prepareforchange--2020-01-12--U.S. GOVT LOSES LANDMARK VACCINE LAWSUIT

Forced vaccinations now can be legally stopped-no quality control for 32 years Vaccine injury lawyer Robert F. Kennedy Jr. , & Del Bigtree , producer of the suppressed anti-vaccine documentary , Vaxxed and the Informed Consent Action Network ( ICAN ) are credited with this victory .
They demanded the relevant government documents proving that all federally approved vaccines had been tested for quality over the past 32 years — and there were none .
Here are the huge legal and practical implications in this legal victory for the American people : o This means that the US Department of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ makers have been lying to the American people for over 30 years about the effectiveness and safety of vaccines ; this may ultimately mean that continuing the existence — at least in their current form — of five US “ healthcare ” agencies are now in doubt : the CDC , the FDA , the IOM , the NIH and the “ Health ” part of DHHS itself ; this may also threaten the existence of state medical boards and exclusive medical guilds like the AMA : o This means that vaccine makers @ @ @ @ @ @ @ other pharmaceutical drug makers have been forced to do concerning biannual recertification for quality and effectiveness — meaning that that their vaccines have never been tested for quality and have had no proven safety or effectiveness for over 30 years ; o This case can now be legally cited by all parents fraudulently mandated by any government/organizational regulation/requirements that they must vaccinate their children for school or any other activity to stop the forced vaccination of their children ; o This case can now be legally cited by all employees being mandated by @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to retain their jobs ; o This case can now be legally cited by all those who seek compensation for vaccine injury , making it likely that the pharmacidical vaccine industry can in the near future be legally bankrupted out of existence , like Bayer-Monsanto after the landmark legal victory won by the dying landscaper in San Francisco several weeks ago , as well as their stock value plummeting precipitously ; o The future of allopathic medicine in its current form is now in doubt , as well as that of the global @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the drugs allopathic practitioners prescribe come from pharmacidical corporations which have also committed vaccine fraud and injury ; o The existence of the deep-state corporate mainstream news media will now also be further endangered , since 70 % of their income stream comes from the global pharmacidical cartel , which in America has been responsible for 750,000-1 million human sacrifices per year for at least the past half century ; o Autism rates will now likely plummet , freeing the American people from another deep state-engineered debility , and providing further evidence of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ officials who have passed laws legalizing vaccine fraud at the state , national , or international level , or otherwise aided and abetted this vaccine fraud can now be charged with vaccine fraud , criminal malfeasance and in some cases , war crimes under the Nuremberg Code .
This letter from Dawn Bell , an American health professional , warns that vaccines are not safe and become ineffective after 10 years .
She says her daughter was injured by vaccination : In the recent mumps outbreak , 100 % of the mumps cases @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 100 % vaccinated .
90 % ( 9 out of 10 ) people who died from last years flu epidemic had received the flu shot .
Herd immunity can only be achieved when 85 % of the population is immune to a disease .
Vaccines are only good for about 10 years , at absolute max 20 years , so most people over the age of 20 are not immune any longer .
So now you have created a situation of a “ false ” immunity .
Those who get the chicken pox @ @ @ @ @ @ @ get the vax are not .
I do believe , maybe to your surprise that vaccines can and have saved lives , however , think about when MD ’ s we ’ re giving out antibiotics like popcorn at the movies , it started having a bad affect on our immune systems and gut .
It ’ s propbable to think that the same thing might start happen with the overuse of vaccines .
For really deadly diseases , hey I ’ m all for it , but they started making so much @ @ @ @ @ @ @ had to start getting vaccines for everything , even the everyday childhood diseases and for stuff like Hep B at 1 day old , really ?
The rise in autism and other sensory diseases has been mind boggling , as well as childhood autoimmune disorders .
32 people get sick from ecoli and FDA tells everyone to stop buying romaine lettuce , but thousands report issues with vaccines and it ’ s pay no attention to the man behind the curtain .
Then everyone is surprised when people get upset and start asking @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Therapist and was all in with the vax thing , until I watched my daughter lose Speech ability directly following a vaccine .
I was one telling everyone it was a coincidence until I saw it happen with my own eyes to my own kid .
They have NEVER done safety studies in these vaccines have NEVER been studied being given all at once as they do .
It ’ s common sence that all of these vaccines given to a child with a developing immune system and neuro system might have some @ @ @ @ @ @ @ about it that really has everyone worried though .
When they say safety studies have been done when no one can find them , then Kennedy offers $ $ for anyone who show they have been done .
Of course no one could produce them so hence this lawsuit and of course , they haven ’ t .
My OBGYN told me the flu shot was studied and proven safe during pregnancy .
So I go to work , as a nurse friend for the flu vax insert and guess what ?
It @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in children or pregnant woman and if given to pregnant woman you should call and add them to a registry .
Furthermore , on the front of the box , it stated to NOT give to kids under 5 !
I could keep going , but I ’ ll end with , have you watched the CDC video aproving the Hep vax ?
If not , you should because it ’ s extremely interesting !
First , they give to 1 day old babies and it ’ s never been approved for those @ @ @ @ @ @ @ was safe to give with other vaccines they said they didn ’ t know but we ’ re making the assumption it was generally safe like other vaccines .
Then when asked about the “ new ” mutated gene thing they said the same thing , “ we ’ re making the assumption that ’ s it ’ s safe like other vaccines.
” They were then asked about the heart and autoimmune markers seen in their internal study and they acknowledged that they saw the markers and were going to monitor it @ @ @ @ @ @ @ there was a problem , and in the mean time it ’ s being given to day old babies .
So yes , there are concerns that need to be addressed about the safety of vaccines and I ’ m thrilled that it ’ s finally being addressed !
!
!
Disclaimer : We at Prepare for Change ( PFC ) bring you information that is not offered by the mainstream news , and therefore may seem controversial .
The opinions , views , statements , and/or information we present are not necessarily @ @ @ @ @ @ @ agreed to by Prepare for Change , its leadership Council , members , those who work with PFC , or those who read its content .
However , they are hopefully provocative .
Please use discernment !
Use logical thinking , your own intuition and your own connection with Source , Spirit and Natural Laws to help you determine what is true and what is not .
By sharing information and seeding dialogue , it is our goal to raise consciousness and awareness of higher truths to free us from enslavement of the @ @ @ @ @ @

by Editor, cairnsnews.
Forced vaccinations now can be legally stopped-no quality control for 32 years
Wide ramifications for Australia
Go to:
https://cairnsnews.files.wordpress.com/2018/12/ican-hhs-stipulated-order-july-2018.pdf
Case 1:18-cv-03215-JMF Document 18 Filed 07/09/18
Vaccine injury lawyer Robert F. Kennedy Jr.,& Del Bigtree, producer of the suppressed anti-vaccine documentary, Vaxxed and the Informed Consent Action Network (ICAN) are credited with this victory. They demanded the relevant government documents proving that all federally approved vaccines had been tested for quality over the past 32 years — and there were none.
Here are the huge legal and practical implications in this legal victory for the American people:
o This means that the US Department of Health and Human Services and all vaccine makers have been lying to the American people for over 30 years about the effectiveness and safety of vaccines; this may
ultimately mean that continuing the existence — at least in their current form — of five US “healthcare” agencies are now in doubt: the CDC, the FDA, the IOM, the NIH and the “Health” part of DHHS itself;
this may also threaten the existence of state medical boards and exclusive medical guilds like the AMA:
o This means that vaccine makers have been fraudulently exempt from what all other pharmaceutical drug makers have been forced to do concerning biannual recertification for quality and effectiveness — meaning that that their vaccines have never been tested for quality and have had no proven safety or effectiveness for over 30 years;
o This case can now be legally cited by all parents fraudulently mandated by any government/organizational regulation/requirements that they must vaccinate their children for school or any other activity to stop
the forced vaccination of their children;
o This case can now be legally cited by all employees being mandated by their employers to be vaccinated in order to retain their jobs;
o This case can now be legally cited by all those who seek compensation for vaccine injury, making it likely that the pharmaceutical vaccine industry can in the near future be legally bankrupted out of existence, like Bayer-Monsanto after the landmark legal victory won by the dying landscaper in San Francisco several weeks ago, as well as their stock value plummeting precipitously;
o The future of allopathic medicine in its current form is now in doubt, as well as that of the global pharmaceutical cartel, since almost all of the drugs allopathic practitioners prescribe come from pharmaceutical corporations which have also committed vaccine fraud and injury;
o The existence of the deep-state corporate mainstream news media will now also be further endangered, since 70% of their income stream comes from the global pharmaceutical cartel, which in America has been
responsible for 750,000-1 million human sacrifices per year for at least the past half century;
o Autism rates will now likely plummet, freeing the American people from another deep state-engineered debility, and providing further evidence of mass vaccination-caused autism;
o All government officials who have passed laws legalizing vaccine fraud at the state, national, or international level, or otherwise aided and abetted this vaccine fraud can now be charged with vaccine fraud, criminal malfeasance and in some cases, war crimes under the Nuremberg Code.
