD style="background:lightyellow;">-1/8</TD>
<TD style="background:lightyellow;">-1/8</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
<P>The total sum of this matrix is zero, if all the inputs from the nine photoreceptors are of the same value. The zero result indicates the image was uniform (non-changing) within this small patch. Negative or positive sums mean the image was varying (changing) within this small patch of nine photoreceptors.</P>
<P>The above matrix is only an approximation to what really happens inside the retina. The differences are:</P>
<UL>
<LI>The above example is called "balanced". The term balanced means that the sum of the negative weights is equal to the sum of the positive weights so that they cancel out perfectly. Retinal ganglion cells are almost never perfectly balanced.</LI>
<LI>The table is square while the centre–surround structures in the retina are circular.</LI>
<LI>Neurons operate on <A href="/wiki/Spike_train" class="mw-redirect" title="Spike train">spike trains</A> traveling down nerve cell <A href="/wiki/Axons" class="mw-redirect" title="Axons">axons</A>. Computers operate on a single <A href="/wiki/Floating_point" class="mw-redirect" title="Floating point">floating point</A> number that is essentially constant from each input <A href="/wiki/Pixel" title="Pixel">pixel</A>. (The computer pixel is basically the equivalent of a biological photoreceptor.)</LI>
<LI>The retina performs all these calculations in parallel while the computer operates on each pixel one at a time. The retina performs no repeated summations and shifting as would a computer.</LI>
<LI>Finally, the <A href="/wiki/Horizontal_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Horizontal cell">horizontal</A> and <A href="/wiki/Amacrine_cell" title="Amacrine cell">amacrine cells</A> play a significant role in this process, but that is not represented here.</LI>
</UL>
<P>Here is an example of an input image and how edge detection would modify it.</P>
<P><A href="/wiki/File:Edge-detection-2.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="input image" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Edge-detection-2.jpg/550px-Edge-detection-2.jpg" width="550" height="105" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Edge-detection-2.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="672" data-file-height="128" /></A></P>
<P>Once the image is spatially encoded by the centre–surround structures, the signal is sent out along the optic nerve (via the axons of the ganglion cells) through the <A href="/wiki/Optic_chiasm" title="Optic chiasm">optic chiasm</A> to the LGN (<A href="/wiki/Lateral_geniculate_nucleus" title="Lateral geniculate nucleus">lateral geniculate nucleus</A>). The exact function of the LGN is unknown at this time. The output of the LGN is then sent to the back of the brain. Specifically, the output of the LGN "radiates" out to the V1 <A href="/wiki/Primary_visual_cortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary visual cortex">primary visual cortex</A>.</P>
<P>Simplified signal flow: Photoreceptors → Bipolar → Ganglion → Chiasm → LGN → V1 cortex</P>
<P><A href="/wiki/File:ERP_-_optic_cabling.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="ERP optic cabling" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/ERP_-_optic_cabling.jpg/500px-ERP_-_optic_cabling.jpg" width="500" height="375" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/ERP_-_optic_cabling.jpg/750px-ERP_-_optic_cabling.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/ERP_-_optic_cabling.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></A></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Clinical_significance">Clinical significance</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Retina&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Clinical significance">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <A href="/wiki/List_of_eye_diseases_and_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="List of eye diseases and disorders">List of eye diseases and disorders</A></DIV>
<P>There are many inherited and acquired diseases or disorders that may affect the retina. Some of them include:</P>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Retinitis_pigmentosa" title="Retinitis pigmentosa">Retinitis pigmentosa</A> is a group of genetic diseases that affect the retina and cause the loss of night vision and peripheral vision.</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Macular_degeneration" title="Macular degeneration">Macular degeneration</A> describes a group of diseases characterized by loss of central vision because of death or impairment of the cells in the <A href="/wiki/Macula" class="mw-redirect" title="Macula">macula</A>.</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cone-rod_dystrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Cone-rod dystrophy">Cone-rod dystrophy</A> (CORD) describes a number of diseases where vision loss is caused by deterioration of the <A href="/wiki/Cone_cell" title="Cone cell">cones</A> and/or <A href="/wiki/Rod_cell" title="Rod cell">rods</A> in the retina.</LI>
<LI>In <A href="/wiki/Retinal_separation" class="mw-redirect" title="Retinal separation">retinal separation</A>, the retina detaches from the back of the eyeball. <A href="/wiki/Ignipuncture" title="Ignipuncture">Ignipuncture</A> is an outdated treatment method. The term <A href="/wiki/Retinal_detachment" title="Retinal detachment">retinal detachment</A> is used to describe a separation of the neurosensory retina from the <A href="/wiki/Retinal_pigment_epithelium" title="Retinal pigment epithelium">retinal pigment epithelium</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Retina_49-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Retina-49">[49]</A></SUP> There are several modern treatment methods for fixing a retinal detachment: <A href="/wiki/Pneumatic_retinopexy" class="mw-redirect" title="Pneumatic retinopexy">pneumatic retinopexy</A>, <A href="/wiki/Scleral_buckle" title="Scleral buckle">scleral buckle</A>, <A href="/wiki/Cryotherapy" title="Cryotherapy">cryotherapy</A>, <A href="/wiki/Laser_photocoagulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Laser photocoagulation">laser photocoagulation</A> and pars plana <A href="/wiki/Vitrectomy" title="Vitrectomy">vitrectomy</A>.</LI>
<LI>Both <A href="/wiki/Hypertension" title="Hypertension">hypertension</A> and <A href="/wiki/Diabetes_mellitus" title="Diabetes mellitus">diabetes mellitus</A> can cause damage to the tiny blood vessels that supply the retina, leading to <A href="/wiki/Hypertensive_retinopathy" title="Hypertensive retinopathy">hypertensive retinopathy</A> and <A href="/wiki/Diabetic_retinopathy" title="Diabetic retinopathy">diabetic retinopathy</A>.</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Retinoblastoma" title="Retinoblastoma">Retinoblastoma</A> is a <A href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</A> of the retina.</LI>
<LI>Retinal diseases in <A href="/wiki/Dog" title="Dog">dogs</A> include <A href="/wiki/Retinal_dysplasia" title="Retinal dysplasia">retinal dysplasia</A>, <A href="/wiki/Progressive_retinal_atrophy" title="Progressive retinal atrophy">progressive retinal atrophy</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Sudden_acquired_retinal_degeneration" class="mw-redirect" title="Sudden acquired retinal degeneration">sudden acquired retinal degeneration</A>.</LI>
<LI><I>Lipemia retinalis</I> is a white appearance of the retina, and can occur by lipid deposition in <A href="/wiki/Lipoprotein_lipase_deficiency" title="Lipoprotein lipase deficiency">lipoprotein lipase deficiency</A>.</LI>
</UL>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Diagnosis">Diagnosis</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Retina&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Diagnosis">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>A number of different instruments are available for the diagnosis of diseases and disorders affecting the retina. <A href="/wiki/Ophthalmoscopy" title="Ophthalmoscopy">Ophthalmoscopy</A> and <A href="/wiki/Fundus_photography" title="Fundus photography">fundus photography</A> have long been used to examine the retina. Recently, <A href="/wiki/Adaptive_optics" title="Adaptive optics">adaptive optics</A> has been used to image individual rods and cones in the living human retina, and a company based in Scotland has engineered technology that allows physicians to observe the complete retina without any discomfort to patients.<SUP id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-50">[50]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/Electroretinography" title="Electroretinography">electroretinogram</A> is used to <A href="/wiki/Non-invasive_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-invasive (medical)">non-invasively</A> measure the retina's electrical activity, which is affected by certain diseases. A relatively new technology, now becoming widely available, is <A href="/wiki/Optical_coherence_tomography" title="Optical coherence tomography">optical coherence tomography</A> (OCT). This non-invasive technique allows one to obtain a <A href="/wiki/Dimension" title="Dimension">3D</A> volumetric or high resolution cross-sectional <A href="/wiki/Tomogram" class="mw-redirect" title="Tomogram">tomogram</A> of the fine structures of the retina, with <A href="/wiki/Histologic" class="mw-redirect" title="Histologic">histologic</A> quality.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Treatment">Treatment</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Retina&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Treatment">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>Treatment depends upon the nature of the disease or disorder.</P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Common_treatment_modalities">Common treatment modalities</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Retina&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Common treatment modalities">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<P>The following are commonly modalities of management for retinal disease:</P>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Intravitreal" class="mw-redirect" title="Intravitreal">Intravitreal</A> medication, such as <A href="/wiki/Anti%E2%80%93vascular_endothelial_growth_factor_therapy" title="Anti–vascular endothelial growth factor therapy">anti-VEGF</A> or <A href="/wiki/Corticosteroid" title="Corticosteroid">corticosteroid</A> agents</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Vitreoretinal_surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Vitreoretinal surgery">Vitreoretinal surgery</A></LI>
<LI>Use of nutritional supplements</LI>
<LI>Modification of systemic risk factors for retinal disease</LI>
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<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Uncommon_treatment_modalities">Uncommon treatment modalities</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Retina&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Uncommon treatment modalities">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
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<P><B>Retinal gene therapy</B></P>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Adeno_associated_virus_and_gene_therapy_of_the_human_retina" class="mw-redirect" title="Adeno associated virus and gene therapy of the human retina">Adeno associated virus and gene therapy of the human retina</A></DIV>
<P><A href="/wiki/Gene_therapy" title="Gene therapy">Gene therapy</A> holds promise as a potential avenue to cure a wide range of retinal diseases. This involves using a non-infectious virus to shuttle a gene into a part of the retina. Recombinant <A href="/wiki/Adeno-associated_virus" title="Adeno-associated virus">adeno-associated virus</A> (rAAV) vectors possess a number of features that render them ideally suited for retinal gene therapy, including a lack of pathogenicity, minimal immunogenicity, and the ability to transduce postmitotic cells in a stable and efficient manner.<SUP id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-51">[51]</A></SUP> rAAV vectors are increasingly utilized for their ability to mediate efficient transduction of <A href="/wiki/Retinal_pigment_epithelium" title="Retinal pigment epithelium">retinal pigment epithelium</A> (RPE), <A href="/wiki/Photoreceptor_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Photoreceptor cells">photoreceptor cells</A> and <A href="/wiki/Retinal_ganglion_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Retinal ganglion cells">retinal ganglion cells</A>. Each cell type can be specifically targeted by choosing the appropriate combination of AAV <A href="/wiki/Serotype" title="Serotype">serotype</A>, promoter, and intraocular injection site.</P>
<P>Several clinical trials have already reported positive results using rAAV to treat <A href="/wiki/Leber%27s_congenital_amaurosis" title="Leber's congenital amaurosis">Leber's congenital amaurosis</A>, showing that the therapy was both safe and effective.<SUP id="cite_ref-Cideciyan_2009_52-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Cideciyan_2009-52">[52]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Simonelli_2010_53-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Simonelli_2010-53">[53]</A></SUP> There were no serious adverse events, and patients in all three studies showed improvement in their visual function as measured by a number of methods. The methods used varied among the three trials, but included both functional methods such as visual acuity<SUP id="cite_ref-Simonelli_2010_53-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Simonelli_2010-53">[53]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Maguire_2008_54-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Maguire_2008-54">[54]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Maguire_2009_55-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Maguire_2009-55">[55]</A></SUP> and functional mobility<SUP id="cite_ref-Maguire_2008_54-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Maguire_2008-54">[54]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Maguire_2009_55-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Maguire_2009-55">[55]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Bainbridge_2008_56-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Bainbridge_2008-56">[56]</A></SUP> as well as objective measures that are less susceptible to bias, such as the pupil's ability to respond to light<SUP id="cite_ref-Cideciyan_2009_52-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Cideciyan_2009-52">[52]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Hauswirth_2008_57-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Hauswirth_2008-57">[57]</A></SUP> and improvements on functional MRI.<SUP id="cite_ref-Ashtari_2011_58-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Ashtari_2011-58">[58]</A></SUP> Improvements were sustained over the long-term, with patients continuing to do well after more than 1.5 years.<SUP id="cite_ref-Cideciyan_2009_52-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Cideciyan_2009-52">[52]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Simonelli_2010_53-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Simonelli_2010-53">[53]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The unique architecture of the retina and its relatively immune-privileged environment help this process.<SUP id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-59">[59]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Tight_junction" title="Tight junction">Tight junctions</A> that form the <A href="/wiki/Blood_retinal_barrier" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood retinal barrier">blood retinal barrier</A> separate the subretinal space from the blood supply, thus protecting it from microbes and most immune-mediated damage, and enhancing its potential to respond to vector-mediated therapies. The highly compartmentalized anatomy of the eye facilitates accurate delivery of therapeutic vector suspensions to specific tissues under direct visualization using microsurgical techniques.<SUP id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-60">[60]</A></SUP> In the sheltered environment of the retina, AAV vectors are able to maintain high levels of <A href="/wiki/Transgene" title="Transgene">transgene</A> expression in the retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE), photoreceptors, or ganglion cells for long periods of time after a single treatment. In addition, the eye and the visual system can be routinely and easily monitored for visual function and retinal structural changes after injections with noninvasive advanced technology, such as visual acuities, <A href="/wiki/Contrast_sensitivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Contrast sensitivity">contrast sensitivity</A>, <A href="/wiki/Fundus_(eye)" title="Fundus (eye)">fundus</A> auto-fluorescence (FAF), dark-adapted visual thresholds, vascular diameters, pupillometry, <A href="/wiki/Electroretinography" title="Electroretinography">electroretinography</A> (ERG), multifocal ERG and <A href="/wiki/Optical_coherence_tomography" title="Optical coherence tomography">optical coherence tomography</A> (OCT).<SUP id="cite_ref-Hollander2008_61-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Hollander2008-61">[61]</A></SUP></P>
