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<TITLE>Tuskegee Airmen - Wikipedia</TITLE>

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<H1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Tuskegee Airmen</H1>			<DIV id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content">
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				<DIV id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><DIV class="mw-parser-output"><DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <A href="/wiki/Tuskegee_Airmen_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Tuskegee Airmen (disambiguation)">Tuskegee Airmen (disambiguation)</A>.</DIV>
<TABLE class="infobox" style="width:22em;width:315px;border-spacing:2px;">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH colspan="2" style="text-align:center;font-size:125%;font-weight:bold;background-color:#B0C4DE;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Tuskegee Airmen (unofficial)</TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;">
<P><A href="/wiki/File:Shield_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.svg" class="image" title="Center"><IMG alt="Center" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Shield_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.svg/90px-Shield_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.svg.png" width="90" height="90" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Shield_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.svg/135px-Shield_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Shield_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.svg/180px-Shield_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="401" data-file-height="401" /></A><BR /></P>
<A href="/wiki/File:332d_Expeditionary_Operations_Wing_-_Emblem.png" class="image" title="Center"><IMG alt="Center" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/332d_Expeditionary_Operations_Wing_-_Emblem.png/90px-332d_Expeditionary_Operations_Wing_-_Emblem.png" width="90" height="89" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/332d_Expeditionary_Operations_Wing_-_Emblem.png/135px-332d_Expeditionary_Operations_Wing_-_Emblem.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/332d_Expeditionary_Operations_Wing_-_Emblem.png/180px-332d_Expeditionary_Operations_Wing_-_Emblem.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="590" /></A>
<DIV>Emblems of wing</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right: 1em;">Active</TH>
<TD>1940–1948</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right: 1em;">Country</TH>
<TD><A href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right: 1em;">Branch</TH>
<TD><A href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Corps" title="United States Army Air Corps">United States Army Air Corps</A><BR />
<A href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces" title="United States Army Air Forces">United States Army Air Forces</A><BR />
<A href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">United States Air Force</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right: 1em;">Role</TH>
<TD>trained for aerial combat</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right: 1em;">Part of</TH>
<TD>graduates assigned to the <A href="/wiki/332nd_FG" class="mw-redirect" title="332nd FG">332nd Fighter Group</A> (<A href="/wiki/99th_Fighter_Squadron" class="mw-redirect" title="99th Fighter Squadron">99th Fighter Squadron</A>, <A href="/wiki/100th_Fighter_Squadron" title="100th Fighter Squadron">100th Fighter Squadron</A>, <A href="/wiki/301st_Fighter_Squadron" title="301st Fighter Squadron">301st Fighter Squadron</A>, <A href="/wiki/302d_Fighter_Squadron" title="302d Fighter Squadron">302d Fighter Squadron</A>), <A href="/wiki/477th_Fighter_Group" title="477th Fighter Group">477th Medium Bombardment Group</A> (<A href="/wiki/616th_Bombardment_Squadron" title="616th Bombardment Squadron">616th Bombardment Squadron</A>, <A href="/wiki/617th_Bombardment_Squadron" class="mw-redirect" title="617th Bombardment Squadron">617th Bombardment Squadron</A>, <A href="/wiki/618th_Bombardment_Squadron" title="618th Bombardment Squadron">618th Bombardment Squadron</A>, <A href="/wiki/619th_Bombardment_Squadron" class="mw-redirect" title="619th Bombardment Squadron">619th Bombardment Squadron</A>)</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right: 1em;">Nickname(s)</TH>
<TD>Red Tails<BR />
Red-Tail Angels</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right: 1em;">Motto(s)</TH>
<TD><I>Spit Fire</I></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right: 1em;">Engagements</TH>
<TD><A href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</A></TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
<P>The <B>Tuskegee Airmen</B> <SPAN class="nowrap"><SPAN class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt"><A href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<SPAN style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><SPAN title="'t' in 'tie'">t</SPAN><SPAN title="/ʌ/: 'u' in 'cut'">ʌ</SPAN><SPAN title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</SPAN><SPAN title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</SPAN><SPAN title="'k' in 'kind'">k</SPAN><SPAN title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</SPAN><SPAN title="/ɡ/: 'g' in 'guy'">ɡ</SPAN><SPAN title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</SPAN></SPAN>/</A></SPAN></SPAN><SUP id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-1">[1]</A></SUP> is the popular name of a group of <A href="/wiki/African-American" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American">African-American</A> military pilots (fighter and bomber) who fought in <A href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</A>. They formed the <A href="/wiki/332nd_FG" class="mw-redirect" title="332nd FG">332nd Fighter Group</A> and the <A href="/wiki/477th_Fighter_Group" title="477th Fighter Group">477th Bombardment Group</A> of the <A href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces" title="United States Army Air Forces">United States Army Air Forces</A>. The name also applies to the navigators, bombardiers, mechanics, instructors, crew chiefs, nurses, cooks and other support personnel.</P>
<P>All black military pilots who trained in the United States trained at <A href="/wiki/Moton_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="Moton Field">Moton Field</A>, the Tuskegee Army Air Field, and were educated at <A href="/wiki/Tuskegee_University" title="Tuskegee University">Tuskegee University</A>, located near <A href="/wiki/Tuskegee,_Alabama" title="Tuskegee, Alabama">Tuskegee, Alabama</A>. The group included five <A href="/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haitians</A> from the <A href="/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_Haiti" title="Armed Forces of Haiti">Haitian Air Force</A>, and one pilot from <A href="/wiki/Trinidad" title="Trinidad">Trinidad</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-2">[2]</A></SUP>. It also included a <A href="/wiki/Hispanic%E2%80%93Latino_naming_dispute" title="Hispanic–Latino naming dispute">Hispanic or Latino</A> airman born in the <A href="/wiki/Dominican_Republic" title="Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</A><SUP id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-3">[3]</A></SUP>.</P>
<P>Although the 477th Bombardment Group trained with <A href="/wiki/North_American_B-25_Mitchell" title="North American B-25 Mitchell">North American B-25 Mitchell</A> bombers, they never served in combat. The <A href="/wiki/99th_Pursuit_Squadron" class="mw-redirect" title="99th Pursuit Squadron">99th Pursuit Squadron</A> (later, 99th Fighter Squadron) was the first black flying squadron, and the first to deploy overseas (to North Africa in April 1943, and later to Sicily and Italy). The <A href="/wiki/332nd_Fighter_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="332nd Fighter Group">332nd Fighter Group</A>, which originally included the 100th, 301st, and 302nd Fighter Squadrons, was the first black flying group. It deployed to Italy in early 1944. In June 1944, the 332nd Fighter Group began flying heavy bomber escort missions, and in July 1944, with the addition of the 99th Fighter Squadron, it had four fighter squadrons.</P>
<P>The 99th Fighter Squadron was initially equipped with <A href="/wiki/Curtiss_P-40_Warhawk" title="Curtiss P-40 Warhawk">Curtiss P-40 Warhawk</A> fighter-bomber aircraft. The 332nd Fighter Group and its 100th, 301st and 302nd Fighter Squadrons were equipped for initial combat missions with <A href="/wiki/Bell_P-39_Airacobra" title="Bell P-39 Airacobra">Bell P-39 Airacobras</A> (March 1944), later with <A href="/wiki/Republic_P-47_Thunderbolt" title="Republic P-47 Thunderbolt">Republic P-47 Thunderbolts</A> (June–July 1944), and finally with the aircraft with which they became most commonly associated, the <A href="/wiki/North_American_P-51_Mustang" title="North American P-51 Mustang">North American P-51 Mustang</A> (July 1944). When the pilots of the 332nd Fighter Group painted the tails of their P-47s red, the nickname "Red Tails" was coined. The red markings that distinguished the Tuskegee Airmen included red bands on the noses of P-51s as well as a red rudder; the P-51B and D Mustangs flew with similar color schemes, with red propeller spinners, yellow wing bands and all-red tail surfaces.</P>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/Tuskegee" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuskegee">Tuskegee</A> Airmen were the first African-American military aviators in the United States Armed Forces. During World War II, black Americans in many U.S. states were still subject to the <A href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</A><SUP id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-5">[N 1]</A></SUP> and the American military was <A href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">racially segregated</A>, as was much of the federal government. The Tuskegee Airmen were subjected to discrimination, both within and outside the army.</P>
<P></P>
<DIV id="toc" class="toc">
<DIV class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr">
<H2>Contents</H2>
<SPAN class="toctoggle"> [<A role="button" tabindex="0" class="togglelink">hide</A>] </SPAN></DIV>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><A href="#Origins"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Origins</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><A href="#Background"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Background</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><A href="#Testing"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Testing</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><A href="#The_First_Lady's_flight"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">The First Lady's flight</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><A href="#Formation"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Formation</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><A href="#Combat_assignment"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Combat assignment</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><A href="#Active_air_units"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Active air units</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><A href="#Tuskegee_Airmen_bomber_units"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Tuskegee Airmen bomber units</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><A href="#Formation_2"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Formation</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><A href="#Command_difficulties"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Command difficulties</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><A href="#War_accomplishments"><SPAN class="tocnumber">5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">War accomplishments</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><A href="#Controversy_over_escort_record"><SPAN class="tocnumber">5.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Controversy over escort record</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><A href="#Postwar"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Postwar</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><A href="#Legacy_and_honors"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Legacy and honors</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><A href="#Artistic_depictions_of_the_Tuskegee_Airmen"><SPAN class="tocnumber">8</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Artistic depictions of the Tuskegee Airmen</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><A href="#In_popular_culture"><SPAN class="tocnumber">9</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">In popular culture</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><A href="#Squadron_images"><SPAN class="tocnumber">10</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Squadron images</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><A href="#See_also"><SPAN class="tocnumber">11</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">See also</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><A href="#Notes"><SPAN class="tocnumber">12</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Notes</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><A href="#Citations"><SPAN class="tocnumber">13</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Citations</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><A href="#Bibliography"><SPAN class="tocnumber">14</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Bibliography</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><A href="#External_links"><SPAN class="tocnumber">15</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">External links</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<P></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Origins">Origins</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origins">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <A href="/wiki/Civilian_Pilot_Training_Program" title="Civilian Pilot Training Program">Civilian Pilot Training Program</A></DIV>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Background">Background</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Background">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:P51_Mustang_Red_Tail.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/P51_Mustang_Red_Tail.jpg/220px-P51_Mustang_Red_Tail.jpg" width="220" height="147" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/P51_Mustang_Red_Tail.jpg/330px-P51_Mustang_Red_Tail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/P51_Mustang_Red_Tail.jpg/440px-P51_Mustang_Red_Tail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3136" data-file-height="2098" /></A>
<DIV class="thumbcaption">
<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:P51_Mustang_Red_Tail.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
The <A href="/wiki/North_American_P-51_Mustang" title="North American P-51 Mustang">P-51C Mustang</A> flown by <A href="/wiki/Commemorative_Air_Force" title="Commemorative Air Force">Commemorative Air Force</A> in the colors and markings of <A href="/wiki/Lee_Archer_(pilot)" title="Lee Archer (pilot)">Lieutenant Colonel Lee Archer</A></DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Tuskegee_Airman_P-51_Mustang_taken_at_Airventure.JPG" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Tuskegee_Airman_P-51_Mustang_taken_at_Airventure.JPG/220px-Tuskegee_Airman_P-51_Mustang_taken_at_Airventure.JPG" width="220" height="124" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Tuskegee_Airman_P-51_Mustang_taken_at_Airventure.JPG/330px-Tuskegee_Airman_P-51_Mustang_taken_at_Airventure.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Tuskegee_Airman_P-51_Mustang_taken_at_Airventure.JPG/440px-Tuskegee_Airman_P-51_Mustang_taken_at_Airventure.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3984" data-file-height="2240" /></A>
<DIV class="thumbcaption">
<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:Tuskegee_Airman_P-51_Mustang_taken_at_Airventure.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
Tuskegee Airman P-51 Mustang taken at Airventure. This particular P-51C is part of the <A href="/wiki/Red_Tail_Squadron" title="Red Tail Squadron">Red Tail Project</A></DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Spirit_of_Tuskegee_plane.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Spirit_of_Tuskegee_plane.jpg/220px-Spirit_of_Tuskegee_plane.jpg" width="220" height="181" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Spirit_of_Tuskegee_plane.jpg/330px-Spirit_of_Tuskegee_plane.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Spirit_of_Tuskegee_plane.jpg/440px-Spirit_of_Tuskegee_plane.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3143" data-file-height="2592" /></A>
<DIV class="thumbcaption">
<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:Spirit_of_Tuskegee_plane.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
The <A href="/wiki/Boeing-Stearman_Model_75" title="Boeing-Stearman Model 75">Stearman Kaydet training aircraft</A> used by the Tuskegee Airmen, bearing the name <I>Spirit of Tuskegee</I></DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Tuskegee_airman2.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Tuskegee_airman2.jpg/220px-Tuskegee_airman2.jpg" width="220" height="232" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Tuskegee_airman2.jpg/330px-Tuskegee_airman2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Tuskegee_airman2.jpg/440px-Tuskegee_airman2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4600" data-file-height="4850" /></A>
<DIV class="thumbcaption">
<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:Tuskegee_airman2.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
Portrait of Tuskegee airman Edward M. Thomas by photographer <A href="/wiki/Toni_Frissell" title="Toni Frissell">Toni Frissell</A>, March 1945</DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<P>Before the Tuskegee Airmen, no African-American had been a U.S. military <A href="/wiki/Aviator" class="mw-redirect" title="Aviator">pilot</A>. In 1917, African-American men had tried to become aerial observers, but were rejected.<SUP id="cite_ref-Francis_pp._38–29_6-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Francis_pp._38–29-6">[5]</A></SUP> African-American <A href="/wiki/Eugene_Bullard" title="Eugene Bullard">Eugene Bullard</A> served in the French air service during World War I, because he was not allowed to serve in an American unit. Instead, Bullard returned to infantry duty with the French.<SUP id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-7">[6]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The racially motivated rejections of World War I African-American recruits sparked more than two decades of advocacy by African-Americans who wished to enlist and train as military aviators. The effort was led by such prominent <A href="/wiki/Civil_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil rights">civil rights</A> leaders as <A href="/wiki/Walter_Francis_White" title="Walter Francis White">Walter White</A> of the <A href="/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" class="mw-redirect" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People</A>, labor union leader <A href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</A>, and Judge <A href="/wiki/William_H._Hastie" title="William H. Hastie">William H. Hastie</A>. Finally, on 3 April 1939, Appropriations Bill Public Law 18 was passed by Congress containing an amendment by Senator <A href="/wiki/Henry_H._Schwartz" title="Henry H. Schwartz">Harry H. Schwartz</A>, designating funds for training African-American pilots. The <A href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_War" title="United States Department of War">War Department</A> managed to put the money into funds of civilian flight schools willing to train black Americans.<SUP id="cite_ref-Francis_pp._38–29_6-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Francis_pp._38–29-6">[5]</A></SUP></P>
<P>War Department tradition and policy mandated the segregation of African-Americans into separate military units staffed by white officers, as had been done previously with the <A href="/wiki/9th_Cavalry_Regiment_(United_States)" title="9th Cavalry Regiment (United States)">9th Cavalry</A>, <A href="/wiki/10th_Cavalry_Regiment_(United_States)" title="10th Cavalry Regiment (United States)">10th Cavalry</A>, <A href="/wiki/24th_Infantry_Regiment_(United_States)" title="24th Infantry Regiment (United States)">24th Infantry Regiment</A> and <A href="/wiki/25th_Infantry_Regiment_(United_States)" title="25th Infantry Regiment (United States)">25th Infantry Regiment</A>. When the appropriation of funds for aviation training created opportunities for pilot cadets, their numbers diminished the rosters of these older units.<SUP id="cite_ref-Moye_2010,_p._19_8-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Moye_2010,_p._19-8">[7]</A></SUP> In 1941, the War Department and the Army Air Corps, under pressure — <A href="/wiki/1941_in_aviation#June" title="1941 in aviation">three months</A> before its transformation into the <A href="/wiki/USAAF" class="mw-redirect" title="USAAF">USAAF</A> — constituted the first all-black flying unit, the 99th Pursuit Squadron.<SUP id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-9">[8]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Due to the restrictive nature of selection policies, the situation did not seem promising for African-Americans since, in 1940, the U.S. Census Bureau reported there were only 124 African-American pilots in the nation.<SUP id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-10">[9]</A></SUP> The exclusionary policies failed dramatically when the Air Corps received an abundance of applications from men who qualified, even under the restrictive requirements. Many of the applicants already had participated in the <A href="/wiki/Civilian_Pilot_Training_Program" title="Civilian Pilot Training Program">Civilian Pilot Training Program</A>, unveiled in late December 1938 (CPTP). <A href="/wiki/Tuskegee_University" title="Tuskegee University">Tuskegee University</A> had participated since 1939.<SUP id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-11">[10]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Testing">Testing</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Testing">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
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<P>The U.S. Army Air Corps had established the <A href="/wiki/List_of_psychological_research_methods" title="List of psychological research methods">Psychological Research Unit 1</A> at <A href="/wiki/Maxwell_Army_Air_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="Maxwell Army Air Field">Maxwell Army Air Field</A>, <A href="/wiki/Montgomery,_Alabama" title="Montgomery, Alabama">Montgomery, Alabama</A>, and other units around the country for aviation cadet training, which included the identification, selection, education, and training of pilots, <A href="/wiki/Flight_officer" title="Flight officer">navigators</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Bombardier_(air_force)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombardier (air force)">bombardiers</A>. Psychologists employed in these research studies and training programs used some of the first <A href="/wiki/Standardized_tests" class="mw-redirect" title="Standardized tests">standardized tests</A> to quantify <A href="/wiki/IQ" class="mw-redirect" title="IQ">IQ</A>, dexterity and leadership qualities to select and train the best-suited personnel for the roles of bombardier, navigator, and pilot. The Air Corps determined that the existing programs would be used for all units, including all-black units. At Tuskegee, this effort continued with the selection and training of the Tuskegee Airmen. The War Department set up a system to accept only those with a level of flight experience or higher education which ensured that only the most able and intelligent African-American applicants were able to join.<SUP class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><SPAN title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2017)">citation needed</SPAN></A></I>]</SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN id="The_First_Lady.27s_flight"></SPAN><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="The_First_Lady's_flight">The First Lady's flight</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: The First Lady's flight">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>The budding flight program at Tuskegee received a publicity boost when <A href="/wiki/First_Lady" title="First Lady">First Lady</A> <A href="/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt" title="Eleanor Roosevelt">Eleanor Roosevelt</A> inspected it in March 1941, and flew with African-American chief civilian instructor <A href="/wiki/C._Alfred_%22Chief%22_Anderson" title="C. Alfred "Chief" Anderson">C. Alfred "Chief" Anderson</A>. Anderson, who had been flying since 1929, and was responsible for training thousands of rookie pilots, took his prestigious passenger on a half-hour flight in a <A href="/wiki/Piper_J-3_Cub" title="Piper J-3 Cub">Piper J-3 Cub</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-12">[11]</A></SUP> After landing, she cheerfully announced, "Well, you can fly all right."<SUP id="cite_ref-Moye_pp._52–54_13-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Moye_pp._52–54-13">[12]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The subsequent brouhaha over the First Lady's flight had such an impact it is often mistakenly cited as the start of the CPTP at Tuskegee, even though the program was already five months old. Eleanor Roosevelt used her position as a trustee of the <A href="/wiki/Julius_Rosenwald_Fund" class="mw-redirect" title="Julius Rosenwald Fund">Julius Rosenwald Fund</A> to arrange a loan of $175,000 to help finance the building of <A href="/wiki/Tuskegee_Airmen_National_Historic_Site" title="Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site">Moton Field</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Moye_pp._52–54_13-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Moye_pp._52–54-13">[12]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Formation">Formation</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Formation">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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Major James A. Ellison returns the salute of Mac Ross, as he reviews the first class of Tuskegee cadets; flight line at U.S. Army Air Corps basic and advanced flying school, with <A href="/wiki/Vultee_BT-13" class="mw-redirect" title="Vultee BT-13">Vultee BT-13</A> trainers in the background, Tuskegee, Alabama, 1941</DIV>