-contributed
This letter from Dawn Bell, an American health professional, warns that vaccines are not safe and become ineffective after 10 years. She says her daughter was injured by vaccination:
In the recent mumps outbreak, 100% of the mumps cases were college students, who were ALL 100% vaccinated. 90% (9 out of 10) people who died from last years flu epidemic had received the flu shot.
Herd immunity can only be achieved when 85% of the population is immune to a disease. Vaccines are only good for about 10 years, at absolute max 20 years, so most people over the age of 20 are not immune any longer. So now you have created a situation of a “false” immunity.
Those who get the chicken pox are immune for life, those who get the vax are not. I do believe, maybe to your surprise that vaccines can and have saved lives, however, think about when MD’s we’re giving out antibiotics like popcorn at the movies, it started having a bad affect on our immune systems and gut. It’s probable to think that the same thing might start happen with the overuse of vaccines.
For really deadly diseases, hey I’m all for it, but they started making so much money that you all of a sudden had to start getting vaccines for everything, even the everyday childhood diseases and for stuff like Hep B at 1 day old, really? The rise in autism and other sensory diseases has been mind boggling, as well as childhood autoimmune disorders.
32 people get sick from ecoli and FDA tells everyone to stop buying romaine lettuce, but thousands report issues with vaccines and it’s pay no attention to the man behind the curtain. Then everyone is surprised when people get upset and start asking questions.
I’m an Occupational Therapist and was all in with the vax thing, until I watched my daughter lose Speech ability directly following a vaccine. I was one telling everyone it was a coincidence until I saw it happen with my own eyes to my own kid. They have NEVER done safety studies in these vaccines have NEVER been studied being given all at once as they do.
It’s common sense that all of these vaccines given to a child with a developing immune system and neuro system might have some issues. It’s the lying about it that really has everyone worried though. When they say safety studies have been done when no one can find them, then Kennedy offers $$ for anyone who show they have been done. Of course no one could produce them so hence this lawsuit and of course, they haven’t. My OBGYN told me the flu shot was studied and proven safe during pregnancy.
So I go to work, as a nurse friend for the flu vax insert and guess what? It clearly stated it had not been studied in children or pregnant woman and if given to pregnant woman you should call and add them to a registry. Furthermore, on the front of the box, it stated to NOT give to kids under 5! I could keep going, but I’ll end with, have you watched the CDC video approving the Hep vax?
If not, you should because it’s extremely interesting! First, they give to 1 day old babies and it’s never been approved for those under 18. When asked if it was safe to give with other vaccines they said they didn’t know but we’re making the assumption it was generally safe like other vaccines. Then when asked about the “new” mutated gene thing they said the same thing, “we’re making the assumption that’s it’s safe like other vaccines.”
They were then asked about the heart and autoimmune markers seen in their internal study and they acknowledged that they saw the markers and were going to monitor it and make determination Dec 2020 whether not there was a problem, and in the mean time it’s being given to day old babies. So yes, there are concerns that need to be addressed about the safety of vaccines and I’m thrilled that it’s finally being addressed!!!
Source: https://cairnsnews.org
Your Tax Free Donations Are Appreciated and Help Fund our Volunteer Website and Orphanage


prepareforchange--2020-01-13--Cobra Update: Age of Aquarius Activation Preliminary Report

The critical mass has been reached .
Full report will be posted within a week .
In the next few days , it is very important to stabilize the planetary energy grid every four hours with the following meditation : You might also want to do the same meditation at the moment of quadruple Sun-Saturn-Pluto-Ceres conjunction which comes on Monday , January 13th at 2:30 pm GMT ( equals 9:30 am EST ) .
Disclaimer : We at Prepare for Change ( PFC ) bring you information that is not offered by the mainstream news , and therefore may seem @ @ @ @ @ @ @ statements , and/or information we present are not necessarily promoted , endorsed , espoused , or agreed to by Prepare for Change , its leadership Council , members , those who work with PFC , or those who read its content .
However , they are hopefully provocative .
Please use discernment !
Use logical thinking , your own intuition and your own connection with Source , Spirit and Natural Laws to help you determine what is true and what is not .
By sharing information and seeding dialogue , it is our @ @ @ @ @ @ @ higher truths to free us from enslavement of the matrix in this material realm .

The critical mass has been reached. Full report will be posted within a week.
In the next few days, it is very important to stabilize the planetary energy grid every four hours with the following meditation:
https://www.welovemassmeditation.com/2019/09/flower-of-life-meditation-every-4-hours.html
You might also want to do the same meditation at the moment of quadruple Sun-Saturn-Pluto-Ceres conjunction which comes on Monday, January 13th at 2:30 pm GMT (equals 9:30 am EST).
Victory of the Light!
Source: 2012portal.blogspot.com
Your Tax Free Donations Are Appreciated and Help Fund our Volunteer Website and Orphanage


prepareforchange--2020-01-14--Stop Smoking During Pregnancy

Stop Smoking During Pregnancy

In the olden days , smoking was something that women did to make themselves appear more attractive as well as a means of weight control .
In other words , it was something that was done for appearances only not just to be done .
Nowadays , people smoke because they are addicted to either the routine of smoking which entails pulling the cigarette out , placing it between your lips , lighting it , inhaling the smoke , holding it , and then exhaling it .
While others are addicted to the chemicals within the cigarette and the calming @ @ @ @ @ @ @ your reasoning is for your smoking habit is a horrible one to keep up especially when you are expecting a child .
And believe me when I say your unborn child does not share the same enthusiasm for smoking that you do .
In fact , I ’ m sure if your growing fetus could speak to you they would have quite a few choice words that you need to hear .
They would need to tell you a ton of things like the harmful effect of smoking on their development .
Well @ @ @ @ @ @ @ decided to give you a little insight on what they might say if they could speak to you from inside of your womb : Firstly , I just want to say how much I love you already and can ’ t wait to meet you someday .
I can hear your heartbeat and it ’ s become my favorite part of being inside of your belly .
I feel like I ’ m so close to you and love you so much , but there is something that could keep me from getting @ @ @ @ @ @ @ And that ’ s your smoking habit !
I remember the first time I felt like I was choking even though I ’ ve never taken a breath of fresh air before .
When you smoke my body is exposed to the toxins that you inhale .
And instead of providing me with vital nutrients that will help me grow big and strong you ’ re pumping my body full of toxic chemicals like butane , menthol , nicotine , and so many more .
Every time you pick up a cigarette and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ development even more .
And you increase the risk of killing me every single time .
What if I never get to meet you , mom ?
What if you never get to hold me and see my face ?
How will you be able to get through everyday knowing that this all could ’ ve been avoided if you would ’ ve just committed yourself to not smoking ?
I love you mom and I hope that you make the right decision for you and me .
See you soon , Of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to speak from within your womb , but I imagine that if they could the things that they would tell you kind of resemble this letter .
Smoking during pregnancy can increase your risk of preterm labor , sudden infant death syndrome , preeclampsia , and many other issues .