<P>This strategy is effective against a number of retinal diseases that have been studied, including neovascular diseases that are features of <A href="/wiki/Age-related_macular_degeneration" class="mw-redirect" title="Age-related macular degeneration">age-related macular degeneration</A>, <A href="/wiki/Diabetic_retinopathy" title="Diabetic retinopathy">diabetic retinopathy</A> and <A href="/wiki/Retinopathy_of_prematurity" title="Retinopathy of prematurity">retinopathy of prematurity</A>. Since the regulation of vascularization in the mature retina involves a balance between endogenous positive <A href="/wiki/Growth_factors" class="mw-redirect" title="Growth factors">growth factors</A>, such as <A href="/wiki/Vascular_endothelial_growth_factor" title="Vascular endothelial growth factor">vascular endothelial growth factor</A> (VEGF) and inhibitors of <A href="/wiki/Angiogenesis" title="Angiogenesis">angiogenesis</A>, such as pigment epithelium-derived factor (<A href="/wiki/PEDF" title="PEDF">PEDF</A>), rAAV-mediated expression of PEDF, angiostatin, and the soluble VEGF receptor sFlt-1, which are all antiangiogenic proteins, have been shown to reduce aberrant vessel formation in animal models.<SUP id="cite_ref-Rolling2004_62-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Rolling2004-62">[62]</A></SUP> Since specific gene therapies cannot readily be used to treat a significant fraction of patients with retinal dystrophy, there is a major interest in developing a more generally applicable survival factor therapy. <A href="/wiki/Neurotrophic_factors" title="Neurotrophic factors">Neurotrophic factors</A> have the ability to modulate neuronal growth during development to maintain existing cells and to allow recovery of injured neuronal populations in the eye. AAV encoding neurotrophic factors such as fibroblast growth factor (FGF) family members and GDNF either protected photoreceptors from apoptosis or slowed down cell death.<SUP id="cite_ref-Rolling2004_62-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Rolling2004-62">[62]</A></SUP></P>
<P><B>Organ transplantation</B> <A href="/wiki/Organ_transplant" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ transplant">Transplantation</A> of retinas has been attempted, but without much success. At <A href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">MIT</A>, The University of Southern California, RWTH Aachen University, and the <A href="/wiki/University_of_New_South_Wales" title="University of New South Wales">University of New South Wales</A>, an "artificial retina" is under development: an implant which will bypass the photoreceptors of the retina and stimulate the attached nerve cells directly, with signals from a digital camera.</P>
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<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Notable_researchers_and_discoveries">Notable researchers and discoveries</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Retina&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Notable researchers and discoveries">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>In 1894, <A href="/wiki/Santiago_Ram%C3%B3n_y_Cajal" title="Santiago Ramón y Cajal">Santiago Ramón y Cajal</A> published the first major characterization of retinal neurons in <I>Retina der Wirbelthiere</I> (<I>The Retina of Vertebrates</I>).<SUP id="cite_ref-nobelprize.org_63-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-nobelprize.org-63">[63]</A></SUP></P>
<P><A href="/wiki/George_Wald" title="George Wald">George Wald</A>, <A href="/wiki/Haldan_Keffer_Hartline" title="Haldan Keffer Hartline">Haldan Keffer Hartline</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Ragnar_Granit" title="Ragnar Granit">Ragnar Granit</A> won the 1967 <A href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</A> for their scientific research on the retina.<SUP id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-64">[64]</A></SUP></P>
<P>A recent <A href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</A> study calculated that the approximate <A href="/wiki/Bandwidth_(computing)" title="Bandwidth (computing)">bandwidth</A> of human retinas is 8.75 megabits per second, whereas a <A href="/wiki/Guinea_pig" title="Guinea pig">guinea pig</A>'s retinal transfer rate is 875 kilobits per second.<SUP id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-65">[65]</A></SUP></P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Robert_MacLaren" title="Robert MacLaren">MacLaren</A> & Pearson and colleagues at <A href="/wiki/University_College_London" title="University College London">University College London</A> and <A href="/wiki/Moorfields_Eye_Hospital" title="Moorfields Eye Hospital">Moorfields Eye Hospital</A> in London, in 2006, showed that <A href="/wiki/Photoreceptor_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Photoreceptor cells">photoreceptor cells</A> could be transplanted successfully in the mouse retina if donor cells were at a critical developmental stage.<SUP id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-66">[66]</A></SUP> Recently Ader and colleagues in Dublin showed, using the electron microscope, that transplanted photoreceptors formed synaptic connections.<SUP id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-67">[67]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In 2012, <A href="/wiki/Sebastian_Seung" title="Sebastian Seung">Sebastian Seung</A> and his laboratory at <A href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">MIT</A> have launched <A href="/wiki/EyeWire" class="mw-redirect" title="EyeWire">EyeWire</A>, an online <A href="/wiki/Citizen_science" title="Citizen science">Citizen science</A> game where players trace neurons in the retina.<SUP id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-68">[68]</A></SUP> The goals of the EyeWire project are to identify specific cell types within the known broad classes of retinal cells, and to <A href="/wiki/Brain_mapping" title="Brain mapping">map the connections</A> between neurons in the retina, which will help to determine how vision works.<SUP id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-69">[69]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-70">[70]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Additional_images">Additional images</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Retina&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Additional images">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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<DIV style="margin:28px auto;"><A href="/wiki/File:Three_Main_Layers_of_the_Eye.png" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Three_Main_Layers_of_the_Eye.png/120px-Three_Main_Layers_of_the_Eye.png" width="120" height="94" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Three_Main_Layers_of_the_Eye.png/180px-Three_Main_Layers_of_the_Eye.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Three_Main_Layers_of_the_Eye.png/240px-Three_Main_Layers_of_the_Eye.png 2x" data-file-width="765" data-file-height="599" /></A></DIV>
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<P>The structures of the eye labeled</P>
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<DIV style="margin:15px auto;"><A href="/wiki/File:Three_Internal_chambers_of_the_Eye.png" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Three_Internal_chambers_of_the_Eye.png/117px-Three_Internal_chambers_of_the_Eye.png" width="117" height="120" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Three_Internal_chambers_of_the_Eye.png/176px-Three_Internal_chambers_of_the_Eye.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Three_Internal_chambers_of_the_Eye.png/235px-Three_Internal_chambers_of_the_Eye.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="1125" /></A></DIV>
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<P>Another view of the eye and the structures of the eye labeled</P>
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<DIV style="margin:15px auto;"><A href="/wiki/File:Retinal_Image.png" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Retinal_Image.png/120px-Retinal_Image.png" width="120" height="120" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Retinal_Image.png/180px-Retinal_Image.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Retinal_Image.png/240px-Retinal_Image.png 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="2048" /></A></DIV>
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<P>Illustration of image as 'seen' by the retina independent of optic nerve and striate cortex processing.</P>
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<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Retina&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article uses anatomical terminology; for an overview, see <A href="/wiki/Anatomical_terminology" title="Anatomical terminology">Anatomical terminology</A>.</DIV>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Adeno_associated_virus_and_gene_therapy_of_the_human_retina" class="mw-redirect" title="Adeno associated virus and gene therapy of the human retina">Adeno associated virus and gene therapy of the human retina</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Charles_Schepens" title="Charles Schepens">Charles Schepens</A> – "the father of modern retinal surgery"</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">Evolution of the eye</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Duplex_retina" title="Duplex retina">Duplex retina</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Retinal_scan" title="Retinal scan">Retinal scan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_xanthoma_variants_associated_with_hyperlipoproteinemia_subtypes" title="List of xanthoma variants associated with hyperlipoproteinemia subtypes">List of xanthoma variants associated with hyperlipoproteinemia subtypes</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Rhodopsin" title="Rhodopsin">Rhodopsin</A></LI>
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<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="References">References</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Retina&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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<LI id="cite_note-1"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-1"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">J, Krause William (1 July 2005). <I>Krause's Essential Human Histology for Medical Students</I>. Boca Raton: Universal Publishers. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58112-468-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58112-468-2">978-1-58112-468-2</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Krause%27s+Essential+Human+Histology+for+Medical+Students&rft.place=Boca+Raton&rft.pub=Universal+Publishers&rft.date=2005-07-01&rft.isbn=978-1-58112-468-2&rft.aulast=J&rft.aufirst=Krause+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-eb-2"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-eb_2-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-eb_2-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-eb_2-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-eb_2-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-eb_2-4"><SUP><I><B>e</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-eb_2-5"><SUP><I><B>f</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-eb_2-6"><SUP><I><B>g</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">"Sensory Reception: Human Vision: Structure and function of the Human Eye" vol. 27, Encyclopædia Britannica, 1987</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-3"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-3"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uphs.upenn.edu/news/News_Releases/jul06/retinput.htm">"Archived copy"</A>. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130311163145/http://www.uphs.upenn.edu/news/News_Releases/jul06/retinput.htm">Archived</A> from the original on 11 March 2013<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">11 February</SPAN> 2013</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uphs.upenn.edu%2Fnews%2FNews_Releases%2Fjul06%2Fretinput.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-pmid17485670-4"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-pmid17485670_4-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Franze K, Grosche J, Skatchkov SN, Schinkinger S, Foja C, Schild D, Uckermann O, Travis K, Reichenbach A, Guck J (2007). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1895942">"Muller cells are living optical fibers in the vertebrate retina"</A>. <I>Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A</I>. <B>104</B> (20): 8287–92. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0611180104">10.1073/pnas.0611180104</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1895942">1895942</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17485670">17485670</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proc.+Natl.+Acad.+Sci.+U.S.A.&rft.atitle=Muller+cells+are+living+optical+fibers+in+the+vertebrate+retina&rft.volume=104&rft.issue=20&rft.pages=8287-92&rft.date=2007&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1895942&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17485670&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0611180104&rft.aulast=Franze&rft.aufirst=K&rft.au=Grosche%2C+J&rft.au=Skatchkov%2C+SN&rft.au=Schinkinger%2C+S&rft.au=Foja%2C+C&rft.au=Schild%2C+D&rft.au=Uckermann%2C+O&rft.au=Travis%2C+K&rft.au=Reichenbach%2C+A&rft.au=Guck%2C+J&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1895942&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-5"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-5"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Baker, Oliver (April 23, 2010). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://physics.aps.org/story/v25/st15">"Focus: Eye Cells as Light Pipes"</A>. <I>Phys. Rev. Focus</I>. <B>25</B> (15). <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1103%2Fphysrevfocus.25.15">10.1103/physrevfocus.25.15</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">1 Jan</SPAN> 2018</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Phys.+Rev.+Focus&rft.atitle=Focus%3A+Eye+Cells+as+Light+Pipes&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=15&rft.date=2010-04-23&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2Fphysrevfocus.25.15&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=Oliver&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphysics.aps.org%2Fstory%2Fv25%2Fst15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-6"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-6"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Sperling, L.; Hubbard, R. (1 February 1975). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jgp.rupress.org/content/65/2/235">"Squid retinochrome"</A>. <I>The Journal of General Physiology</I>. <B>65</B> (2): 235–251. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1085%2Fjgp.65.2.235">10.1085/jgp.65.2.235</A>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0022-1295">0022-1295</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2214869">2214869</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/235007">235007</A>. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170930084632/http://jgp.rupress.org/content/65/2/235">Archived</A> from the original on 30 September 2017.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+General+Physiology&rft.atitle=Squid+retinochrome.&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=235-251&rft.date=1975-02-01&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2214869&rft.issn=0022-1295&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F235007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1085%2Fjgp.65.2.235&rft.aulast=Sperling&rft.aufirst=L.&rft.au=Hubbard%2C+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjgp.rupress.org%2Fcontent%2F65%2F2%2F235&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-7"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-7"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.australianmuseum.net.au/How-spiders-see-the-world">"How spiders see the world – Australian Museum"</A>. <I>www.australianmuseum.net.au</I>. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170912224747/https://australianmuseum.net.au/how-spiders-see-the-world">Archived</A> from the original on 12 September 2017<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">5 December</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.australianmuseum.net.au&rft.atitle=How+spiders+see+the+world+%E2%80%93+Australian+Museum&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.australianmuseum.net.au%2FHow-spiders-see-the-world&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-8"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-8"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://stanford.edu/group/vista/cgi-bin/FOV/chapter-3-the-photoreceptor-mosaic">Foundations of Vision</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131203022748/http://stanford.edu/group/vista/cgi-bin/FOV/chapter-3-the-photoreceptor-mosaic">Archived</A> 3 December 2013 at the <A href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</A>., Brian A. Wandell</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-9"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-9"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://education.vetmed.vt.edu/Curriculum/VM8054/EYE/RETINA.HTM">The Retinal Tunic.</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070518033845/http://education.vetmed.vt.edu/Curriculum/VM8054/EYE/RETINA.HTM">Archived</A> 18 May 2007 at the <A href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</A>. Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-10"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-10"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Shepherd, Gordon (2004). <I>The Synaptic Organization of the Brain</I>. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. pp. 217–225. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-515956-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-515956-1">978-0-19-515956-1</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Synaptic+Organization+of+the+Brain&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=217-225&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-19-515956-1&rft.au=Shepherd%2C+Gordon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-VB-11"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-VB_11-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Romer, Alfred Sherwood; Parsons, Thomas S. (1977). <I>The Vertebrate Body</I>. Philadelphia, PA: Holt-Saunders International. p. 465. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-03-910284-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-03-910284-X">0-03-910284-X</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Vertebrate+Body&rft.place=Philadelphia%2C+PA&rft.pages=465&rft.pub=Holt-Saunders+International&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=0-03-910284-X&rft.au=Romer%2C+Alfred+Sherwood&rft.au=Parsons%2C+Thomas+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-12"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-12"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Cuenca, Nicolás; Ortuño-Lizarán, Isabel; Pinilla, Isabel (March 2018). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0161642017316743">"Cellular Characterization of OCT and Outer Retinal Bands Using Specific Immunohistochemistry Markers and Clinical Implications"</A>. <I>Ophthalmology</I>. <B>125</B> (3): 407–422. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ophtha.2017.09.016">10.1016/j.ophtha.2017.09.016</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ophthalmology&rft.atitle=Cellular+Characterization+of+OCT+and+Outer+Retinal+Bands+Using+Specific+Immunohistochemistry+Markers+and+Clinical+Implications.&rft.volume=125&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=407-422&rft.date=2018-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ophtha.2017.09.016&rft.aulast=Cuenca&rft.aufirst=Nicol%C3%A1s&rft.au=Ortu%C3%B1o-Lizar%C3%A1n%2C+Isabel&rft.au=Pinilla%2C+Isabel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0161642017316743&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-:0-13"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-:0_13-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-:0_13-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-:0_13-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-:0_13-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-:0_13-4"><SUP><I><B>e</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-:0_13-5"><SUP><I><B>f</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-:0_13-6"><SUP><I><B>g</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-:0_13-7"><SUP><I><B>h</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-:0_13-8"><SUP><I><B>i</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-:0_13-9"><SUP><I><B>j</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-:0_13-10"><SUP><I><B>k</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-:0_13-11"><SUP><I><B>l</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-:0_13-12"><SUP><I><B>m</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-:0_13-13"><SUP><I><B>n</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-:0_13-14"><SUP><I><B>o</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-:0_13-15"><SUP><I><B>p</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Staurenghi, Giovanni; Sadda, Srinivas; Chakravarthy, Usha; Spaide, Richard F. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0161642014001870">"Proposed Lexicon for Anatomic Landmarks in Normal Posterior Segment Spectral-Domain Optical Coherence Tomography"</A>. <I>Ophthalmology</I>. <B>121</B> (8): 1572–1578. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ophtha.2014.02.023">10.1016/j.ophtha.2014.02.023</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ophthalmology&rft.atitle=Proposed+Lexicon+for+Anatomic+Landmarks+in+Normal+Posterior+Segment+Spectral-Domain+Optical+Coherence+Tomography&rft.volume=121&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=1572-1578&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ophtha.2014.02.023&rft.aulast=Staurenghi&rft.aufirst=Giovanni&rft.au=Sadda%2C+Srinivas&rft.au=Chakravarthy%2C+Usha&rft.au=Spaide%2C+Richard+F.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0161642014001870&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-14"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-14"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/964379175"><I>Spectral domain optical coherence tomography in macular diseases</I></A>. Meyer, Carsten H.,, Saxena, Sandeep,, Sadda, SriniVas R.,. New Delhi, India: Springer. 2017. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788132236108" title="Special:BookSources/9788132236108">9788132236108</A>. <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/964379175">964379175</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spectral+domain+optical+coherence+tomography+in+macular+diseases&rft.place=New+Delhi%2C+India&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F964379175&rft.isbn=9788132236108&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F964379175&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-15"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-15"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Hildebrand, Göran Darius; Fielder, Alistair R. (2011). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-12041-1_2"><I>Pediatric Retina</I></A>. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. pp. 39–65. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-12041-1_2">10.1007/978-3-642-12041-1_2</A>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783642120404" title="Special:BookSources/9783642120404">9783642120404</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pediatric+Retina&rft.pages=39-65&rft.pub=Springer%2C+Berlin%2C+Heidelberg&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-642-12041-1_2&rft.isbn=9783642120404&rft.aulast=Hildebrand&rft.aufirst=G%C3%B6ran+Darius&rft.au=Fielder%2C+Alistair+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fchapter%2F10.1007%2F978-3-642-12041-1_2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-16"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-16"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Turgut, Burak; University, Fırat; Medicine, School of; Ophthalmology, Department of; Elazig; Turkey. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.touchophthalmology.com/articles/past-and-present-terminology-retinal-and-choroidal-structures-optical-coherence-tomography">"Past and Present Terminology for the Retinal and Choroidal Structures in Optical Coherence Tomography"</A>. <I>European Ophthalmic Review</I>. <B>11</B> (01). <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.17925%2Feor.2017.11.01.59">10.17925/eor.2017.11.01.59</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Ophthalmic+Review&rft.atitle=Past+and+Present+Terminology+for+the+Retinal+and+Choroidal+Structures+in+Optical+Coherence+Tomography&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17925%2Feor.2017.11.01.59&rft.aulast=Turgut&rft.aufirst=Burak&rft.au=University%2C+F%C4%B1rat&rft.au=Medicine%2C+School+of&rft.au=Ophthalmology%2C+Department+of&rft.au=Elazig&rft.au=Turkey&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.touchophthalmology.com%2Farticles%2Fpast-and-present-terminology-retinal-and-choroidal-structures-optical-coherence-tomography&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-17"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-17"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Cuenca, Nicolás; Ortuño-Lizarán, Isabel; Pinilla, Isabel (March 2018). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0161642017316743">"Cellular Characterization of OCT and Outer Retinal Bands Using Specific Immunohistochemistry Markers and Clinical Implications"</A>. <I>Ophthalmology</I>. <B>125</B> (3): 407–422. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ophtha.2017.09.016">10.1016/j.ophtha.2017.09.016</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ophthalmology&rft.atitle=Cellular+Characterization+of+OCT+and+Outer+Retinal+Bands+Using+Specific+Immunohistochemistry+Markers+and+Clinical+Implications.&rft.volume=125&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=407-422&rft.date=2018-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ophtha.2017.09.016&rft.aulast=Cuenca&rft.aufirst=Nicol%C3%A1s&rft.au=Ortu%C3%B1o-Lizar%C3%A1n%2C+Isabel&rft.au=Pinilla%2C+Isabel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0161642017316743&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-18"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-18"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reviewofophthalmology.com/article/outer-retinal-layers-as-predictors-of-vision-loss">"Outer Retinal Layers as Predictors of Vision Loss"</A>. <I>Review of Ophthalmology</I>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Review+of+Ophthalmology&rft.atitle=Outer+Retinal+Layers+as+Predictors+of+Vision+Loss&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reviewofophthalmology.com%2Farticle%2Fouter-retinal-layers-as-predictors-of-vision-loss&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-19"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-19"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Hildebrand, Göran Darius; Fielder, Alistair R. (2011). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-12041-1_2"><I>Pediatric Retina</I></A>. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. pp. 39–65. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-12041-1_2">10.1007/978-3-642-12041-1_2</A>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783642120404" title="Special:BookSources/9783642120404">9783642120404</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pediatric+Retina&rft.pages=39-65&rft.pub=Springer%2C+Berlin%2C+Heidelberg&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-642-12041-1_2&rft.isbn=9783642120404&rft.aulast=Hildebrand&rft.aufirst=G%C3%B6ran+Darius&rft.au=Fielder%2C+Alistair+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fchapter%2F10.1007%2F978-3-642-12041-1_2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-20"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-20"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Staurenghi, Giovanni; Sadda, Srinivas; Chakravarthy, Usha; Spaide, Richard F. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0161642014001870">"Proposed Lexicon for Anatomic Landmarks in Normal Posterior Segment Spectral-Domain Optical Coherence Tomography"</A>. <I>Ophthalmology</I>. <B>121</B> (8): 1572–1578. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ophtha.2014.02.023">10.1016/j.ophtha.2014.02.023</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ophthalmology&rft.atitle=Proposed+Lexicon+for+Anatomic+Landmarks+in+Normal+Posterior+Segment+Spectral-Domain+Optical+Coherence+Tomography&rft.volume=121&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=1572-1578&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ophtha.2014.02.023&rft.aulast=Staurenghi&rft.aufirst=Giovanni&rft.au=Sadda%2C+Srinivas&rft.au=Chakravarthy%2C+Usha&rft.au=Spaide%2C+Richard+F.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0161642014001870&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-21"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-21"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reviewofoptometry.com/article/the-abcs-of-oct">"The ABCs of OCT"</A>. <I>Review of Optometry</I>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Review+of+Optometry&rft.atitle=The+ABCs+of+OCT&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reviewofoptometry.com%2Farticle%2Fthe-abcs-of-oct&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-22"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-22"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Sherman, J (June 2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19465337">"Photoreceptor integrity line joins the nerve fiber layer as key to clinical diagnosis"</A>. <I>Optometry</I>. <B>80</B> (6): 277–8. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.optm.2008.12.006">10.1016/j.optm.2008.12.006</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19465337">19465337</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Optometry&rft.atitle=Photoreceptor+integrity+line+joins+the+nerve+fiber+layer+as+key+to+clinical+diagnosis.&rft.volume=80&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=277-8&rft.date=2009-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.optm.2008.12.006&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19465337&rft.aulast=Sherman&rft.aufirst=J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpubmed%2F19465337&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-23"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-23"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Boston, Marco A. Bonini Filho, MD, and Andre J. Witkin, MD,. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reviewofophthalmology.com/article/outer-retinal-layers-as-predictors-of-vision-loss">"Outer Retinal Layers as Predictors of Vision Loss"</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2018-04-07</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Outer+Retinal+Layers+as+Predictors+of+Vision+Loss&rft.aulast=Boston&rft.aufirst=Marco+A.+Bonini+Filho%2C+MD%2C+and+Andre+J.+Witkin%2C+MD%2C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reviewofophthalmology.com%2Farticle%2Fouter-retinal-layers-as-predictors-of-vision-loss&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-24"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-24"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Cuenca, Nicolás; Ortuño-Lizarán, Isabel; Pinilla, Isabel (March 2018). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0161642017316743">"Cellular Characterization of OCT and Outer Retinal Bands Using Specific Immunohistochemistry Markers and Clinical Implications"</A>. <I>Ophthalmology</I>. <B>125</B> (3): 407–422. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ophtha.2017.09.016">10.1016/j.ophtha.2017.09.016</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ophthalmology&rft.atitle=Cellular+Characterization+of+OCT+and+Outer+Retinal+Bands+Using+Specific+Immunohistochemistry+Markers+and+Clinical+Implications.&rft.volume=125&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=407-422&rft.date=2018-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ophtha.2017.09.016&rft.aulast=Cuenca&rft.aufirst=Nicol%C3%A1s&rft.au=Ortu%C3%B1o-Lizar%C3%A1n%2C+Isabel&rft.au=Pinilla%2C+Isabel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0161642017316743&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Heavner-25"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Heavner_25-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Heavner_25-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Heavner_25-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Heavner, W; Pevny, L (1 December 2012). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3504437">"Eye development and retinogenesis"</A>. <I>Cold Spring Harbor perspectives in biology</I>. <B>4</B> (12): a008391. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1101%2Fcshperspect.a008391">10.1101/cshperspect.a008391</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3504437">3504437</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23071378">23071378</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cold+Spring+Harbor+perspectives+in+biology&rft.atitle=Eye+development+and+retinogenesis.&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=a008391&rft.date=2012-12-01&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3504437&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23071378&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1101%2Fcshperspect.a008391&rft.aulast=Heavner&rft.aufirst=W&rft.au=Pevny%2C+L&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3504437&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-26"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-26"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Halder, G; Callaerts, P; Gehring, WJ (24 March 1995). "Induction of ectopic eyes by targeted expression of the eyeless gene in Drosophila". <I>Science</I>. <B>267</B> (5205): 1788–92. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995Sci...267.1788H">1995Sci...267.1788H</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.7892602">10.1126/science.7892602</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7892602">7892602</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Induction+of+ectopic+eyes+by+targeted+expression+of+the+eyeless+gene+in+Drosophila&rft.volume=267&rft.issue=5205&rft.pages=1788-92&rft.date=1995-03-24&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7892602&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.7892602&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1995Sci...267.1788H&rft.aulast=Halder&rft.aufirst=G&rft.au=Callaerts%2C+P&rft.au=Gehring%2C+WJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-27"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-27"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Hatakeyama, J; Kageyama, R (February 2004). "Retinal cell fate determination and bHLH factors". <I>Seminars in cell & developmental biology</I>. <B>15</B> (1): 83–9. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.semcdb.2003.09.005">10.1016/j.semcdb.2003.09.005</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15036211">15036211</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Seminars+in+cell+%26+developmental+biology&rft.atitle=Retinal+cell+fate+determination+and+bHLH+factors.&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=83-9&rft.date=2004-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.semcdb.2003.09.005&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15036211&rft.aulast=Hatakeyama&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Kageyama%2C+R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-28"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-28"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Ann., Remington, Lee (2012). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/745905738"><I>Clinical anatomy and physiology of the visual system</I></A> (3rd ed.). St. Louis: Elsevier/Butterworth-Heinemann. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4377-1926-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-4377-1926-0">1-4377-1926-0</A>. <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/745905738">745905738</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Clinical+anatomy+and+physiology+of+the+visual+system&rft.place=St.+Louis&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Elsevier%2FButterworth-Heinemann&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F745905738&rft.isbn=1-4377-1926-0&rft.aulast=Ann.&rft.aufirst=Remington%2C+Lee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F745905738&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-29"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-29"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Yu, DY; Yu, PK; Cringle, SJ; Kang, MH; Su, EN (May 2014). "Functional and morphological characteristics of the retinal and choroidal vasculature". <I>Progress in retinal and eye research</I>. <B>40</B>: 53–93. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.preteyeres.2014.02.001">10.1016/j.preteyeres.2014.02.001</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24583621">24583621</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Progress+in+retinal+and+eye+research&rft.atitle=Functional+and+morphological+characteristics+of+the+retinal+and+choroidal+vasculature.&rft.volume=40&rft.pages=53-93&rft.date=2014-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.preteyeres.2014.02.001&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24583621&rft.aulast=Yu&rft.aufirst=DY&rft.au=Yu%2C+PK&rft.au=Cringle%2C+SJ&rft.au=Kang%2C+MH&rft.au=Su%2C+EN&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-30"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-30"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Kiel, Jeffrey W. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK53329/"><I>Anatomy</I></A>. Morgan & Claypool Life Sciences. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171205073518/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK53329/">Archived</A> from the original on 5 December 2017<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">17 April</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Anatomy&rft.pub=Morgan+%26+Claypool+Life+Sciences&rft.aulast=Kiel&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK53329%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-31"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-31"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Strauss, Olaf. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-ii-anatomy-and-physiology-of-the-retina/the-retinal-pigment-epithelium">"The retinal pigment epithelium"</A>. <I>Webvision</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">1 Jan</SPAN> 2018</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Webvision&rft.atitle=The+retinal+pigment+epithelium.&rft.aulast=Strauss&rft.aufirst=Olaf&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwebvision.med.utah.edu%2Fbook%2Fpart-ii-anatomy-and-physiology-of-the-retina%2Fthe-retinal-pigment-epithelium&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-32"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-32"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Kolb, Helga. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-i-foundations/simple-anatomy-of-the-retina/">"Simple Anatomy of the Retina"</A>. <I>Webvision</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">1 Jan</SPAN> 2018</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Webvision&rft.atitle=Simple+Anatomy+of+the+Retina&rft.aulast=Kolb&rft.aufirst=Helga&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwebvision.med.utah.edu%2Fbook%2Fpart-i-foundations%2Fsimple-anatomy-of-the-retina%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-33"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-33"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Photobiology of the retina <CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.photobiology.info/Rozanowska.html">"Archived copy"</A>. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120809035104/http://www.photobiology.info/Rozanowska.html">Archived</A> from the original on 9 August 2012<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">27 July</SPAN> 2012</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.photobiology.info%2FRozanowska.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-34"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-34"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Diagrammatic representation of disc shedding and phagosome retrieval into the pigment epithelial cell <CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webvision.med.utah.edu/imageswv/photphag.jpeg">"Archived copy"</A>. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120921011139/http://webvision.med.utah.edu/imageswv/photphag.jpeg">Archived</A> from the original on 21 September 2012<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">27 July</SPAN> 2012</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwebvision.med.utah.edu%2Fimageswv%2Fphotphag.jpeg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-35"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-35"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Bawa S.R.; YashRoy R.C. (1972). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/18108932_Effect_of_dark_and_light_adaptation_on_the_retina_and_pecten_of_chicken?ev=prf_pub">"Effect of dark and light adaptation on the retina and pecten of chicken"</A>. <I>Experimental Eye Research</I>. <B>13</B>: 92–97. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2F0014-4835%2872%2990129-7">10.1016/0014-4835(72)90129-7</A>. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141009111444/http://www.researchgate.net/publication/18108932_Effect_of_dark_and_light_adaptation_on_the_retina_and_pecten_of_chicken?ev=prf_pub">Archived</A> from the original on 9 October 2014.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Experimental+Eye+Research&rft.atitle=Effect+of+dark+and+light+adaptation+on+the+retina+and+pecten+of+chicken&rft.volume=13&rft.pages=92-97&rft.date=1972&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0014-4835%2872%2990129-7&rft.au=Bawa+S.R.&rft.au=YashRoy+R.C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F18108932_Effect_of_dark_and_light_adaptation_on_the_retina_and_pecten_of_chicken%3Fev%3Dprf_pub&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-36"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-36"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Bawa, S.R.; YashRoy, R.C. (1974). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231569868_Structure_and_function_of_vulture_pecten?ev=prf_pub">"Structure and function of vulture pecten"</A>. <I>Cells Tissues Organs</I>. <B>89</B> (3): 473–480. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1159%2F000144308">10.1159/000144308</A>. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150714070339/http://www.researchgate.net/publication/231569868_Structure_and_function_of_vulture_pecten?ev=prf_pub">Archived</A> from the original on 14 July 2015.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cells+Tissues+Organs&rft.atitle=Structure+and+function+of+vulture+pecten&rft.volume=89&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=473-480&rft.date=1974&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1159%2F000144308&rft.aulast=Bawa&rft.aufirst=S.R.&rft.au=YashRoy%2C+R.C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F231569868_Structure_and_function_of_vulture_pecten%3Fev%3Dprf_pub&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Sherman81-37"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Sherman81_37-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Sherman, T (1981). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2228620">"On connecting large vessels to small – the meaning of murray law"</A>. <I>Journal of General Physiology</I>. <B>78</B> (4): 431–453. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1085%2Fjgp.78.4.431">10.1085/jgp.78.4.431</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2228620">2228620</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7288393">7288393</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+General+Physiology&rft.atitle=On+connecting+large+vessels+to+small+%E2%80%93+the+meaning+of+murray+law&rft.volume=78&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=431-453&rft.date=1981&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2228620&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7288393&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1085%2Fjgp.78.4.431&rft.aulast=Sherman&rft.aufirst=T&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2228620&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Azzopardi2011-38"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Azzopardi2011_38-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Azzopardi G.; Petkov N. (2011). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.rug.nl/~petkov/publications/2011caip_bifurcations.pdf">"Detection of retinal vascular bifurcations by trainable V4-like filters, in Computer Analysis of Images and Patterns (CAIP), Seville"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>Lecture Notes in Computer Science</I>. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. <B>6854</B>: 451–459. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-23672-3_55">10.1007/978-3-642-23672-3_55</A>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-23671-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-642-23671-6">978-3-642-23671-6</A>. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170809091954/http://www.cs.rug.nl/~petkov/publications/2011caip_bifurcations.pdf">Archived</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN> from the original on 9 August 2017.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lecture+Notes+in+Computer+Science&rft.atitle=Detection+of+retinal+vascular+bifurcations+by+trainable+V4-like+filters%2C+in+Computer+Analysis+of+Images+and+Patterns+%28CAIP%29%2C+Seville&rft.volume=6854&rft.pages=451-459&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-642-23672-3_55&rft.isbn=978-3-642-23671-6&rft.au=Azzopardi+G.&rft.au=Petkov+N.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.rug.nl%2F~petkov%2Fpublications%2F2011caip_bifurcations.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-39"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-39"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.rug.nl/~imaging/databases/retina_database/retinalfeatures_database.html">"Retinal fundus images – Ground truth of vascular bifurcations and crossovers"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/University_of_Groningen" title="University of Groningen">University of Groningen</A></I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">20 April</SPAN> 2018</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Groningen&rft.atitle=Retinal+fundus+images+%E2%80%93+Ground+truth+of+vascular+bifurcations+and+crossovers&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.rug.nl%2F~imaging%2Fdatabases%2Fretina_database%2Fretinalfeatures_database.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-40"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-40"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.isi.uu.nl/Research/Databases/DRIVE/">"DRIVE: Digital Retinal Images for Vessel Extraction"</A>. <I>Image Sciences Institute, <A href="/wiki/Utrecht_University" title="Utrecht University">Utrecht University</A></I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">20 April</SPAN> 2018</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Image+Sciences+Institute%2C+Utrecht+University&rft.atitle=DRIVE%3A+Digital+Retinal+Images+for+Vessel+Extraction&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.isi.uu.nl%2FResearch%2FDatabases%2FDRIVE%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Qureshi2013-41"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Qureshi2013_41-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Qureshi, T. A.; Habib, M.; Hunter, A.; Al-Diri, B. (June 2013). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/6627847/">"A manually-labeled, artery/vein classified benchmark for the DRIVE dataset"</A>. <I>Proceedings of the 26th IEEE International Symposium on Computer-Based Medical Systems</I>: 485–488. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1109%2Fcbms.2013.6627847">10.1109/cbms.2013.6627847</A>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4799-1053-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4799-1053-3">978-1-4799-1053-3</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+26th+IEEE+International+Symposium+on+Computer-Based+Medical+Systems&rft.atitle=A+manually-labeled%2C+artery%2Fvein+classified+benchmark+for+the+DRIVE+dataset&rft.pages=485-488&rft.date=2013-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2Fcbms.2013.6627847&rft.isbn=978-1-4799-1053-3&rft.aulast=Qureshi&rft.aufirst=T.+A.&rft.au=Habib%2C+M.&rft.au=Hunter%2C+A.&rft.au=Al-Diri%2C+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fdocument%2F6627847%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Qureshi2014-42"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Qureshi2014_42-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Qureshi, T. A.; Hunter, A.; Al-Diri, B. (June 2014). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/lpdocs/epic03/wrapper.htm?arnumber=6909793">"A Bayesian Framework for the Local Configuration of Retinal Junctions"</A>. <I>2014 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition</I>: 3105–3110. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1109%2Fcvpr.2014.397">10.1109/cvpr.2014.397</A>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4799-5118-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4799-5118-5">978-1-4799-5118-5</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=2014+IEEE+Conference+on+Computer+Vision+and+Pattern+Recognition&rft.atitle=A+Bayesian+Framework+for+the+Local+Configuration+of+Retinal+Junctions&rft.pages=3105-3110&rft.date=2014-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2Fcvpr.2014.397&rft.isbn=978-1-4799-5118-5&rft.aulast=Qureshi&rft.aufirst=T.+A.&rft.au=Hunter%2C+A.&rft.au=Al-Diri%2C+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Flpdocs%2Fepic03%2Fwrapper.htm%3Farnumber%3D6909793&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-43"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-43"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Adar SD, Klein R, Klein BE, Szpiro AA, Cotch MF, Wong TY, et al. (2010). "Air Pollution and the microvasculature: a crosssectional assessment of in vivo retinal images in the population based multiethnic study of atherosclerosis (MESA)". <I>PLoS Med</I>. <B>7</B> (11): e1000372. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.1000372">10.1371/journal.pmed.1000372</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLoS+Med&rft.atitle=Air+Pollution+and+the++microvasculature%3A+a+crosssectional+assessment+of+in+vivo+retinal+images+in+the+population+based+multiethnic+study+of+atherosclerosis+%28MESA%29&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=e1000372&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.1000372&rft.aulast=Adar&rft.aufirst=SD&rft.au=Klein%2C+R&rft.au=Klein%2C+BE&rft.au=Szpiro%2C+AA&rft.au=Cotch%2C+MF&rft.au=Wong%2C+TY&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Louwies-44"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Louwies_44-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Louwies, Tijs; Panis, Luc Int; Kicinski, Michal; Boever, Patrick De; Nawrot, Tim S. (2013). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131102175011/http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/1205721/">"Retinal Microvascular Responses to Short-Term Changes in Particulate Air Pollution in Healthy Adults"</A>. <I>Environmental Health Perspectives</I>. <B>121</B> (9): 1011–6. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1289%2Fehp.1205721">10.1289/ehp.1205721</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3764070">3764070</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23777785">23777785</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/1205721/">the original</A> on 2 November 2013.