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<P>On 11 September 1941, the <A href="/wiki/99th_Fighter_Squadron" class="mw-redirect" title="99th Fighter Squadron">99th Pursuit Squadron</A> <SUP id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-14">[N 2]</A></SUP> was activated at <A href="/wiki/Chanute_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="Chanute Field">Chanute Field</A> in <A href="/wiki/Rantoul,_Illinois" title="Rantoul, Illinois">Rantoul, Illinois</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-15">[13]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-16">[14]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-17">[N 3]</A></SUP></P>
<P>A cadre of 271 enlisted men was trained in aircraft ground support trades at Chanute, beginning in July 1941; the skills being taught were so technical that setting up segregated classes was deemed impossible. This small number of enlisted men became the core of other black squadrons forming at <A href="/wiki/Sharpe_Field" title="Sharpe Field">Tuskegee</A> and <A href="/wiki/Maxwell_Air_Force_Base" title="Maxwell Air Force Base">Maxwell</A> Fields in Alabama.<SUP id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-18">[15]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The Tuskegee program officially began June 1941 with the 99th Pursuit Squadron at <A href="/wiki/Tuskegee_University" title="Tuskegee University">Tuskegee University</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-19">[16]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Homan_and_Reilly_pp._36–37_20-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Homan_and_Reilly_pp._36–37-20">[17]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-22">[N 4]</A></SUP> The unit consisted of 47 officers and 429 enlisted men,<SUP id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-23">[19]</A></SUP> and was backed by an entire service arm. After primary training at <A href="/wiki/Moton_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="Moton Field">Moton Field</A>, they were moved to the nearby Tuskegee Army Air Field, about 10 miles (16 km) to the west for conversion training onto operational types. Consequently, Tuskegee Army Air Field became the only Army installation performing three phases of pilot training (basic, advanced, and transition) at a single location. Initial planning called for 500 personnel in residence at a time.<SUP id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-24">[20]</A></SUP></P>
<P>By mid-1942, over six times that many were stationed at Tuskegee, even though only two squadrons were training there.<SUP id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-25">[21]</A></SUP></P>
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War poster featuring a Tuskegee Airman</DIV>
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<P>Tuskegee Army Airfield was similar to already-existing airfields reserved for training white pilots, such as Maxwell Field, only 40 miles (64 km) distant.<SUP id="cite_ref-Francis_p._233_26-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Francis_p._233-26">[22]</A></SUP> African-American contractor <A href="/wiki/McKissack_%26_McKissack" title="McKissack & McKissack">McKissack and McKissack, Inc.</A> was in charge of the contract. The company's 2,000 workmen, the Alabama <A href="/wiki/Works_Progress_Administration" title="Works Progress Administration">Works Progress Administration</A>, and the U.S. Army built the airfield in only six months. The construction was budgeted at $1,663,057.<SUP id="cite_ref-Homan_and_Reilly_pp._31–32_27-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Homan_and_Reilly_pp._31–32-27">[23]</A></SUP> The airmen were placed under the command of <A href="/wiki/Captain_(United_States_O-3)" title="Captain (United States O-3)">Captain</A> <A href="/wiki/Benjamin_O._Davis,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Benjamin O. Davis, Jr.">Benjamin O. Davis, Jr.</A>, one of only two black line officers then serving.<SUP class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><SPAN title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2017)">citation needed</SPAN></A></I>]</SUP></P>
<P>During training, Tuskegee Army Air Field was commanded first by Major James Ellison. Ellison made great progress in organizing the construction of the facilities needed for the military program at Tuskegee. However, he was transferred on 12 January 1942, reputedly because of his insistence that his African-American sentries and <A href="/wiki/Military_Police" class="mw-redirect" title="Military Police">Military Police</A> had police authority over local <A href="/wiki/Caucasian_race" title="Caucasian race">Caucasian</A> civilians.<SUP id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-28">[24]</A></SUP></P>
<P>His successor, Colonel <A href="/w/index.php?title=Frederick_von_Kimble&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Frederick von Kimble (page does not exist)">Frederick von Kimble</A>, then oversaw operations at the Tuskegee airfield. Contrary to new Army regulations, Kimble maintained segregation on the field in deference to local customs in the state of Alabama, a policy that was resented by the airmen.<SUP id="cite_ref-Francis_p._233_26-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Francis_p._233-26">[22]</A></SUP> Later that year, the Air Corps replaced Kimble. His replacement had been the director of instruction at Tuskegee Army Airfield, Major <A href="/wiki/Noel_F._Parrish" title="Noel F. Parrish">Noel F. Parrish</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-amhert_29-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-amhert-29">[25]</A></SUP> Counter to the prevalent racism of the day, Parrish was fair and open-minded and petitioned Washington to allow the Tuskegee Airmen to serve in combat.<SUP id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-30">[26]</A></SUP></P>
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Instrument certificate for Tuskegee Airman Robert M. Glass, signed by Parrish</DIV>
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<P>The strict racial segregation the U.S. Army required gave way in the face of the requirements for complex training in technical vocations. Typical of the process was the development of separate African-American <A href="/wiki/Flight_surgeon" title="Flight surgeon">flight surgeons</A> to support the operations and training of the Tuskegee Airmen.<SUP id="cite_ref-FlightSurgeon_31-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FlightSurgeon-31">[27]</A></SUP> Before the development of this unit, no U.S. Army flight surgeons had been black.</P>
<P>Training of African-American men as aviation medical examiners was conducted through correspondence courses until 1943, when two black physicians were admitted to the U.S. Army School of Aviation Medicine at <A href="/wiki/Randolph_Field,_Texas" class="mw-redirect" title="Randolph Field, Texas">Randolph Field, Texas</A>. This was one of the earliest racially integrated courses in the U.S. Army. Seventeen flight surgeons served with the Tuskegee Airmen from 1941-49. At that time, the typical tour of duty for a U.S. Army flight surgeon was four years. Six of these physicians lived under field conditions during operations in North Africa, Sicily, and Italy. The chief flight surgeon to the Tuskegee Airmen was Dr. <A href="/w/index.php?title=Vance_H._Marchbanks,_Jr.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vance H. Marchbanks, Jr. (page does not exist)">Vance H. Marchbanks, Jr.</A>, MD, a childhood friend of Benjamin Davis.<SUP id="cite_ref-FlightSurgeon_31-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-FlightSurgeon-31">[27]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The accumulation of washed-out cadets at Tuskegee and the propensity of other commands to "dump" African-American personnel on the post exacerbated the difficulties of administering Tuskegee. A shortage of jobs for them made these enlisted men a drag on Tuskegee's housing and culinary departments.<SUP id="cite_ref-Francis_1997,_p._214_32-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Francis_1997,_p._214-32">[28]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Trained officers were also left idle, as the plan to shift African-American officers into command slots stalled, and white officers not only continued to hold command, but were joined by additional white officers assigned to the post. One rationale behind the non-assignment of trained African-American officers was stated by the commanding officer of the Army Air Forces, General <A href="/wiki/Henry_%22Hap%22_Arnold" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry "Hap" Arnold">Henry "Hap" Arnold</A>: "Negro pilots cannot be used in our present Air Corps units since this would result in Negro officers serving over white enlisted men creating an impossible social situation."<SUP id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-33">[29]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Combat_assignment">Combat assignment</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Combat assignment">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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Eight Tuskegee Airmen in front of a <A href="/wiki/Curtiss_P-40" class="mw-redirect" title="Curtiss P-40">P-40</A> fighter aircraft</DIV>
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<P>The 99th was finally considered ready for combat duty by April 1943. It shipped out of Tuskegee on 2 April, bound for North Africa, where it would join the 33rd Fighter Group and its commander, Colonel <A href="/wiki/William_Momyer" class="mw-redirect" title="William Momyer">William W. Momyer</A>. Given little guidance from battle-experienced pilots, the 99th's first combat mission was to attack the small strategic volcanic island of <A href="/wiki/Pantelleria" title="Pantelleria">Pantelleria</A> in the <A href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</A> to clear the sea lanes for the <A href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily" title="Allied invasion of Sicily">Allied invasion of Sicily</A> in July 1943. The air assault on the island began 30 May 1943. The 99th flew its first combat mission on 2 June.<SUP id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-34">[30]</A></SUP> The surrender of the garrison of 11,121 Italians and 78 Germans<SUP id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-35">[31]</A></SUP> due to air attack was the first of its kind.<SUP id="cite_ref-molony_36-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-molony-36">[32]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The 99th then moved on to Sicily and received a <A href="/wiki/Distinguished_Unit_Citation" class="mw-redirect" title="Distinguished Unit Citation">Distinguished Unit Citation</A> for its performance in combat.<SUP id="cite_ref-dist_37-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-dist-37">[33]</A></SUP></P>
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Col. <A href="/wiki/Benjamin_O._Davis,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Benjamin O. Davis, Jr.">Benjamin O. Davis, Jr.</A>, commander of the Tuskegee Airmen 332nd Fighter Group, in front of his <A href="/wiki/P-47_Thunderbolt" class="mw-redirect" title="P-47 Thunderbolt">P-47 Thunderbolt</A> in Sicily</DIV>
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<P>By the end of February 1944, more graduates were ready for combat, and the all-black <A href="/wiki/332nd_Fighter_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="332nd Fighter Group">332nd Fighter Group</A> had been sent overseas with three fighter squadrons: The <A href="/wiki/100th_Fighter_Squadron" title="100th Fighter Squadron">100th</A>, <A href="/wiki/301st_Fighter_Squadron" title="301st Fighter Squadron">301st</A> and <A href="/wiki/302d_Fighter_Squadron" title="302d Fighter Squadron">302nd</A>.<SUP class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><SPAN title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2017)">citation needed</SPAN></A></I>]</SUP></P>
<P>Under the command of Colonel Davis, the squadrons were moved to mainland Italy, where the 99th Fighter Squadron, assigned to the group on May 1, 1944, joined them on June 6 at <A href="/wiki/Ramitelli_Airfield" class="mw-redirect" title="Ramitelli Airfield">Ramitelli Airfield</A>, in the small city of <A href="/wiki/Campomarino" title="Campomarino">Campomarino</A>, on the <A href="/wiki/Adriatic_Sea" title="Adriatic Sea">Adriatic coast</A>. From Ramitelli, the 332nd Fighter Group escorted <A href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Air_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifteenth Air Force">Fifteenth Air Force</A> heavy strategic bombing raids into Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, Poland and Germany.<SUP id="cite_ref-332d_38-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-332d-38">[34]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Flying escort for heavy bombers, the 332nd earned an impressive combat record. The Allies called these airmen "Red Tails" or "Red-Tail Angels," because of the distinctive crimson unit identification marking predominantly applied on the tail section of the unit's aircraft.<SUP id="cite_ref-Rice_39-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Rice-39">[35]</A></SUP></P>
<P>A B-25 bomb group, the <A href="/wiki/477th_Fighter_Group" title="477th Fighter Group">477th Bombardment Group</A>, was forming in the U.S., but was not able to complete its training in time to see action. The 99th Fighter Squadron after its return to the United States became part of the 477th, redesignated the 477th Composite Group.<SUP id="cite_ref-Rice_39-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Rice-39">[35]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Active_air_units">Active air units</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Active air units">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Pilots_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Pilots_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.jpg/220px-Pilots_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.jpg" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Pilots_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.jpg/330px-Pilots_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Pilots_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.jpg/440px-Pilots_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3202" data-file-height="2400" /></A>
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Pilots of the 332nd Fighter Group at <A href="/wiki/Ramitelli_Airfield" class="mw-redirect" title="Ramitelli Airfield">Ramitelli Airfield</A>, <A href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</A>; from left to right, Lt. Dempsey W. Morgan, Lt. Carroll S. Woods, Lt. Robert H. Nelron, Jr., Captain Andrew D. Turner, and Lt. Clarence P. Lester</DIV>
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<P>The only black air units that saw combat during the war were the 99th Pursuit Squadron and the 332nd Fighter Group. The dive-bombing and strafing missions under Lieutenant Colonel Davis, Jr. were considered to be highly successful.<SUP id="cite_ref-shsu_40-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-shsu-40">[36]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-sd_41-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-sd-41">[37]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In May 1942, the 99th Pursuit Squadron was renamed the 99th Fighter Squadron. It earned three <A href="/wiki/Distinguished_Unit_Citation#Army_and_Air_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Distinguished Unit Citation">Distinguished Unit Citations</A> (DUC) during World War II. The DUCs were for operations over Sicily from 30 May–11 June 1943, Monastery Hill near <A href="/wiki/Battle_of_Monte_Cassino" title="Battle of Monte Cassino">Cassino</A> from 12–14 May 1944, and for successfully fighting off German jet aircraft on 24 March 1945. The mission was the longest bomber escort mission of the Fifteenth Air Force throughout the war.<SUP id="cite_ref-dist_37-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-dist-37">[33]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-jet_42-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-jet-42">[38]</A></SUP> The 332nd flew missions in Sicily, <A href="/wiki/Anzio" title="Anzio">Anzio</A>, Normandy, the <A href="/wiki/Rhineland" title="Rhineland">Rhineland</A>, the <A href="/wiki/Po_Valley" title="Po Valley">Po Valley</A> and Rome-Arno and others. Pilots of the 99th once set a record for destroying five enemy aircraft in under four minutes.<SUP id="cite_ref-shsu_40-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-shsu-40">[36]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The Tuskegee Airmen shot down three German jets in a single day.<SUP id="cite_ref-NMUSAF_43-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-NMUSAF-43">[39]</A></SUP> On 24 March 1945, 43 P-51 Mustangs led by Colonel Benjamin O. Davis escorted B-17 bombers over 1,600 miles (2,600 km) into Germany and back. The bombers’ target, a massive Daimler-Benz tank factory in Berlin, was heavily defended by <I>Luftwaffe</I> aircraft, including propeller-driven <A href="/wiki/Focke-Wulf_Fw_190" title="Focke-Wulf Fw 190">Fw 190s</A>, <A href="/wiki/Messerschmitt_Me_163" class="mw-redirect" title="Messerschmitt Me 163">Me 163 "Komet"</A> rocket-powered fighters, and 25 of the much more formidable <A href="/wiki/Messerschmitt_Me_262" title="Messerschmitt Me 262">Me 262s</A>, history's first operational jet fighter. Pilots Charles Brantley, Earl Lane and <A href="/wiki/Roscoe_Brown" title="Roscoe Brown">Roscoe Brown</A> all shot down German jets over Berlin that day. For the mission, the 332nd Fighter Group earned a Distinguished Unit Citation.<SUP id="cite_ref-332d_38-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-332d-38">[34]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Pilots of the 332nd Fighter Group earned 96 Distinguished Flying Crosses. Their missions took them over Italy and enemy occupied parts of central and southern Europe. Their operational aircraft were, in succession: <A href="/wiki/Curtiss_P-40_Warhawk" title="Curtiss P-40 Warhawk">Curtiss P-40 Warhawk</A>, <A href="/wiki/Bell_P-39_Airacobra" title="Bell P-39 Airacobra">Bell P-39 Airacobra</A>, <A href="/wiki/Republic_P-47_Thunderbolt" title="Republic P-47 Thunderbolt">Republic P-47 Thunderbolt</A> and <A href="/wiki/North_American_P-51_Mustang" title="North American P-51 Mustang">North American P-51 Mustang</A> fighter aircraft.<SUP id="cite_ref-shsu_40-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-shsu-40">[36]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Tuskegee_Airmen_bomber_units">Tuskegee Airmen bomber units</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Tuskegee Airmen bomber units">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Formation_2">Formation</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Formation">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>With African-American fighter pilots being trained successfully, the Army Air Force now came under political pressure from the <A href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</A> and other civil rights organizations to organize a bomber unit. There could be no defensible argument that the quota of 100 African-American pilots in training at one time,<SUP id="cite_ref-Moye_p._123_44-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Moye_p._123-44">[40]</A></SUP> or 200 per year out of a total of 60,000 American aviation cadets in annual training,<SUP id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-45">[41]</A></SUP> represented the service potential of 13 million African-Americans.<SUP id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-46">[N 5]</A></SUP></P>
<P>On 13 May 1943, the 616th Bombardment Squadron was established as the initial subordinate squadron of the <A href="/wiki/477th_Fighter_Group" title="477th Fighter Group">477th Bombardment Group</A>. The squadron was activated on 1 July 1943, only to be inactivated on 15 August 1943.<SUP id="cite_ref-Francis_1997,_p._214_32-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Francis_1997,_p._214-32">[28]</A></SUP> By September 1943, the number of washed-out cadets on base had surged to 286, with few of them working. In January 1944, the 477th Bombardment Group was reactivated. At the time, the usual training cycle for a bombardment group took three to four months.<SUP id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-47">[42]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The 477th would eventually contain four medium bomber squadrons. Slated to comprise 1,200 officers and enlisted men, the unit would operate 60 <A href="/wiki/North_American_B-25_Mitchell" title="North American B-25 Mitchell">North American B-25 Mitchell</A> bombers.<SUP id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-49">[N 6]</A></SUP> The 477th would go on to encompass three more bomber squadrons–the 617th Bombardment Squadron, the 618th Bombardment Squadron, and the 619th Bombardment Squadron.<SUP id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-50">[44]</A></SUP> The 477th was anticipated to be ready for action in November 1944.<SUP id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-51">[45]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The home field for the 477th was <A href="/wiki/Selfridge_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="Selfridge Field">Selfridge Field</A>, located outside Detroit, however, other bases would be used for various types of training courses. Twin-engine pilot training began at Tuskegee while transition to multi-engine pilot training was at <A href="/wiki/Mather_AFB" class="mw-redirect" title="Mather AFB">Mather Field, California</A>. Some ground crews trained at Mather before rotating to <A href="/wiki/Inglewood,_California" title="Inglewood, California">Inglewood</A>. Gunners learned to shoot at <A href="/wiki/Eglin_AFB" class="mw-redirect" title="Eglin AFB">Eglin Field, Florida</A>. Bombers-navigators learned their trades at <A href="/wiki/Hondo_Army_Air_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="Hondo Army Air Field">Hondo Army Air Field</A> and <A href="/w/index.php?title=Midland_Air_Field&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Midland Air Field (page does not exist)">Midland Air Field, Texas</A> or at <A href="/wiki/Roswell,_New_Mexico" title="Roswell, New Mexico">Roswell, New Mexico</A>. Training of the new African-American crewmen also took place at <A href="/wiki/Sioux_Falls,_South_Dakota" title="Sioux Falls, South Dakota">Sioux Falls, South Dakota</A>, <A href="/wiki/Lincoln,_Nebraska" title="Lincoln, Nebraska">Lincoln, Nebraska</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Scott_Air_Force_Base" title="Scott Air Force Base">Scott Field, Belleville, Illinois</A>. Once trained, the air and ground crews would be spliced into a working unit at Selfridge.<SUP id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-52">[46]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-53">[47]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Command_difficulties">Command difficulties</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Command difficulties">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>The new group's first commanding officer was Colonel <A href="/wiki/Robert_Selway" title="Robert Selway">Robert Selway</A>, who had also commanded the 332nd Fighter Group before it deployed for combat overseas. Like his ranking officer, Major General <A href="/wiki/Frank_O%27Driscoll_Hunter" title="Frank O'Driscoll Hunter">Frank O'Driscoll Hunter</A> from Georgia, Selway was a racial segregationist. Hunter was blunt about it, saying such things as, "...racial friction will occur if colored and white pilots are trained together."<SUP class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><SPAN title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2017)">citation needed</SPAN></A></I>]</SUP> He backed Selway's violations of Army Regulation 210-10, which forbade segregation of air base facilities. They segregated base facilities so thoroughly they even drew a line in the base theater and ordered separate seating by races. When the audience sat in random patterns as part of "Operation Checkerboard", the movie was halted to make men return to segregated seating.<SUP id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-54">[48]</A></SUP> African-American officers petitioned base <A href="/wiki/Commanding_Officer" class="mw-redirect" title="Commanding Officer">Commanding Officer</A> William Boyd for access to the only <A href="/wiki/Military_officers%27_club" title="Military officers' club">officer's club</A> on base. Lieutenant Milton Henry entered the club and personally demanded his club rights; he was court-martialed for this, and discharged.<SUP class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><SPAN title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2017)">citation needed</SPAN></A></I>]</SUP></P>
