scientificamerican--2020-12-27--Readers Respond to the September 2020 Issue

“ The Worst Times on Earth , ” by Peter Brannen , describes past mass extinctions and what they could mean for our future .
Brannen has written one of the most beautiful and poignant pieces I 've ever read here , all the more so because a great sadness has overtaken me as I parse the odds of life on this planet making it through .
Let 's keep our fingers crossed .
In their article , “ Reckoning with Our Mistakes , ” Jen Schwartz and Dan Schlenoff state , “ Americans who are willing to sacrifice the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ poor , elderly or from historically oppressed groups so that the U.S. economy can ‘ go back to normal ’ sound like modern-day eugenicists.
” I am supervisor of a day program for adults with intellectual and physical disabilities .
After we were required to close our program in late March , I received continuous calls pleading for information about when we would reopen .
These calls came from the individuals we serve , as well as their families .
Our clients missed their friends and our structured program of vocational and social-skills @ @ @ @ @ @ @ for them around the community daily , our healthy lifestyle activities , and more .
Parents ' constant concern was that our clients were losing the abilities we had helped them develop to integrate into the larger community , to pursue lives of meaning and purpose .
Of course , we created a daily schedule of Zoom classes , but not every client is able to participate or benefit from those .
And without our structure , some of our clients engaged in behaviors at home that endangered them and sometimes their family @ @ @ @ @ @ @ your readers not to write off those whose opinions are different from yours as oppressors or worse .
Schwartz and Schlenoff ask “ how else to explain ” some people 's advocacy for “ going back to normal.
” But there are other ways to explain it .
Rather than assuming those advocates believe “ some of us are inherently more worthy of life than others , ” put yourselves in the shoes of our clients and their families .
They want the best for their loved ones , and that may mean @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
It is laudable that Scientific American acknowledges , and endeavors not to repeat , its role in disseminating and legitimizing scientific racism , sexism and imperialism .
Human fallibility aside , Schlenoff and Schwartz mention several sources of scientific error , but they do not mention the potential for systematic error deriving from scientific methodology itself .
Because we can only gauge the likely truth of new hypotheses by drawing on existing beliefs , insofar as histories of racism , sexism and imperialism shape our current corpus of scientific belief , these @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
Science is a social enterprise , and it is shaped not only by theories and data but also by personal experience , common sense and the social uses to which it is put .
Research may gain currency not from the weight of evidence but because it serves the political and economic interests of those with the power to promulgate it ( for example , by justifying economic and racial inequality ) .
When that happens , it has an enduring , distorting effect on science .
Once absorbed into received knowledge @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
Thus , to foster accuracy in the field , we must do more than weigh the existing evidence .
We must evaluate how relevant evidence may have been shaped by science 's social uses and actively investigate and correct resulting errors .
That is , acting with integrity as scientists requires applying sociopolitical theories about how our political economy shapes scientific belief and organizing to overturn distorting forces .
Contrary to many scientists ' demands for a “ politics-free science , ” merely using sociopolitical theories to assess evidence is not “ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ failing to consider how our political economy shapes scientific evidence heightens the risk of error .
Schwartz and Schlenoff note that only half of Americans responded to a poll that they would get a coronavirus vaccine when it is available , which they called an “ antiscience ” stance .
The authors should be very careful of the context of the poll and answers to it .
I am not in any way an anti-vaxxer .
My wife and I get flu shots annually and were diligent in keeping our children up-to-date on @ @ @ @ @ @ @ But if I were asked whether I would get the hypothetical coronavirus vaccine , I 'm not sure how I would answer .
After watching the Food and Drug Administration 's and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 's responses to the pandemic , I fear that the basis for far too many of their decisions concerns politics , not science .
These government agencies seemed to have become a wing of the committee to reelect President Donald Trump .
THE AUTHORS REPLY : Melquist 's point is well taken .
In criticizing @ @ @ @ @ @ @ vaccine against COVID-19 in our article , we indeed meant one that would be well tested , well studied , well prepared , and recommended on a sound scientific and statistical basis .
In “ How to Reinvent Policing ” [ Science Agenda ] , the editors make a number of good points about bettering policing by improving police accountability and communities ' perception of officers .
They do not mention , however , that improvements can also be made to hiring practices .
Police departments should recruit candidates who have good problem-solving @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , as well as empathy and sensitivity .
They can come close to achieving that goal by expanding their pool to include more women , minorities and college graduates .
Doing so will create a workforce that understands that all people should be treated with dignity , respect and fairness .
I have been an avid reader of Scientific American since my college and university days in the 1960s , and the magazine has , to me , largely represented a specified direction for American scientific and economic culture .
It is unsurprising @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of emphasis during the term of the most recent presidential incumbent .
Like many overseas readers , I find this change welcome .
A particular , though not singular , example of it is a phrase found in “ Return of the Germs , ” Maryn McKenna 's useful and thought-consuming piece on the need for social interventions to fight diseases in the light of the current COVID-19 pandemic .
On this subject , the article quotes physician and vaccine developer Peter J. Hotez as saying , “ Poverty has more impact than @ @ @ @ @ @ @