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Health+Perspectives&rft.atitle=Retinal+Microvascular+Responses+to+Short-Term+Changes+in+Particulate+Air+Pollution+in+Healthy+Adults&rft.volume=121&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=1011-6&rft.date=2013&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3764070&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23777785&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1289%2Fehp.1205721&rft.aulast=Louwies&rft.aufirst=Tijs&rft.au=Panis%2C+Luc+Int&rft.au=Kicinski%2C+Michal&rft.au=Boever%2C+Patrick+De&rft.au=Nawrot%2C+Tim+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fehp.niehs.nih.gov%2F1205721%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-45"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-45"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Tso, Mark O.M.; Jampol, Lee M. (1982). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0161642082346631">"Pathophysiology of Hypertensive Retinopathy"</A>. <I>Ophthalmology</I>. <B>89</B> (10): 1132–1145. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0161-6420%2882%2934663-1">10.1016/s0161-6420(82)34663-1</A>. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171205073518/http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0161642082346631">Archived</A> from the original on 5 December 2017.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ophthalmology&rft.atitle=Pathophysiology+of+Hypertensive+Retinopathy&rft.volume=89&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1132-1145&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fs0161-6420%2882%2934663-1&rft.aulast=Tso&rft.aufirst=Mark+O.M.&rft.au=Jampol%2C+Lee+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0161642082346631&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Chapman2002-46"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Chapman2002_46-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Chapman, N.; Dell'omo, G.; Sartini, M. S.; Witt, N.; Hughes, A.; Thom, S.; Pedrinelli, R. (1 August 2002). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.clinsci.org/content/103/2/111">"Peripheral vascular disease is associated with abnormal arteriolar diameter relationships at bifurcations in the human retina"</A>. <I>Clinical Science</I>. <B>103</B> (2): 111–116. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1042%2Fcs1030111">10.1042/cs1030111</A>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0143-5221">0143-5221</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12149100">12149100</A>. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170930084240/http://www.clinsci.org/content/103/2/111">Archived</A> from the original on 30 September 2017.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Science&rft.atitle=Peripheral+vascular+disease+is+associated+with+abnormal+arteriolar+diameter+relationships+at+bifurcations+in+the+human+retina&rft.volume=103&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=111-116&rft.date=2002-08-01&rft.issn=0143-5221&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12149100&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1042%2Fcs1030111&rft.aulast=Chapman&rft.aufirst=N.&rft.au=Dell%27omo%2C+G.&rft.au=Sartini%2C+M.+S.&rft.au=Witt%2C+N.&rft.au=Hughes%2C+A.&rft.au=Thom%2C+S.&rft.au=Pedrinelli%2C+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.clinsci.org%2Fcontent%2F103%2F2%2F111&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Patton06-47"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Patton06_47-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Patton, N.; Aslam, T.; MacGillivray, T.; Deary, I.; Dhillon, B.; Eikelboom, R.; Yogesan, K.; Constable, I. (2006). "Retinal image analysis: Concepts, applications and potential". <I>Progress in Retinal and Eye Research</I>. <B>25</B> (1): 99–127. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.preteyeres.2005.07.001">10.1016/j.preteyeres.2005.07.001</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16154379">16154379</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Progress+in+Retinal+and+Eye+Research&rft.atitle=Retinal+image+analysis%3A+Concepts%2C+applications+and+potential&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=99-127&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.preteyeres.2005.07.001&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16154379&rft.aulast=Patton&rft.aufirst=N.&rft.au=Aslam%2C+T.&rft.au=MacGillivray%2C+T.&rft.au=Deary%2C+I.&rft.au=Dhillon%2C+B.&rft.au=Eikelboom%2C+R.&rft.au=Yogesan%2C+K.&rft.au=Constable%2C+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-48"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-48"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Wong TY, Knudtson MD, Klein R, Klein BE, Meuer SM, Hubbard LD (2004). "Computer assisted measurement of retinal vessel diameters in the Beaver Dam Eye Study: methodology, correlation between eyes, and effect of refractive errors". <I>Ophthalmology</I>. <B>111</B> (6): 1183–1190. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ophtha.2003.09.039">10.1016/j.ophtha.2003.09.039</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15177969">15177969</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ophthalmology&rft.atitle=Computer+assisted+measurement+of+retinal+vessel+diameters+in+the+Beaver+Dam+Eye+Study%3A+methodology%2C+correlation+between+eyes%2C+and+effect+of+refractive+errors&rft.volume=111&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1183-1190&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ophtha.2003.09.039&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15177969&rft.aulast=Wong&rft.aufirst=TY&rft.au=Knudtson%2C+MD&rft.au=Klein%2C+R&rft.au=Klein%2C+BE&rft.au=Meuer%2C+SM&rft.au=Hubbard%2C+LD&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Retina-49"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Retina_49-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book"><I>Retina</I> (4th ed.). Philadelphia: Elsevier/Mosby. 2006. pp. 2013–2015. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-323-02598-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-323-02598-0">978-0-323-02598-0</A>. <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/62034580">62034580</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Retina&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pages=2013-2015&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Elsevier%2FMosby&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F62034580&rft.isbn=978-0-323-02598-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-50"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-50"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ingenia.org.uk/ingenia/articles.aspx?Index=414">Seeing into the Future</A> <I>Ingenia</I>, March 2007</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-51"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-51"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Dinculescu Astra; Glushakova Lyudmyla; Seok-Hong Min; Hauswirth William W (2005). "Adeno-associated virus-vectored gene therapy for retinal disease". <I>Human Gene Therapy</I>. <B>16</B> (6): 649–663. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1089%2Fhum.2005.16.649">10.1089/hum.2005.16.649</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15960597">15960597</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human+Gene+Therapy&rft.atitle=Adeno-associated+virus-vectored+gene+therapy+for+retinal+disease&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=649-663&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1089%2Fhum.2005.16.649&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15960597&rft.au=Dinculescu+Astra&rft.au=Glushakova+Lyudmyla&rft.au=Seok-Hong+Min&rft.au=Hauswirth+William+W&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Cideciyan_2009-52"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Cideciyan_2009_52-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Cideciyan_2009_52-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Cideciyan_2009_52-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Cideciyan A. V.; Hauswirth W. W.; Aleman T. S.; Kaushal S.; Schwartz S. B.; Boye S. L.; Windsor E. A. M.; et al. (2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2829287">"Human RPE65 gene therapy for Leber congenital amaurosis: persistence of early visual improvements and safety at 1 year"</A>. <I>Human gene therapy</I>. <B>20</B> (9): 999–1004. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1089%2Fhum.2009.086">10.1089/hum.2009.086</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2829287">2829287</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19583479">19583479</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human+gene+therapy&rft.atitle=Human+RPE65+gene+therapy+for+Leber+congenital+amaurosis%3A+persistence+of+early+visual+improvements+and+safety+at+1+year&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=999-1004&rft.date=2009&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2829287&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19583479&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1089%2Fhum.2009.086&rft.au=Cideciyan+A.+V.&rft.au=Hauswirth+W.+W.&rft.au=Aleman+T.+S.&rft.au=Kaushal+S.&rft.au=Schwartz+S.+B.&rft.au=Boye+S.+L.&rft.au=Windsor+E.+A.+M.&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2829287&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Simonelli_2010-53"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Simonelli_2010_53-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Simonelli_2010_53-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Simonelli_2010_53-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Simonelli F.; Maguire A. M.; Testa F.; Pierce E. A.; Mingozzi F.; Bennicelli J. L.; Rossi S.; et al. (2010). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2839440">"Gene therapy for Leber's congenital amaurosis is safe and effective through 1.5 years after vector administration"</A>. <I>Molecular Therapy</I>. <B>18</B> (3): 643–650. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2Fmt.2009.277">10.1038/mt.2009.277</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2839440">2839440</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19953081">19953081</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Therapy&rft.atitle=Gene+therapy+for+Leber%27s+congenital+amaurosis+is+safe+and+effective+through+1.5+years+after+vector+administration&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=643-650&rft.date=2010&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2839440&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19953081&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fmt.2009.277&rft.au=Simonelli+F.&rft.au=Maguire+A.+M.&rft.au=Testa+F.&rft.au=Pierce+E.+A.&rft.au=Mingozzi+F.&rft.au=Bennicelli+J.+L.&rft.au=Rossi+S.&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2839440&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Maguire_2008-54"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Maguire_2008_54-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Maguire_2008_54-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Maguire A. M.; Simonelli F.; Pierce E. A.; Pugh E. N.; Mingozzi F.; Bennicelli J.; Banfi S.; et al. (2008). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2829748">"Safety and efficacy of gene transfer for Leber's congenital amaurosis"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/The_New_England_Journal_of_Medicine" title="The New England Journal of Medicine">The New England Journal of Medicine</A></I>. <B>358</B> (21): 2240–2248. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMoa0802315">10.1056/NEJMoa0802315</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2829748">2829748</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18441370">18441370</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+England+Journal+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=Safety+and+efficacy+of+gene+transfer+for+Leber%27s+congenital+amaurosis&rft.volume=358&rft.issue=21&rft.pages=2240-2248&rft.date=2008&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2829748&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18441370&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1056%2FNEJMoa0802315&rft.au=Maguire+A.+M.&rft.au=Simonelli+F.&rft.au=Pierce+E.+A.&rft.au=Pugh+E.+N.&rft.au=Mingozzi+F.&rft.au=Bennicelli+J.&rft.au=Banfi+S.&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2829748&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Maguire_2009-55"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Maguire_2009_55-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Maguire_2009_55-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Maguire A. M.; High K. A.; Auricchio A.; Wright J. F.; Pierce E. A.; Testa F.; Mingozzi F.; et al. (2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4492302">"Age-dependent effects of RPE65 gene therapy for Leber's congenital amaurosis: a phase 1 dose-escalation trial"</A>. <I>Lancet</I>. <B>374</B> (9701): 1597–1605. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2809%2961836-5">10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61836-5</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4492302">4492302</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19854499">19854499</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lancet&rft.atitle=Age-dependent+effects+of+RPE65+gene+therapy+for+Leber%27s+congenital+amaurosis%3A+a+phase+1+dose-escalation+trial&rft.volume=374&rft.issue=9701&rft.pages=1597-1605&rft.date=2009&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4492302&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19854499&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2809%2961836-5&rft.au=Maguire+A.+M.&rft.au=High+K.+A.&rft.au=Auricchio+A.&rft.au=Wright+J.+F.&rft.au=Pierce+E.+A.&rft.au=Testa+F.&rft.au=Mingozzi+F.&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4492302&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Bainbridge_2008-56"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Bainbridge_2008_56-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Bainbridge J. W. B.; Smith A. J.; Barker S. S.; Robbie S.; Henderson R.; Balaggan K.; Viswanathan A.; et al. (2008). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cvrl.ioo.ucl.ac.uk/people/stockman/pubs/2008%20gene%20therapy%20b%20et%20al.pdf">"Effect of gene therapy on visual function in Leber's congenital amaurosis"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>The New England Journal of Medicine</I>. <B>358</B> (21): 2231–2239. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMoa0802268">10.1056/NEJMoa0802268</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18441371">18441371</A>. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170811191322/http://cvrl.ioo.ucl.ac.uk/people/Stockman/pubs/2008%20Gene%20therapy%20B%20et%20al.pdf">Archived</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN> from the original on 11 August 2017.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+England+Journal+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=Effect+of+gene+therapy+on+visual+function+in+Leber%27s+congenital+amaurosis&rft.volume=358&rft.issue=21&rft.pages=2231-2239&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1056%2FNEJMoa0802268&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18441371&rft.au=Bainbridge+J.+W.+B.&rft.au=Smith+A.+J.&rft.au=Barker+S.+S.&rft.au=Robbie+S.&rft.au=Henderson+R.&rft.au=Balaggan+K.&rft.au=Viswanathan+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcvrl.ioo.ucl.ac.uk%2Fpeople%2Fstockman%2Fpubs%2F2008%2520gene%2520therapy%2520b%2520et%2520al.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Hauswirth_2008-57"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Hauswirth_2008_57-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Hauswirth W. W.; Aleman T. S.; Kaushal S.; Cideciyan A. V.; Schwartz S. B.; Wang L.; Conlon T. J.; et al. (2008). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2940541">"Treatment of Leber Congenital Amaurosis Due to RPE65Mutations by Ocular Subretinal Injection of Adeno-Associated Virus Gene Vector: Short-Term Results of a Phase I Trial"</A>. <I>Human gene therapy</I>. <B>19</B> (10): 979–990. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1089%2Fhum.2008.107">10.1089/hum.2008.107</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2940541">2940541</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18774912">18774912</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human+gene+therapy&rft.atitle=Treatment+of+Leber+Congenital+Amaurosis+Due+to+RPE65Mutations+by+Ocular+Subretinal+Injection+of+Adeno-Associated+Virus+Gene+Vector%3A+Short-Term+Results+of+a+Phase+I+Trial&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=979-990&rft.date=2008&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2940541&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18774912&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1089%2Fhum.2008.107&rft.au=Hauswirth+W.+W.&rft.au=Aleman+T.+S.&rft.au=Kaushal+S.&rft.au=Cideciyan+A.+V.&rft.au=Schwartz+S.+B.&rft.au=Wang+L.&rft.au=Conlon+T.+J.&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2940541&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Ashtari_2011-58"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Ashtari_2011_58-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Ashtari M.; Cyckowski L. L.; Monroe J. F.; Marshall K. A.; Chung D. C.; Auricchio A.; Simonelli F.; et al. (2011). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3104779">"The human visual cortex responds to gene therapy-mediated recovery of retinal function"</A>. <I>The Journal of Clinical Investigation</I>. <B>121</B> (6): 2160–2168. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1172%2FJCI57377">10.1172/JCI57377</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3104779">3104779</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21606598">21606598</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Clinical+Investigation&rft.atitle=The+human+visual+cortex+responds+to+gene+therapy-mediated+recovery+of+retinal+function&rft.volume=121&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=2160-2168&rft.date=2011&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3104779&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21606598&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1172%2FJCI57377&rft.au=Ashtari+M.&rft.au=Cyckowski+L.+L.&rft.au=Monroe+J.+F.&rft.au=Marshall+K.+A.&rft.au=Chung+D.+C.&rft.au=Auricchio+A.&rft.au=Simonelli+F.&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3104779&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-59"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-59"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Bennett J (2003). "Immune response following intraocular delivery of recombinant viral vectors". <I>Gene therapy</I>. <B>10</B> (11): 977–982. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.gt.3302030">10.1038/sj.gt.3302030</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12756418">12756418</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Gene+therapy&rft.atitle=Immune+response+following+intraocular+delivery+of+recombinant+viral+vectors&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=977-982&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fsj.gt.3302030&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12756418&rft.au=Bennett+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-60"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-60"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Curace Enrico M.; Auricchio Alberto (2008). "Versatility of AAV vectors for retinal gene transfer". <I>Vision Research</I>. <B>48</B> (3): 353–359. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.visres.2007.07.027">10.1016/j.visres.2007.07.027</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Vision+Research&rft.atitle=Versatility+of+AAV+vectors+for+retinal+gene+transfer&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=353-359&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.visres.2007.07.027&rft.au=Curace+Enrico+M.&rft.au=Auricchio+Alberto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Hollander2008-61"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Hollander2008_61-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">den Hollander, Anneke I.; Roepman, Ronald; Koenekoop, Robert K.; Cremers, Frans P.M. (2008). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1350946208000360">"Leber congenital amaurosis: Genes, proteins and disease mechanisms"</A>. <I>Progress in Retinal and Eye Research</I>. <B>27</B> (4): 391–419. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.preteyeres.2008.05.003">10.1016/j.preteyeres.2008.05.003</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18632300">18632300</A>. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171205073518/http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1350946208000360">Archived</A> from the original on 5 December 2017.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Progress+in+Retinal+and+Eye+Research&rft.atitle=Leber+congenital+amaurosis%3A+Genes%2C+proteins+and+disease+mechanisms&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=391-419&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.preteyeres.2008.05.003&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18632300&rft.aulast=den+Hollander&rft.aufirst=Anneke+I.&rft.au=Roepman%2C+Ronald&rft.au=Koenekoop%2C+Robert+K.&rft.au=Cremers%2C+Frans+P.M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS1350946208000360&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Rolling2004-62"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Rolling2004_62-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Rolling2004_62-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Rolling, F. (2004). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/gt/journal/v11/n1s/full/3302366a.html?foxtrotcallback=true">"Recombinant AAV-mediated gene transfer to the retina: gene therapy perspectives"</A>. <I>Gene Therapy</I>. <B>11</B> (S1): S26–S32. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.gt.3302366">10.1038/sj.gt.3302366</A>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0969-7128">0969-7128</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15454954">15454954</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Gene+Therapy&rft.atitle=Recombinant+AAV-mediated+gene+transfer+to+the+retina%3A+gene+therapy+perspectives&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=S1&rft.pages=S26-S32&rft.date=2004&rft.issn=0969-7128&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15454954&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fsj.gt.3302366&rft.aulast=Rolling&rft.aufirst=F.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Fgt%2Fjournal%2Fv11%2Fn1s%2Ffull%2F3302366a.html%3Ffoxtrotcallback%3Dtrue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-nobelprize.org-63"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-nobelprize.org_63-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1906/cajal-bio.html">"Santiago Ramón y Cajal – Biographical"</A>. <I>www.nobelprize.org</I>. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151006122025/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1906/cajal-bio.html">Archived</A> from the original on 6 October 2015<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">20 October</SPAN> 2015</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.nobelprize.org&rft.atitle=Santiago+Ram%C3%B3n+y+Cajal+%E2%80%93+Biographical&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fmedicine%2Flaureates%2F1906%2Fcajal-bio.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-64"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-64"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1967/press.html">"Nobelprize.org"</A>. <I>nobelprize.org</I>. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170630125508/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1967/press.html">Archived</A> from the original on 30 June 2017<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">5 December</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nobelprize.org&rft.atitle=Nobelprize.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fmedicine%2Flaureates%2F1967%2Fpress.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-65"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-65"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn9633-calculating-the-speed-of-sight.html">"Calculating the speed of sight"</A>. <I>newscientist.com</I>. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150531174437/http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn9633-calculating-the-speed-of-sight.html">Archived</A> from the original on 31 May 2015<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">5 December</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=newscientist.com&rft.atitle=Calculating+the+speed+of+sight&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newscientist.com%2Farticle%2Fdn9633-calculating-the-speed-of-sight.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-66"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-66"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">MacLaren, RE; Pearson, RA; MacNeil, A; et al. (November 2006). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/62596/1/nature05161.pdf">"Retinal repair by transplantation of photoreceptor precursors"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>Nature</I>. <B>444</B> (7116): 203–7. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Natur.444..203M">2006Natur.444..203M</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature05161">10.1038/nature05161</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17093405">17093405</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Retinal+repair+by+transplantation+of+photoreceptor+precursors&rft.volume=444&rft.issue=7116&rft.pages=203-7&rft.date=2006-11&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17093405&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature05161&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006Natur.444..203M&rft.aulast=MacLaren&rft.aufirst=RE&rft.au=Pearson%2C+RA&rft.au=MacNeil%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdeepblue.lib.umich.edu%2Fbitstream%2F2027.42%2F62596%2F1%2Fnature05161.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-67"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-67"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Bartsch, U.; Oriyakhel, W.; Kenna, P. F.; Linke, S.; Richard, G.; Petrowitz, B.; Humphries, P.; Farrar, G. J.; Ader, M. (2008). "Retinal cells integrate into the outer nuclear layer and differentiate into mature photoreceptors after subretinal transplantation into adult mice". <I>Experimental Eye Research</I>. <B>86</B> (4): 691–700. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.exer.2008.01.018">10.1016/j.exer.2008.01.018</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18329018">18329018</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Experimental+Eye+Research&rft.atitle=Retinal+cells+integrate+into+the+outer+nuclear+layer+and+differentiate+into+mature+photoreceptors+after+subretinal+transplantation+into+adult+mice&rft.volume=86&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=691-700&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.exer.2008.01.018&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18329018&rft.aulast=Bartsch&rft.aufirst=U.&rft.au=Oriyakhel%2C+W.&rft.au=Kenna%2C+P.+F.&rft.au=Linke%2C+S.&rft.au=Richard%2C+G.&rft.au=Petrowitz%2C+B.&rft.au=Humphries%2C+P.&rft.au=Farrar%2C+G.+J.&rft.au=Ader%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-68"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-68"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120213150425/http://eyewire.org/about/">"About: EyeWire"</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eyewire.org/about/">the original</A> on 13 February 2012<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">26 March</SPAN> 2012</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=About%3A+EyeWire&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feyewire.org%2Fabout%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-69"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-69"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120324121236/http://eyewire.org/retina/">"Retina << EyeWire"</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eyewire.org/retina">the original</A> on 24 March 2012<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">27 March</SPAN> 2012</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Retina+%3C%3C+EyeWire&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feyewire.org%2Fretina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-70"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-70"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eyewire.org/">"EyeWire"</A>. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120424153908/http://eyewire.org/">Archived</A> from the original on 24 April 2012<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">27 March</SPAN> 2012</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=EyeWire&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feyewire.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
</OL>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Retina&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/S._Ram%C3%B3n_y_Cajal" class="mw-redirect" title="S. Ramón y Cajal">S. Ramón y Cajal</A>, <I>Histologie du Système Nerveux de l'Homme et des Vertébrés</I>, Maloine, Paris, 1911.</LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation journal">Rodieck RW (1965). "Quantitative analysis of cat retinal ganglion cell response to visual stimuli". <I>Vision Res</I>. <B>5</B> (11): 583–601. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2F0042-6989%2865%2990033-7">10.1016/0042-6989(65)90033-7</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5862581">5862581</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Vision+Res.&rft.atitle=Quantitative+analysis+of+cat+retinal+ganglion+cell+response+to+visual+stimuli&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=583-601&rft.date=1965&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0042-6989%2865%2990033-7&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F5862581&rft.au=Rodieck+RW&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation book">Wandell, Brian A. (1995). <I>Foundations of vision</I>. Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer Associates. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87893-853-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-87893-853-2">0-87893-853-2</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundations+of+vision&rft.place=Sunderland%2C+Mass&rft.pub=Sinauer+Associates&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-87893-853-2&rft.au=Wandell%2C+Brian+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation journal">Wässle H, Boycott BB (1991). "Functional architecture of the mammalian retina". <I>Physiol. Rev</I>. <B>71</B> (2): 447–480. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1152%2Fphysrev.1991.71.2.447">10.1152/physrev.1991.71.2.447</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2006220">2006220</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physiol.+Rev.&rft.atitle=Functional+architecture+of+the+mammalian+retina&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=447-480&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1152%2Fphysrev.1991.71.2.447&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F2006220&rft.aulast=W%C3%A4ssle&rft.aufirst=H&rft.au=Boycott%2C+BB&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation journal">Schulz HL, Goetz T, Kaschkoetoe J, Weber BH (2004). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC512282">"The Retinome – Defining a reference transcriptome of the adult mammalian retina/retinal pigment epithelium"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/BMC_journals" class="mw-redirect" title="BMC journals">BMC</A> Genomics</I> (about a <A href="/wiki/Transcriptome" title="Transcriptome">transcriptome</A> for eye color). <B>5</B> (1): 50. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1186%2F1471-2164-5-50">10.1186/1471-2164-5-50</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC512282">512282</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15283859">15283859</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMC+Genomics&rft.atitle=The+Retinome+%E2%80%93+Defining+a+reference+transcriptome+of+the+adult+mammalian+retina%2Fretinal+pigment+epithelium&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=50&rft.date=2004&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC512282&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15283859&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2F1471-2164-5-50&rft.aulast=Schulz&rft.aufirst=HL&rft.au=Goetz%2C+T&rft.au=Kaschkoetoe%2C+J&rft.au=Weber%2C+BH&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC512282&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation journal">Dowling, John (2007). "Retina". <I><A href="/wiki/Scholarpedia" title="Scholarpedia">Scholarpedia</A></I>. <B>2</B> (12): 3487. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007SchpJ...2.3487D">2007SchpJ...2.3487D</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.4249%2Fscholarpedia.3487">10.4249/scholarpedia.3487</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scholarpedia&rft.atitle=Retina&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=3487&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4249%2Fscholarpedia.3487&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007SchpJ...2.3487D&rft.aulast=Dowling&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation journal">Khoshbin-e-Khoshnazar, M.R. (2014). "Quantum Superposition in the Retina:Evidences and Proposals". <I>NeuroQuantology</I>. <B>12</B> (1): 97–101. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.14704%2Fnq.2014.12.1.685">10.14704/nq.2014.12.1.685</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NeuroQuantology&rft.atitle=Quantum+Superposition+in+the+Retina%3AEvidences+and+Proposals&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=97-101&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.14704%2Fnq.2014.12.1.685&rft.aulast=Khoshbin-e-Khoshnazar&rft.aufirst=M.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetina" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
</UL>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Retina&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<UL>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nELWup_Gghw">Histology of the Eye</A>, edited by William Krause, Dept. Pathology and Anatomical science, University of Missouri School of Medicine</LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070314135325/http://neuro.med.harvard.edu/site/dh/index.html">Eye, Brain, and Vision – online book – by David Hubel</A></LI>