<P>Subsequently, Colonel Boyd denied club rights to African-Americans although General Hunter stepped in and promised a separate but equal club would be built for black airmen.<SUP id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-55">[49]</A></SUP> The 477th was transferred to <A href="/wiki/Godman_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="Godman Field">Godman Field</A>, Kentucky before the club was built. They had spent five months at Selfridge but found themselves on a base a fraction of Selfridge's size, with no air-to-ground gunnery range, and deteriorating runways that were too short for B-25 landings. Colonel Selway took on the second role of commanding officer of Godman Field. In that capacity, he ceded Godman Field's officer club to African-American airmen. Caucasian officers used the whites-only clubs at nearby Fort Knox, much to the displeasure of African-American officers.<SUP id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-56">[50]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Another irritant was a professional one for African-American officers. They observed a steady flow of white officers through the command positions of the group and squadrons; these officers stayed just long enough to be "promotable" before transferring out at their new rank. This seemed to take about four months. In an extreme example, 22-year-old Robert Mattern was promoted to <A href="/wiki/Captain_(United_States_O-3)" title="Captain (United States O-3)">captain</A>, transferred into squadron command in the 477th days later, and left a month later as a <A href="/wiki/Major_(United_States)" title="Major (United States)">major</A>. He was replaced by another Caucasian officer. Meanwhile, no Tuskegee Airmen held command.<SUP id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-57">[51]</A></SUP></P>
<P>On 15 March 1945,<SUP id="cite_ref-Homan_and_Reilly_p._187_58-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Homan_and_Reilly_p._187-58">[52]</A></SUP> the 477th was transferred to <A href="/wiki/Freeman_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="Freeman Field">Freeman Field</A>, near <A href="/wiki/Seymour,_Indiana" title="Seymour, Indiana">Seymour</A>, Indiana. The white population of Freeman Field was 250 officers and 600 enlisted men. Superimposed on it were 400 African-American officers and 2,500 enlisted men of the 477th and its associated units. Freeman Field had a firing range, usable runways, and other amenities useful for training. African-American airmen would work in proximity with white ones; both would live in a public housing project adjacent to the base.<SUP class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><SPAN title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2017)">citation needed</SPAN></A></I>]</SUP></P>
<P>Colonel Selway turned the non-commissioned officers out of their club and turned it into a second officers club. He then classified all white personnel as cadre, and all African-Americans as trainees. One officers club became the cadre's club. The old <A href="/wiki/Non-Commissioned_Officer" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-Commissioned Officer">Non-Commissioned Officers</A> Club, promptly sarcastically dubbed "Uncle Tom's Cabin", became the trainee's officers club. At least four of the trainees had flown combat in Europe as fighter pilots, and had about four years in service. Four others had completed training as pilots, bombardiers and navigators, and may have been the only triply qualified officers in the entire Air Corps. Several of the Tuskegee Airmen had logged over 900 flight hours by this time. Nevertheless, by Colonel Selway's fiat, they were trainees.<SUP id="cite_ref-Homan_and_Reilly_p._187_58-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Homan_and_Reilly_p._187-58">[52]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-59">[53]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Off-base was no better; many businesses in Seymour would not serve African-Americans. A local laundry would not wash their clothes, yet willingly laundered those of captured German soldiers.<SUP id="cite_ref-Homan_and_Reilly_p._187_58-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Homan_and_Reilly_p._187-58">[52]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In early April 1945, the 118th Base Unit transferred in from Godman Field; its African-American personnel held orders that specified they were base cadre, not trainees. On 5 April, officers of the 477th peaceably tried to enter the whites-only Officer's Club. Selway had been tipped off by a phone call, and had the assistant <A href="/wiki/Provost_marshal" title="Provost marshal">provost marshal</A> and base billeting manager stationed at the door to refuse the 477th officers entry. The latter, a major, ordered them to leave, and took their names as a means of arresting them when they refused. It was the beginning of the <A href="/wiki/Freeman_Field_Mutiny" class="mw-redirect" title="Freeman Field Mutiny">Freeman Field Mutiny</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-60">[54]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In the wake of the Freeman Field Mutiny, the 616th and 619th were disbanded and the returned 99th Fighter Squadron assigned to the 477th on 22 June 1945; it was re-designated the 477th Composite Group as a result. On 1 July 1945, Colonel Robert Selway was relieved of the Group's command; he was replaced by Colonel <A href="/wiki/Benjamin_O._Davis,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Benjamin O. Davis, Jr.">Benjamin O. Davis, Jr.</A> A complete sweep of Selway's white staff followed, with all vacated jobs filled by African-American officers. The war ended before the 477th Composite Group could get into action. The 618th Bombardment Squadron was disbanded on October 8, 1945. On 13 March 1946, the two-squadron group, supported by the 602nd Engineer Squadron (later renamed 602nd Air Engineer Squadron), the 118th Base Unit, and a band, moved to its final station, <A href="/wiki/Lockbourne_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="Lockbourne Field">Lockbourne Field</A>. The 617th Bombardment Squadron and the 99th Fighter Squadron disbanded on July 1, 1947, ending the 477th Composite Group. It would be reorganized as the <A href="/wiki/332nd_Air_Expeditionary_Wing" class="mw-redirect" title="332nd Air Expeditionary Wing">332nd Fighter Wing</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-61">[55]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-62">[56]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="War_accomplishments">War accomplishments</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: War accomplishments">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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Office of War Information poster</DIV>
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<P>In all, 992 pilots were trained in Tuskegee from 1941-46. 355 were deployed overseas, and 84 lost their lives in accidents or combat.<SUP id="cite_ref-jet_42-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-jet-42">[38]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-63">[57]</A></SUP> The toll included 68 pilots killed in action or accidents, 12 killed in training and non-combat missions<SUP id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-64">[58]</A></SUP> and 32 captured as prisoners of war.<SUP id="cite_ref-Francis_p._394_65-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Francis_p._394-65">[59]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-66">[60]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The Tuskegee Airmen were credited by higher commands with the following accomplishments:</P>
<UL>
<LI>1578 combat missions, 1267 for the Twelfth Air Force; 311 for the Fifteenth Air Force<SUP class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><SPAN title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2017)">citation needed</SPAN></A></I>]</SUP></LI>
<LI>179 bomber escort missions,<SUP id="cite_ref-NMUSAF_43-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-NMUSAF-43">[39]</A></SUP> with a good record of protection,<SUP id="cite_ref-Francis_p._394_65-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Francis_p._394-65">[59]</A></SUP> losing bombers on only seven missions and a total of only 27, compared to an average of 46 among other 15th Air Force P-51 groups<SUP id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-67">[61]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI>112 enemy aircraft destroyed in the air, another 150 on the ground<SUP id="cite_ref-NMUSAF_43-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-NMUSAF-43">[39]</A></SUP> and 148 damaged</LI>
<LI>950 rail cars, trucks and other motor vehicles destroyed (over 600 rail cars<SUP id="cite_ref-NMUSAF_43-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-NMUSAF-43">[39]</A></SUP>)</LI>
<LI>One destroyer put out of action. The <A href="/wiki/Torpedoboot_Ausland#TA22_and_TA35" title="Torpedoboot Ausland">ship concerned</A> had been classified as a destroyer (<I>Giuseppe Missori</I>) by the Italian Navy, before being reclassified by the Germans as a <A href="/wiki/Torpedo_boat" title="Torpedo boat">torpedo boat</A>, <I>TA22</I>. It was attacked on 25 June 1944. The German Navy decommissioned it on 8 November 1944, and finally scuttled it on 5 February 1945.<SUP id="cite_ref-shsu_40-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-shsu-40">[36]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-68">[62]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-mutiny_69-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-mutiny-69">[63]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI>40 boats and barges destroyed<SUP id="cite_ref-NMUSAF_43-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-NMUSAF-43">[39]</A></SUP></LI>
</UL>
<P>Awards and decorations included:</P>
<UL>
<LI>Three <A href="/wiki/Distinguished_Unit_Citation" class="mw-redirect" title="Distinguished Unit Citation">Distinguished Unit Citations</A>
<UL>
<LI>99th Pursuit Squadron: 30 May–11 June 1943 for actions over Sicily</LI>
<LI>99th Fighter Squadron: 12–14 May 1944: for successful air strikes against <A href="/wiki/Monte_Cassino" title="Monte Cassino">Monte Cassino</A>, Italy</LI>
<LI>332nd Fighter Group (and its 99th, 100th, and 301st Fighter Squadrons): March 24th 1945: for a bomber escort mission to Berlin, during which pilots of the 100th FS shot down three enemy ME-262 jets. The 302nd Fighter Squadron did not receive this award as it had been disbanded on March 6th 1945.</LI>
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<LI>At least one <A href="/wiki/Silver_Star" title="Silver Star">Silver Star</A></LI>
<LI>96 <A href="/wiki/Distinguished_Flying_Cross_(United_States)" title="Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)">Distinguished Flying Crosses</A> to 95 Airmen; Captain <A href="/wiki/William_A._Campbell_(Tuskegee_Airman)" title="William A. Campbell (Tuskegee Airman)">William A. Campbell</A> was awarded two.<SUP id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-70">[64]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-71">[65]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI>14 <A href="/wiki/Bronze_Star" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronze Star">Bronze Stars</A></LI>
<LI>744 <A href="/wiki/Air_Medal" title="Air Medal">Air Medals</A></LI>
<LI>8 <A href="/wiki/Purple_Heart" title="Purple Heart">Purple Hearts</A><SUP id="cite_ref-Francis_p._394_65-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Francis_p._394-65">[59]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-duc_72-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-duc-72">[66]</A></SUP></LI>
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<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Controversy_over_escort_record">Controversy over escort record</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Controversy over escort record">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
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Men of the 332nd Fighter Group attend a briefing in <A href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</A> in 1945</DIV>
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<P>On 24 March 1945, during the war, the <I><A href="/wiki/Chicago_Defender" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicago Defender">Chicago Defender</A></I> said that no bomber escorted by the Tuskegee Airmen had ever been lost to enemy fire, under the headline: "332nd Flies Its 200th Mission Without Loss";<SUP id="cite_ref-confirm_73-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-confirm-73">[67]</A></SUP> the article was based on information supplied by the 15th Air Force.<SUP id="cite_ref-25_bombers_74-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-25_bombers-74">[68]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-75">[69]</A></SUP></P>
<P>This statement was repeated for many years, and not publicly challenged, partly because the mission reports were classified for a number of years after the war. In 2004, William Holton, who was serving as the historian of the Tuskegee Airmen Incorporated, conducted research into wartime action reports.<SUP id="cite_ref-An_uneasy_question._76-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-An_uneasy_question.-76">[70]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Alan Gropman, a professor at the <A href="/wiki/National_Defense_University" title="National Defense University">National Defense University</A>, disputed the initial refutations of the no-loss myth, and said he researched more than 200 Tuskegee Airmen mission reports and found no bombers were lost to enemy fighters.<SUP id="cite_ref-An_uneasy_question._76-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-An_uneasy_question.-76">[70]</A></SUP> Dr. Daniel Haulman of the <A href="/wiki/Air_Force_Historical_Research_Agency" title="Air Force Historical Research Agency">Air Force Historical Research Agency</A> conducted a reassessment of the history of the unit in 2006 and early 2007. His subsequent report, based on after-mission reports filed by both the bomber units and Tuskegee fighter groups, as well as missing air crew records and witness testimony, documented 25 bombers shot down by enemy fighter aircraft while being escorted by the Tuskegee Airmen.<SUP id="cite_ref-Report_77-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Report-77">[71]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In a subsequent article, "The Tuskegee Airmen and the Never Lost a Bomber Myth," published in the <I><A href="/wiki/Alabama_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="Alabama Review">Alabama Review</A></I> and also by New South Books as an e-book, and included in a more comprehensive study regarding misconceptions about the Tuskegee Airmen released by AFHRA in July 2013, Haulman documented 27 bombers shot down by enemy aircraft while those bombers were being escorted by the 332nd Fighter Group. This total included 15 B-17s of the <A href="/wiki/483rd_Bombardment_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="483rd Bombardment Group">483rd Bombardment Group</A> shot down during a particularly savage air battle with an estimated 300 German fighters on 18 July 1944 that also resulted in nine kill credits and the award of five Distinguished Flying Crosses to members of the 332nd.<SUP id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-78">[72]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Of the 179 bomber escort missions the 332nd Fighter Group flew for the Fifteenth Air Force, the group encountered enemy aircraft on 35 of those missions and lost bombers to enemy aircraft on only seven, and the total number of bombers lost was 27. By comparison, the average number of bombers lost by the other P-51 fighter groups of the Fifteenth Air Force during the same period was 46.<SUP id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-79">[73]</A></SUP></P>
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Tuskegee Airmen gathered at a U.S. base after a mission in the <A href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Theater_of_Operations" title="Mediterranean Theater of Operations">Mediterranean theater</A></DIV>
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<P>A number of examples of the fighter group's losses exist in the historical record. A mission report states that on 26 July 1944: "1 B-24 seen spiraling out of formation in T/A [target area] after attack by E/A [enemy aircraft]. No chutes seen to open." The Distinguished Flying Cross citation awarded to Colonel Benjamin O. Davis for the mission on 9 June 1944 noted that he "so skillfully disposed his squadrons that in spite of the large number of enemy fighters, the bomber formation suffered only a few losses."<SUP id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-80">[74]</A></SUP></P>
<P>William Holloman was reported by the <I>Times</I> as saying his review of records confirmed bombers had been lost. Holloman was a member of Tuskegee Airmen Inc., a group of surviving Tuskegee pilots and their supporters, who also taught Black Studies at the <A href="/wiki/University_of_Washington" title="University of Washington">University of Washington</A> and chaired the Airmen's history committee.<SUP id="cite_ref-An_uneasy_question._76-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-An_uneasy_question.-76">[70]</A></SUP> According to the 28 March 2007 Air Force report, some bombers under 332nd Fighter Group escort protection were even shot down on the day the <I>Chicago Defender</I> article was published.<SUP id="cite_ref-25_bombers_74-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-25_bombers-74">[68]</A></SUP> The mission reports, however, do credit the group for not losing a bomber on an escort mission for a six-month period between September 1944 and March 1945, albeit when Luftwaffe contacts were far fewer than earlier.<SUP id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-81">[75]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Postwar">Postwar</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Postwar">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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Several Tuskegee Airmen at Ramitelli, Italy, March 1945</DIV>
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<P>Contrary to negative predictions from some quarters, Tuskegee Airmen were some of the best pilots in the U.S. Army Air Forces due to a combination of pre-war experience and the personal drive of those accepted for training. Nevertheless, the Tuskegee Airmen continued to have to fight <A href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racism</A>. Their combat record did much to quiet those directly involved with the group, notably bomber crews who often requested them for escort, but other units continued to harass these airmen.<SUP id="cite_ref-Tuskegee_Airmen_Combat_record_82-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Tuskegee_Airmen_Combat_record-82">[76]</A></SUP> In 1949, the 332nd entered the annual U. S. Continental Gunnery Meet in Las Vegas, Nevada. The competition included shooting aerial targets, shooting targets on the ground and dropping bombs on targets. Flying the long range Republic P-47N Thunderbolt (built for the long range escort mission in the <A href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific theatre of World War II</A>), the 332nd Fighter Wing took first place in the conventional fighter class. The pilots were Capt. Alva Temple, Lts. Harry Stewart, James Harvey III and Herbert Alexander. Lt. Harvey said, "We had a perfect score. Three missions, two bombs per plane. We didn't guess at anything, we were good."<SUP id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-83">[77]</A></SUP> They received congratulations from the Governor of Ohio, and Air Force commanders across the nation.<SUP id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-84">[78]</A></SUP></P>
<P>After segregation in the military was ended in 1948 by President <A href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</A> with <A href="/wiki/Executive_Order_9981" title="Executive Order 9981">Executive Order 9981</A>, the veteran Tuskegee Airmen now found themselves in high demand throughout the newly formed <A href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">United States Air Force</A>. Some taught in civilian flight schools, such as the black-owned <A href="/wiki/Columbia_Air_Center" title="Columbia Air Center">Columbia Air Center</A> in Maryland.<SUP id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-85">[79]</A></SUP> On 11 May 1949, <I>Air Force Letter 35.3</I> was published, which mandated that black Airmen be screened for reassignment to formerly all-white units according to qualifications.<SUP class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><SPAN title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2017)">citation needed</SPAN></A></I>]</SUP></P>
<P>Tuskegee Airmen were instrumental in postwar developments in aviation. Edward A. Gibbs was a civilian flight instructor in the U.S. Aviation Cadet Program at Tuskegee during its inception.<SUP id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-86">[80]</A></SUP> He later became the founder of <A href="/w/index.php?title=Negro_Airmen_International&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Negro Airmen International (page does not exist)">Negro Airmen International</A>, an association joined by many airmen. USAF General <A href="/wiki/Daniel_James,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Daniel James, Jr.">Daniel "Chappie" James Jr.</A> (then Lt.) was an instructor of the 99th Pursuit Squadron, later a fighter pilot in Europe. In 1975, he became the first African-American to reach the rank of <A href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Air_Force_four-star_generals" title="List of United States Air Force four-star generals">four-star general</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-87">[81]</A></SUP> Post-war commander of the 99th Squadron <A href="/wiki/Marion_Rodgers" title="Marion Rodgers">Marion Rodgers</A> went on to work in communications for <A href="/wiki/NORAD" class="mw-redirect" title="NORAD">NORAD</A> and as a program developer for the <A href="/wiki/Apollo_13" title="Apollo 13">Apollo 13</A> project.<SUP id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-88">[82]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In 2005, seven Tuskegee Airmen, including <SPAN id="Herbert_Carter"></SPAN>Lieutenant Colonel Herbert Carter, Colonel <A href="/wiki/Charles_McGee_(pilot)" title="Charles McGee (pilot)">Charles McGee</A>, group historian Ted Johnson, and Lieutenant Colonel Lee Archer, flew to Balad, Iraq, to speak to active duty airmen serving in the current incarnation of the 332nd, which was reactivated as the 332nd Air Expeditionary Group in 1998 and made part of the <A href="/wiki/332nd_Air_Expeditionary_Wing" class="mw-redirect" title="332nd Air Expeditionary Wing">332nd Air Expeditionary Wing</A>. "This group represents the linkage between the 'greatest generation' of airmen and the 'latest generation' of airmen," said Lt. Gen. Walter E. Buchanan III, commander of the <A href="/wiki/Ninth_Air_Force" title="Ninth Air Force">Ninth Air Force</A> and <A href="/wiki/United_States_Central_Command_Air_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Central Command Air Forces">US Central Command Air Forces</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Iraq2005_89-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Iraq2005-89">[83]</A></SUP></P>
<P>No one knows how many of the original 996 pilots and about 16,000 ground personnel are still alive.<SUP id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-90">[84]</A></SUP> Surviving members of the Tuskegee Airmen participate annually in the Tuskegee Airmen Convention, which is hosted by <A href="/wiki/Tuskegee_Airmen,_Inc" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuskegee Airmen, Inc">Tuskegee Airmen, Inc</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-91">[85]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Willie Rogers, the last surviving member of the original Tuskegee Airmen, died at the age of 101 on 18 November 2016 in <A href="/wiki/St._Petersburg,_Florida" title="St. Petersburg, Florida">St. Petersburg, Florida</A> following a stroke. Rogers was drafted into the Army in 1942 and was part of the 100th Air Engineer Squad. Rogers also served with the Red Tail Angels. He was wounded in action, shot in the stomach and leg by German soldiers, during a mission in Italy in January 1943.<SUP id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-92">[86]</A></SUP> In 2007, President <A href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</A> awarded him the Congressional Gold Medal. Rev. Irby said Rogers was a "passionate oral historian." <SUP id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-93">[87]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Legacy_and_honors">Legacy and honors</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Legacy and honors">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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A tail signed by surviving Tuskegee Airmen located at the <A href="/wiki/Palm_Springs_Air_Museum" title="Palm Springs Air Museum">Palm Springs Air Museum</A>, <A href="/wiki/Palm_Springs,_California" title="Palm Springs, California">Palm Springs, California</A>.</DIV>