NATURAL HISTORY REPEATS
“The Worst Times on Earth,” by Peter Brannen, describes past mass extinctions and what they could mean for our future. Brannen has written one of the most beautiful and poignant pieces I've ever read here, all the more so because a great sadness has overtaken me as I parse the odds of life on this planet making it through. Let's keep our fingers crossed.
SUSAN WILLIAMS Lakewood, Colo.
SCIENCE VS. ANTISCIENCE
In their article, “Reckoning with Our Mistakes,” Jen Schwartz and Dan Schlenoff state, “Americans who are willing to sacrifice the lives of people who are disabled, poor, elderly or from historically oppressed groups so that the U.S. economy can ‘go back to normal’ sound like modern-day eugenicists.”
I am supervisor of a day program for adults with intellectual and physical disabilities. After we were required to close our program in late March, I received continuous calls pleading for information about when we would reopen. These calls came from the individuals we serve, as well as their families. Our clients missed their friends and our structured program of vocational and social-skills classes, the volunteer jobs we facilitate for them around the community daily, our healthy lifestyle activities, and more.
Parents' constant concern was that our clients were losing the abilities we had helped them develop to integrate into the larger community, to pursue lives of meaning and purpose.
Of course, we created a daily schedule of Zoom classes, but not every client is able to participate or benefit from those. And without our structure, some of our clients engaged in behaviors at home that endangered them and sometimes their family members.
I beg the authors and your readers not to write off those whose opinions are different from yours as oppressors or worse. Schwartz and Schlenoff ask “how else to explain” some people's advocacy for “going back to normal.” But there are other ways to explain it. Rather than assuming those advocates believe “some of us are inherently more worthy of life than others,” put yourselves in the shoes of our clients and their families. They want the best for their loved ones, and that may mean masks and social distancing rather than lockdowns.
RENEE KAMEAH
Rockland County, New York State
It is laudable that Scientific American acknowledges, and endeavors not to repeat, its role in disseminating and legitimizing scientific racism, sexism and imperialism. Human fallibility aside, Schlenoff and Schwartz mention several sources of scientific error, but they do not mention the potential for systematic error deriving from scientific methodology itself.
Because we can only gauge the likely truth of new hypotheses by drawing on existing beliefs, insofar as histories of racism, sexism and imperialism shape our current corpus of scientific belief, these legacies will continue to distort scientific inquiry. Science is a social enterprise, and it is shaped not only by theories and data but also by personal experience, common sense and the social uses to which it is put. Research may gain currency not from the weight of evidence but because it serves the political and economic interests of those with the power to promulgate it (for example, by justifying economic and racial inequality). When that happens, it has an enduring, distorting effect on science. Once absorbed into received knowledge, such research misinforms subsequent scientific judgments.
Thus, to foster accuracy in the field, we must do more than weigh the existing evidence. We must evaluate how relevant evidence may have been shaped by science's social uses and actively investigate and correct resulting errors. That is, acting with integrity as scientists requires applying sociopolitical theories about how our political economy shapes scientific belief and organizing to overturn distorting forces.
Contrary to many scientists' demands for a “politics-free science,” merely using sociopolitical theories to assess evidence is not “bias.” The reverse is true: failing to consider how our political economy shapes scientific evidence heightens the risk of error.
JERZY EISENBERG-GUYOT AND NADJA EISENBERG-GUYOT New York City
Schwartz and Schlenoff note that only half of Americans responded to a poll that they would get a coronavirus vaccine when it is available, which they called an “antiscience” stance.
The authors should be very careful of the context of the poll and answers to it. I am not in any way an anti-vaxxer. My wife and I get flu shots annually and were diligent in keeping our children up-to-date on their inoculations when they were young. But if I were asked whether I would get the hypothetical coronavirus vaccine, I'm not sure how I would answer.
After watching the Food and Drug Administration's and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's responses to the pandemic, I fear that the basis for far too many of their decisions concerns politics, not science. These government agencies seemed to have become a wing of the committee to reelect President Donald Trump.
JOHN MELQUIST Caledonia, Ill.
THE AUTHORS REPLY: Melquist's point is well taken. In criticizing individuals' unwillingness to receive a potential vaccine against COVID-19 in our article, we indeed meant one that would be well tested, well studied, well prepared, and recommended on a sound scientific and statistical basis.
MITIGATING LETHAL FORCE
In “How to Reinvent Policing” [Science Agenda], the editors make a number of good points about bettering policing by improving police accountability and communities' perception of officers. They do not mention, however, that improvements can also be made to hiring practices.
Police departments should recruit candidates who have good problem-solving, negotiation, communication and interpersonal skills, as well as empathy and sensitivity. They can come close to achieving that goal by expanding their pool to include more women, minorities and college graduates. Doing so will create a workforce that understands that all people should be treated with dignity, respect and fairness.
VASILIOS VASILOUNIS Brooklyn, N.Y.
SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS
I have been an avid reader of Scientific American since my college and university days in the 1960s, and the magazine has, to me, largely represented a specified direction for American scientific and economic culture. It is unsurprising that there has been a significant change of emphasis during the term of the most recent presidential incumbent. Like many overseas readers, I find this change welcome.
A particular, though not singular, example of it is a phrase found in “Return of the Germs,” Maryn McKenna's useful and thought-consuming piece on the need for social interventions to fight diseases in the light of the current COVID-19 pandemic. On this subject, the article quotes physician and vaccine developer Peter J. Hotez as saying, “Poverty has more impact than any of our technical interventions.”
ALAN LAFFERTY London


scientificamerican--2020-12-27--Poem: Teachers of Ice

Poem: Teachers of Ice

I name them Upright , Lengthwise , Split Down the Middle : these granites strewn like milky stars .
You @ @ @ @ @ find your way through creek , meadow , and wood .
This one is here @ @ @ @ @ there , its neighbor next to both , old friends grinding down shards of philosophy @ @ @ @ @ million years to see the argument to conclusion , points split finer and finer , @ @ @ @ @ into pebbles , then to sand in an hourglass .
They record the course of @ @ @ @ @ parent slopes where they were wrenched and scraped by glaciers , shaped and molded by @ @ @ @ @ explains their patience and hardness , having been milled so interminably slowly to an exacting @ @ @ @ @ , sun seeping into feldspars and micas , into the quartzes until they quiver with @ @ @ @ @ , wind and stillness , through minutes and millennia— and still radiate impassiveness .