Smoking can also vault and negatively affect your child ’ s brain development .
Which is dangerous because in the womb they are developing quickly every single day so if your not careful you can do damage that will last them for the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ other things you can do besides smoking that are not only helpful but they are also healthy for you and your child .
You could try pregnant yoga , which is meant to help you become one with your body while strengthening your special muscles .
This special muscles that I speak of are the muscles that will help you to give birth to your bundle of joy .
Strengthening these muscles will also help you to build your endurance and prepare in case you have a long laboring process .
Another thing @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
There are plenty of massage parlors and spas that specialize in prenatal massages .
The massages are designed to relieve stress and tension that your body experiences due to the extra weight that you are now carrying around .
The best part about spas that offer prenatal services is that their massage tables are designed to cradle and provide comfort for your growing baby bump .
This is so you can enjoy your massage to the fullest without adding more stress to your body .
We do recommend that you sit down @ @ @ @ @ @ @ about the struggles that you face when it comes to quitting your smoking habit .
They may be able to prescribe you something that will help you kick the habit without sacrificing the health of you and your child .
Besides , it ’ s good to be upfront with your doctor so that they are able to monitor you and be on the lookout for different issues that may have been caused due to your smoking habits .
There are some things that may help you kick your cigarette smoking habit for @ @ @ @ @ @ @ you need to make it happen .
First , remember that while it may be difficult to quit smoking the harm you do to your unborn fetus is far worse than the task to quit smoking altogether .
You are more likely to kick the habit for good whilst pregnancy whether that be because of the detrimental consequences that can happen to your child and if your physician is aware that you have continued the habit .
If your not sure how to quit and make sure that it sticks consult your primary @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to go through all the options necessary to help you quit as well as be able to prescribe you an over the counter form of nicotine replacement therapy .
Which should be safe for not only you but also for your child .
It is important that you be open and honest with your physician so that they know exactly how they need to help you .
It is hard to stop doing something that you ’ ve been doing for so long .
This is why we recommend you having and finding @ @ @ @ @ @ @ will keep you motivated every step of your journey and won ’ t let you give up .
People that will allow you to lean on them when you ’ re just about to give up and offer an encouraging word to keep you on the right track .
If you change your routine you ’ re less likely to keep that 2:00 smoking session or 6:30 cigarette in your regiment .
Instead , try to replace those times in your schedule with knew things like exercise or going for a walk .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ sense rewire your brain and put in place healthy options that are better than picking up a cigarette .
Plus , working things like exercise into your schedule will not only prepare you for labor it will also help to boost your energy .
No matter what you do don ’ t give up remind yourself why you decided to quit in the first place .
You ’ re trying to give yourself and your unborn child and a better and healthier life .
And that is not something you can do properly @ @ @ @ @ @ @ bodies full of harmful toxins every day .
Set daily reminders on your phone that notify you of encouraging words to keep going and that you can do it .
Bio : Tiffany Simmons is a Georgia mom , wife , and aspiring children ’ s book writer .
Acquiring a BS in Mass Communications & Marketing from the University of West Ga .
Leaving a job in the healthcare profession to become a freelance writer for childmode.com !
Disclaimer : We at Prepare for Change ( PFC ) bring you information that @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , and therefore may seem controversial .
The opinions , views , statements , and/or information we present are not necessarily promoted , endorsed , espoused , or agreed to by Prepare for Change , its leadership Council , members , those who work with PFC , or those who read its content .
However , they are hopefully provocative .
Please use discernment !
Use logical thinking , your own intuition and your own connection with Source , Spirit and Natural Laws to help you determine what is true and what is @ @ @ @ @ @ @ dialogue , it is our goal to raise consciousness and awareness of higher truths to free us from enslavement of the matrix in this material realm .

By Guest Writer Tiffany Simmons,
In the olden days, smoking was something that women did to make themselves appear more attractive as well as a means of weight control. In other words, it was something that was done for appearances only not just to be done.
Nowadays, people smoke because they are addicted to either the routine of smoking which entails pulling the cigarette out, placing it between your lips, lighting it, inhaling the smoke, holding it, and then exhaling it. While others are addicted to the chemicals within the cigarette and the calming feeling that it brings them.
Whatever your reasoning is for your smoking habit is a horrible one to keep up especially when you are expecting a child. And believe me when I say your unborn child does not share the same enthusiasm for smoking that you do.
In fact, I’m sure if your growing fetus could speak to you they would have quite a few choice words that you need to hear. They would need to tell you a ton of things like the harmful effect of smoking on their development.
Well since they can’t speak we decided to give you a little insight on what they might say if they could speak to you from inside of your womb:
Dear mom,
Firstly, I just want to say how much I love you already and can’t wait to meet you someday. I can hear your heartbeat and it’s become my favorite part of being inside of your belly.
I feel like I’m so close to you and love you so much, but there is something that could keep me from getting to meet you at all mom. And that’s your smoking habit!
I remember the first time I felt like I was choking even though I’ve never taken a breath of fresh air before. When you smoke my body is exposed to the toxins that you inhale.
And instead of providing me with vital nutrients that will help me grow big and strong you’re pumping my body full of toxic chemicals like butane, menthol, nicotine, and so many more.
Every time you pick up a cigarette and smoke it you stunt my growth and development even more. And you increase the risk of killing me every single time.
What if I never get to meet you, mom? What if you never get to hold me and see my face? How will you be able to get through everyday knowing that this all could’ve been avoided if you would’ve just committed yourself to not smoking?
I love you mom and I hope that you make the right decision for you and me.
See you soon,
Xoxo
Of course, babies aren’t able to speak from within your womb, but I imagine that if they could the things that they would tell you kind of resemble this letter. Smoking during pregnancy can increase your risk of preterm labor, sudden infant death syndrome, preeclampsia, and many other issues.
Smoking can also vault and negatively affect your child’s brain development. Which is dangerous because in the womb they are developing quickly every single day so if your not careful you can do damage that will last them for the rest of their lives.
There are other things you can do besides smoking that are not only helpful but they are also healthy for you and your child. You could try pregnant yoga, which is meant to help you become one with your body while strengthening your special muscles.
This special muscles that I speak of are the muscles that will help you to give birth to your bundle of joy. Strengthening these muscles will also help you to build your endurance and prepare in case you have a long laboring process.
Another thing you can do is enjoy a massage. There are plenty of massage parlors and spas that specialize in prenatal massages. The massages are designed to relieve stress and tension that your body experiences due to the extra weight that you are now carrying around.
The best part about spas that offer prenatal services is that their massage tables are designed to cradle and provide comfort for your growing baby bump. This is so you can enjoy your massage to the fullest without adding more stress to your body.
We do recommend that you sit down and speak with your primary care physician about the struggles that you face when it comes to quitting your smoking habit. They may be able to prescribe you something that will help you kick the habit without sacrificing the health of you and your child.
Besides, it’s good to be upfront with your doctor so that they are able to monitor you and be on the lookout for different issues that may have been caused due to your smoking habits.
There are some things that may help you kick your cigarette smoking habit for good and we have just the tips you need to make it happen. First, remember that while it may be difficult to quit smoking the harm you do to your unborn fetus is far worse than the task to quit smoking altogether.
You are more likely to kick the habit for good whilst pregnancy whether that be because of the detrimental consequences that can happen to your child and if your physician is aware that you have continued the habit.
Discuss your options with a doctor
If your not sure how to quit and make sure that it sticks consult your primary care physician. They will be able to go through all the options necessary to help you quit as well as be able to prescribe you an over the counter form of nicotine replacement therapy.
Which should be safe for not only you but also for your child. It is important that you be open and honest with your physician so that they know exactly how they need to help you.
Get support
It is hard to stop doing something that you’ve been doing for so long. This is why we recommend you having and finding a strong support system.
People that will keep you motivated every step of your journey and won’t let you give up. People that will allow you to lean on them when you’re just about to give up and offer an encouraging word to keep you on the right track.