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The Hangar One Museum at the <A href="/wiki/Tuskegee_Airmen_National_Historic_Site" title="Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site">Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site</A> at <A href="/wiki/Moton_Field_Municipal_Airport" title="Moton Field Municipal Airport">Moton Field, Tuskegee, Alabama</A>.</DIV>
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The <A href="/wiki/Congressional_Gold_Medal" title="Congressional Gold Medal">Congressional Gold Medal</A> was collectively presented to approximately 300 Tuskegee Airmen or their widows, at the <A href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol_rotunda" title="United States Capitol rotunda">U.S. Capitol rotunda</A> in <A href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</A> by President <A href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</A> on 29 March 2007</DIV>
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<I>Red Tails</I> continue to fly in the 99th Flying Training Squadron at <A href="/wiki/Randolph_Air_Force_Base" title="Randolph Air Force Base">Randolph Air Force Base</A> in honor of the Tuskegee Airmen</DIV>
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The restored P-51 Mustang associated with the Tuskegee Airmen, now flown by <A href="/wiki/Red_Tail_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Tail Project">Red Tail Project</A> as described in <I><A href="/wiki/Red_Tail_Reborn" title="Red Tail Reborn">Red Tail Reborn</A></I></DIV>
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The new redesigned Tuskegee Airmen Depot sticker.</DIV>
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<P>On 29 March 2007, the Tuskegee Airmen were collectively awarded a <A href="/wiki/Congressional_Gold_Medal" title="Congressional Gold Medal">Congressional Gold Medal</A><SUP id="cite_ref-THOMAS_94-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-THOMAS-94">[88]</A></SUP> at a ceremony in the <A href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol_rotunda" title="United States Capitol rotunda">U.S. Capitol rotunda</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-95">[89]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-96">[90]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-97">[91]</A></SUP> The medal is currently on display at the <A href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution" title="Smithsonian Institution">Smithsonian Institution</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-25_bombers_74-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-25_bombers-74">[68]</A></SUP> The airfield where the airmen trained is now the <A href="/wiki/Tuskegee_Airmen_National_Historic_Site" title="Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site">Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-98">[92]</A></SUP></P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</A>, the future Supreme Court justice, got his start defending Tuskegee bomber trainees. The 477th Bombardment Group was formed in 1944 to extend the so-called "Tuskegee experiment" by allowing black aviators to serve on bomber crews. The aim was to send pilots—many of them veterans of the original Tuskegee fighter group—back to the States for training on B-25 bombers. While in Indiana, some of the African-American officers were arrested and charged with mutiny after entering an all-white officers’ club. Marshall, then a young lawyer, represented the 100 black officers who had landed in jail as a result of the confrontation. The men were soon released (although one was later convicted of violent conduct and fined).<SUP id="cite_ref-Facts_99-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Facts-99">[93]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Other members of the Tuskegee Airmen have made contributions in the world of business. <A href="/wiki/Eugene_Winslow" title="Eugene Winslow">Eugene Winslow</A> founded Afro-Am Publishing in <A href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</A>, Illinois, which published <I>Great Negroes Past and Present</I> in 1963.<SUP id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-100">[94]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Daniel "Chappie" James Jr. started his career in the early 1940s at Tuskegee, joining the Army Air Corps in July 1943. After the war ended, James stayed in what became the Air Force and flew missions in both Korea and Vietnam. In 1969, James was put in command of <A href="/wiki/Wheelus_Air_Base" title="Wheelus Air Base">Wheelus Air Base</A> outside of Tripoli.<SUP id="cite_ref-Facts_99-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Facts-99">[93]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Three Tuskegee airmen went on to become generals. For keeping his cool in the face of Qaddafi's troops, James was appointed a brigadier general by President Nixon. However, he was not the only graduate of the "Tuskegee experiment" to make flag rank. James followed in the footsteps of <A href="/wiki/Benjamin_O._Davis_Jr." title="Benjamin O. Davis Jr.">Benjamin O. Davis Jr.</A>, the original commander of the 332nd Fighter Group and the first black general in the U.S. Air Force. Another Tuskegee aviator, Lucius Theus, retired a major general after dedicating most of his 36-year career in the Air Force to improving the military's bureaucracy, helping to implement a direct deposit system for service members.<SUP id="cite_ref-Facts_99-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Facts-99">[93]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In 2006, California Congressman <A href="/wiki/Adam_Schiff" title="Adam Schiff">Adam Schiff</A> and Missouri Congressman <A href="/wiki/William_Lacy_Clay,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="William Lacy Clay, Jr.">William Lacy Clay, Jr.</A>, led the initiative to create a commemorative postage stamp to honor the Tuskegee Airmen.<SUP id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-101">[95]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/99th_Flying_Training_Squadron" title="99th Flying Training Squadron">99th Flying Training Squadron</A> flies <A href="/wiki/T-1A_Jayhawk" class="mw-redirect" title="T-1A Jayhawk">T-1A Jayhawks</A> and, in honor of the Tuskegee Airmen, painted the tops of the tails of their aircraft red. On August 1, 2008, Camp Creek Parkway, a portion of <A href="/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_6" title="Georgia State Route 6">State Route 6</A> in south Fulton County and in the City of East Point <A href="/wiki/East_Point,_Georgia" title="East Point, Georgia">near Atlanta</A>, <A href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</A>, was officially renamed in honor of the Tuskegee Airmen. The road is a highway that serves as the main artery into <A href="/wiki/Hartsfield-Jackson_International_Airport" class="mw-redirect" title="Hartsfield-Jackson International Airport">Hartsfield-Jackson International Airport</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-102">[96]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/Heinz_History_Center" title="Heinz History Center">Heinz History Center</A> in <A href="/wiki/Pittsburgh" title="Pittsburgh">Pittsburgh</A> presented an award to several <A href="/wiki/Western_Pennsylvania" title="Western Pennsylvania">Western Pennsylvania</A> Tuskegee veterans, as well as suburban <A href="/wiki/Sewickley,_Pennsylvania" title="Sewickley, Pennsylvania">Sewickley, Pennsylvania</A> dedicated a memorial to the seven from that municipality.<SUP id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-103">[97]</A></SUP> An exhibit was established at Pittsburgh International Airport in Concourse A.<SUP id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-104">[98]</A></SUP></P>
<P>On 9 December 2008, the Tuskegee Airmen were invited to attend the <A href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="First inauguration of Barack Obama">inauguration of Barack Obama</A>, the first African-American elected as President. Retired Lt. William Broadwater, 82, of <A href="/wiki/Upper_Marlboro,_Maryland" title="Upper Marlboro, Maryland">Upper Marlboro, Maryland</A>, a Tuskegee Airman, summed up the feeling. "The culmination of our efforts and others was this great prize we were given on Nov. 4. Now we feel like we've completed our mission."<SUP id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-105">[99]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-106">[100]</A></SUP> More than 180 airmen attended the 20 January 2009 inauguration.<SUP id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-107">[101]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The Tuskegee Airmen Memorial was erected at <A href="/wiki/Lowcountry_Regional_Airport" title="Lowcountry Regional Airport">Walterboro Army Airfield</A>, South Carolina, in honor of the Tuskegee Airmen, their instructors, and ground support personnel who trained at the Walterboro Army Airfield during World War II.<SUP class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><SPAN title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2017)">citation needed</SPAN></A></I>]</SUP> In the 2010 <A href="/wiki/Tournament_of_Roses_Parade" class="mw-redirect" title="Tournament of Roses Parade">Rose Parade</A>, the city of <A href="/wiki/West_Covina,_California" title="West Covina, California">West Covina, California</A> paid tribute to the "service and commitment of the Tuskegee Airmen" with a float, entitled <I>"Tuskegee Airmen—A Cut Above"</I>, which featured a large bald eagle, two replica World War II <I>"Redtail"</I> fighter aircraft and historical images of some of the airmen who served. The float won the mayor's trophy as the most outstanding city entry—national or international.<SUP class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><SPAN title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2017)">citation needed</SPAN></A></I>]</SUP></P>
<P>In June 1998, the Ohio Army and Air National guard opened a jointly operated dining hall. They dedicated the new dining facility called the "Red Tail Dining Facility" to the Tuskegee Airmen. The facility is operated at the Rickenbacker ANG base outside of <A href="/wiki/Columbus_Ohio" class="mw-redirect" title="Columbus Ohio">Columbus Ohio</A>.<SUP class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><SPAN title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2017)">citation needed</SPAN></A></I>]</SUP></P>
<P>In January 2012, <A href="/wiki/MTA_Regional_Bus_Operations" title="MTA Regional Bus Operations">MTA Regional Bus Operations</A> officially changed the name of its 100th Street depot in New York City to the <A href="/wiki/Bus_depots_of_MTA_Regional_Bus_Operations#Tuskegee_Airmen_Depot" title="Bus depots of MTA Regional Bus Operations">Tuskegee Airmen Depot</A>. In 2012, <A href="/wiki/George_Lucas" title="George Lucas">George Lucas</A> produced <I><A href="/wiki/Red_Tails" title="Red Tails">Red Tails</A></I>, a film based on the experiences of the Tuskegee Airmen.<SUP id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-108">[102]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In 2012, <A href="/wiki/Aldine_Independent_School_District" title="Aldine Independent School District">Aldine Independent School District</A> in <A href="/wiki/Harris_County,_Texas" title="Harris County, Texas">Harris County, Texas</A> named <A href="/wiki/Benjamin_O._Davis_High_School" title="Benjamin O. Davis High School">Benjamin O. Davis High School</A> in honor of Benjamin O. Davis Jr.<SUP id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-109">[103]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Artistic_depictions_of_the_Tuskegee_Airmen">Artistic depictions of the Tuskegee Airmen</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Artistic depictions of the Tuskegee Airmen">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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<LI><I>Red Tails Escorting the B17s</I>, a watercolor by <A href="/wiki/Kay_Smith_(artist)" title="Kay Smith (artist)">Kay Smith</A> is in the collections of the <A href="/wiki/Pritzker_Military_Library" class="mw-redirect" title="Pritzker Military Library">Pritzker Military Library</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-110">[104]</A></SUP></LI>
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<P>There is a mural depicting the Tuskegee Airmen and their contributions at 39th and Chestnut Streets in <A href="/wiki/Philadelphia,_Pennsylvania" class="mw-redirect" title="Philadelphia, Pennsylvania">Philadelphia, Pennsylvania</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-111">[105]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: In popular culture">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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<DIV id="mwe_player_0" class="PopUpMediaTransform" style="width:220px;" videopayload="<div class="mediaContainer" style="width:400px"><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Wings_for_this_Man.ogv/400px--Wings_for_this_Man.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" autoplay="" style="width:400px;height:300px" class="kskin" data-durationhint="580.61394728061" data-startoffset="0" data-mwtitle="Wings_for_this_Man.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Wings_for_this_Man.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs=&quot;theora, vorbis&quot;" data-title="Original Ogg file, 400 × 300 (680 kbps)" data-shorttitle="Ogg source" data-width="400" data-height="300" data-bandwidth="679867" data-framerate="29.97"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/47/Wings_for_this_Man.ogv/Wings_for_this_Man.ogv.160p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs=&quot;vp8, vorbis&quot;" data-title="Low bandwidth WebM (160P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 160P" data-transcodekey="160p.webm" data-width="214" data-height="160" data-bandwidth="230792" data-framerate="29.97"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/47/Wings_for_this_Man.ogv/Wings_for_this_Man.ogv.240p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs=&quot;vp8, vorbis&quot;" data-title="Small WebM (240P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 240P" data-transcodekey="240p.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" data-bandwidth="332888" data-framerate="29.97"/></video></div>"><IMG alt="File:Wings for this Man.ogv" style="width:220px;height:165px" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Wings_for_this_Man.ogv/220px-seek%3D120-Wings_for_this_Man.ogv.jpg" /><A href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Wings_for_this_Man.ogv" title="Play media" target="new"><SPAN class="play-btn-large"><SPAN class="mw-tmh-playtext">Play media</SPAN></SPAN></A></DIV>
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Tuskegee Airmen were featured in <I><A href="/wiki/Wings_for_This_Man" title="Wings for This Man">Wings for This Man</A></I> (1945)</DIV>
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<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Wings_for_This_Man" title="Wings for This Man">Wings for This Man</A></I> (1945), a propaganda short about the Tuskegee Airmen, was produced by the <A href="/wiki/First_Motion_Picture_Unit" title="First Motion Picture Unit">First Motion Picture Unit</A> of the Army Air Forces. The film was narrated by <A href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-112">[106]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI>"Graveyard", an episode of <I><A href="/wiki/Twelve_O%27Clock_High_(TV_series)" title="Twelve O'Clock High (TV series)">Twelve O'Clock High</A></I> (1966), starring <A href="/wiki/Ossie_Davis" title="Ossie Davis">Ossie Davis</A>, <A href="/wiki/Jon_Voight" title="Jon Voight">Jon Voight</A>, <A href="/wiki/Lloyd_Haynes" title="Lloyd Haynes">Lloyd Haynes</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-113">[107]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/The_Tuskegee_Airmen" title="The Tuskegee Airmen">The Tuskegee Airmen</A></I> (1995), a film starring <A href="/wiki/Laurence_Fishburne" title="Laurence Fishburne">Laurence Fishburne</A>, was produced and aired by <A href="/wiki/HBO" title="HBO">HBO</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-114">[108]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI>"The Tuskegee Airmen", an episode of the documentary TV series <I><A href="/wiki/Dogfights_(TV_series)" title="Dogfights (TV series)">Dogfights</A></I>, was originally aired on the <A href="/wiki/History_(U.S._TV_channel)" class="mw-redirect" title="History (U.S. TV channel)">History Channel</A> on 6 December 2007.</LI>
<LI>The Tuskegee Airmen (1997) are represented in the <A href="/wiki/G.I._Joe" title="G.I. Joe">G.I. Joe</A> action figure series.<SUP id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-115">[109]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI><I>The Wild Blue: The Men and Boys who Flew the B-24s over Germany</I> (2001), a book by <A href="/wiki/Stephen_Ambrose" class="mw-redirect" title="Stephen Ambrose">Stephen Ambrose</A>, describes the Tuskegee Airmen in a tribute to their achievements.<SUP id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-116">[110]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/w/index.php?title=Silver_Wings_%26_Civil_Rights:_The_Fight_to_Fly&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Silver Wings & Civil Rights: The Fight to Fly (page does not exist)">Silver Wings & Civil Rights: The Fight to Fly</A></I> (2004) is a documentary that was the first film to feature information regarding the "<A href="/wiki/Freeman_Field_Mutiny" class="mw-redirect" title="Freeman Field Mutiny">Freeman Field Mutiny</A>", the struggle of 101 African-American officers arrested for entering a white officer's club.<SUP id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-117">[111]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-118">[112]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Red_Tail_Reborn" title="Red Tail Reborn">Red Tail Reborn</A></I> is a documentary film about the restoration of an aircraft that was flown by the Tuskegee Airmen and its use as a flying memorial to them.</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Red_Tails" title="Red Tails">Red Tails</A></I> is a film about the Tuskegee Airmen by <A href="/wiki/George_Lucas" title="George Lucas">George Lucas</A> released in January 2012. The film was written by <A href="/wiki/John_Ridley" title="John Ridley">John Ridley</A> and <A href="/wiki/Aaron_McGruder" title="Aaron McGruder">Aaron McGruder</A>, and directed by <A href="/wiki/Anthony_Hemingway" title="Anthony Hemingway">Anthony Hemingway</A>.</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Night_at_the_Museum:_Battle_of_the_Smithsonian" title="Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian">Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian</A></I> (2009) features the Tuskegee Airmen. One of the Airmen, played by <A href="/wiki/Keith_Powell" title="Keith Powell">Keith Powell</A>, narrates the group's activities in a stentorian voice ("The Tuskegee Airmen are on the march once again!"). Another one of the Airmen (<A href="/wiki/Craig_Robinson_(actor)" title="Craig Robinson (actor)">Craig Robinson</A>) says to <A href="/wiki/Amelia_Earhart" title="Amelia Earhart">Amelia Earhart</A> (<A href="/wiki/Amy_Adams" title="Amy Adams">Amy Adams</A>), "A lot of people didn't think we could fly, either ... thanks for clearing the runway for us."<SUP class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><SPAN title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2017)">citation needed</SPAN></A></I>]</SUP></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/w/index.php?title=Black_Angels_Over_Tuskegee&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Black Angels Over Tuskegee (page does not exist)">Black Angels Over Tuskegee</A></I> (2015), an Off- Broadway play about the Airmen written and directed by <A href="/wiki/Layon_Gray" title="Layon Gray">Layon Gray</A>, currently performs in <A href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</A>.</LI>
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<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Squadron_images">Squadron images</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Squadron images">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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<P>Patch of the <A href="/wiki/99th_Fighter_Squadron" class="mw-redirect" title="99th Fighter Squadron">99th Fighter Squadron</A></P>
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<P>Patch of the <A href="/wiki/100th_Fighter_Squadron" title="100th Fighter Squadron">100th Fighter Squadron</A></P>
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<DIV style="margin:15px auto;"><A href="/wiki/File:301st_Fighter_Squadron_-_AETC_-_Emblem.png" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/301st_Fighter_Squadron_-_AETC_-_Emblem.png/107px-301st_Fighter_Squadron_-_AETC_-_Emblem.png" width="107" height="120" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/301st_Fighter_Squadron_-_AETC_-_Emblem.png/160px-301st_Fighter_Squadron_-_AETC_-_Emblem.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/301st_Fighter_Squadron_-_AETC_-_Emblem.png/214px-301st_Fighter_Squadron_-_AETC_-_Emblem.png 2x" data-file-width="1503" data-file-height="1688" /></A></DIV>
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<P>Patch of the <A href="/wiki/301st_Fighter_Squadron" title="301st Fighter Squadron">301st Fighter Squadron</A></P>
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<P>Patch of the <A href="/wiki/302d_Fighter_Squadron" title="302d Fighter Squadron">302d Fighter Squadron</A></P>
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<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/92nd_Infantry_Division_(United_States)" title="92nd Infantry Division (United States)">92nd Infantry Division</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/93rd_Infantry_Division_(United_States)" title="93rd Infantry Division (United States)">93rd Infantry Division</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/555th_Parachute_Infantry_Battalion_(United_States)" title="555th Parachute Infantry Battalion (United States)">555th Parachute Infantry Battalion "Triple Nicklel"</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/761st_Tank_Battalion_(United_States)" title="761st Tank Battalion (United States)">761st Tank Battalion</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bessie_Coleman" title="Bessie Coleman">Bessie Coleman</A> – first African-American civil aviator</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Fly_(play)" title="Fly (play)">Fly</A></I> (2009 play about the Tuskegee Airmen)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_Medal_of_Honor_recipients" title="List of African-American Medal of Honor recipients">List of African-American Medal of Honor recipients</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history of African-Americans</A></LI>
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<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="reflist" style="list-style-type: decimal;">
<DIV class="mw-references-wrap">
<OL class="references">
<LI id="cite_note-5"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-5"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">U.S. state and local laws enacted between 1876 and 1965 that mandated <I>de jure</I> racial segregation in all public activities were collectively known as the "Jim Crow laws"; the name derivation from a contemporary pejorative for Black Americans.<SUP id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-4">[4]</A></SUP></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-14"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-14"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">"Pursuit" being the U.S. term for "fighter" to May 1942.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-17"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-17"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">It may have been a lawsuit from a rejected candidate, that caused the USAAC to accept black applicants. Yancey Williams, an African American otherwise qualified for military pilot's training, filed suit in the District Court in Washington, DC for admittance to training. He was backed by the National Association of for the Advancement of Colored People.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-22"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-22"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">The Coffey School of Aeronautics in Chicago was also considered. Tuskegee's already existent CPTP, ground school training facilities, availability of nearby Montgomery Field, and better flying weather certainly offered some advantages.<SUP id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-21">[18]</A></SUP></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-46"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-46"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">The physical requirements that made it possible to fit in a fighter's cockpit with a height less than 70 inches, weight under 170 pounds, precluded many larger African-American men from eligibility.<SUP id="cite_ref-Moye_p._123_44-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Moye_p._123-44">[40]</A></SUP></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-49"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-49"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Each B-25 bomber cost $175,000. Overall cost of the entire group was estimated at $20,000,000.<SUP id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-48">[43]</A></SUP></SPAN></LI>