Edited by Dava Sobel
I name them Upright, Lengthwise, Split
Down the Middle: these granites strewn
like milky stars. You could orient by them, find
your way through creek, meadow, and wood.
This one is here, and that one is there, its neighbor
next to both, old friends grinding down shards
of philosophy. It could take a million years
to see the argument to conclusion, points
split finer and finer, rubbed to a sheen,
into pebbles, then to sand in an hourglass.
They record the course of floods, huddle
together beneath parent slopes where they
were wrenched and scraped by glaciers, shaped
and molded by teachers of ice, which explains
their patience and hardness, having been milled
so interminably slowly to an exacting rule.
Now they languish, sun seeping into feldspars
and micas, into the quartzes until they quiver
with pure excitation—in heat and cold, wind
and stillness, through minutes and millennia—
and still radiate impassiveness.


scientificamerican--2020-12-28--A Complete Guide to Birds, the Reason We Dream and Other New Science Books

What Is a Bird ?
An Exploration of Anatomy , Physiology , Behavior , and Ecology edited by Tony D. Williams Princeton University , 2020 ( $ 35 ) Many housebound quarantiners have recently discovered a new—or renewed—interest in birds .
Through windows overlooking gardens or fire escapes and in small parks or dense woods , birds occupy nearly every habitat on earth and are our constant , if sometimes unnoticed , companions .
This welcoming compendium is part coffee-table book and part deep dive into the science of ornithology—the team of biologist-authors , edited by biology professor Williams , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ evolution and anatomy to their social and migration patterns .
Even casual bird-watchers will be drawn into the fascinating mechanisms of feather coloring of house finches ( Haemorhous mexicanus ) or the science that gives the bill of a helmet vanga ( Euryceros prevostii ) its unmistakable blue .
When Brains Dream : Exploring the Science and Mystery of Sleep by Antonio Zadra and Robert Stickgold W. W. Norton , 2021 ( $ 27.95 ) Dreams feel significant while they are happening , but do they have any scientific relevance ?
Sleep researchers @ @ @ @ @ @ @ for dreams ' purpose in the brain , detailing the history of dream research and lessons learned .
Dreaming acts as a memory-processing mechanism , they write , exploring images and thoughts weakly associated with moments from the previous day .
Scientists have used compelling methods to probe dreams ' inner workings : for example , dreamers can signal via eye movements to observers while their dreams are in progress to help researchers measure the length of dream actions .
The book wields dreamy anecdotes and complex neuroscience to try to grasp the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Frasier To see the world through the lens of physics we must be “ born again , ” physicist Wilczek writes—we have to lose our preconceptions and approach the universe with the same open-minded curiosity and acceptance as a baby first learning about her surroundings .
In this overview of modern physics , Wilczek describes the known and the unknown—what scientists have managed to learn about reality and what they still struggle to explain .
In 10 chapters covering space , time , matter , energy and other basic concepts , he tells @ @ @ @ @ @ @ turning points in the development of physical knowledge .
The result is a lucid and riveting narrative of the fundamentals—what Wilczek calls “ the central messages of modern physics , ” which are not just facts about how the world works but also “ the style of thought that allowed us to discover them.
” —Clara Moskowitz The Doctors Blackwell : How Two Pioneering Sisters Brought Medicine to Women—and Women to Medicine by Janice P. Nimura W. W. Norton , 2021 ( $ 27.95 ) In the mid-19th century the view of most @ @ @ @ @ @ @ have the intellect or emotional fortitude to be their colleagues .
Despite this skepticism , Elizabeth Blackwell was accepted by the Geneva Medical College in New York State and in 1849 became the first woman in America to obtain a medical degree .
Writer Nimura uses an extensive collection of journal entries and letters to trace Blackwell 's trailblazing journey through medical school and her further training in the U.S. and abroad .
Her younger sister , Emily , followed in her footsteps and became a doctor in 1854 .
In 1857 the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Indigent Women and Children—the first hospital staffed by women and intended to offer both care for women and training for future women doctors .

What Is a Bird? An Exploration of Anatomy, Physiology, Behavior, and Ecology
edited by Tony D. Williams
Princeton University, 2020 ($35)
Many housebound quarantiners have recently discovered a new—or renewed—interest in birds. Through windows overlooking gardens or fire escapes and in small parks or dense woods, birds occupy nearly every habitat on earth and are our constant, if sometimes unnoticed, companions. This welcoming compendium is part coffee-table book and part deep dive into the science of ornithology—the team of biologist-authors, edited by biology professor Williams, elucidates all things bird: from their evolution and anatomy to their social and migration patterns. Even casual bird-watchers will be drawn into the fascinating mechanisms of feather coloring of house finches (Haemorhous mexicanus) or the science that gives the bill of a helmet vanga (Euryceros prevostii) its unmistakable blue.
When Brains Dream: Exploring the Science and Mystery of Sleep
by Antonio Zadra and Robert Stickgold
W. W. Norton, 2021 ($27.95)
Dreams feel significant while they are happening, but do they have any scientific relevance? Sleep researchers Zadra and Stickgold propose their own framework for dreams' purpose in the brain, detailing the history of dream research and lessons learned. Dreaming acts as a memory-processing mechanism, they write, exploring images and thoughts weakly associated with moments from the previous day. Scientists have used compelling methods to probe dreams' inner workings: for example, dreamers can signal via eye movements to observers while their dreams are in progress to help researchers measure the length of dream actions. The book wields dreamy anecdotes and complex neuroscience to try to grasp the importance of these phantasms. —Sarah Lewin Frasier
Fundamentals: Ten Keys to Reality
by Frank Wilczek
Penguin Press, 2021 ($26)
To see the world through the lens of physics we must be “born again,” physicist Wilczek writes—we have to lose our preconceptions and approach the universe with the same open-minded curiosity and acceptance as a baby first learning about her surroundings. In this overview of modern physics, Wilczek describes the known and the unknown—what scientists have managed to learn about reality and what they still struggle to explain. In 10 chapters covering space, time, matter, energy and other basic concepts, he tells the stories behind the major players and turning points in the development of physical knowledge. The result is a lucid and riveting narrative of the fundamentals—what Wilczek calls “the central messages of modern physics,” which are not just facts about how the world works but also “the style of thought that allowed us to discover them.” —Clara Moskowitz
The Doctors Blackwell: How Two Pioneering Sisters Brought Medicine to Women—and Women to Medicine
by Janice P. Nimura
W. W. Norton, 2021 ($27.95)
In the mid-19th century the view of most male physicians was that women did not have the intellect or emotional fortitude to be their colleagues. Despite this skepticism, Elizabeth Blackwell was accepted by the Geneva Medical College in New York State and in 1849 became the first woman in America to obtain a medical degree. Writer Nimura uses an extensive collection of journal entries and letters to trace Blackwell's trailblazing journey through medical school and her further training in the U.S. and abroad. Her younger sister, Emily, followed in her footsteps and became a doctor in 1854. In 1857 the sisters established the New York Infirmary for Indigent Women and Children—the first hospital staffed by women and intended to offer both care for women and training for future women doctors.