Change your routine
If you change your routine you’re less likely to keep that 2:00 smoking session or 6:30 cigarette in your regiment. Instead, try to replace those times in your schedule with knew things like exercise or going for a walk.
By changing your schedule you in a sense rewire your brain and put in place healthy options that are better than picking up a cigarette. Plus, working things like exercise into your schedule will not only prepare you for labor it will also help to boost your energy.
Don’t give up
No matter what you do don’t give up remind yourself why you decided to quit in the first place. You’re trying to give yourself and your unborn child and a better and healthier life.
And that is not something you can do properly if your pumping yourself and their little bodies full of harmful toxins every day. Set daily reminders on your phone that notify you of encouraging words to keep going and that you can do it.
Bio: Tiffany Simmons is a Georgia mom , wife , and aspiring children’s book writer . Acquiring a BS in Mass Communications & Marketing from the University of West Ga . Leaving a job in the healthcare profession to become a freelance writer for childmode.com !
Your Tax Free Donations Are Appreciated and Help Fund our Volunteer Website and Orphanage


prepareforchange--2020-01-14--Is quantum computing a threat to cybersecurity?

Quantum computing looks like it could revolutionize our technological world in the not too distant future .
Find out what it is and how it may affect our security .
By JOSH LAKE – SPECIALIST IN SECURITY , PRIVACY AND ENCRYPTION , Quantum computing is looming on the horizon .
Although it ’ s still a fair distance away and must traverse numerous stumbling blocks , its possible arrival presents a big step for technology and our society .
One area where it will have a significant impact is in the realms of cryptography and cybersecurity .
The new techniques @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to turn the cryptographic world upside down , with severe implications for information security as well as the world at large .
Want to find out what quantum computing is and why it might have significant effects on our online security ?
Then keep reading , because we will discuss these complex concepts as simply as possible , to help you understand the nature of quantum computing and its possible ramifications .
In essence , quantum computing leverages the properties of quantum mechanics to perform computations .
This contrasts with our everyday , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the properties of classical physics .
Quantum computers rely on units of information known as qubits .
These can exist in states of zero and one , as well as superpositions of both zero and one .
In comparison , classical computers just use ones and zeros to store information .
The details of how it works are as complicated as the word quantum tends to imply .
Assuming that most readers don ’ t have a high-level physics background , we won ’ t take a deep dive into the underlying properties @ @ @ @ @ @ @ it .
Instead , we will focus more on its implications .
What can quantum computers do ?
Because quantum computers work under completely different principles than the computers that we use in our daily lives , they also have different capabilities .
Many experts expect that they will be able to compute things and solve mathematical problems that classical computers simply aren ’ t able to do .
Those in the field refer to this achievement as quantum supremacy , although it has yet to be reached .
Some of the potential @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Modeling complex chemical reactions , which may lead to innovation and advances in chemistry .
• Breaking currently secure cryptographic algorithms , as well as introducing new cryptosystems .
Why are quantum computers a threat to cybersecurity ?
As we mentioned above , the unique properties of quantum computers would allow them to perform computations that are currently impossible with classical computers .
This could have a significant impact on the cybersecurity landscape .
Significant portions of our digital security rely on cryptographic calculations that are easy to perform in one direction , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
Even common encryption algorithms that we use to secure data today can ’ t be brute forced without a huge amount of time and computing resources .
This comes with a caveat : These calculations are only infeasible to reverse using current technology and techniques .
Quantum computing represents a new wave of technology that will come with a host of different techniques , some of which are already known to be able to break various cryptosystems that we rely on to keep our everyday communications safe .
If quantum computers fall @ @ @ @ @ @ @ would theoretically be able to use them to break systems that are considered secure against classical-computing attacks , allowing the attackers to access data that was previously secure .
At this stage , quantum computing presents the biggest threat to our most commonly used public-key encryption schemes .
Some symmetric-key algorithms will also be affected , but not to the same degree .
Of course , the field of quantum computing is still full of surprises , so it ’ s not out of the realm of possibility that at some stage , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ various cryptographic systems .
When will we have quantum computers ?
The expected arrival date of practical quantum computers depends on who you talk to .
Quantum computers already exist , but are incredibly unstable and weak at this stage , making them essentially unusable for any serious computations .
The companies leading the charge include Google , Intel , IBM and D-Wave .
In 2016 , D-Wave announced a 2,000-qubit quantum computer chip .
However , the quantum annealing method it uses is controversial among experts , with some scientists asserting that @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
In 2017 , IBM announced a 50-qubit quantum computer , while Google upped the ante in 2018 with Bristlecone , a 72-qubit quantum computer .
Despite these efforts , quantum computing won ’ t have many practical applications until scientists can cut down on quantum decoherence and the number of qubits is significantly increased .
IBM Q is an initiative that allows the public to access quantum computers through the cloud .
The company has commercial offerings , as well as a number of different quantum computers that anyone can use for @ @ @ @ @ @ @ largest quantum computer that the public can freely use is 14 qubits .
According to Wired , the CTO of Intel , Mike Mayberry , expects the technology to be commercialized within 10 years .
The same article quotes IBM as aiming to make the technology mainstream within five years .
Other experts believe a 15-year timeline is more realistic .
Despite these predictions from some of the world ’ s biggest tech companies , there are also some experts , such as Gil Kalai , who believe practical quantum computing will never @ @ @ @ @ @ @ like most people involved in the field disagree with this opinion .
What challenges lie in the way of quantum computing ?
Quantum computers are extremely temperamental machines , which makes them immensely difficult to build and operate .
They need to be isolated from the outside environment and kept almost at absolute zero ( -273ºC ) in order to be usable .
If not , they produce quantum decoherence , which is essentially the loss of information to the environment .
Quantum decoherence can even be generated within the system itself , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ thermonuclear spin or lattice vibration .
Once quantum decoherence is introduced to a system , it can not be removed , which is why quantum computers need to be so tightly controlled in order to be usable .
At this stage , numerous technological challenges need to be surpassed in order to produce a sizable quantum computer with minimal quantum decoherence .
Until solutions can be found to address these challenges , quantum computing will remain impractical .
Public-key cryptography uses separate keys for the encryption and decryption , one of which is @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
Refer to our article on public-key cryptography if you want to learn about the process in more detail .
These cryptographic systems are an essential part of many of the under-the-hood mechanisms that keep our online world safe .
Public key cryptography is used for : • Authorization of the other party in a connection – public key encryption is generally combined with digital certificates to verify that the other party in a connection is who they say they are , and not an impostor .
• Developing shared keys – These @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in a connection .
• Digital signatures – These are involved in authorizing other parties , verifying the integrity of data , and providing the quality of non-repudiation ( if something is non-repudiable , it means that the person who is responsible has no acceptable way of denying their involvement ) .
• Encryption – In practice , public-key encryption isn ’ t used to encrypt the bulk of data .
Instead , it is used to encrypt a symmetric key , which then encrypts the data in a more efficient manner .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ from normal web-browsing to transferring huge sums of money .
If quantum computing becomes practical , it threatens to completely undermine commonly used public-key encryption systems such as RSA , the Diffie-Hellman key exchange , and the elliptic-curve variants .
Each of these algorithms rely on mathematical problems which are easy to compute in one direction , but essentially impossible to do in reverse , at least under current technology and techniques .
These calculations are integer factorization for RSA , the discrete logarithm problem for the Diffie-Hellman key exchange , and the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
Let ’ s discuss integer factorization to give you an idea of how mathematical problems can be easy to do in one way , but difficult in the other .
We won ’ t cover the other two , because they are a little more complex , and we ’ re just trying to get the general idea across .
The security of RSA is based on the difficulty of factoring prime numbers .
Let ’ s say you were asked , “ Which two prime numbers multiply together to give you @ @ @ @ @ @ @ probably wouldn ’ t even know where to start , other than trial and error .
If you could figure out the answer , it might take you hours .
Okay , let ’ s try another problem .
What ’ s the result of : If you have a calculator handy , it ’ s easy .
If you ’ re really good at multiplication , you might even be able to figure it out in your head .