</OL>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Citations">Citations</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<OL class="references">
<LI id="cite_note-1"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-1"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">See <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Tuskegee">"Pronunciation of Tuskegee"</A>, thefreedictionary.com; retrieved October 3, 2010.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-2"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-2"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tuskegee.edu/about_us/legacy_of_fame/tuskegee_airmen/tuskegee_airmen_pilot_listing.aspx">"Tuskegee Airmen Pilot Listing"</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131203000349/http://www.tuskegee.edu/about_us/legacy_of_fame/tuskegee_airmen/tuskegee_airmen_pilot_listing.aspx">Archived</A> 3 December 2013 at the <A href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</A>., tuskegee.edu; retrieved 13 May 2014.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-3"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-3"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2015/11/unknown-latino-tuskegee-airman-discovered/433479/">An Unknown Latino Tuskegee Airman Has Been Discovered</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-4"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-4"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Woodward and McFeely (2001), p. 6.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Francis_pp._38–29-6"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Francis_pp._38–29_6-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Francis_pp._38–29_6-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Francis and Caso 1997, pp. 38–39.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-7"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-7"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Lloyd 2000, p. 176.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Moye_2010,_p._19-8"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Moye_2010,_p._19_8-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Moye 2010, p. 19.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-9"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-9"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.gwu.edu/~erpapers/teachinger/glossary/tuskegee-airmen.cfm">"The Tuskegee Airmen"</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Tuskegee+Airmen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww2.gwu.edu%2F~erpapers%2Fteachinger%2Fglossary%2Ftuskegee-airmen.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-10"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-10"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Moye 2010, p. 25.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-11"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-11"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Benton 1999, p. 43.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-12"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-12"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.redtail.org/the-tuskegee-airmen/silver-wings-civil-rights">"Mrs. Roosevelt Goes for a Ride - Red Tail Squadron"</A>. <I>Red Tail Squadron</I>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Red+Tail+Squadron&rft.atitle=Mrs.+Roosevelt+Goes+for+a+Ride+-+Red+Tail+Squadron&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.redtail.org%2Fthe-tuskegee-airmen%2Fsilver-wings-civil-rights&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Moye_pp._52–54-13"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Moye_pp._52–54_13-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Moye_pp._52–54_13-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Moye 2010, pp. 52–54.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-15"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-15"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Francis and Caso 1997, p. 15.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-16"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-16"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Moye 2010, pp. 26–37.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-18"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-18"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Moye 2010, p. 57.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-19"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-19"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Thole 2002, p. 48.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Homan_and_Reilly_pp._36–37-20"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Homan_and_Reilly_pp._36–37_20-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Homan and Reilly 2001, pp. 36–37.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-21"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-21"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Lambertson, Gilles. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.airspacemag.com/history-of-flight/The-Other-Harlem-Airport.html">"History of Flight: The Other Harlem."</A> <I>Air & Space Magazine</I>, 1 March 2010.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-23"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-23"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=15469">"Fact sheet:Tuskegee Airmen"</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101019085202/http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=15469">Archived</A> 19 October 2010 at the <A href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</A>., National Museum of the United States Air Force website; retrieved 22 October 2010.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-24"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-24"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Moye 2010, pp. 93–94.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-25"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-25"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Homan and Reilly, p. 68.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Francis_p._233-26"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Francis_p._233_26-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Francis_p._233_26-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Francis and Caso 1997, p. 233.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Homan_and_Reilly_pp._31–32-27"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Homan_and_Reilly_pp._31–32_27-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Homan and Reilly 2001, pp. 31–32.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-28"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-28"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Francis and Caso 1997, p. 56.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-amhert-29"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-amhert_29-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Smith, Gene. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.americanheritage.com/content/colonel-parrish%E2%80%99s-orders?page=show">"Colonel Parrish’s Orders."</A> <I>American History,</I> Volume 46, Issue 3, May/June 1995.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-30"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-30"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Francis and Caso 1997, p. 258.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-FlightSurgeon-31"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-FlightSurgeon_31-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-FlightSurgeon_31-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Jones, D.R., L.P. Gross and R. Marchbanks-Robinson. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/7973">"United States Army Aeromedical Support to African Fliers, 1941–1949: The Tuskegee Flight Surgeons"</A>, <I>SAM-FE-BR-TR-2007-0001: US Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine</I> (2007); retrieved 20 March 2010.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Francis_1997,_p._214-32"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Francis_1997,_p._214_32-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Francis_1997,_p._214_32-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Francis and Caso 1997, p. 214.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-33"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-33"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Moye 2010, pp. 93–95.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-34"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-34"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=15470">"Davis Leads the 99th into Combat"</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131005031011/http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=15470">Archived</A> 5 October 2013 at the <A href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</A>., <I>The National Museum of the United States Air Force</I>; retrieved 27 July 2012.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-35"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-35"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Wolk, Herman S. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/2002/June%202002/0602pantelleria.aspx">"Pantelleria, 1943"</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121120161113/http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/2002/June%202002/0602pantelleria.aspx">Archived</A> 20 November 2012 at the <A href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</A>., airforce-magazine.com, June 2002; retrieved 12 February 2012.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-molony-36"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-molony_36-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Molony et al. 2004, p. 49.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-dist-37"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-dist_37-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-dist_37-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110722181355/http://www.randolph.af.mil/library/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=5896">"99th Flying Training Squadron History."</A> <I>United States Air Force</I>; retrieved 12 June 2011.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-332d-38"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-332d_38-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-332d_38-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.everworld.com/tuskegee/332d_fighter_squadron.htm">"332d Fighter Squadron"</A>, everworld.com; retrieved 9 July 2012.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Rice-39"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Rice_39-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Rice_39-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Rice, Markus. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://logicalthinker2.tripod.com/Tuskegeeaircraft.html">"The Men and Their Airplanes: The Fighters"</A>, <I>Tuskegee Airmen</I> via logicalthinker2.tripod.com, 1 March 2000.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-shsu-40"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-shsu_40-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-shsu_40-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-shsu_40-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-shsu_40-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/AfrAmer.html">"Black Americans in Defense of Our Nation."</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110607225702/http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/AfrAmer.html">Archived</A> 7 June 2011 at the <A href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</A>. <I>Sam Houston State University</I>; retrieved 11 June 2011.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-sd-41"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-sd_41-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sandiegoairandspace.org/exhibits/african_american_exhibit/military-inspirations.php">"Celebrating African Americans in Aviation"</A>, <I>San Diego Air & Space Museum</I>; retrieved 12 June 2011.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-jet-42"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-jet_42-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-jet_42-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet_print.asp?fsID=15471&page=2">"Escort Excellence"</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131203141314/http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet_print.asp?fsID=15471&page=2">Archived</A> 3 December 2013 at the <A href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</A>., nationalmuseum.af.mil; retrieved 12 June 2011.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-NMUSAF-43"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-NMUSAF_43-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-NMUSAF_43-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-NMUSAF_43-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-NMUSAF_43-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-NMUSAF_43-4"><SUP><I><B>e</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=15471">"Escort Excellence"</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120309081737/http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=15471">Archived</A> 9 March 2012 at the <A href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</A>., nationalmuseum.af.mil; retrieved 27 July 2012.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Moye_p._123-44"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Moye_p._123_44-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Moye_p._123_44-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Moye 2010, p. 123.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-45"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-45"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Francis and Caso 1997, p. 219.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-47"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-47"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Moye 2010, pp. 94, 124.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-48"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-48"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Homan and Reilly 2001, p. 177.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-50"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-50"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Francis and Caso 1997, p. 457.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-51"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-51"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Homan and Reilly 2001, p. 186.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-52"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-52"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Francis and Caso 1997, p. 207.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-53"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-53"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Homan and Reilly, pp. 180–82.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-54"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-54"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Homan and Reilly 2001, pp. 185–86.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-55"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-55"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Moye 2010, pp. 126–27.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-56"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-56"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Moye 2010, pp. 128–29.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-57"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-57"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Moye 2010, pp. 131–32.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Homan_and_Reilly_p._187-58"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Homan_and_Reilly_p._187_58-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Homan_and_Reilly_p._187_58-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Homan_and_Reilly_p._187_58-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Homan and Reilly 2001, p. 187.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-59"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-59"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Moye 2010, pp. 132–33.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-60"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-60"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Moye 2010, p. 133.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-61"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-61"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Homan and Reilly 2001, pp. 206–08.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-62"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-62"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Francis and Caso. 1997, p. 263.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-63"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-63"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=15471">"Escort Excellence."</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120309081737/http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=15471">Archived</A> 9 March 2012 at the <A href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</A>. <I>National Museum of the United States Air Force</I>; retrieved 12 August 2013.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-64"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-64"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Tillman 2012, p. 24.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Francis_p._394-65"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Francis_p._394_65-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Francis_p._394_65-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Francis_p._394_65-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Francis and Caso 1997, p. 394.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-66"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-66"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Francis and Caso 1997, <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VyuedRwZre8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=tuskegee+airmen,+charles+francis&source=bl&ots=L8HxuRQUjL&sig=zK_MjJ5CzgAHH7BxXtqBCGkqUjc&hl=en&sa=X&ei=iRsUUImtLaPt0gGHq4H4CA&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAA#v=snippet&q=Charles%20E.%20Francis%20405&f=false">pp. 405–13 (Tuskegee Honor Roll)</A>, books.google.com; accessed 5 January 2017.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-67"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-67"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Haulman, Dr. Daniel L. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.afhra.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-130905-006.pdf">Misconceptions About the Tuskegee Airmen</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131029192052/http://www.afhra.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-130905-006.pdf">Archived</A> 29 October 2013 at the <A href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</A>., AFHRA.af.mil, 24 July 2013; retrieved 26 October 2013.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-68"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-68"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Haulman, Dr. Daniel L. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tuskegee.edu/sites/www/Uploads/files/About%20US/Airmen/Nine_Myths_About_the_Tuskegee_Airmen.pdf">"Nine Myths about the Tuskegee Airmen"</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120131060059/http://www.tuskegee.edu/sites/www/Uploads/files/About%20US/Airmen/Nine_Myths_About_the_Tuskegee_Airmen.pdf">Archived</A> 31 January 2012 at the <A href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</A>., tuskegee.edu, 21 October 2011; retrieved 5 February 2012.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-mutiny-69"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-mutiny_69-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/acsc/97-0429.pdf">"The Freeman Field Mutiny: A Study In Leadership"</A>, <I>Air University, Maxwell-Gunter Air Force Base</I>, Montgomery, Alabama; retrieved 12 June 2011.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-70"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-70"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Haulman 2012, <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iPN5-Y7BMWMC&pg=PA52&lpg=PA52&dq=Tuskegee+Airmen+DFCs&source=bl&ots=xbNSv9AMI7&sig=014P8ahOhRpeLjFrDzVFJ8TJAxM&hl=en&sa=X&ei=SHsUULH5IIXPqQG2i4HQBA&ved=0CEsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Tuskegee%20Airmen%20DFCs&f=false">p. 52.</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-71"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-71"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Haulman, Dr. Daniel L. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:3YGxMJ3XockJ:www.afhso.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-101229-013.pdf+&hl=en&gl=ca&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEEShGc9SG0SPeb1mzpAAOXrcLpJvpaD6DLolQtNucz8V4caxB4L9ObACQLWxDgWwEojlC24Gfut3uYFBnXyewlMi4FrDarspPCXSKYhcheLbRe72QPbAnIOxY4WIUBTEVgYSU3ud1&sig=AHIEtbSaSYMVdnm2gqwfn6wYjsasXUucuA">"Chronological Table of Tuskegee Airmen Who Earned the Distinguished Flying Cross"</A>; retrieved 28 July 2012.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-duc-72"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-duc_72-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://afhra.maxwell.af.mil/numbered_studies/916794.pdf">"Air Force Historical Study 82" (1969)</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080530104246/http://afhra.maxwell.af.mil/numbered_studies/916794.pdf">Archived</A> 30 May 2008 at the <A href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</A>., afhra.maxwell.af.mil; retrieved 16 February 2007.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-confirm-73"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-confirm_73-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Johnson, Bob. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/12/16/AR2006121600849.html">"Ex-Pilot Confirms Bomber Loss, Flier Shot down in 1944 was Escorted by Tuskegee Airmen"</A>, p. A18, WashingtonPost.com, 17 December 2006; retrieved 20 March 2010.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-25_bombers-74"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-25_bombers_74-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-25_bombers_74-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-25_bombers_74-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2007-04-01-tuskegee-airmen_N.htm">"Report: Tuskegee Airmen lost 25 bombers."</A> <I>USA Today</I>; retrieved 1 April 2007.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-75"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-75"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Moye 2010, p. 122.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-An_uneasy_question.-76"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-An_uneasy_question._76-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-An_uneasy_question._76-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-An_uneasy_question._76-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Levesque, William R. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sptimes.com/2008/01/26/Worldandnation/An_uneasy_question_fo.shtml">"An uneasy question for the Tuskegee Airmen: The heroism of the Tuskegee Airmen is legendary, but some wonder if they really never lost a bomber. And that doesn't sit well."</A> <I>St. Petersburg Times</I>, 26 January 2008; retrieved 10 October 2010.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Report-77"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Report_77-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aimpoints.hq.af.mil/display.cfm?id=17731">"Report: Tuskegee Airmen lost 25 bombers"</A><SUP class="noprint Inline-Template"><SPAN style="white-space: nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><SPAN title=" Dead link since December 2017">permanent dead link</SPAN></A></I>]</SPAN></SUP>, aimpoints.hq.af.mil, 2 April 2007; retrieved 10 April 2007.