scientificamerican--2020-12-28--The Cosmic Dawn of Technology

The Cosmic Dawn of Technology

We are late bloomers , cosmologically speaking .
The first stars formed as early as a tenth of a billion years after the big bang .
The sun formed 9.1 billion years later , merely 4.6 billion years ago , when the universe already matured to two thirds of its current age .
The late birth of the sun marked the tail end of the star formation history of the universe .
At present , the Earth-sun system is a common occurrence .
Based on the planet candidate catalog compiled from the Kepler space telescope data , we know that @ @ @ @ @ @ @ sunlike stars host an Earth-size planet in their habitable zone .
These planets could accommodate ponds of liquid water on their surface and exhibit the chemistry of life .
If this was also true near stars formed at earlier cosmic times , life may have started in our universe long before the sun was born .
And consequently , the first technological civilizations may have sprung into existence billions of years ago .
Given that our technologies advance exponentially on a timescale of a few years , the signals that may result from @ @ @ @ @ @ @ unimaginable .
Even if there is only one species like ours in a large galaxy like our Milky Way , and this civilization transmits signals for just one century—as we already have—there should still be of order a hundred active civilizations on the sky at any given time .
This follows from the fact that the observable volume of the universe contains about 10 billion such galaxies for 10 billion years .
Can we detect artificial sources from cosmological distances and distinguish them from natural signals in the early universe ?
An example @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a spectral line with a puzzling radiation frequency that does not correspond to any known atomic or molecular transition .
Such a signal would appear peculiar if it originates from a distant galaxy whose redshift is known based on identified emission or absorption lines originating from its stars or interstellar gas .
An unidentified spectral line can be produced artificially by tunable lasers , like the free-electron lasers that our civilization developed to generate bright emission centered on a single frequency that could range from microwaves through terahertz radiation , to infrared , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ The advantage of producing single-frequency radiation , as in a spectral line , is that it can be focused to the maximum possible level , the so-called diffraction limit , yielding the brightest beam for its power .
The focused laser beam can be used , for example , to push a light sail to a high speed , as envisioned in the Starshot initiative .
For propulsion purposes , the optimal frequency of the laser depends on the desired terminal speed and weight of the payload .
For example , the optical-infrared @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of light with lightweight spacecrafts aimed at interstellar travel ( e.g.
, from the sun to Alpha Centauri ) , whereas the radio band is best for reaching a thousandth of the speed of light , still 10 times faster than chemical rockets , with heavy crafts used for interplanetary transport of cargos ( e.g.
, between the Earth and Mars ) .
The leakage of light from a powerful launch facility that harnesses all the starlight that is intercepted by a habitable Earth-size planet and focuses it into a diffraction-limited laser beam @ @ @ @ @ @ @ universe .
Since the source moves relative to us , the beam would sweep across our sky and appear like a flash of light from a lighthouse .
The resulting optical flashes can be searched for with the Legacy Survey of Space and Time ( LSST ) on the Vera C. Rubin Observatory , which is expected to start its scientific operation in late 2023 .
The confusing background for cosmological signals would be transient flashes from reflected sunlight by our communication satellites , which might add up to constellations of tens of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in the coming years .
This technosignature of our own making might compromise our ability to search for cosmic flashes from Earth .
An already known class of brief transients at cosmological distances are fast radio bursts , but these are thought to originate from highly magnetized neutron stars based on a known galactic source .
A civilization that harvests only the energy available on its planet was classified as Type I by Nikolai Kardashev in 1964 .
Types II and III civilizations on the Kardashev scale use the energy available to their @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
These advanced types are already constrained by available data since they are easier to notice .
But the realm of possibilities extends beyond the levels first considered by Kardashev .
In principle , it is possible to imagine hypothetical civilizations that harvest the energy available in their cluster of galaxies or their entire cosmological horizon .
Of course , space and time do not end at the farthest reach of our telescopes .
The possibilities might be even grander beyond our cosmic horizon and before the big bang .
Finding evidence for @ @ @ @ @ @ @ our own existence and aspirations in a broader context .
We wouldn ’ t have needed to invent the wheel if we saw it first spinning on our land under a rover manufactured by a more advanced species .
Currently , we have no clue for the sophistication level of the technologies that preceded us in the cosmos .
But one thing is clear .
If any of us would decipher an alien technology that represents a quantum leap relative to what we possess today , then that person will become extremely wealthy @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
The “ gold rush ” opportunity of mining the sky for new technological ideas offers a financial incentive for becoming an observational astronomer .
In the long run , if—as many of us expect—we are not the smartest kids on the cosmic street , astronomy may offer prospects for more affluence than Silicon Valley or Wall Street .