What ’ s the answer ?
Looking carefully , you may have noticed @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , just in reverse .
As you can see , it ’ s pretty easy to calculate the product of two prime numbers , but much more difficult to find those numbers if you have only been given their product .
This is the underlying idea of the RSA algorithm , albeit with numbers that are many times larger .
It ’ s comparatively fast and easy to compute in one direction , but solving the problem the other way requires significantly more time and computing power .
This feature allows us to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , but makes it almost impossible for attackers to break the encryption .
In 1994 , a mathematician named Peter Shor devised a quantum algorithm which could be used to find the factors of a number ( such as those in the example above ) in a relatively simple way .
This means that it could be used to break some of our common public-key algorithms .
Since it ’ s a quantum algorithm , it needs a quantum computer to solve the problem .
Because these computers are still weak and inherently @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ’ t much of a threat at the moment .
But as the technology behind quantum computers improves , we are slowly edging towards a world where we can no longer rely on our commonly used public-key algorithms .
At this stage , Shor ’ s algorithm is probably the biggest cryptographic threat that our society faces from the potential arrival of quantum computing .
But the end is not nigh , and there are a range of other systems which look like they will be able to provide similar functionality to our @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ’ s algorithm .
This field of study is known as post-quantum cryptography .
Industry , academics and government bodies are heavily involved in it and are well on their way towards coming up with solutions .
The US ’ s National Institute of Standards and Technology ( NIST ) , which is responsible for setting standards for government and industry , has launched a program that aims to evaluate a range of different post-quantum algorithms to find one or more that would make suitable standards .
The agency aims to find an @ @ @ @ @ @ @ classical computing attacks .
At this stage , the project is in its second round , with 17 encryption and key-establishment protocols , as well as nine digital signature protocols having made the cut .
It ’ s not known how long it will take for NIST to establish a new standard .
This current stage is expected to take between 12 and 18 months , however , there may be a third round if necessary .
These algorithms need to be analyzed and tested rigorously to ensure that they are both usable @ @ @ @ @ @ @ just how long the process of standardizing a new algorithm can take , it took NIST over five years to go from its announcement that it was searching for an algorithm , until the Advanced Encryption Standard ( AES ) officially became a federal government standard .
On top of NIST ’ s search for suitable algorithms , the Open Quantum Safe project has also been launched .
As a collaboration between academics and the open source community , backed by industry funding , it aims to support the “ development and prototyping @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Quantum Safe project is currently focusing on two main objectives : • Prototyping integrations of cryptographic algorithms into various protocols and applications .
At this stage , five main approaches for public-key algorithms are thought to be resistant to quantum-computing attacks .
These are hash-based cryptography , lattice-based cryptography , supersingular elliptic-curve isogeny cryptography , multivariate cryptography , and code-based cryptography .
Research into their security and usability is ongoing , but it is hoped that at least one option based on these techniques will be suitable for the post-quantum cryptographic world .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ around since the 1970s , but fell out of favor because under these schemes , a private key can only be used to sign data a limited number of times .
Because these mechanisms are hash-based , rather than number-theoretic like the signature schemes we currently use ( RSA , DSA , ECDSA , etc . )
, they aren ’ t vulnerable to known quantum-computing attacks .
This resistance ignited new interest in their properties and potential applications .
Hash-based cryptography keys would need to be 36,000 bits long to grant 128 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ sign one million messages .
Lattice-based cryptography involves a range of different approaches that rely on the properties of lattices .
There are a number of different lattice problems which make their underlying structure resistant to both classical computing and quantum computing attacks .
Lattice-based cryptographic systems such as NTRU seem like promising candidates .
After rigorous study , no major security concerns have been found .
A team of academics recommended a 6,130-bit public key and a 6,743-bit private key for 128 bits of security with the NTRU algorithm .
This method @ @ @ @ @ @ @ supersingular elliptic-curves to create a public-key exchange that has perfect forward secrecy .
It works similarly to the Diffie-Hellman key exchange and has been scrutinized quite heavily .
The latest research shows that a 3,073-bit public key can give 128 bits of security under this system .
This is the smallest key size for any of the systems that have been evaluated so far , with a similar size-to-security ratio as RSA .
These schemes are based on the concept that multivariate equations are difficult to solve .
There are a range of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ has the quirky name of Unbalanced Oil and Vinegar .
At this stage , these systems seem to be most effective for digital signatures , because they produce the shortest signatures .
Current research suggests that they are less useful when it comes to encryption .
As an example , an analysis of the Rainbow algorithm showed that it could provide 128 bits of security with 424-bit digital signatures , but public keys would have to be 991,000 bits and private keys would have to be 640,000 bits for the same level .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ this type of cryptography is the McEliece algorithm , which relies on the difficulty of decoding a general linear code .
It has been studied for over 30 years and is resistant to known quantum-computing attacks .
There are a number of potential ways to implement this system .
The technique with the smallest key sizes would need a public key of 32,771 bits and a private key of 4,384 bits to provide 128-bit security .
Symmetric-key encryption is the type of cryptography that you are probably most familiar with .
It uses @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and decryption processes , and it appears in a wide variety of applications , from encrypting your hard drive , to locking down the information that is transmitted between your web browser and an HTTPS website .
This type of encryption is a fundamental part of keeping our communications safe .
Without it , our data would be far more vulnerable to attackers and eavesdroppers .
The good news is that symmetric-key encryption is far more resistant to known post-quantum computing attacks than public-key cryptography .
At this stage , Grover ’ s @ @ @ @ @ @ @ can be used against our commonly used symmetric-key encryption methods .
Others may arise in the future , but so far , Grover ’ s algorithm is the biggest concern .
It was developed by Lov Grover in the 1990s and it has the capability of calculating the key that was used to encrypt data with a high likelihood of success .
Attackers could , therefore , use it to obtain keys that were used to encrypt data , giving them free reign to access the contents .
Again , since the quantum @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of running such a complex attack , Grover ’ s algorithm is not currently considered a threat .
Despite this , if quantum computers do emerge and fall into the hands of adversaries , they will be able to use the algorithm to brute force the keys of their targets .
The threat of Grover ’ s algorithm is nowhere near as severe as those that loom ahead of public-key cryptography .
Practically speaking , Grover ’ s algorithm is only able to reduce the security of a cipher like AES by half @ @ @ @ @ @ @ s algorithm , a 128-bit AES key would only have the practical security of a 64-bit key .
There is a relatively simple solution to this threat : doubling the key length .
If we wanted our data to have a security level of 128 bits against Grover ’ s algorithm , we would simply use a 256-bit AES key .
Although the threat is certainly real , the countermeasures for protecting our symmetric-key algorithms are relatively simple , so cryptographers are not particularly worried about attacks based on Grover ’ s algorithm @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a security threat At this stage of the article , you might be beginning to think that quantum computing is all bad news when it comes to internet security and cryptography .
Despite the complications that quantum computing may bring to these fields , there could also be some benefits .
The unique properties of quantum mechanics open up a world of new opportunities when it comes to secure communication .
Some of these , such as quantum key-distribution , are already being used .
Potential quantum mechanisms for the future include Kak @ @ @ @ @ @ @ digital-signatures , among other possibilities .
Quantum key-distribution is much like any other key exchange protocol .
It allows two parties to securely establish a symmetric key which they can use to encrypt their future communications .
The main difference is that it leverages the unique properties of quantum mechanics , allowing the two parties to detect if an attacker is eavesdropping on the messages .
This is made possible because of one of the fundamental principles of quantum mechanics : Any attempt to measure a quantum system will alter it .
Since @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a form of measurement , a quantum key-distribution scheme will detect any anomalies that come from an attacker eavesdropping and abort the connection .
If the system does not detect any eavesdropping , the connection will proceed , and the parties can be certain that the key they have developed is secure , as long as adequate authentication has taken place .
Quantum key-distribution is currently used in certain situations where the need for security is high , such as banking and voting .
It is still relatively expensive and can not be @ @ @ @ @ @ @ prevented further adoption .