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-78"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-78"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Haulman, Dr. Daniel L. (2010). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://newpreview.afnews.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-101222-041.pdf">Tuskegee Airmen Chronology</A><SUP class="noprint Inline-Template"><SPAN style="white-space: nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><SPAN title=" Dead link since January 2018">permanent dead link</SPAN></A></I>]</SPAN></SUP>", p. 29, afnews.af.mil; retrieved 31 October 2013.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-79"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-79"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Haulman, Dr. Daniel L. (2013). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.afhra.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-130905-006.pdf">"Misconceptions About the Tuskegee Airmen"</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131029192052/http://www.afhra.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-130905-006.pdf">Archived</A> 29 October 2013 at the <A href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</A>., afhra.af.mil; retrieved 26 October 2013.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-80"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-80"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Banerji, Shilpa. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.diverseeducation.com/artman/publish/article_6872.shtml">"Historians Question Record of Tuskegee Airmen"</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080720031259/http://www.diverseeducation.com/artman/publish/article_6872.shtml">Archived</A> 20 July 2008 at the <A href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</A>., diverseeducation.com, 19 June 2008; retrieved 20 March 2010.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-81"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-81"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Haulman, "Tuskegee Airmen Chronology", p. 55</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Tuskegee_Airmen_Combat_record-82"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Tuskegee_Airmen_Combat_record_82-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tuskegeeairmen.org/Tuskegee_Airmen_History.html">"Tuskegee Airmen History"</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101130165710/http://tuskegeeairmen.org/Tuskegee_Airmen_History.html">Archived</A> 30 November 2010 at the <A href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</A>., tuskegeeairmen.org; retrieved 11 October 2010.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-83"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-83"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><I>Aviation History Magazine</I>, March 2012.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-84"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-84"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Francis and Caso 1997, pp. 402–04.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-85"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-85"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Zieminski, Andy. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gazette.net/stories/020708/prinnew170059_32361.shtml">"County's first black-owned airport becomes training ground."</A> <I>Gazette.net: Maryland Community Newspapers Online</I>, 7 February 2008; retrieved 20 March 2010.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-86"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-86"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Gubert et al. 2002, p. 130.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-87"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-87"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.af.mil/AboutUs/Biographies/Display/tabid/225/Article/106647/general-daniel-james-jr.aspx">"General Daniel James Jr."</A> <I>Official United States Air Force</I> (1978); retrieved 20 November 2015.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-88"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-88"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Jeremy Bloom. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/jeremy-bloom/wishes-for-our-warriors_b_7360732.html">"Wishes for Our Warriors"</A>. <A href="/wiki/The_Huffington_Post" class="mw-redirect" title="The Huffington Post">The Huffington Post</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">5 January</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Wishes+for+Our+Warriors&rft.pub=The+Huffington+Post&rft.au=Jeremy+Bloom&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.huffingtonpost.com%2Fjeremy-bloom%2Fwishes-for-our-warriors_b_7360732.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Iraq2005-89"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Iraq2005_89-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/iraq/2005-10-22-tuskegee-airmen_x.htm">"Tuskegee Airmen suit up, head to Iraq."</A> <I>USA Today</I>, 22 October 2005; retrieved 20 March 2010.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-90"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-90"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Seelye, Katharine Q. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/10/us/politics/10inaug.html?ref=us">"Inauguration Is a Culmination for Black Airmen."</A> <I>The New York Times</I> via nytimes.com, 12 October 2008; retrieved 20 March 2010.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-91"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-91"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tuskegeeairmen.org">"Latest Tuskegee Airmen News"</A>, tuskegeeairmen.org; retrieved 20 March 2010.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-92"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-92"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Times, Air Force. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.airforcetimes.com/articles/willie-rogers-tuskegee-airman-dies-at-101-after-stroke">"Willie Rogers, Tuskegee Airman, dies at 101 after stroke"</A>. <I>Air Force Times</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">27 November</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Air+Force+Times&rft.atitle=Willie+Rogers%2C+Tuskegee+Airman%2C+dies+at+101+after+stroke&rft.aulast=Times&rft.aufirst=Air+Force&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.airforcetimes.com%2Farticles%2Fwillie-rogers-tuskegee-airman-dies-at-101-after-stroke&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-93"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-93"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.foxnews.com/us/2016/11/21/willie-rogers-tuskegee-airman-dies-at-101-in-florida.html">"Willie Rogers, Tuskegee Airman, dies at 101 in Florida"</A>. <A href="/wiki/Fox_News" title="Fox News">Fox News</A>. 21 November 2016<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">5 January</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Willie+Rogers%2C+Tuskegee+Airman%2C+dies+at+101+in+Florida&rft.pub=Fox+News&rft.date=2016-11-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.foxnews.com%2Fus%2F2016%2F11%2F21%2Fwillie-rogers-tuskegee-airman-dies-at-101-in-florida.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-THOMAS-94"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-THOMAS_94-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Library of Congress. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?c110:2:./temp/~c110J3sEbQ::">Resolved by the Senate (the House of Representatives concurring), That the Rotunda of the Capitol is authorized to be used on 29 March 2007, for a ceremony to award a Congressional ... (Engrossed as Agreed to or Passed by Senate)</A>, 7 March 2007.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-95"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-95"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Price, Deb. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.detnews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070329/NATION/703290308">"Nation to honor Tuskegee Airmen."</A><SUP class="noprint Inline-Template"><SPAN style="white-space: nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><SPAN title=" Dead link since February 2018">permanent dead link</SPAN></A></I>]</SPAN></SUP> <I>The Detroit News</I>, 29 March 2007; retrieved 5 January 2017.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-96"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-96"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.house.gov/list/press/ny15_rangel/CBRStatementTuskegeeBillSigned04112006.html">"Tuskegee Airmen Gold Medal Bill Signed Into Law."</A> <I>Office of Congressman Charles B. Rangel</I>; retrieved 26 October 2006.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-97"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-97"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Evans, Ben. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thetandd.com/articles/2007/03/30/news/doc460c7d58cd40f058827045.txt">"Tuskegee Airmen awarded Congressional Gold Medal."</A>, thetandd.com, 30 March 2007; retrieved 30 April 2007.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-98"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-98"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nps.gov/tuai">"Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site"</A>, nps.gov; retrieved 20 March 2010.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Facts-99"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Facts_99-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Facts_99-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Facts_99-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.com/news/the-tuskegee-airmen-5-fascinating-facts">"History in the Headlines: The Tuskegee Airmen: 5 Fascinating Facts"</A>, History.com, 20 January 2012; retrieved 9 July 2012.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-100"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-100"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2001-07-11/news/0107110264_1_tuskegee-airman-mr-winslow-design">"Eugene Winslow, 81: Tuskegee Airman, Pioneering Designer"</A>, <I>Chicago Tribune</I>, 11 July 2001.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-101"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-101"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Oblack, Sean. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://schiff.house.gov/HoR/CA29/Newsroom/Press+Releases/2006/Schiff+Votes+to+Honor+Tuskegee+Airmen.htm">"Schiff Votes to Honor Tuskegee Airmen"</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070726004155/http://schiff.house.gov/HoR/CA29/Newsroom/Press+Releases/2006/Schiff+Votes+to+Honor+Tuskegee+Airmen.htm">Archived</A> 26 July 2007 at the <A href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</A>., schiff.house.gov;, retrieved 20 March 2010.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-102"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-102"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legis.ga.gov/Legislation/en-US/display/20072008/HR/1023">"Georgia General Assembly (2008) House Resolution 1023 Act 745"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(pdf)</SPAN>. <I>Georgia General Assembly Legislation</I>. Georgia General Assembly. 14 May 2008<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">31 January</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Georgia+General+Assembly+Legislation&rft.atitle=Georgia+General+Assembly+%282008%29+House+Resolution+1023+Act+745&rft.date=2008-05-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.legis.ga.gov%2FLegislation%2Fen-US%2Fdisplay%2F20072008%2FHR%2F1023&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-103"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-103"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Majors, Dan. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.postgazette.com/pg/12021/1205112-455-0.stm">"Real Tuskegee airman approves of new film about their service in WW II: One good tale"</A>, <I>Pittsburgh Post-Gazette</I>, 21 January 2012; retrieved 5 February 2012.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-104"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-104"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Ove, Torsten. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.post-gazette.com/local/region/2013/09/13/Airport-exhibit-kicks-off-honors-for-Pittsburgh-s-Tuskegee-Airmen/stories/201309130161">"Tuskegee Airmen exhibit opens at airport"</A>, post-gazette.com, 13 September 2013; accessed 5 January 2017.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-105"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-105"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Seelye, Katharine Q. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/10/us/politics/10inaug.html?hp">"Tuskegee Airmen Invited to Obama Inauguration."</A> <I>The New York Times</I>, 9 December 2008; retrieved 20 March 2010.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-106"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-106"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><I>We've Completed Our Mission</I>. <I>Washington Post</I>, 13 December 2008, p. B01.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-107"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-107"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Longoria, R. Michael (20 January 2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.af.mil/News/ArticleDisplay/tabid/223/Article/121359/inauguration-brings-tuskegee-airmen-to-bolling.aspx">"Inauguration Brings Tuskegee Airmen to Bolling"</A>, U.S. Air Force website; retrieved 5 April 2016.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-108"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-108"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">della Cava, Marco R. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/life/movies/news/story/2012-01-04/george-lucas-on-red-tails-tuskegee-airmen/52378382/1">"George Lucas' 'Red Tails' salutes Tuskegee Airmen"</A>, <I>USA Today</I>, 5 January 2012.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-109"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-109"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chron.com/news/houston-texas/article/First-day-comes-with-grade-school-glitches-3819578.php">"First day comes with grade-school glitches"</A>. <I>Houston Chronicle</I>. 2012-08-12<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2017-02-16</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Houston+Chronicle&rft.atitle=First+day+comes+with+grade-school+glitches&rft.date=2012-08-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chron.com%2Fnews%2Fhouston-texas%2Farticle%2FFirst-day-comes-with-grade-school-glitches-3819578.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-110"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-110"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.prweb.com/releases/2013/9/prweb11112657.htm">Pritzker Military Library Dedicates Oral History Room With Painting Unveiling and Program About the Tuskegee Airmen</A>, prweb.com; accessed 5 January 2017.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-111"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-111"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.muralarts.org/artworks/tuskegee-airmen-they-met-the-challenge/">https://www.muralarts.org/artworks/tuskegee-airmen-they-met-the-challenge/</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-112"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-112"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0816708/"><I>Wings for This Man</I></A> on <A href="/wiki/IMDb" title="IMDb">IMDb</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-113"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-113"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0734436/plotsummary?ref_=tt_ov_pl">"<SPAN style="padding-left:0.2em;">"</SPAN>12 O'Clock High" Graveyard (TV Episode 1966)"</A>. <I>IMDb</I>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IMDb&rft.atitle=%2212+O%27Clock+High%22+Graveyard+%28TV+Episode+1966%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.imdb.com%2Ftitle%2Ftt0734436%2Fplotsummary%3Fref_%3Dtt_ov_pl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-114"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-114"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0114745/"><I>The Tuskegee Airmen</I></A> on <A href="/wiki/IMDb" title="IMDb">IMDb</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-115"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-115"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mastercollector.com/neat/gijoe/hasbro/1997joes.html">"1997 G.I. Joe Classic Collection"</A>, mastercollector.com; retrieved 20 March 2010.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-116"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-116"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Ambrose 2001, p. 27</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-117"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-117"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0396864/"><I>Silver Wings & Civil Rights: The Fight to Fly</I></A> on <A href="/wiki/IMDb" title="IMDb">IMDb</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-118"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-118"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fight2fly.com"><I>Silver Wings & Civil Rights: The Flight to Fly</I></A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050320001335/http://www.fight2fly.com/">Archived</A> 20 March 2005 at the <A href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</A>., fight2fly.com; retrieved 20 March 2010.</SPAN></LI>
</OL>
</DIV>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Bibliography">Bibliography</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Stephen_Ambrose" class="mw-redirect" title="Stephen Ambrose">Ambrose, Stephen Edward</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/The_Wild_Blue:_The_Men_and_Boys_who_Flew_the_B-24s_over_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="The Wild Blue: The Men and Boys who Flew the B-24s over Germany">The Wild Blue: The Men and Boys who Flew the B-24s over Germany</A></I>. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001; <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7432-0339-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7432-0339-9">0-7432-0339-9</A>.</LI>
<LI>Benton, Jeffrey C. "Noel F. Parrish", <I>They Served Here: Thirty-Three Maxwell Men.</I> Maxwell AFB, Montgomery, Alabama: Air University Press, 1999; <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58566-074-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58566-074-2">978-1-58566-074-2</A>.</LI>
<LI>Berry, Ben. <I>Tuskegee Airmen: to the Moon, Mars and Beyond (Secrets Revealed).</I> CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2011; <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1460931076" title="Special:BookSources/1460931076">1460931076</A> <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/827831542">827831542</A></LI>
<LI>Broadnax, Samuel L. <I>Blue Skies, Black Wings: African-American Pioneers of Aviation</I>. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Publishers, 2007; <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-275-99195-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-275-99195-4">0-275-99195-4</A>.</LI>
<LI>Bucholtz, Chris and Jim Laurier. <I>332nd Fighter Group – Tuskegee Airmen</I>. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2007; <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84603-044-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-84603-044-7">1-84603-044-7</A>.</LI>
<LI>Caldwell, Donald and Richard Muller. <I>The Luftwaffe over Germany: Defense of the Reich</I>. London: Greenhill Books, 2007; <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85367-712-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85367-712-0">978-1-85367-712-0</A>.</LI>
<LI>Caver, Joseph, Jerome Ennels, and Daniel Haulman. <I>The Tuskegee Airmen: An Illustrated History, 1939–1949</I>. Montgomery, Alabama: New South Books, 2011; <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58838-244-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-58838-244-3">1-58838-244-3</A>/<A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58838-244-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58838-244-3">978-1-58838-244-3</A>.</LI>
<LI>Cotter, Jarrod. "Red Tail Project", <I>Flypast No. 248</I>, March 2002.</LI>
<LI>Francis, Charles E. and Adolph Caso. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VyuedRwZre8C&pg=PA402"><I>The Tuskegee Airmen: The Men Who Changed a Nation</I>.</A> Boston: Branden Books, 1997; <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8283-2029-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8283-2029-2">0-8283-2029-2</A>.</LI>
<LI>Gubert, Betty Kaplan, Miriam Sawyer and Caroline M. Fannine. <I>Distinguished African-Americans in Aviation and Space Science.</I> Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002; <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57356-246-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57356-246-1">978-1-57356-246-1</A>.</LI>
<LI>Hill, Ezra M. Sr. <I>The Black Red Tail Angels: A Story of the Tuskegee Airmen</I>. Columbus, Ohio: SMF Haven of Hope, 2006.</LI>
<LI>Holway, John B. <I>Red Tail, Black Wings: The Men of America's Black Air Force</I>. Las Cruces, New Mexico: Yuca Tree Press, 1997; <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-881325-21-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-881325-21-0">1-881325-21-0</A>.</LI>
<LI>Haulman, Daniel L. <I>Eleven Myths About the Tuskegee Airmen</I>. Montgomery, Alabama: New South Books, 2012. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60306-147-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60306-147-6">978-1-60306-147-6</A>.</LI>
<LI>Haulman, Daniel L. "The Tuskegee Airmen and the Never Lost a Bomber Myth", <I>The Alabama Review</I>, Vol. 64, No. 1, January 2011.</LI>
<LI>Haulman, Daniel L. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131029192052/http://www.afhra.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-130905-006.pdf">Misconceptions About the Tuskegee Airmen</A>, Air Force Historical Research Agency (USAF), 24 July 2013.</LI>
<LI>Haulman, Daniel L. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://newpreview.afnews.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-101222-041.pdf">Tuskegee Airmen Chronology</A><SUP class="noprint Inline-Template"><SPAN style="white-space: nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><SPAN title=" Dead link since January 2018">permanent dead link</SPAN></A></I>]</SPAN></SUP>, afnews.af.mil; retrieved October 31, 2013.</LI>
<LI>Homan, Lynn M. and Thomas Reilly. <I>Black Knights: The Story of the Tuskegee Airmen.</I> Gretna, Louisiana: Pelican Publishing, 2001; <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56554-828-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56554-828-2">978-1-56554-828-2</A>.</LI>
<LI>Leuthner, Stuart and Olivier Jensen. <I>High Honor: Recollections by Men and Women of World War II Aviation</I>. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1989; <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87474-650-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-87474-650-7">0-87474-650-7</A>.</LI>
<LI>Lloyd, Craig. <I>Eugene Bullard, Black Expatriate in Jazz-Age Paris.</I> Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press, 2000; <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8203-2192-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8203-2192-9">978-0-8203-2192-9</A>.</LI>
<LI>McKissack, Patricia C. and Fredrick L. <I>Red Tail Angels: The Story of the Tuskegee Airmen of World War II</I>. New York: Walker Books for Young Readers, 1996; <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8027-8292-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8027-8292-2">0-8027-8292-2</A>.</LI>
<LI>Molony, Brigadier C.J.C.; Captain F.C. Flynn (R.N.); Major-General H.L. Davies and Group Captain T.P. Gleave. "The Mediterranean and Middle East, Volume V: The Campaign in Sicily 1943 and The Campaign in Italy 3 September 1943 to 31 March 1944", <I>History of the Second World War</I> (United Kingdom Military Series). Uckfield, UK: Naval & Military Press, 2004, First edition, 1973 (HMSO); <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84574-069-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-84574-069-6">1-84574-069-6</A>.</LI>
<LI>Moye, J. Todd. <I>Freedom Flyers: The Tuskeegee Airmen of World War II.</I> New York: Oxford University Press (USA), 2010; <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-538655-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-538655-4">978-0-19-538655-4</A>.</LI>
<LI>Percy, William A. "Jim Crow and Uncle Sam: The Tuskegee Flying Units and the U.S. Army Air Forces in Europe during World War II", <I>The Journal of Military History,</I> 67, July 2003.</LI>
<LI>Ross, Robert A. <I>Lonely Eagles: The Story of America's Black Air Force in World War II</I>. Los Angeles: Tuskegee Airmen Inc., Los Angeles Chapter, 1980; <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-917612-00-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-917612-00-0">0-917612-00-0</A>.</LI>