<LI>Kolb, H., Fernandez, E., & Nelson, R. (2003). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webvision.med.utah.edu/">Webvision: The neural organization of the vertebrate retina</A>. Salt Lake City, Utah: John Moran Eye Center, <A href="/wiki/University_of_Utah" title="University of Utah">University of Utah</A>. Retrieved 22 July 2014.</LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.techreview.com/articles/04/09/demo0904.asp">Demo: Artificial Retina</A>, MIT Technology Review, September 2004. Reports on implant research at <A href="/wiki/Technology_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="Technology Review">Technology Review</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.technologyreview.com/Biotech/17768">Successful photoreceptor transplantation</A>, MIT Technology Review, November 2006. How stem cells might restore sight <A href="/wiki/Technology_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="Technology Review">Technology Review</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bionic.gsbme.unsw.edu.au/">Australian Vision Prosthesis Group</A>, Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, <A href="/wiki/University_of_New_South_Wales" title="University of New South Wales">University of New South Wales</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.retinacentral.org/">RetinaCentral</A>, Genetics and Diseases of the Human Retina at <A href="/wiki/University_of_W%C3%BCrzburg" title="University of Würzburg">University of Würzburg</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=neurosci.figgrp.740">Retinal layers image.</A> NeuroScience 2nd Ed at <A href="/wiki/United_States_National_Library_of_Medicine" title="United States National Library of Medicine">United States National Library of Medicine</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiology.org/ibioseminars/neuroscience/jeremy-nathans-part-1a.html">Jeremy Nathans's seminars: "The Vertebrate Retina: Structure, Function, and Evolution"</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ccdb.ucsd.edu/sand/main?mpid=54&event=displaySum">Retina – Cell Centered Database</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bu.edu/histology/p/07901loa.htm">Histology image: 07901loa</A> – Histology Learning System at Boston University</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/MedlinePlus" title="MedlinePlus">MedlinePlus Encyclopedia</A></I> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002291.htm">002291</A></LI>
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<DIV id="Anatomy_of_the_globe_of_the_human_eye" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Anatomy of the <A href="/wiki/Globe_(human_eye)" title="Globe (human eye)">globe</A> of the <A href="/wiki/Human_eye" title="Human eye">human eye</A></DIV>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Schlemm%27s_canal" title="Schlemm's canal">Schlemm's canal</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Corneal_limbus" title="Corneal limbus">Limbus</A></LI>
<LI><I>layers</I>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Corneal_epithelium" title="Corneal epithelium">Epithelium</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bowman%27s_membrane" title="Bowman's membrane">Bowman's</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Stroma_of_cornea" title="Stroma of cornea">Stroma</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Dua%27s_layer" title="Dua's layer">Dua's layer</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Descemet%27s_membrane" title="Descemet's membrane">Descemet's</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Corneal_endothelium" title="Corneal endothelium">Endothelium</A></LI>
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<DIV class="noresize" style="height: 269px; width: 275px; "><MAP name="ImageMap_1_989108536">
<AREA href="/wiki/Posterior_segment_of_eyeball" shape="circle" coords="69,28,10" alt="1: posterior segment" title="1: posterior segment" />
<AREA href="/wiki/Ora_serrata" shape="circle" coords="53,41,10" alt="2: ora serrata" title="2: ora serrata" />
<AREA href="/wiki/Ciliary_muscle" shape="circle" coords="38,56,10" alt="3: ciliary muscle" title="3: ciliary muscle" />
<AREA href="/wiki/Zonule_of_Zinn" shape="circle" coords="27,73,10" alt="4: ciliary zonules" title="4: ciliary zonules" />
<AREA href="/wiki/Schlemm%27s_canal" shape="circle" coords="16,91,10" alt="5: Schlemm's canal" title="5: Schlemm's canal" />
<AREA href="/wiki/Pupil" shape="circle" coords="12,111,10" alt="6: pupil" title="6: pupil" />
<AREA href="/wiki/Anterior_chamber_of_eyeball" shape="circle" coords="9,132,10" alt="7: anterior chamber" title="7: anterior chamber" />
<AREA href="/wiki/Cornea" shape="circle" coords="10,153,10" alt="8: cornea" title="8: cornea" />
<AREA href="/wiki/Iris_(anatomy)" shape="circle" coords="13,172,10" alt="9: iris" title="9: iris" />
<AREA href="/wiki/Lens_cortex" shape="circle" coords="21,191,10" alt="10: lens cortex" title="10: lens cortex" />
<AREA href="/wiki/Lens_nucleus" shape="circle" coords="30,209,10" alt="11: lens nucleus" title="11: lens nucleus" />
<AREA href="/wiki/Ciliary_processes" shape="circle" coords="41,225,10" alt="12: ciliary process" title="12: ciliary process" />
<AREA href="/wiki/Conjunctiva" shape="circle" coords="57,239,10" alt="13: conjunctiva" title="13: conjunctiva" />
<AREA href="/wiki/Inferior_oblique_muscle" shape="circle" coords="184,260,10" alt="14: inferior oblique muscule" title="14: inferior oblique muscule" />
<AREA href="/wiki/Inferior_rectus_muscle" shape="circle" coords="203,250,10" alt="15: inferior rectus muscule" title="15: inferior rectus muscule" />
<AREA href="/wiki/Medial_rectus_muscle" shape="circle" coords="220,239,10" alt="16: medial rectus muscle" title="16: medial rectus muscle" />
<AREA href="/wiki/Retinal_arteries_and_veins" shape="circle" coords="236,225,10" alt="17: retinal arteries and veins" title="17: retinal arteries and veins" />
<AREA href="/wiki/Optic_disc" shape="circle" coords="248,209,10" alt="18: optic disc" title="18: optic disc" />
<AREA href="/wiki/Dura_mater" shape="circle" coords="257,192,10" alt="19: dura mater" title="19: dura mater" />
<AREA href="/wiki/Central_retinal_artery" shape="circle" coords="263,172,10" alt="20: central retinal artery" title="20: central retinal artery" />
<AREA href="/wiki/Central_retinal_vein" shape="circle" coords="258,91,10" alt="21: central retinal vein" title="21: central retinal vein" />
<AREA href="/wiki/Optic_nerve" shape="circle" coords="250,73,10" alt="22: optic nerve" title="22: optic nerve" />
<AREA href="/wiki/Vorticose_veins" shape="circle" coords="239,56,10" alt="23: vorticose vein" title="23: vorticose vein" />
<AREA href="/wiki/Tenon%27s_capsule" shape="circle" coords="223,42,10" alt="24: bulbar sheath" title="24: bulbar sheath" />
<AREA href="/wiki/Macula_of_retina" shape="circle" coords="208,30,10" alt="25: macula" title="25: macula" />
<AREA href="/wiki/Fovea_centralis" shape="circle" coords="188,18,10" alt="26: fovea" title="26: fovea" />
<AREA href="/wiki/Sclera" shape="circle" coords="167,12,10" alt="27: sclera" title="27: sclera" />
<AREA href="/wiki/Choroid" shape="circle" coords="147,9,10" alt="28: choroid" title="28: choroid" />
<AREA href="/wiki/Superior_rectus_muscle" shape="circle" coords="128,10,10" alt="29: superior rectus muscle" title="29: superior rectus muscle" />
<AREA href="/wiki/Retina" shape="circle" coords="108,12,10" alt="30: retina" title="30: retina" /></MAP><IMG alt="1:posterior segment 2:ora serrata 3:ciliary muscle 4:ciliary zonules 5:Schlemm's canal 6:pupil 7:anterior chamber 8:cornea 9:iris 10:lens cortex 11:lens nucleus 12:ciliary process 13:conjunctiva 14:inferior oblique muscule 15:inferior rectus muscule 16:medial rectus muscle 17:retinal arteries and veins 18:optic disc 19:dura mater 20:central retinal artery 21:central retinal vein 22:optic nerve 23:vorticose vein 24:bulbar sheath 25:macula 26:fovea  27:sclera 28:choroid 29:superior rectus muscle 30:retina" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Eye-diagram_no_circles_border.svg/275px-Eye-diagram_no_circles_border.svg.png" width="275" height="269" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Eye-diagram_no_circles_border.svg/413px-Eye-diagram_no_circles_border.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Eye-diagram_no_circles_border.svg/550px-Eye-diagram_no_circles_border.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1237" data-file-height="1208" usemap="#ImageMap_1_989108536" />
<DIV style="margin-left: 255px; margin-top: -20px; text-align: left;"><A href="/wiki/File:Eye-diagram_no_circles_border.svg" title="About this image"><IMG alt="About this image" src="/w/extensions/ImageMap/desc-20.png?15600" style="border: none;" /></A></DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Uvea" title="Uvea">Uvea/vascular tunic</A> (middle)</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Choroid" title="Choroid">Choroid</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Capillary_lamina_of_choroid" title="Capillary lamina of choroid">Capillary lamina of choroid</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bruch%27s_membrane" title="Bruch's membrane">Bruch's membrane</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sattler%27s_layer" title="Sattler's layer">Sattler's layer</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Ciliary_body" title="Ciliary body">Ciliary body</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ciliary_processes" title="Ciliary processes">Ciliary processes</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ciliary_muscle" title="Ciliary muscle">Ciliary muscle</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pars_plicata" title="Pars plicata">Pars plicata</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pars_plana" title="Pars plana">Pars plana</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Iris_(anatomy)" title="Iris (anatomy)">Iris</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Stroma_of_iris" title="Stroma of iris">Stroma</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pupil" title="Pupil">Pupil</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Iris_dilator_muscle" title="Iris dilator muscle">Iris dilator muscle</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Iris_sphincter_muscle" title="Iris sphincter muscle">Iris sphincter muscle</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A class="mw-selflink selflink">Retina</A> (inner)</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Layers</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Inner_limiting_membrane" title="Inner limiting membrane">Inner limiting membrane</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Nerve_fiber_layer" title="Nerve fiber layer">Nerve fiber layer</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ganglion_cell_layer" title="Ganglion cell layer">Ganglion cell layer</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Inner_plexiform_layer" title="Inner plexiform layer">Inner plexiform layer</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Inner_nuclear_layer" title="Inner nuclear layer">Inner nuclear layer</A></LI>
</UL>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Outer_plexiform_layer" title="Outer plexiform layer">Outer plexiform layer</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Outer_nuclear_layer" title="Outer nuclear layer">Outer nuclear layer</A></LI>
</UL>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/External_limiting_membrane" title="External limiting membrane">External limiting membrane</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Layer_of_rods_and_cones" title="Layer of rods and cones">Layer of rods and cones</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Retinal_pigment_epithelium" title="Retinal pigment epithelium">Retinal pigment epithelium</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cells</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Photoreceptor_cell" title="Photoreceptor cell">Photoreceptor cells</A> (<A href="/wiki/Cone_cell" title="Cone cell">Cone cell</A>, <A href="/wiki/Rod_cell" title="Rod cell">Rod cell</A>) → (<A href="/wiki/Retina_horizontal_cell" title="Retina horizontal cell">Horizontal cell</A>) → <A href="/wiki/Retina_bipolar_cell" title="Retina bipolar cell">Bipolar cell</A> → (<A href="/wiki/Amacrine_cell" title="Amacrine cell">Amacrine cell</A>) → <A href="/wiki/Retinal_ganglion_cell" title="Retinal ganglion cell">Retina ganglion cell</A> (<A href="/wiki/Midget_cell" title="Midget cell">Midget cell</A>, <A href="/wiki/Parasol_cell" title="Parasol cell">Parasol cell</A>, <A href="/wiki/Bistratified_cell" title="Bistratified cell">Bistratified cell</A>, <A href="/wiki/Giant_retinal_ganglion_cells" title="Giant retinal ganglion cells">Giant retina ganglion cells</A>, <A href="/wiki/Intrinsically_photosensitive_retinal_ganglion_cells" title="Intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells">Photosensitive ganglion cell</A>) → <I>Diencephalon</I>: <A href="/wiki/Parvocellular_cell" title="Parvocellular cell">P cell</A>, <A href="/wiki/Magnocellular_cell" title="Magnocellular cell">M cell</A>, <A href="/wiki/Koniocellular_cell" title="Koniocellular cell">K cell</A>, <A href="/wiki/Muller_glia" title="Muller glia">Muller glia</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Macula_of_retina" title="Macula of retina">Macula</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Perifovea" title="Perifovea">Perifoveal area</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Parafovea" title="Parafovea">Parafoveal area</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fovea_centralis" title="Fovea centralis">Fovea</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Foveal_avascular_zone" title="Foveal avascular zone">Foveal avascular zone</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Foveola" title="Foveola">Foveola</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Optic_disc" title="Optic disc">Optic disc</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Optic_cup_(anatomical)" title="Optic cup (anatomical)">Optic cup</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ora_serrata" title="Ora serrata">Ora serrata</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Anatomical regions of the eye</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Anterior_segment_of_eyeball" title="Anterior segment of eyeball">Anterior segment</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Accessory_visual_structures" title="Accessory visual structures">Adnexa</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fibrous_tunic" class="mw-redirect" title="Fibrous tunic">Fibrous tunic</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Anterior_chamber_of_eyeball" title="Anterior chamber of eyeball">Anterior chamber</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Aqueous_humour" title="Aqueous humour">Aqueous humour</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Iris_(anatomy)" title="Iris (anatomy)">Iris</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Posterior_chamber_of_eyeball" title="Posterior chamber of eyeball">Posterior chamber</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ciliary_body" title="Ciliary body">Ciliary body</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lens_(anatomy)" title="Lens (anatomy)">Lens</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Capsule_of_lens" title="Capsule of lens">Capsule of lens</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Zonule_of_Zinn" title="Zonule of Zinn">Zonule of Zinn</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Posterior_segment_of_eyeball" title="Posterior segment of eyeball">Posterior segment</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Vitreous_chamber" title="Vitreous chamber">Vitreous chamber</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Vitreous_body" title="Vitreous body">Vitreous body</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A class="mw-selflink selflink">Retina</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Choroid" title="Choroid">Choroid</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Corneal_keratocyte" title="Corneal keratocyte">Keratocytes</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ocular_immune_system" title="Ocular immune system">Ocular immune system</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Optical_coherence_tomography#Ophthalmology" title="Optical coherence tomography">Optical coherence tomography</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Eye_care_professional" title="Eye care professional">Eye care professional</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Eye_disease" title="Eye disease">Eye disease</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Refractive_error" title="Refractive error">Refractive error</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Accommodation_(eye)" title="Accommodation (eye)">Accommodation</A></LI>
<LI><I>Physiological Optics</I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual perception</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</DIV>
<DIV role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Optical_illusions" style="padding:3px">
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<UL>
<LI class="nv-view"><A href="/wiki/Template:Visual_pathways" title="Template:Visual pathways"><ABBR title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none;">v</ABBR></A></LI>
<LI class="nv-talk"><A href="/wiki/Template_talk:Visual_pathways" title="Template talk:Visual pathways"><ABBR title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none;">t</ABBR></A></LI>
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<DIV id="Optical_illusions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><A href="/wiki/Optical_illusion" title="Optical illusion">Optical illusions</A></DIV>
</TH>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TD class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3">