Subhash Kak ’ s three-stage protocol is a proposed mechanism for using quantum cryptography to encrypt data .
It requires the two parties in the connection to first be authenticated , but can theoretically provide a way to continuously encrypt data in a way that is unbreakable .
Although it could be used to establish keys , it differs from quantum key-distribution because it can also be used to encrypt the data .
Quantum key-distribution only uses quantum properties to establish the key–the data itself is encrypted using classical @ @ @ @ @ @ @ relies on random polarization rotations of photons .
This method allows the two parties to securely send data over an unsafe channel .
The analogy that is usually used to describe the structure is to picture two people , Alice and Bob .
Alice has a secret that she wants to send to Bob , but she does not have a safe communication channel over which to do so .
To securely send her secret over an insecure channel , Alice puts her secret in a box , then locks the box with @ @ @ @ @ @ @ then sends the box to Bob , who locks the box with his own chain as well .
Bob then sends the box back to Alice , who takes off her lock .
She then returns the box to Bob .
Since the box now only has Bob ’ s lock protecting it , he can unlock it and access the secret data .
This method allows Alice to send Bob a secret without any third party being able to access it .
This is because the box has at least one person @ @ @ @ @ @ @ it is sent across the insecure channel .
Quantum computing threatens our commonly used digital signature schemes , since they rely on public-key ciphers that are vulnerable to Shor ’ s algorithm .
However , the new technology also opens the door to quantum digital signatures , which would be resistant to these attacks .
Quantum digital signatures would work just like normal digital signatures , and could authenticate data , check its integrity and provide non-repudiation .
The difference is that they would rely on the properties of quantum mechanics , rather @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to reverse , which is what the systems we currently use are based on .
There are two different approaches to quantum digital signatures : • A classical bit string is used for the private key , and a public quantum key is derived from it .
• A quantum bit string is used for the private key , and a public quantum key is derived from it .
Both of these types of quantum digital signatures differ from classical digital signatures , because they use one-way quantum functions .
These functions would @ @ @ @ @ @ @ one-way functions are just incredibly difficult to reverse .
Quantum computing : Should you be worried ?
Practical quantum computing is still on the distant horizon and there is a lot that we don ’ t know about it .
Its harshest critics think that quantum computing will never be useful , while some of the companies involved in its development estimate its commercial arrival at some point in the next five to 15 years .
At this stage , significant challenges lay ahead for scientists .
Current machines aren ’ t powerful @ @ @ @ @ @ @ decoherence need to be resolved .
While these factors seem to be keeping our current cryptographic systems safe for now , there is still the risk that new algorithms , techniques , and attacks will be discovered .
If quantum computing does finally arrive , these could pose far greater risks than anyone anticipated .
Despite these unknowns , a lot of money is being thrown into quantum computing and the study of its ramifications on security .
Industries , government bodies , and academics are all working to prepare for a post-quantum @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in case .
This is important , because the risks are great and the areas that need to be studied are extensive .
On top of this , it takes years to develop , analyze and standardize new cryptosystems .
While quantum computing is still years away , if we weren ’ t already starting to work on precautionary measures now , a worst case scenario could lead to quantum computing falling into the hands of attackers before the appropriate defense mechanisms are in place .
This would be catastrophic for all of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ real and there is the slight possibility of things turning disastrous .
However , a realistic analysis of the development of quantum computing and the precautionary measures that are being studied alongside it indicates that the world is on track to manage these risks effectively .
If practical quantum computing arrives , it is likely that it will disrupt some of our currently used cryptographic systems .
Despite this , alternatives that are assumed to be secure are already in the pipeline .
As long as we continue along our current path and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ arrival of practical quantum computing should not cause any major disruptions or upheaval .
For now , there ’ s nothing to worry about–the scientists seem to have everything under control .
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The opinions , views , statements , and/or information we present are not necessarily promoted , endorsed , espoused , or agreed to by Prepare for Change , its leadership Council , members @ @ @ @ @ @ @ or those who read its content .
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Quantum computing looks like it could revolutionize our technological world in the not too distant future. Find out what it is and how it may affect our security.
By JOSH LAKE – SPECIALIST IN SECURITY, PRIVACY AND ENCRYPTION,
Quantum computing is looming on the horizon. Although it’s still a fair distance away and must traverse numerous stumbling blocks, its possible arrival presents a big step for technology and our society.
One area where it will have a significant impact is in the realms of cryptography and cybersecurity. The new techniques associated with quantum computing have the potential to turn the cryptographic world upside down, with severe implications for information security as well as the world at large.
Want to find out what quantum computing is and why it might have significant effects on our online security? Then keep reading, because we will discuss these complex concepts as simply as possible, to help you understand the nature of quantum computing and its possible ramifications.
What is quantum computing?
In essence, quantum computing leverages the properties of quantum mechanics to perform computations. This contrasts with our everyday, or classical computers, which adhere to the properties of classical physics.
Quantum computers rely on units of information known as qubits. These can exist in states of zero and one, as well as superpositions of both zero and one. In comparison, classical computers just use ones and zeros to store information.
The details of how it works are as complicated as the word quantum tends to imply. Assuming that most readers don’t have a high-level physics background, we won’t take a deep dive into the underlying properties of quantum computing and the theory behind it.
Instead, we will focus more on its implications.
What can quantum computers do?
Because quantum computers work under completely different principles than the computers that we use in our daily lives, they also have different capabilities. Many experts expect that they will be able to compute things and solve mathematical problems that classical computers simply aren’t able to do. Those in the field refer to this achievement as quantum supremacy, although it has yet to be reached.
Some of the potential applications of quantum computing include:
Modeling complex chemical reactions, which may lead to innovation and advances in chemistry.
High-level financial modeling.
Predicting weather and climate fluctuations with greater accuracy.
Running more complex AI programs.
Advanced computations in physics.
Breaking currently secure cryptographic algorithms, as well as introducing new cryptosystems.
Why are quantum computers a threat to cybersecurity?
As we mentioned above, the unique properties of quantum computers would allow them to perform computations that are currently impossible with classical computers.
This could have a significant impact on the cybersecurity landscape. Significant portions of our digital security rely on cryptographic calculations that are easy to perform in one direction, but almost impossible to perform in reverse. Even common encryption algorithms that we use to secure data today can’t be brute forced without a huge amount of time and computing resources.
This comes with a caveat: These calculations are only infeasible to reverse using current technology and techniques.
Quantum computing represents a new wave of technology that will come with a host of different techniques, some of which are already known to be able to break various cryptosystems that we rely on to keep our everyday communications safe.
If quantum computers fall into the hands of attackers, they would theoretically be able to use them to break systems that are considered secure against classical-computing attacks, allowing the attackers to access data that was previously secure.
At this stage, quantum computing presents the biggest threat to our most commonly used public-key encryption schemes. Some symmetric-key algorithms will also be affected, but not to the same degree.
Of course, the field of quantum computing is still full of surprises, so it’s not out of the realm of possibility that at some stage, other major vulnerabilities will be found in various cryptographic systems.
When will we have quantum computers?
The expected arrival date of practical quantum computers depends on who you talk to. Quantum computers already exist, but are incredibly unstable and weak at this stage, making them essentially unusable for any serious computations. The companies leading the charge include Google, Intel, IBM and D-Wave.
In 2016, D-Wave announced a 2,000-qubit quantum computer chip. However, the quantum annealing method it uses is controversial among experts, with some scientists asserting that it is no faster than classical computing.
In 2017, IBM announced a 50-qubit quantum computer, while Google upped the ante in 2018 with Bristlecone, a 72-qubit quantum computer. Despite these efforts, quantum computing won’t have many practical applications until scientists can cut down on quantum decoherence and the number of qubits is significantly increased.
IBM Q is an initiative that allows the public to access quantum computers through the cloud. The company has commercial offerings, as well as a number of different quantum computers that anyone can use for free. At this stage, the largest quantum computer that the public can freely use is 14 qubits.