<LI>Sandler, Stanley. <I>Segregated Skies: All-Black Combat Squadrons of WWII.</I> Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992; <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56098-154-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-56098-154-7">1-56098-154-7</A>.</LI>
<LI>Tillman, Barrett. "Tales of the Red Tails; Inside the Tuskegee Legend: The men, the machines, the missions", <I>Flight Journal</I>, February 2012.</LI>
<LI>Thole, Lou. "Segregated Skies." <I>Flypast No, 248</I>, March 2002.</LI>
<LI>Tucker, Phillip Thomas. <I>Father of the Tuskegee airmen, John C. Robinson.</I> Washington, DC: Potomac Books, Inc., 2012; <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1597974870" title="Special:BookSources/1597974870">1597974870</A>, e-book <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1597976067" title="Special:BookSources/1597976067">1597976067</A> <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/752678328">752678328</A></LI>
<LI>Woodward, C. Vann and William S. McFeely. <I>The Strange Career of Jim Crow.</I> New York: Oxford University Press (USA), 2001; <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514690-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514690-5">978-0-19-514690-5</A>.</LI>
</UL>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<TABLE role="presentation" class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;color:#000">
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<TD class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <I><B><A href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Tuskegee_Airmen" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Tuskegee Airmen">Tuskegee Airmen</A></B></I>.</TD>
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<DIV class="refbegin" style="">
<UL>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131204121846/http://www.tuskegee.edu/about_us/legacy_of_fame/tuskegee_airmen.aspx">Tuskegee Airmen at Tuskegee University</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tuskegeemuseum.org">Tuskegee Airmen Museum</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books/about/Double_V.html?id=7FmlqfQmfqoC&redir_esc=y"><I>Double V: Civil Rights Struggle of the Tuskegee Airmen</I>, an illustrated history book of the "Red Tails" by veteran Tuskegee Airmen (Lawrence P. Scott, William M. Womack) from Michigan, with photos from personal collections.</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110716132207/http://www.starduststudios.com/tuskegee_airmen.htm">Images of Tukegee airmen, photos, paintings etc.</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0802782922">"Red-Tail Angels": The Story of the Tuskegee Airmen of World War II</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0114745/">The Tuskegee Airmen (1995)</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://funeral.galileo.usg.edu/funeral/view?docId=funeral/harris20080504-001.xml">Funeral Program for Tuskegee Airman Cassius Harris</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://funeral.galileo.usg.edu/funeral/index.html">African American Funeral Programs from the East Central Georgia Regional Library</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bet.com/shows/bet-honors/2012/honorees/tuskegee-airmen.html">The Tuskegee Airmen at the 2012 BET Honors Awards</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tuskegeeairmen.org/">Tuskegee Airmen, Inc. – Official Web Site</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.redtail.org/">The Red Tail Project</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.army.mil/africanamericans/">African Americans in the U.S. Army</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111230144220/http://www.coax.net/people/lwf/TA_HIS1.HTM">The Negro Pilot Training Program</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://southernspaces.org/2010/tuskegee-airmen-brett-gadsden-interviews-j-todd-moye">"Tuskegee Airmen: Brett Gadsden Interviews J. Todd Moye", <I>Southern Spaces</I> 30 September 2010.</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://newbooksinhistory.com/?p=2743">Interview with historian Todd Moye regarding the Tuskegee Airmen on "New Books in History"</A><SUP class="noprint Inline-Template"><SPAN style="white-space: nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><SPAN title=" Dead link since January 2018">permanent dead link</SPAN></A></I>]</SPAN></SUP></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H8ZScRrewMk">Contemporary newsreel about "Negro Pilots" – YouTube</A></LI>
<LI>The short film <I><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/HenryBro1942">"Henry Browne, Farmer (1942)"</A></I> is available for free download at the <A href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</A></LI>
<LI>The short film <I><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/NegroPilots">"Negro Pilots (1943)"</A></I> is available for free download at the <A href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</A></LI>
<LI>The short film <I><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/negrosoldier">"The Negro Soldier (1943)"</A></I> is available for free download at the <A href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</A></LI>
<LI>The short film <I><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gov.ntis.ava08663vnb1">"Wings for This Man (1945)"</A></I> is available for free download at the <A href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</A></LI>
<LI>The short film <I><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gov.ntis.ava19065vnb1">"Tuskegee Airman Tribute (1990)"</A></I> is available for free download at the <A href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</A></LI>
<LI>The short film <I><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gov.ntis.ava20001vnb1">"African Americans in World War II: Legacy of Patriotism and Valor (1997)"</A></I> is available for free download at the <A href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n78-53693">Works by or about United States Army Air Forces Fighter Group, 332nd</A> in libraries (<A href="/wiki/WorldCat" title="WorldCat">WorldCat</A> catalog)</LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n2009-52600">Works by or about United States Army Air Forces Composite Group, 477th</A> in libraries (<A href="/wiki/WorldCat" title="WorldCat">WorldCat</A> catalog)</LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/organizations/t/tuskegee_airmen/index.html">"Tuskegee Airmen collected news and commentary"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</A></I>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Tuskegee+Airmen+collected+news+and+commentary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftopics.nytimes.com%2Ftop%2Freference%2Ftimestopics%2Forganizations%2Ft%2Ftuskegee_airmen%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120126043803/http://www.valorstudios.com/Tuskegee-Airmen-P-51.htm">Official Tuskegee Airmen painting created with the Tuskegee Airmen Association</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wdl.org/en/item/2735">Photographs and information about the Tuskegee Airmen</A> from <A href="/wiki/World_Digital_Library" title="World Digital Library">World Digital Library</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pritzkermilitary.org/whats_on/citizen-soldier/tuskegee-airmen/">Interview with three Tuskegee Airmen: Robert Martin, Dr. Quentin P. Smith, and Shelby Westbrook</A> at the <A href="/wiki/Pritzker_Military_Museum_%26_Library" title="Pritzker Military Museum & Library">Pritzker Military Museum & Library</A> on October 2008</LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pritzkermilitary.org/whats_on/citizen-soldier/tuskegee-airmen/">Citizen Soldier episode on Tuskegee Airmen</A> recorded at the <A href="/wiki/Pritzker_Military_Museum_%26_Library" title="Pritzker Military Museum & Library">Pritzker Military Museum & Library</A> on 12 September 2013</LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.ucr.edu/collections/tuskegee-airmen-collections">Tuskegee Airmen Collections</A> <A href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Riverside" title="University of California, Riverside">University of California, Riverside</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tuskegee.edu/Content/Uploads/Tuskegee/files/Nine_Myths_About_the_Tuskegee_Airmen.pdf">Nine Myths About the Tuskegee Airmen</A></LI>
</UL>
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<DIV id="Tuskegee_Airmen" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><A class="mw-selflink selflink">Tuskegee Airmen</A></DIV>
</TH>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Units</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/99th_Flying_Training_Squadron" title="99th Flying Training Squadron">99th Fighter Squadron</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/100th_Fighter_Squadron" title="100th Fighter Squadron">100th Fighter Squadron</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/301st_Fighter_Squadron" title="301st Fighter Squadron">301st Fighter Squadron</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/302nd_Fighter_Squadron" class="mw-redirect" title="302nd Fighter Squadron">302nd Fighter Squadron</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/332nd_Fighter_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="332nd Fighter Group">332nd Fighter Group</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/477th_Fighter_Group" title="477th Fighter Group">477th Fighter Group</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
<TD class="navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px">
<DIV><A href="/wiki/File:Shield_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.svg" class="image" title="Shield of the 332nd Fighter Group"><IMG alt="An insignia with a dark four-legged feline breathing fire on a yellow background. There is a blue artistic border at the top and bottom. Below a banner reads "Spit fire"." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Shield_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.svg/100px-Shield_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.svg.png" width="100" height="100" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Shield_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.svg/150px-Shield_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Shield_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.svg/200px-Shield_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="401" data-file-height="401" /></A></DIV>
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<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Air fields</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Chanute_Air_Force_Base" title="Chanute Air Force Base">Chanute Field</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Moton_Field_Municipal_Airport" title="Moton Field Municipal Airport">Moton Army Air Field</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sharpe_Field" title="Sharpe Field">Tuskegee Army Air Field</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Pilots and crew</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Benjamin_O._Davis_Jr." title="Benjamin O. Davis Jr.">Benjamin O. Davis Jr.</A> (C/O)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lee_Archer_(pilot)" title="Lee Archer (pilot)">Lee Archer</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Henry_Cabot_Lodge_Bohler" title="Henry Cabot Lodge Bohler">Henry Cabot Lodge Bohler</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/George_L._Brown" title="George L. Brown">George L. Brown</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Roscoe_Brown" title="Roscoe Brown">Roscoe Brown</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/William_A._Campbell_(Tuskegee_Airman)" title="William A. Campbell (Tuskegee Airman)">William A. Campbell</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Herbert_Carter_(pilot)" title="Herbert Carter (pilot)">Herbert Carter</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Eugene_Calvin_Cheatham_Jr." title="Eugene Calvin Cheatham Jr.">Eugene Calvin Cheatham Jr.</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Milton_Crenchaw" title="Milton Crenchaw">Milton Crenchaw</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Clarence_Dart" title="Clarence Dart">Clarence Dart</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Alfonza_W._Davis" title="Alfonza W. Davis">Alfonza W. Davis</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Gene_Derricotte" title="Gene Derricotte">Gene Derricotte</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Charles_Dryden_(Tuskegee_Airman)" title="Charles Dryden (Tuskegee Airman)">Charles Dryden</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Julius_Freeman" title="Julius Freeman">Julius Freeman</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Joseph_Gomer_(pilot)" title="Joseph Gomer (pilot)">Joseph Gomer</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Oliver_Goodall" title="Oliver Goodall">Oliver Goodall</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Arthur_C._Harmon" title="Arthur C. Harmon">Arthur C. Harmon</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Raymond_V._Haysbert" title="Raymond V. Haysbert">Raymond V. Haysbert</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Percy_Heath" title="Percy Heath">Percy Heath</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mitchell_Higginbotham" title="Mitchell Higginbotham">Mitchell Higginbotham</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Daniel_James_Jr." title="Daniel James Jr.">Daniel "Chappie" James Jr.</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Alexander_Jefferson" title="Alexander Jefferson">Alexander Jefferson</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Herman_A._Johnson" title="Herman A. Johnson">Herman A. Johnson</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/James_B._Knighten" title="James B. Knighten">James B. Knighten</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Charles_William_Ledbetter" title="Charles William Ledbetter">Charles William Ledbetter</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hiram_Mann" title="Hiram Mann">Hiram Mann</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Charles_McGee_(pilot)" title="Charles McGee (pilot)">Charles McGee</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/John_Mosley" title="John Mosley">John Mosley</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fitzroy_Newsum" title="Fitzroy Newsum">Fitzroy Newsum</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wendell_O._Pruitt" title="Wendell O. Pruitt">Wendell O. Pruitt</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Louis_Purnell" title="Louis Purnell">Louis R. Purnell Sr.</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lawrence_E._Roberts" title="Lawrence E. Roberts">Lawrence E. Roberts</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Isaiah_Edward_Robinson_Jr." title="Isaiah Edward Robinson Jr.">Isaiah Edward Robinson Jr.</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Robert_Searcy" title="Robert Searcy">Robert Searcy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/David_Showell" title="David Showell">David Showell</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wilmeth_Sidat-Singh" title="Wilmeth Sidat-Singh">Wilmeth Sidat-Singh</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Eugene_Smith_(aviator)" title="Eugene Smith (aviator)">Eugene Smith</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Vernon_Sport" title="Vernon Sport">Vernon Sport</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lowell_Steward" title="Lowell Steward">Lowell Steward</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Chuck_Stone" title="Chuck Stone">Charles "Chuck" Stone Jr.</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Percy_Sutton" title="Percy Sutton">Percy Sutton</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Roger_Terry" title="Roger Terry">Roger Terry</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Robert_B._Tresville" title="Robert B. Tresville">Robert B. Tresville</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Spann_Watson" title="Spann Watson">Spann Watson</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mal_Whitfield" title="Mal Whitfield">Malvin "Mal" Whitfield</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Henry_Wise_Jr." title="Henry Wise Jr.">Henry Wise Jr.</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Coleman_Young" title="Coleman Young">Coleman Young</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Incidents</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"><A href="/wiki/Freeman_Field_Mutiny" class="mw-redirect" title="Freeman Field Mutiny">Freeman Field Mutiny</A></DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Aircraft</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bell_P-39_Airacobra" title="Bell P-39 Airacobra">Bell P-39 Airacobra</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Curtiss_P-40_Warhawk" title="Curtiss P-40 Warhawk">Curtiss P-40 Warhawk</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/North_American_P-51_Mustang" title="North American P-51 Mustang">North American P-51 Mustang</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Republic_P-47_Thunderbolt" title="Republic P-47 Thunderbolt">Republic P-47 Thunderbolt</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Media</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Fictional films</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/The_Tuskegee_Airmen" title="The Tuskegee Airmen">The Tuskegee Airmen</A></I> (1995)</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Hart%27s_War" title="Hart's War">Hart's War</A></I> (2002)</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Red_Tails" title="Red Tails">Red Tails</A></I> (2012)</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Documentaries</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Red_Tail_Reborn" title="Red Tail Reborn">Red Tail Reborn</A></I> (2007)</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Flight_of_the_Red_Tail" title="Flight of the Red Tail">Flight of the Red Tail</A></I> (2009)</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Other</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Henry_Browne,_Farmer" title="Henry Browne, Farmer">Henry Browne, Farmer</A></I></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Wings_for_This_Man" title="Wings for This Man">Wings for This Man</A></I></LI>
<LI>"<A href="/wiki/Wingmen_(The_Boondocks)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wingmen (The Boondocks)">Wingmen</A>"</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Legacy</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Red_Tail_Squadron" title="Red Tail Squadron">Red Tail Squadron</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tuskegee_Airmen,_Inc" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuskegee Airmen, Inc">Tuskegee Airmen, Inc</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tuskegee_University" title="Tuskegee University">Tuskegee University</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tuskegee_Airmen_National_Historic_Site" title="Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site">Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Other</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Maycie_Herrington" title="Maycie Herrington">Maycie Herrington</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Buford_A._Johnson" title="Buford A. Johnson">Buford A. Johnson</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Noel_F._Parrish" title="Noel F. Parrish">Noel F. Parrish</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">See also</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">African American military history</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Buffalo_Soldier" title="Buffalo Soldier">Buffalo Soldier</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Golden_Thirteen" title="Golden Thirteen">Golden Thirteen</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/366th_Infantry_Regiment_(United_States)" title="366th Infantry Regiment (United States)">366th Infantry Regiment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/761st_Tank_Battalion_(United_States)" title="761st Tank Battalion (United States)">U.S. Army Black Panthers</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Colored_Troops" title="United States Colored Troops">United States Colored Troops</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TD class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;">
<DIV>
<UL>
<LI><IMG alt="Category" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/16px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png" title="Category" width="16" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/24px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/32px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="36" data-file-height="31" /> <B><A href="/wiki/Category:Tuskegee_Airmen" title="Category:Tuskegee Airmen">Category</A></B></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</DIV>
<DIV role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="20px_USAAF_Fifteenth_Air_Force_in_World_War_II" style=";wide;padding:3px">
<TABLE class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit" id="collapsibleTable1">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background-color:#B0C4DE;"><SPAN class="collapseButton">[<A id="collapseButton1" href="#">show</A>]</SPAN>
<DIV id="20px_USAAF_Fifteenth_Air_Force_in_World_War_II" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><A href="/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg" class="image"><IMG alt="US Army Air Corps Hap Arnold Wings.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg/20px-US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg.png" width="20" height="20" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg/30px-US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg/40px-US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="320" /></A> <A href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces" title="United States Army Air Forces">USAAF</A> <A href="/wiki/15th_Expeditionary_Mobility_Task_Force" title="15th Expeditionary Mobility Task Force">Fifteenth Air Force</A> in <A href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</A></DIV>
</TH>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;text-align:center;">Stations</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;width:10em; text-align:center;"><A href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;width:auto;">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bizerte-Sidi_Ahmed_Air_Base" title="Bizerte-Sidi Ahmed Air Base">Bizerte</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Depienne_Airfield" title="Depienne Airfield">Depienne</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Enfidaville_Airfield" title="Enfidaville Airfield">Enfidaville</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Borj_El_Amri_Airport" title="Borj El Amri Airport">Massicault</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Oudna_Airfield" title="Oudna Airfield">Oudna</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pont_du_Fahs_Airfield" title="Pont du Fahs Airfield">Pont du Fahs</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sainte_Marie_du_Zit_Airfield" title="Sainte Marie du Zit Airfield">Sainte Marie du Zit</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Soliman_Airfield" title="Soliman Airfield">Soliman</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;width:10em; text-align:center;"><A href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;width:auto;">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">Amendola</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">Bari</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">Castelltuccio</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cattolica_Airfield" title="Cattolica Airfield">Cattolica</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">Celone</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">Cerignola</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fano_Airport" title="Fano Airport">Fano</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">Foggia</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Gioia_del_Colle_Air_Base" title="Gioia del Colle Air Base">Gioia del Colle</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Taranto-Grottaglie_Airport" title="Taranto-Grottaglie Airport">Grottaglie</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">Giulia</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">Lesina</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">Lucera</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">Madna</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Manduria_Airfield" title="Manduria Airfield">Manduria</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Marcianise_Airfield" title="Marcianise Airfield">Marcianise</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mondolfo_Airfield" title="Mondolfo Airfield">Mondolfo</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">Pantanella</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Piagiolino_Airfield" title="Piagiolino Airfield">Piagiolino</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei_Airport" class="mw-redirect" title="Galileo Galilei Airport">Pisa</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Federico_Fellini_Airport" class="mw-redirect" title="Federico Fellini Airport">Rimini</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">Salsosa</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">San Giovanni</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/San_Pancrazio_Airfield" title="San Pancrazio Airfield">San Pancrazio</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">San Severo</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">Spinazzola</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sterparone_Airfield" title="Sterparone Airfield">Sterparone</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tortorella_Airfield" title="Tortorella Airfield">Tortorella</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">Torremaggiore</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">Torretto</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">Triolo</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">Venosa</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">Vincenzo</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