We are late bloomers, cosmologically speaking. The first stars formed as early as a tenth of a billion years after the big bang. The sun formed 9.1 billion years later, merely 4.6 billion years ago, when the universe already matured to two thirds of its current age. The late birth of the sun marked the tail end of the star formation history of the universe.
At present, the Earth-sun system is a common occurrence. Based on the planet candidate catalog compiled from the Kepler space telescope data, we know that on the order of half of all sunlike stars host an Earth-size planet in their habitable zone. These planets could accommodate ponds of liquid water on their surface and exhibit the chemistry of life. If this was also true near stars formed at earlier cosmic times, life may have started in our universe long before the sun was born. And consequently, the first technological civilizations may have sprung into existence billions of years ago. Given that our technologies advance exponentially on a timescale of a few years, the signals that may result from billions of years of technological development are unimaginable.
Even if there is only one species like ours in a large galaxy like our Milky Way, and this civilization transmits signals for just one century—as we already have—there should still be of order a hundred active civilizations on the sky at any given time. This follows from the fact that the observable volume of the universe contains about 10 billion such galaxies for 10 billion years. Can we detect artificial sources from cosmological distances and distinguish them from natural signals in the early universe?
An example of a distinct technological signal would be a spectral line with a puzzling radiation frequency that does not correspond to any known atomic or molecular transition. Such a signal would appear peculiar if it originates from a distant galaxy whose redshift is known based on identified emission or absorption lines originating from its stars or interstellar gas. An unidentified spectral line can be produced artificially by tunable lasers, like the free-electron lasers that our civilization developed to generate bright emission centered on a single frequency that could range from microwaves through terahertz radiation, to infrared, visible, ultraviolet or even x-rays.
The advantage of producing single-frequency radiation, as in a spectral line, is that it can be focused to the maximum possible level, the so-called diffraction limit, yielding the brightest beam for its power. The focused laser beam can be used, for example, to push a light sail to a high speed, as envisioned in the Starshot initiative. For propulsion purposes, the optimal frequency of the laser depends on the desired terminal speed and weight of the payload. For example, the optical-infrared band is ideal for reaching the speed of light with lightweight spacecrafts aimed at interstellar travel (e.g., from the sun to Alpha Centauri), whereas the radio band is best for reaching a thousandth of the speed of light, still 10 times faster than chemical rockets, with heavy crafts used for interplanetary transport of cargos (e.g., between the Earth and Mars).
The leakage of light from a powerful launch facility that harnesses all the starlight that is intercepted by a habitable Earth-size planet and focuses it into a diffraction-limited laser beam, can be detected across the entire universe. Since the source moves relative to us, the beam would sweep across our sky and appear like a flash of light from a lighthouse. The resulting optical flashes can be searched for with the Legacy Survey of Space and Time (LSST) on the Vera C. Rubin Observatory, which is expected to start its scientific operation in late 2023.
The confusing background for cosmological signals would be transient flashes from reflected sunlight by our communication satellites, which might add up to constellations of tens of thousands of independent pieces filling our sky in the coming years. This technosignature of our own making might compromise our ability to search for cosmic flashes from Earth. An already known class of brief transients at cosmological distances are fast radio bursts, but these are thought to originate from highly magnetized neutron stars based on a known galactic source.
A civilization that harvests only the energy available on its planet was classified as Type I by Nikolai Kardashev in 1964. Types II and III civilizations on the Kardashev scale use the energy available to their planetary system and host galaxy, respectively. These advanced types are already constrained by available data since they are easier to notice. But the realm of possibilities extends beyond the levels first considered by Kardashev. In principle, it is possible to imagine hypothetical civilizations that harvest the energy available in their cluster of galaxies or their entire cosmological horizon. Of course, space and time do not end at the farthest reach of our telescopes. The possibilities might be even grander beyond our cosmic horizon and before the big bang.
Finding evidence for the cosmic dawn of technology will place our own existence and aspirations in a broader context. We wouldn’t have needed to invent the wheel if we saw it first spinning on our land under a rover manufactured by a more advanced species.
Currently, we have no clue for the sophistication level of the technologies that preceded us in the cosmos. But one thing is clear. If any of us would decipher an alien technology that represents a quantum leap relative to what we possess today, then that person will become extremely wealthy by marketing the same idea on Earth. The “gold rush” opportunity of mining the sky for new technological ideas offers a financial incentive for becoming an observational astronomer. In the long run, if—as many of us expect—we are not the smartest kids on the cosmic street, astronomy may offer prospects for more affluence than Silicon Valley or Wall Street.


scientificamerican--2020-12-28--Sea Otters Could Get New Home in San Francisco Bay

Once hunted to the brink of extinction for their luxuriant pelts , California sea otters rebounded after protections were put in place in 1911 .
Their population grew steadily for much of the last century , but now the still-threatened species is stuck at about 3,000 otters .
The problem is that they are boxed in at both ends of their current range , along the state ’ s central coast , by a sharp ( and so far unexplained ) rise in shark attacks .
Hoping to reintroduce breeding populations elsewhere in the otters ’ historical range , wildlife @ @ @ @ @ @ @ estuaries , which are sheltered pockets of water .
It turns out that the largest estuary on the West Coast—San Francisco Bay—could potentially provide an excellent home for sea otters despite being in the middle of a major urban area , according to a study published last month in PeerJ .
“ I was surprised , ” says study lead author Jane Rudebusch , a spatial ecologist at San Francisco State University 's Estuary & Ocean Science Center .
“ The bay is intensely urbanized .
You can tell it 's a busy @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Tanker ships deliver crude oil to shoreline refineries every day , and high-speed commuter ferries constantly zoom between San Francisco , Oakland and other waterfront cities at up to 50 miles per hour .
Sediment in parts of the bay is laced with methylmercury and polychlorinated biphenyls , toxic chemicals that accumulate in the clams , crabs and other animals that sea otters eat .
Rudebusch and her colleagues used existing data to create a map of the bay showing these risks by specific region , as well as the quality of possible @ @ @ @ @ @ @ marshes .
They found the bay still has hundreds of acres of high-quality habitat in areas where the danger from human threats is low .
“ A large part of the north bay is a sweet spot , ” Rudebusch says .
Much of this area is only about three feet deep and has ample salt marsh in protected areas including China Camp State Park and the San Pablo Bay National Wildlife Refuge .
Rudebusch is optimistic that sea otters can coexist with the many human uses of the San Francisco Bay , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ an early step in a long process .
She also cautions that , before wildlife managers can even think about reintroducing sea otters , “ there needs to be a lot more groundwork to optimize the chances of success.
” One question is whether the north bay offers enough food for sea otters , which consume the equivalent of about one quarter of their body weight every day .
A companion study published in PeerJ in 2019 found that the entire bay has enough prey to feed about 6,600 sea otters .
But @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in specific parts of the bay .
“ The next big thing is assessing prey availability spatially , '' Rudebusch says .
`` The otters will go where the food is .
Will it line up with the north bay sweet spot , or in high-risk areas ?
” Also unknown is whether sea otters would stay put where they are reintroduced .
“ It 's impossible to predict what they 'll do , ” says Tim Tinker , a sea otter expert at the University of California , Santa Cruz , who @ @ @ @ @ @ @ but did contribute to the one published in 2019 .
He suggests trial reintroductions in smaller estuaries just north of the San Francisco Bay .
These include Tomales Bay , which is in a state park , and Drakes Estero , in Point Reyes National Seashore .
Such test runs would help determine whether reintroduced otters are likely to stay in estuaries , as well as the best sex and age mix for establishing new populations .
“ These are all things that need to be thought through before reintroducing otters to the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , ” Tinker says .
Another factor to consider is the local reaction to reestablishing sea otters .
Members of the fishing industry , for example , might be leery of these voracious predators .
There are no longer any commercial fisheries in the bay itself , but it remains a major nursery for young Dungeness crabs that migrate out to the ocean where they are harvested as adults .
And shoreline property developers may oppose the return of sea otters because , as a protected species , their presence would add a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ conservationists , on the other hand , would be thrilled at the prospect of bringing sea otters back to the bay .
Letitia Grenier , an ecologist at the nonprofit San Francisco Estuary Institute who was not involved with the study , notes that the bay is already rich in wildlife ranging from salmon to migratory birds to humpback whales .
The latter have recently started returning to feast on huge schools of anchovies .
“ The bay has so much space—hundreds of thousands of acres , ” she says .
“ We @ @ @ @ @ @ @ with sea otters .
”