According to Wired, the CTO of Intel, Mike Mayberry, expects the technology to be commercialized within 10 years. The same article quotes IBM as aiming to make the technology mainstream within five years. Other experts believe a 15-year timeline is more realistic.
Despite these predictions from some of the world’s biggest tech companies, there are also some experts, such as Gil Kalai, who believe practical quantum computing will never be achieved. However, it seems like most people involved in the field disagree with this opinion.
Related: 9 Companies to watch in AI Cybersecurity
What challenges lie in the way of quantum computing?
Quantum computers are extremely temperamental machines, which makes them immensely difficult to build and operate. They need to be isolated from the outside environment and kept almost at absolute zero (-273ºC) in order to be usable. If not, they produce quantum decoherence, which is essentially the loss of information to the environment.
Quantum decoherence can even be generated within the system itself, through the effects of things like background thermonuclear spin or lattice vibration. Once quantum decoherence is introduced to a system, it cannot be removed, which is why quantum computers need to be so tightly controlled in order to be usable.
At this stage, numerous technological challenges need to be surpassed in order to produce a sizable quantum computer with minimal quantum decoherence. Until solutions can be found to address these challenges, quantum computing will remain impractical.
Quantum computing & public-key cryptography
Public-key cryptography uses separate keys for the encryption and decryption, one of which is public and another that is kept private. Refer to our article on public-key cryptography if you want to learn about the process in more detail.
These cryptographic systems are an essential part of many of the under-the-hood mechanisms that keep our online world safe. Public key cryptography is used for:
Authorization of the other party in a connection – public key encryption is generally combined with digital certificates to verify that the other party in a connection is who they say they are, and not an impostor.
– public key encryption is generally combined with digital certificates to verify that the other party in a connection is who they say they are, and not an impostor. Developing shared keys – These can be used to secure the data in a connection.
– These can be used to secure the data in a connection. Digital signatures – These are involved in authorizing other parties, verifying the integrity of data, and providing the quality of non-repudiation (if something is non-repudiable, it means that the person who is responsible has no acceptable way of denying their involvement).
– These are involved in authorizing other parties, verifying the integrity of data, and providing the quality of non-repudiation (if something is non-repudiable, it means that the person who is responsible has no acceptable way of denying their involvement). Encryption – In practice, public-key encryption isn’t used to encrypt the bulk of data. Instead, it is used to encrypt a symmetric key, which then encrypts the data in a more efficient manner.
The above aspects are critical for everything from normal web-browsing to transferring huge sums of money. If quantum computing becomes practical, it threatens to completely undermine commonly used public-key encryption systems such as RSA, the Diffie-Hellman key exchange, and the elliptic-curve variants.
How?
Each of these algorithms rely on mathematical problems which are easy to compute in one direction, but essentially impossible to do in reverse, at least under current technology and techniques. These calculations are integer factorization for RSA, the discrete logarithm problem for the Diffie-Hellman key exchange, and the elliptic-curve discrete logarithm problem for elliptic-curve cryptography.
Let’s discuss integer factorization to give you an idea of how mathematical problems can be easy to do in one way, but difficult in the other. We won’t cover the other two, because they are a little more complex, and we’re just trying to get the general idea across.
Integer factorization
The security of RSA is based on the difficulty of factoring prime numbers. Let’s say you were asked, “Which two prime numbers multiply together to give you a product of 748,607?”
You probably wouldn’t even know where to start, other than trial and error. If you could figure out the answer, it might take you hours.
Okay, let’s try another problem. What’s the result of:
739 x 1013
If you have a calculator handy, it’s easy. If you’re really good at multiplication, you might even be able to figure it out in your head. What’s the answer?
748, 607
Looking carefully, you may have noticed that these two problems are the same, just in reverse. As you can see, it’s pretty easy to calculate the product of two prime numbers, but much more difficult to find those numbers if you have only been given their product.
This is the underlying idea of the RSA algorithm, albeit with numbers that are many times larger. It’s comparatively fast and easy to compute in one direction, but solving the problem the other way requires significantly more time and computing power. This feature allows us to encrypt our data relatively quickly and easily, but makes it almost impossible for attackers to break the encryption.
See also: Common encryption types explained
Enter Shor’s algorithm
In 1994, a mathematician named Peter Shor devised a quantum algorithm which could be used to find the factors of a number (such as those in the example above) in a relatively simple way. This means that it could be used to break some of our common public-key algorithms.
Since it’s a quantum algorithm, it needs a quantum computer to solve the problem. Because these computers are still weak and inherently unstable, Shor’s algorithm isn’t much of a threat at the moment. But as the technology behind quantum computers improves, we are slowly edging towards a world where we can no longer rely on our commonly used public-key algorithms.
At this stage, Shor’s algorithm is probably the biggest cryptographic threat that our society faces from the potential arrival of quantum computing. But the end is not nigh, and there are a range of other systems which look like they will be able to provide similar functionality to our current ciphers, without vulnerabilities to Shor’s algorithm.
This field of study is known as post-quantum cryptography. Industry, academics and government bodies are heavily involved in it and are well on their way towards coming up with solutions.
NIST’s post-quantum cryptography initiative
The US’s National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), which is responsible for setting standards for government and industry, has launched a program that aims to evaluate a range of different post-quantum algorithms to find one or more that would make suitable standards.
The agency aims to find an algorithm resistant to both quantum computing and classical computing attacks. At this stage, the project is in its second round, with 17 encryption and key-establishment protocols, as well as nine digital signature protocols having made the cut.
It’s not known how long it will take for NIST to establish a new standard. This current stage is expected to take between 12 and 18 months, however, there may be a third round if necessary. These algorithms need to be analyzed and tested rigorously to ensure that they are both usable and secure.
As an example of just how long the process of standardizing a new algorithm can take, it took NIST over five years to go from its announcement that it was searching for an algorithm, until the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) officially became a federal government standard.
The Open Quantum Safe project
On top of NIST’s search for suitable algorithms, the Open Quantum Safe project has also been launched. As a collaboration between academics and the open source community, backed by industry funding, it aims to support the “development and prototyping of quantum-resistant cryptography”.
The Open Quantum Safe project is currently focusing on two main objectives:
Developing liboqs – an open-source library for quantum-resistant cryptographic algorithms.
– an open-source library for quantum-resistant cryptographic algorithms. Prototyping integrations of cryptographic algorithms into various protocols and applications.
Post-quantum public-key algorithms
At this stage, five main approaches for public-key algorithms are thought to be resistant to quantum-computing attacks. These are hash-based cryptography, lattice-based cryptography, supersingular elliptic-curve isogeny cryptography, multivariate cryptography, and code-based cryptography.
Research into their security and usability is ongoing, but it is hoped that at least one option based on these techniques will be suitable for the post-quantum cryptographic world.
Hash-based cryptography
These systems for digital signatures have been around since the 1970s, but fell out of favor because under these schemes, a private key can only be used to sign data a limited number of times. Because these mechanisms are hash-based, rather than number-theoretic like the signature schemes we currently use (RSA, DSA, ECDSA, etc.), they aren’t vulnerable to known quantum-computing attacks.
This resistance ignited new interest in their properties and potential applications. Hash-based cryptography keys would need to be 36,000 bits long to grant 128 bits of security and be able to sign one million messages.
Lattice-based cryptography
Lattice-based cryptography involves a range of different approaches that rely on the properties of lattices. There are a number of different lattice problems which make their underlying structure resistant to both classical computing and quantum computing attacks.
Lattice-based cryptographic systems such as NTRU seem like promising candidates. After rigorous study, no major security concerns have been found. A team of academics recommended a 6,130-bit public key and a 6,743-bit private key for 128 bits of security with the NTRU algorithm.
Supersingular elliptic-curve isogeny cryptography
This method involves using both supersingular isogeny graphs and supersingular elliptic-curves to create a public-key exchange that has perfect forward secrecy. It works similarly to the Diffie-Hellman key exchange and has been scrutinized quite heavily.
The latest research shows that a 3,073-bit public key can give 128 bits of security under this system. This is the smallest key size for any of the systems that have been evaluated so far, with a similar size-to-security ratio as RSA.