<TD class="navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px">
<DIV><A href="/wiki/File:Fifteenth_Air_Force_-_Emblem_(World_War_II).svg" class="image"><IMG alt="Fifteenth Air Force - Emblem (World War II).svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Fifteenth_Air_Force_-_Emblem_%28World_War_II%29.svg/80px-Fifteenth_Air_Force_-_Emblem_%28World_War_II%29.svg.png" width="80" height="83" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Fifteenth_Air_Force_-_Emblem_%28World_War_II%29.svg/120px-Fifteenth_Air_Force_-_Emblem_%28World_War_II%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Fifteenth_Air_Force_-_Emblem_%28World_War_II%29.svg/160px-Fifteenth_Air_Force_-_Emblem_%28World_War_II%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="260" data-file-height="271" /></A></DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;text-align:center;">Units</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;width:10em; text-align:center;">Wings</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;width:auto;">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/5th_Air_Division" title="5th Air Division">5th Bombardment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/47th_Air_Division" title="47th Air Division">47th Bombardment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/49th_Air_Division" title="49th Air Division">49th Bombardment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/55th_Bombardment_Wing_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="55th Bombardment Wing (World War II)">55th Bombardment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/304th_Air_Division" title="304th Air Division">304th Bombardment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/305th_Air_Division" title="305th Air Division">305th Fighter (P)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/306th_Fighter_Wing_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="306th Fighter Wing (World War II)">306th Fighter</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;width:10em; text-align:center;">Groups</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;width:auto;">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;width:5em; text-align:center;">Bombardment</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;width:auto;">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/2nd_Operations_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="2nd Operations Group">2nd Bombardment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/97th_Operations_Group" title="97th Operations Group">97th Bombardment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/98th_Operations_Group" title="98th Operations Group">98th Bombardment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/99th_Air_Base_Wing" title="99th Air Base Wing">99th Bombardment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/301st_Operations_Group" title="301st Operations Group">301st Bombardment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/376th_Air_Expeditionary_Wing" title="376th Air Expeditionary Wing">376th Bombardment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/449th_Air_Expeditionary_Group" title="449th Air Expeditionary Group">449th Bombardment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/450th_Bombardment_Wing" title="450th Bombardment Wing">450th Bombardment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/451st_Air_Expeditionary_Wing" class="mw-redirect" title="451st Air Expeditionary Wing">451st Bombardment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/454th_Bombardment_Wing" title="454th Bombardment Wing">454th Bombardment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/455th_Air_Expeditionary_Wing" title="455th Air Expeditionary Wing">455th Bombardment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/456th_Bombardment_Group" title="456th Bombardment Group">456th Bombardment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/459th_Air_Refueling_Wing" title="459th Air Refueling Wing">459th Bombardment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/460th_Space_Wing" title="460th Space Wing">460th Bombardment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/461st_Bombardment_Wing" class="mw-redirect" title="461st Bombardment Wing">461st Bombardment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/463rd_Airlift_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="463rd Airlift Group">463rd Bombardment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/464th_Tactical_Airlift_Wing" title="464th Tactical Airlift Wing">464th Bombardment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/465th_Bombardment_Wing" title="465th Bombardment Wing">465th Bombardment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/483rd_Composite_Wing" class="mw-redirect" title="483rd Composite Wing">483rd Bombardment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/484th_Air_Expeditionary_Wing" title="484th Air Expeditionary Wing">484th Bombardment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/485th_Air_Expeditionary_Wing" title="485th Air Expeditionary Wing">485th Bombardment</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;width:5em; text-align:center;">Fighter</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;width:auto;">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/1st_Operations_Group" title="1st Operations Group">1st Fighter</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/14th_Operations_Group" title="14th Operations Group">14th Fighter</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/31st_Operations_Group" title="31st Operations Group">31st Fighter</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/52nd_Operations_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="52nd Operations Group">52nd Fighter</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/82nd_Operations_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="82nd Operations Group">82nd Fighter</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/325th_Operations_Group" title="325th Operations Group">325th Fighter</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/332nd_Fighter_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="332nd Fighter Group">332nd Fighter</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TD class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;">
<DIV>
<UL>
<LI><B>United States Army Air Forces</B></LI>
</UL>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/First_Air_Force" title="First Air Force">First</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Second_Air_Force" title="Second Air Force">Second</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Third_Air_Force" title="Third Air Force">Third</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fourth_Air_Force" title="Fourth Air Force">Fourth</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fifth_Air_Force" title="Fifth Air Force">Fifth</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Forces_Southern_Command" title="United States Air Forces Southern Command">Sixth</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Seventh_Air_Force" title="Seventh Air Force">Seventh</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Eighth_Air_Force" title="Eighth Air Force">Eighth</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ninth_Air_Force_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ninth Air Force (World War II)">Ninth</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tenth_Air_Force" title="Tenth Air Force">Tenth</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Eleventh_Air_Force" title="Eleventh Air Force">Eleventh</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Twelfth_Air_Force" title="Twelfth Air Force">Twelfth</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Air_Force" title="Thirteenth Air Force">Thirteenth</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Air_Force" title="Fourteenth Air Force">Fourteenth</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/15th_Expeditionary_Mobility_Task_Force" title="15th Expeditionary Mobility Task Force">Fifteenth</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Twentieth_Air_Force" title="Twentieth Air Force">Twentieth</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
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<DIV id="United_States_in_World_War_II" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><A href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">United States in World War II</A></DIV>
</TH>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><A href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">Home front</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/American_music_during_World_War_II" title="American music during World War II">American music during World War II</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_aircraft_production_during_World_War_II" title="United States aircraft production during World War II">United States aircraft production during World War II</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Arizona_during_World_War_II" title="Arizona during World War II">Arizona during World War II</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Nevada_during_World_War_II" title="Nevada during World War II">Nevada during World War II</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/New_Mexico_during_World_War_II" title="New Mexico during World War II">New Mexico during World War II</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Greatest_Generation" class="mw-redirect" title="Greatest Generation">Greatest Generation</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">American women</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Women_Airforce_Service_Pilots" title="Women Airforce Service Pilots">Women Airforce Service Pilots</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Women%27s_Army_Corps" title="Women's Army Corps">Women's Army Corps</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Woman%27s_Land_Army_of_America" title="Woman's Land Army of America">Woman's Land Army of America</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Rosie_the_Riveter" title="Rosie the Riveter">Rosie the Riveter</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><A href="/wiki/Ethnic_minorities_in_the_US_armed_forces_during_World_War_II" title="Ethnic minorities in the US armed forces during World War II">Minorities</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hispanic_Americans_in_World_War_II" title="Hispanic Americans in World War II">Hispanic Americans in World War II</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Native_Americans_and_World_War_II" title="Native Americans and World War II">Native Americans and World War II</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Puerto_Ricans_in_World_War_II" title="Puerto Ricans in World War II">Puerto Ricans in World War II</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
<TD class="navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px">
<DIV><A href="/wiki/File:US_Navy_081110-N-5549O-080_The_U.S._national_flag_waves_graciously_from_the_Iwo_Jima_memorial_during_a_wreath_laying_ceremony_in_honor_of_the_233rd_Marine_Corps_birthday_at_the_Marine_Corps_War_Memorial.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="US Navy 081110-N-5549O-080 The U.S. national flag waves graciously from the Iwo Jima memorial during a wreath laying ceremony in honor of the 233rd Marine Corps birthday at the Marine Corps War Memorial.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/US_Navy_081110-N-5549O-080_The_U.S._national_flag_waves_graciously_from_the_Iwo_Jima_memorial_during_a_wreath_laying_ceremony_in_honor_of_the_233rd_Marine_Corps_birthday_at_the_Marine_Corps_War_Memorial.jpg/120px-thumbnail.jpg" width="120" height="182" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/US_Navy_081110-N-5549O-080_The_U.S._national_flag_waves_graciously_from_the_Iwo_Jima_memorial_during_a_wreath_laying_ceremony_in_honor_of_the_233rd_Marine_Corps_birthday_at_the_Marine_Corps_War_Memorial.jpg/180px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/US_Navy_081110-N-5549O-080_The_U.S._national_flag_waves_graciously_from_the_Iwo_Jima_memorial_during_a_wreath_laying_ceremony_in_honor_of_the_233rd_Marine_Corps_birthday_at_the_Marine_Corps_War_Memorial.jpg/240px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2704" data-file-height="4100" /></A></DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><A href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">Military participation</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Army#World_War_II" title="History of the United States Army">Army</A> (<A href="/wiki/United_States_Army_uniforms_in_World_War_II" title="United States Army uniforms in World War II">Uniforms</A>)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces" title="United States Army Air Forces">Army Air Force</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps#World_War_II" title="History of the United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Navy#World_War_II_(1941–1945)" title="History of the United States Navy">Navy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_service_medals_of_the_World_Wars" title="United States service medals of the World Wars">Service medals</A> (<A href="/wiki/List_of_Medal_of_Honor_recipients_for_World_War_II" title="List of Medal of Honor recipients for World War II">Medal of Honor recipients</A>)</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Events</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_battles_involving_the_United_States" title="List of World War II battles involving the United States">List of battles</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Attack on Pearl Harbor</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Normandy_landings" title="Normandy landings">Normandy landings</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Minorities</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans#World_War_II" title="Military history of African Americans">African Americans</A> (<A class="mw-selflink selflink">Tuskegee Airmen</A>)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Asian_Americans#World_War_II" title="Military history of Asian Americans">Asian Americans</A> (<A href="/wiki/Japanese_American_service_in_World_War_II" title="Japanese American service in World War II">Japanese Americans</A>)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Jewish_Americans#World_War_II" title="Military history of Jewish Americans">Jewish Americans</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><A href="/wiki/History_of_U.S._foreign_policy#World_War_II_.281941.E2.80.931945.29" class="mw-redirect" title="History of U.S. foreign policy">Diplomatic participation</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lend-Lease" title="Lend-Lease">Lend-Lease</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Destroyers_for_Bases_Agreement" title="Destroyers for Bases Agreement">Destroyers for Bases Agreement</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Project_Hula" title="Project Hula">Project Hula</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</DIV>
<DIV role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Eleanor_Roosevelt" style="padding:3px">
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<DIV id="Eleanor_Roosevelt" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><A href="/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt" title="Eleanor Roosevelt">Eleanor Roosevelt</A></DIV>
</TH>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TD class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2">
<DIV>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Presidential_Commission_on_the_Status_of_Women" title="Presidential Commission on the Status of Women">Chairwoman, Presidential Commission on the Status of Women</A> (1961–1962)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_First_Ladies_of_the_United_States" title="List of First Ladies of the United States">34th</A> <A href="/wiki/First_Lady_of_the_United_States" title="First Lady of the United States">First Lady of the United States</A> (1933–1945)</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">United Nations</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly" title="United Nations General Assembly">United States delegate, United Nations General Assembly <SMALL>(1946–1952)</SMALL></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_Nations_Commission_on_Human_Rights" title="United Nations Commission on Human Rights">United Nations Commission on Human Rights <SMALL>(1947–1953, Chairperson 1946–1951)</SMALL></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights#Creation_and_drafting" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Day" title="Human Rights Day">Human Rights Day</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">First Lady of<BR />
the United States</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/My_Day" title="My Day">"My Day" daily newspaper column, 1935–1962</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Office_of_Civilian_Defense" title="Office of Civilian Defense">Co-Chair, Office of Civilian Defense</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Marian_Anderson#1939_Lincoln_Memorial_Concert" title="Marian Anderson">Marian Anderson Lincoln Memorial Concert</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tuskegee_Airmen#The_First_Lady's_flight" title="Tuskegee Airmen">Tuskegee Airmen flight</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Arthurdale,_West_Virginia" title="Arthurdale, West Virginia">Arthurdale</A> and <A href="/wiki/Eleanor,_West_Virginia" title="Eleanor, West Virginia">Eleanor, West Virginia</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/American_Youth_Congress" title="American Youth Congress">American Youth Congress</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/National_Youth_Administration" title="National Youth Administration">National Youth Administration</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Black_Cabinet" title="Black Cabinet">Black Cabinet</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/1940_Democratic_National_Convention#Vice-presidential_selection" title="1940 Democratic National Convention">1940 Democratic National Convention speech</A></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Women_in_Defense" title="Women in Defense">Women in Defense</A></I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Freedom_House" title="Freedom House">Freedom House</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other events</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt%27s_terms_as_Governor_of_New_York#Economic_policies" class="mw-redirect" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt's terms as Governor of New York">First Lady of New York</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Presidential_Commission_on_the_Status_of_Women" title="Presidential Commission on the Status of Women">Presidential Commission on the Status of Women</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/National_Organization_for_Women#PCSW_influences_the_creation_of_the_National_Organization_for_Women" title="National Organization for Women">National Organization for Women</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Encampment_for_Citizenship" title="Encampment for Citizenship">Encampment for Citizenship</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life and homes</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt_National_Historic_Site" title="Eleanor Roosevelt National Historic Site">Val-Kill National Historic Site</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Val-Kill_Industries" title="Val-Kill Industries">Val-Kill Industries</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Roosevelt_Campobello_International_Park" title="Roosevelt Campobello International Park">Campobello home</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt%27s_paralytic_illness" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt's paralytic illness">Franklin D. Roosevelt's paralytic illness</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Home_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_National_Historic_Site" title="Home of Franklin D. Roosevelt National Historic Site">Hyde Park home and gravesite</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legacy</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Roosevelt_Institute" title="Roosevelt Institute">Roosevelt Institute</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Roosevelt_Institute_Campus_Network" title="Roosevelt Institute Campus Network">Roosevelt Institute Campus Network</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Roosevelt_Institute_for_American_Studies" title="Roosevelt Institute for American Studies">Roosevelt Study Center</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt_Monument" title="Eleanor Roosevelt Monument">Eleanor Roosevelt Monument</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt_Award_for_Human_Rights" title="Eleanor Roosevelt Award for Human Rights">Eleanor Roosevelt Award for Human Rights</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt_Memorial" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial">Statue at the Franklin Roosevelt Memorial</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt_College" title="Eleanor Roosevelt College">Eleanor Roosevelt College</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Marian_Anderson:_the_Lincoln_Memorial_Concert" title="Marian Anderson: the Lincoln Memorial Concert"><I>Marian Anderson: the Lincoln Memorial Concert</I> <SMALL>(1939 film)</SMALL></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sunrise_at_Campobello_(play)" title="Sunrise at Campobello (play)"><I>Sunrise at Campobello</I> <SMALL>(1958 play,</SMALL></A> <A href="/wiki/Sunrise_at_Campobello" title="Sunrise at Campobello"><SMALL>1960 film)</SMALL></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/The_Eleanor_Roosevelt_Story" title="The Eleanor Roosevelt Story"><I>The Eleanor Roosevelt Story</I> <SMALL>(1965 film)</SMALL></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Eleanor_and_Franklin" title="Eleanor and Franklin"><I>Eleanor and Franklin</I> <SMALL>(1976 film)</SMALL></A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/James_Roosevelt" title="James Roosevelt">James Roosevelt II</A> <SMALL>(son)</SMALL></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Elliott_Roosevelt" title="Elliott Roosevelt">Elliott Roosevelt</A> <SMALL>(son)</SMALL></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt_Jr." title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt Jr.">Franklin D. Roosevelt Jr.</A> <SMALL>(son)</SMALL></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt_Seagraves" title="Eleanor Roosevelt Seagraves">Eleanor Roosevelt Seagraves</A> <SMALL>(granddaughter)</SMALL></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Curtis_Roosevelt" title="Curtis Roosevelt">Curtis Roosevelt</A> <SMALL>(grandson)</SMALL></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sara_Wilford" title="Sara Wilford">Sara Delano Roosevelt</A> <SMALL>(granddaughter)</SMALL></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/John_Roosevelt_Boettiger" title="John Roosevelt Boettiger">John Roosevelt Boettiger</A> <SMALL>(grandson)</SMALL></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/James_Roosevelt_(lawyer)" title="James Roosevelt (lawyer)">James Roosevelt III</A> <SMALL>(grandson)</SMALL></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Elliott_Bulloch_Roosevelt" title="Elliott Bulloch Roosevelt">Elliott Bulloch Roosevelt</A> <SMALL>(father)</SMALL></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Anna_Hall_Roosevelt" title="Anna Hall Roosevelt">Anna Hall Roosevelt</A> <SMALL>(mother)</SMALL></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hall_Roosevelt" title="Hall Roosevelt">Hall Roosevelt</A> <SMALL>(brother)</SMALL></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_Sr." title="Theodore Roosevelt Sr.">Theodore Roosevelt Sr.</A> <SMALL>(grandfather)</SMALL></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Martha_Bulloch_Roosevelt" title="Martha Bulloch Roosevelt">Martha Stewart Bulloch</A> <SMALL>(grandmother)</SMALL></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</A> <SMALL>(uncle</SMALL></LI>
<LI><SMALL><A href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt">presidency</A>)</SMALL></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bamie_Roosevelt" title="Bamie Roosevelt">Bamie Roosevelt</A> <SMALL>(aunt)</SMALL></LI>
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document_title: Tuskegee Airmen

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question_text: where did the first african american air force unit train