Once hunted to the brink of extinction for their luxuriant pelts, California sea otters rebounded after protections were put in place in 1911. Their population grew steadily for much of the last century, but now the still threatened species is stuck at about 3,000 otters. The problem is that they are boxed in at both ends of their current range, along the state’s central coast, by a sharp (and so far unexplained) rise in shark attacks. Hoping to reintroduce breeding populations elsewhere in the otters’ historical range, wildlife managers have been looking at certain coastal estuaries, which are sheltered pockets of water.
It turns out that the largest estuary on the West Coast—San Francisco Bay—could potentially provide an excellent home for sea otters, despite being in the middle of a major urban area, according to a study published last month in PeerJ.
“I was surprised,” says lead study author Jane Rudebusch, a spatial ecologist at San Francisco State University’s Estuary & Ocean Science Center. “The bay is intensely urbanized. You can tell it’s a busy place just by looking at it.” Tanker ships deliver crude oil to shoreline refineries every day, and high-speed commuter ferries constantly zoom between San Francisco, Oakland and other waterfront cities at up to 50 miles per hour. Sediment in parts of the bay is laced with methylmercury and polychlorinated biphenyls, toxic chemicals that accumulate in the clams, crabs and other animals that sea otters eat.
Rudebusch and her colleagues used existing data to create a map of the bay showing these risks by specific region, as well as the quality of possible sea otter habitats—particularly shallow water and salt marshes. They found the bay still has hundreds of acres of high-quality habitat in areas where the danger from human threats is low. “A large part of the north bay is a sweet spot,” Rudebusch says. Much of this area is only about three feet deep and has ample salt marsh in protected areas, including China Camp State Park and the San Pablo Bay National Wildlife Refuge.
Rudebusch is optimistic that sea otters can coexist with the many human uses of the San Francisco Bay, but she emphasizes that her work is an early step in a long process. She also cautions that before wildlife managers can even think about reintroducing sea otters, “there needs to be a lot more groundwork to optimize the chances of success.”
One question is whether the northern bay offers enough food for sea otters, which consume the equivalent of about one quarter of their body weight every day. A companion study published in PeerJ in 2019 found that the entire bay has enough prey to feed about 6,600 sea otters. But that study did not map food abundance in specific parts of the bay. “The next big thing is assessing prey availability spatially,” Rudebusch says. “The otters will go where the food is. Will it line up with the north bay sweet spot or in high-risk areas?”
Also unknown is whether sea otters would stay put where they are reintroduced. “It’s impossible to predict what they’ll do,” says Tim Tinker, a sea otter expert at the University of California, Santa Cruz, who was not involved with the new study but did contribute to the one published in 2019. He suggests trial reintroductions in smaller estuaries just north of San Francisco Bay. These include Tomales Bay, which is in a state park, and Drakes Estero in Point Reyes National Seashore. Such test runs would help determine whether reintroduced otters are likely to stay in estuaries, as well as the best sex and age mix for establishing new populations. “These are all things that need to be thought through before reintroducing otters to the San Francisco Bay could become a reality,” Tinker says.
Another factor to consider is the local reaction to reestablishing sea otters. Members of the fishing industry, for example, might be leery of these voracious predators. There are no longer any commercial fisheries in the bay itself, but it remains a major nursery for young Dungeness crabs that migrate out to the ocean, where they are harvested as adults. And shoreline property developers may oppose the return of sea otters because, as a protected species, their presence would add a layer of regulation to projects.
Many conservationists, on the other hand, would be thrilled at the prospect of bringing sea otters back to the bay. Letitia Grenier, an ecologist at the nonprofit San Francisco Estuary Institute, who was not involved with the study, notes that the bay is already rich in wildlife ranging from salmon to migratory birds to humpback whales. The latter have recently started returning to feast on huge schools of anchovies. “The bay has so much space—hundreds of thousands of acres,” she says. “We ought to be able to share it with sea otters.”


scientificamerican--2020-12-29--Science News Briefs from Around the Planet

I ’ m Scientific American assistant news editor Sarah Lewin Frasier .
And here ’ s a short piece from the December 2020 issue of the magazine , in the section called Advances : Dispatches From The Frontiers Of Science , Technology And Medicine .
The article is titled Quick Hits , and it ’ s a rundown of some non-coronavirus stories from around the globe .
U.S. : Western Joshua trees will get a year of temporary endangered species status in California while the state considers permanently listing the distinctive succulents as the first-ever plant species protected because of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ tropical forest ground survey revealed that one lightning strike often damages more than 20 trees , a quarter of which can die within a year .
Researchers combined this finding with satellite data to estimate that lightning kills 200 million tropical trees worldwide every year—a significant cause of their demise .
Greenland : Climate researchers discovered records of an automatic weather station that measured −93.3 degrees Fahrenheit one day in December 1991—a temperature colder than the average on Mars and the coldest ever recorded in the Northern Hemisphere .
Italy : Scientists have @ @ @ @ @ @ @ that somehow survived to three years old without skin or teeth .
They concluded it was a genetic mutation and plan to check nearby sediment for potential pollutant causes .
China : Newly discovered and pristinely preserved fossils suggest two sleeping dinosaurs were buried alive in an underground burrow 125 million years ago .
The burrow may have collapsed under volcanic debris .
Australia : A new study shows how Australian grasslands ' strange barren patches—called fairy circles—are landscaped by the grasses themselves .
Baking heat creates a hard clay crust over a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of it , forming a more welcoming zone at its edges that grasses bolster as they grow and cool the soil .