<DIV><A href="/wiki/List_of_optical_illusions" title="List of optical illusions">List of optical illusions</A></DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TD colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Afterimage" title="Afterimage">Afterimage</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Barberpole_illusion" title="Barberpole illusion">Barberpole</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bezold_effect" title="Bezold effect">Bezold</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Blivet" class="mw-redirect" title="Blivet">Blivet</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Caf%C3%A9_wall_illusion" title="Café wall illusion">Café wall</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cornsweet_illusion" title="Cornsweet illusion">Cornsweet</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Delboeuf_illusion" title="Delboeuf illusion">Delboeuf</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ebbinghaus_illusion" title="Ebbinghaus illusion">Ebbinghaus</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ehrenstein_illusion" title="Ehrenstein illusion">Ehrenstein</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Flash_lag_illusion" title="Flash lag illusion">Flash lag</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fraser_spiral_illusion" title="Fraser spiral illusion">Fraser spiral</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Grid_illusion" title="Grid illusion">Grid</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hering_illusion" title="Hering illusion">Hering</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Jastrow_illusion" title="Jastrow illusion">Jastrow</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mach_bands" title="Mach bands">Mach</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/McCollough_effect" title="McCollough effect">McCollough</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/M%C3%BCller-Lyer_illusion" title="Müller-Lyer illusion">Müller-Lyer</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Necker_cube" title="Necker cube">Necker</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Orbison_illusion" title="Orbison illusion">Orbison</A></LI>
<LI>Penrose
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Penrose_stairs" title="Penrose stairs">stairs</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Penrose_triangle" title="Penrose triangle">triangle</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Peripheral_drift_illusion" title="Peripheral drift illusion">Peripheral drift</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Poggendorff_illusion" title="Poggendorff illusion">Poggendorff</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ponzo_illusion" title="Ponzo illusion">Ponzo</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Rubin_vase" title="Rubin vase">Rubin</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sander_illusion" title="Sander illusion">Sander</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Schroeder_stairs" title="Schroeder stairs">Schroeder</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ternus_illusion" title="Ternus illusion">Ternus</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Vertical%E2%80%93horizontal_illusion" title="Vertical–horizontal illusion">Vertical–horizontal</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/White%27s_illusion" title="White's illusion">White's</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wundt_illusion" title="Wundt illusion">Wundt</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Z%C3%B6llner_illusion" title="Zöllner illusion">Zöllner</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
<TD class="navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px">
<DIV><A href="/wiki/File:Optical_Illustion-Ambiguous_Patterns.svg" class="image"><IMG alt="Optical Illustion-Ambiguous Patterns.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Optical_Illustion-Ambiguous_Patterns.svg/30px-Optical_Illustion-Ambiguous_Patterns.svg.png" width="30" height="112" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Optical_Illustion-Ambiguous_Patterns.svg/45px-Optical_Illustion-Ambiguous_Patterns.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Optical_Illustion-Ambiguous_Patterns.svg/60px-Optical_Illustion-Ambiguous_Patterns.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="117" data-file-height="438" /></A></DIV>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Auditory_illusion" title="Auditory illusion">Auditory</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tactile_illusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Tactile illusion">Tactile</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Temporal_illusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Temporal illusion">Temporal</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Op_art" title="Op art">Op art</A></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Ascending_and_Descending" title="Ascending and Descending">Ascending and Descending</A></I></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Waterfall_(M._C._Escher)" title="Waterfall (M. C. Escher)">Waterfall</A></I></LI>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
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<UL>
<LI><SPAN class="nowrap"><A href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</A>: <SPAN class="uid"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.loc.gov/authorities/subjects/sh85113322">sh85113322</A></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="nowrap"><A href="/wiki/Integrated_Authority_File" title="Integrated Authority File">GND</A>: <SPAN class="uid"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4171512-3">4171512-3</A></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="nowrap"><A href="/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_nationale_de_France" title="Bibliothèque nationale de France">BNF</A>: <SPAN class="uid"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11964958v">cb11964958v</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11964958v">(data)</A></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="nowrap"><A href="/wiki/National_Diet_Library" title="National Diet Library">NDL</A>: <SPAN class="uid"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00567817">00567817</A></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="nowrap"><A href="/wiki/Biblioteca_Nacional_de_Espa%C3%B1a" title="Biblioteca Nacional de España">BNE</A>: <SPAN class="uid"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX532269">XX532269</A></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
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					<LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af" style="display: none;"><A href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netvlies" title="Netvlies – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar"><A href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A8%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="شبكية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc" style="display: none;"><A href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%A2%DC%AB%DC%92%DC%90_%DC%95%DC%A5%DC%9D%DC%A2%DC%90" title="ܢܫܒܐ ܕܥܝܢܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" class="interlanguage-link-target">ܐܪܡܝܐ</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina" title="Retina – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az" style="display: none;"><A href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina" title="Retina – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn" style="display: none;"><A href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE" title="রেটিনা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg" style="display: none;"><A href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Ретина – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs" style="display: none;"><A href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mre%C5%BEnja%C4%8Da" title="Mrežnjača – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina" title="Retina – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs" style="display: none;"><A href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%ADtnice" title="Sítnice – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy" style="display: none;"><A href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina" title="Retina – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da" style="display: none;"><A href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nethinde" title="Nethinde – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se" style="display: none;"><A href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fierbmecuozza" title="Fierbmecuozza – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" class="interlanguage-link-target">Davvisámegiella</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de" style="display: none;"><A href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netzhaut" title="Netzhaut – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et" style="display: none;"><A href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%B5rkkest" title="Võrkkest – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el" style="display: none;"><A href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BC%CF%86%CE%B9%CE%B2%CE%BB%CE%B7%CF%83%CF%84%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%B4%CE%AE%CF%82_%CF%87%CE%B9%CF%84%CF%8E%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Αμφιβληστροειδής χιτώνας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es"><A href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina" title="Retina – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo" style="display: none;"><A href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retino" title="Retino – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu" style="display: none;"><A href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erretina" title="Erretina – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa" style="display: none;"><A href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A8%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%87" title="شبکیه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr" style="display: none;"><A href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9tine" title="Rétine – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reitine" title="Reitine – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl" style="display: none;"><A href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina" title="Retina – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A7%9D%EB%A7%89" title="망막 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi"><A href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B2" title="दृष्टि पटल – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr" style="display: none;"><A href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mre%C5%BEnica_(oko)" title="Mrežnica (oko) – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io" style="display: none;"><A href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retino" title="Retino – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id"><A href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina" title="Retina – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it" style="display: none;"><A href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina" title="Retina – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he" style="display: none;"><A href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%A9%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%AA" title="רשתית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv" style="display: none;"><A href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina" title="Retina – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Jawa</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn" style="display: none;"><A href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%9F%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BE" title="ರೆಟಿನಾ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retin" title="Retin – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv" style="display: none;"><A href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C4%ABklene" title="Tīklene – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt" style="display: none;"><A href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinklain%C4%97" title="Tinklainė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu" style="display: none;"><A href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receh%C3%A1rtya" title="Recehártya – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr" style="display: none;"><A href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B2" title="दृष्टिपटल – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms"><A href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina" title="Retina – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl" style="display: none;"><A href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netvlies" title="Netvlies – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B6%B2%E8%86%9C" title="網膜 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no" style="display: none;"><A href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netthinne" title="Netthinne – Norwegian" lang="no" hreflang="no" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl" style="display: none;"><A href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siatk%C3%B3wka_(anatomia)" title="Siatkówka (anatomia) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt"><A href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina" title="Retina – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retin%C4%83" title="Retină – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru"><A href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Сетчатка – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco" style="display: none;"><A href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina" title="Retina – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple" style="display: none;"><A href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina" title="Retina – Simple English" lang="simple" hreflang="simple" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk" style="display: none;"><A href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sietnica" title="Sietnica – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl" style="display: none;"><A href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mre%C5%BEnica" title="Mrežnica – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DB%86%DA%95%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%95" title="تۆڕینە – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr" style="display: none;"><A href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B6%D1%9A%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B0" title="Мрежњача – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh" style="display: none;"><A href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mre%C5%BEnja%C4%8Da" title="Mrežnjača – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su" style="display: none;"><A href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9tina" title="Rétina – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Sunda</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi" style="display: none;"><A href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verkkokalvo" title="Verkkokalvo – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv" style="display: none;"><A href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A4thinna" title="Näthinna – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta" style="display: none;"><A href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%88" title="விழித்திரை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt" style="display: none;"><A href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%82%D3%99%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%83" title="Челтәркатлау – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча/tatarça</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th" style="display: none;"><A href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B2" title="จอตา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr" style="display: none;"><A href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina" title="Retina – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk" style="display: none;"><A href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%96%D1%82%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Сітківка – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur"><A href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A8%DA%A9%DB%8C%DB%81" title="شبکیہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi" style="display: none;"><A href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%B5ng_m%E1%BA%A1c" title="Võng mạc – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi" style="display: none;"><A href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%A2" title="רעטינע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh"><A href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A7%86%E7%BD%91%E8%86%9C" title="视网膜 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</A></LI>				<BUTTON class="mw-interlanguage-selector mw-ui-button" 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document_title: Retina

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token: Pronunciation

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token: ˈrɛtɪnə

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question_text: disease of the light sensitive innermost layer of the eyeball