Multivariate cryptography
These schemes are based on the concept that multivariate equations are difficult to solve. There are a range of different systems, and the most prominent has the quirky name of Unbalanced Oil and Vinegar.
At this stage, these systems seem to be most effective for digital signatures, because they produce the shortest signatures. Current research suggests that they are less useful when it comes to encryption.
As an example, an analysis of the Rainbow algorithm showed that it could provide 128 bits of security with 424-bit digital signatures, but public keys would have to be 991,000 bits and private keys would have to be 640,000 bits for the same level.
Code-based cryptography
One of the most prominent examples of this type of cryptography is the McEliece algorithm, which relies on the difficulty of decoding a general linear code. It has been studied for over 30 years and is resistant to known quantum-computing attacks.
There are a number of potential ways to implement this system. The technique with the smallest key sizes would need a public key of 32,771 bits and a private key of 4,384 bits to provide 128-bit security.
Quantum computing & symmetric-key cryptography
Symmetric-key encryption is the type of cryptography that you are probably most familiar with. It uses the same key in both the encryption and decryption processes, and it appears in a wide variety of applications, from encrypting your hard drive, to locking down the information that is transmitted between your web browser and an HTTPS website.
This type of encryption is a fundamental part of keeping our communications safe. Without it, our data would be far more vulnerable to attackers and eavesdroppers. The good news is that symmetric-key encryption is far more resistant to known post-quantum computing attacks than public-key cryptography.
Grover’s algorithm
At this stage, Grover’s algorithm is the biggest quantum-computing threat that can be used against our commonly used symmetric-key encryption methods. Others may arise in the future, but so far, Grover’s algorithm is the biggest concern.
It was developed by Lov Grover in the 1990s and it has the capability of calculating the key that was used to encrypt data with a high likelihood of success. Attackers could, therefore, use it to obtain keys that were used to encrypt data, giving them free reign to access the contents.
Again, since the quantum computers of today are nowhere near capable of running such a complex attack, Grover’s algorithm is not currently considered a threat. Despite this, if quantum computers do emerge and fall into the hands of adversaries, they will be able to use the algorithm to brute force the keys of their targets.
The threat of Grover’s algorithm is nowhere near as severe as those that loom ahead of public-key cryptography. Practically speaking, Grover’s algorithm is only able to reduce the security of a cipher like AES by half. That means that against Grover’s algorithm, a 128-bit AES key would only have the practical security of a 64-bit key.
There is a relatively simple solution to this threat: doubling the key length. If we wanted our data to have a security level of 128 bits against Grover’s algorithm, we would simply use a 256-bit AES key. Although the threat is certainly real, the countermeasures for protecting our symmetric-key algorithms are relatively simple, so cryptographers are not particularly worried about attacks based on Grover’s algorithm.
Quantum computing: More than just a security threat
At this stage of the article, you might be beginning to think that quantum computing is all bad news when it comes to internet security and cryptography. Despite the complications that quantum computing may bring to these fields, there could also be some benefits.
The unique properties of quantum mechanics open up a world of new opportunities when it comes to secure communication. Some of these, such as quantum key-distribution, are already being used. Potential quantum mechanisms for the future include Kak’s three stage protocol and quantum digital-signatures, among other possibilities.
Quantum key-distribution
Quantum key-distribution is much like any other key exchange protocol. It allows two parties to securely establish a symmetric key which they can use to encrypt their future communications. The main difference is that it leverages the unique properties of quantum mechanics, allowing the two parties to detect if an attacker is eavesdropping on the messages.
This is made possible because of one of the fundamental principles of quantum mechanics: Any attempt to measure a quantum system will alter it. Since intercepting data is, in essence, a form of measurement, a quantum key-distribution scheme will detect any anomalies that come from an attacker eavesdropping and abort the connection.
If the system does not detect any eavesdropping, the connection will proceed, and the parties can be certain that the key they have developed is secure, as long as adequate authentication has taken place.
Quantum key-distribution is currently used in certain situations where the need for security is high, such as banking and voting. It is still relatively expensive and cannot be used over large distances, which has prevented further adoption.
Kak’s three-stage protocol
Subhash Kak’s three-stage protocol is a proposed mechanism for using quantum cryptography to encrypt data. It requires the two parties in the connection to first be authenticated, but can theoretically provide a way to continuously encrypt data in a way that is unbreakable.
Although it could be used to establish keys, it differs from quantum key-distribution because it can also be used to encrypt the data. Quantum key-distribution only uses quantum properties to establish the key–the data itself is encrypted using classical cryptography.
Kak’s three-stage protocol relies on random polarization rotations of photons. This method allows the two parties to securely send data over an unsafe channel. The analogy that is usually used to describe the structure is to picture two people, Alice and Bob. Alice has a secret that she wants to send to Bob, but she does not have a safe communication channel over which to do so.
To securely send her secret over an insecure channel, Alice puts her secret in a box, then locks the box with a chain around the outside. She then sends the box to Bob, who locks the box with his own chain as well.
Bob then sends the box back to Alice, who takes off her lock. She then returns the box to Bob. Since the box now only has Bob’s lock protecting it, he can unlock it and access the secret data.
This method allows Alice to send Bob a secret without any third party being able to access it. This is because the box has at least one person’s lock on it each time it is sent across the insecure channel.
Quantum digital signatures
Quantum computing threatens our commonly used digital signature schemes, since they rely on public-key ciphers that are vulnerable to Shor’s algorithm. However, the new technology also opens the door to quantum digital signatures, which would be resistant to these attacks.
Quantum digital signatures would work just like normal digital signatures, and could authenticate data, check its integrity and provide non-repudiation. The difference is that they would rely on the properties of quantum mechanics, rather than on mathematical problems that are difficult to reverse, which is what the systems we currently use are based on.
There are two different approaches to quantum digital signatures:
A classical bit string is used for the private key, and a public quantum key is derived from it.
bit string is used for the private key, and a public quantum key is derived from it. A quantum bit string is used for the private key, and a public quantum key is derived from it.
Both of these types of quantum digital signatures differ from classical digital signatures, because they use one-way quantum functions. These functions would be impossible to reverse, while classical one-way functions are just incredibly difficult to reverse.
Quantum computing: Should you be worried?
Practical quantum computing is still on the distant horizon and there is a lot that we don’t know about it. Its harshest critics think that quantum computing will never be useful, while some of the companies involved in its development estimate its commercial arrival at some point in the next five to 15 years.
At this stage, significant challenges lay ahead for scientists. Current machines aren’t powerful enough, and the issues surrounding quantum decoherence need to be resolved.
While these factors seem to be keeping our current cryptographic systems safe for now, there is still the risk that new algorithms, techniques, and attacks will be discovered. If quantum computing does finally arrive, these could pose far greater risks than anyone anticipated.
Despite these unknowns, a lot of money is being thrown into quantum computing and the study of its ramifications on security. Industries, government bodies, and academics are all working to prepare for a post-quantum future which may never arrive, just in case.
This is important, because the risks are great and the areas that need to be studied are extensive. On top of this, it takes years to develop, analyze and standardize new cryptosystems.
While quantum computing is still years away, if we weren’t already starting to work on precautionary measures now, a worst case scenario could lead to quantum computing falling into the hands of attackers before the appropriate defense mechanisms are in place. This would be catastrophic for all of our digital communications.
The risks are real and there is the slight possibility of things turning disastrous. However, a realistic analysis of the development of quantum computing and the precautionary measures that are being studied alongside it indicates that the world is on track to manage these risks effectively.
If practical quantum computing arrives, it is likely that it will disrupt some of our currently used cryptographic systems. Despite this, alternatives that are assumed to be secure are already in the pipeline.
As long as we continue along our current path and no sudden surprises emerge, the potential arrival of practical quantum computing should not cause any major disruptions or upheaval. For now, there’s nothing to worry about–the scientists seem to have everything under control.
Quantum physics particles by Geralt licensed under CC0
Source: https://www.comparitech.com
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