Full Transcript
I’m Scientific American assistant news editor Sarah Lewin Frasier. And here’s a short piece from the December 2020 issue of the magazine, in the section called Advances: Dispatches from the Frontiers of Science, Technology and Medicine.
The article is titled “Quick Hits,” and it’s a rundown of some noncoronavirus stories from around the globe.
U.S.:
Western Joshua trees will get a year of temporary endangered species status in California while the state considers permanently listing the distinctive succulents as the first-ever plant species protected because of climate change–related threat.
Panama:
A tropical forest ground survey revealed that one lightning strike often damages more than 20 trees, a quarter of which can die within a year. Researchers combined this finding with satellite data to estimate that lightning kills 200 million tropical trees worldwide every year—a significant cause of their demise.
Greenland:
Climate researchers discovered records of an automatic weather station that measured −93.3 degrees Fahrenheit one day in December 1991—a temperature colder than the average on Mars and the coldest ever recorded in the Northern Hemisphere.
Italy:
Scientists have examined a shark found south of Sardinia that somehow survived to three years old without skin or teeth. They concluded it was a genetic mutation and plan to check nearby sediment for potential pollutant causes.
China:
Newly discovered and pristinely preserved fossils suggest two sleeping dinosaurs were buried alive in an underground burrow 125 million years ago. The burrow may have collapsed under volcanic debris.
Australia:
A new study shows how Australian grasslands’ strange barren patches—called fairy circles—are landscaped by the grasses themselves. Baking heat creates a hard clay crust over a patch of ground; water runs off of it, forming a more welcoming zone at its edges that grasses bolster as they grow and cool the soil.
That was “Quick Hits.” I’m Sarah Lewin Frasier.
[The above text is a transcript of this podcast.]


scientificamerican--2020-12-28--Erin Brockovich Blasts U.S. Regulation of Toxic Chemicals

In 2000 , Julia Roberts won the Oscar for best actress for portraying a scrappy young lawyer who fought water contamination and corporate greed .
Twenty years later , Erin Brockovich—the real woman who inspired the film—is broadening her battle to water pollution around the world .
Her efforts now center on per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances ( PFAS ) , a group of chemicals linked to cancer and other health effects .
“ I think these chemicals should be studied before they even get into the marketplace , before they ’ re ever put into the water system or the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ periods of time , ” Brockovich said in a recent interview .
The 60-year-old has been busy this year despite the pandemic , publishing a book titled “ Superman ’ s Not Coming ” and working on a forthcoming TV series inspired by her life .
The Kansas native also penned an opinion piece in The Guardian last month blasting President-elect Joe Biden for installing former DuPont consultant Michael McCabe on his EPA transition team .
Brockovich recently spoke on the phone with E & E News from her home in Los Angeles @ @ @ @ @ @ @ “ ass-backwards system ” for regulating toxic chemicals , how communities can organize to fix their water problems and how some people are surprised she doesn ’ t look like Julia Roberts .
Why did you decide to write that op-ed in The Guardian ?
I ’ ve worked on PFOA , a type of PFAS , in both America and Australia .
I ’ ve seen the devastation it can cause to the water and to people ’ s health .
So I was just really taken aback that anybody like Michael @ @ @ @ @ @ @ team .
McCabe worked with DuPont specifically on a communications strategy to make sure they didn ’ t have to clean up PFOA or follow regulations in Parkersburg , W.Va. You know , I don ’ t always talk politics .
But I take really seriously the new administration and the work they can do on the environment .
I ’ m not going to just toe a party line when something ’ s wrong .
I really think we ’ re in a moment where it is our duty and our obligation @ @ @ @ @ @ @ even in our own party , to say something ’ s not right and not OK. What do you make of the Trump administration ’ s handling of PFAS ?
Again , I don ’ t always speak politically .
But this outgoing administration was not strong on environmental issues .
And when the science started to come out on PFOA and PFAS , that was in 2016 , and we had to deal with [ former EPA Administrator ] Scott Pruitt , who wasn ’ t going to release those studies .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ with PFOA and PFAS ?
If you ask me , it ’ s an ass-backwards system .
For the chemical we ’ re talking about , reports showed in the 1960s that it was causing liver cancer in rabbits and dogs , and it was a contaminant we needed to keep an eye on .
But instead of understanding what this chemical was doing in the environment , they set a guideline of 400 parts per trillion .
Then the EPA did a study and took a very long time to reach the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , which is that this causes liver disease and thyroid cancer and a plethora of other illnesses .
But I think these chemicals should be studied before they even get into the marketplace , before they ’ re ever put into the water system or the public is exposed to them over long periods of time .
Where were you when the movie “ Erin Brockovich ” came out in 2000 ?
I still remember that when it first came out , I was sitting in a movie theater by myself over in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ people ’ s reactions and listening to their conversations as they left the theater .
People were saying , “ Oh , gosh , that ’ s really going on ?
I wonder if that ’ s happening in our water.
” It was great to hear .
You know , Erin Brockovich is all of us , and the movie really sent a message that people could believe in themselves and take action themselves .
Did you get recognized in the theater ?
Most people actually don ’ t know what I @ @ @ @ @ @ @ shocked when they see me .
I can ’ t tell you how many times people have said , ” You ’ re Erin Brockovich ?
” And I ’ m like , “ Were you expecting Julia Roberts ?
” And they ’ re like , “ Yeah , I think so !
” [ Laughs ] What did you make of the decision to cast Julia Roberts as you ?
I believe the director , Steven Soderbergh , saw that we had similar mannerisms , even though we ’ re not @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
She did a fabulous job , in my opinion .
I think real passion came from her .
How has your life changed since the movie came out ?
It definitely gave me a platform and an amazing opportunity to be out on the lecture circuit .
And that ’ s been so important to me .
I grew up as an underdog , but while we may not have a Ph.D. or be part of an elite group , we still matter .
We can still speak up .
You know @ @ @ @ @ @ @ that 20 years later , we ’ re still talking about it .
And in some ways , I think there ’ s more relevance to the film today than there was 20 years ago .
The science has advanced .
And now the policy needs to catch up .
The film focused on your successful lawsuit against Pacific Gas and Electric Co. over alleged contamination of drinking water .
What are your thoughts on PG & E ’ s handling of wildfires in California today ?
PG & E has really been @ @ @ @ @ @ @ They ’ ve made more than enough money to have reinvested in their infrastructure , which is very antiquated .
But they haven ’ t done that because they ’ ve put profits first .
And what happened ?
Their old power lines caused the 2018 Camp Fire .
And the $ 13.5 billion settlement was just handed down for the victims .
You know , I never would ’ ve thought that 20 years on , I ’ d still be talking about Pacific Gas and Electric .
It ’ s very @ @ @ @ @ @ @ & E begins to plan and prepare and work with the communities to follow tree-trimming programs and reinvest in their infrastructure now , before next year gets here and we see another disaster .
How would you summarize your recent book “ Superman ’ s Not Coming ” ?
Well , I ’ ve been down on the ground for 30-plus years in communities that have water issues .
And there ’ s this idea that the EPA will come and clean it up , or a lawsuit will happen and help the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ know what ?
The EPA has already been there and deemed it a Superfund site .
And not every lawsuit is won .
So you know what is going to be your form of justice ?
Bringing back power to the people .
And we share in the book that many communities can actually make changes once they organize and get involved with their city council .
What is an example of one community in the book ?
The ladies of Hannibal , Mo.
, had very high lead levels .
We worked @ @ @ @ @ @ @ they had the problem .
They had old infrastructure , and they were adding ammonia to the system , which causes all the lead to precipitate out and get delivered to your tap .
Well , they got involved with the City Council .
One ran for office and won .
And they created a referendum and put it out to a vote .
The referendum basically said , “ Do you want ammonia in your water ?
Yes or no.
” And people overwhelmingly voted “ no.
” So they didn ’ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ official to come fix it .
They got busy doing it themselves .
And now they have a law saying they can not use ammonia in the system anymore , and they have lead-free water .
Imagine if every community did that across the board .
What are you up to these days ?
I work with a firm called Shine Lawyers on PFOA and PFAS contamination in Australia .
I visit towns and communities over there once a year .
This chemical is a shit-in-your-mess situation , if you will .
I @ @ @ @ @ @ @ unprofessional and not spoken eloquently .
But it ’ s the best way I know how to say that when this chemical ’ s in the water , it ’ s contaminating our food supply .
I ’ m also working on a new TV series called “ Rebel.
” It ’ s inspired by my life , and it ’ s a legal drama .
ABC has ordered 10 episodes that are going to air in 2021 .
And I think you ’ re going to find a cast of characters that @ @ @ @ @ @ @ So I ’ m really busy these days .
But , you know , my work is my life .
It really encompasses everything that I love : people and the environment .
This interview has been edited and condensed for clarity .
Reprinted from Greenwire with permission from E & E News .
E & E provides daily coverage of essential energy and environmental news at www.eenews.net .

In 2000, Julia Roberts won the Oscar for best actress for portraying a scrappy young lawyer who fought water contamination and corporate greed.
Twenty years later, Erin Brockovich—the real woman who inspired the film—is broadening her battle to water pollution around the world.
Her efforts now center on per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), a group of chemicals linked to cancer and other health effects.
“I think these chemicals should be studied before they even get into the marketplace, before they’re ever put into the water system or the public is exposed to them over long periods of time,” Brockovich said in a recent interview.
The 60-year-old has been busy this year despite the pandemic, publishing a book titled “Superman’s Not Coming” and working on a forthcoming TV series inspired by her life.
The Kansas native also penned an opinion piece in The Guardian last month blasting President-elect Joe Biden for installing former DuPont consultant Michael McCabe on his EPA transition team.
Brockovich recently spoke on the phone with E&E News from her home in Los Angeles about how the United States has an “ass-backwards system” for regulating toxic chemicals, how communities can organize to fix their water problems and how some people are surprised she doesn’t look like Julia Roberts.
Why did you decide to write that op-ed in The Guardian?
I’ve worked on PFOA, a type of PFAS, in both America and Australia. I’ve seen the devastation it can cause to the water and to people’s health. So I was just really taken aback that anybody like Michael McCabe would be part of the transition team. McCabe worked with DuPont specifically on a communications strategy to make sure they didn’t have to clean up PFOA or follow regulations in Parkersburg, W.Va.
You know, I don’t always talk politics. But I take really seriously the new administration and the work they can do on the environment. I’m not going to just toe a party line when something’s wrong. I really think we’re in a moment where it is our duty and our obligation to speak up and speak out, even in our own party, to say something’s not right and not OK.
What do you make of the Trump administration’s handling of PFAS?
Again, I don’t always speak politically. But this outgoing administration was not strong on environmental issues. And when the science started to come out on PFOA and PFAS, that was in 2016, and we had to deal with [former EPA Administrator] Scott Pruitt, who wasn’t going to release those studies.
How has the United States historically dealt with PFOA and PFAS?
If you ask me, it’s an ass-backwards system. For the chemical we’re talking about, reports showed in the 1960s that it was causing liver cancer in rabbits and dogs, and it was a contaminant we needed to keep an eye on. But instead of understanding what this chemical was doing in the environment, they set a guideline of 400 parts per trillion.
Then the EPA did a study and took a very long time to reach the conclusion that they finally reached in 2016, which is that this causes liver disease and thyroid cancer and a plethora of other illnesses. But I think these chemicals should be studied before they even get into the marketplace, before they’re ever put into the water system or the public is exposed to them over long periods of time.
Where were you when the movie “Erin Brockovich” came out in 2000?
I still remember that when it first came out, I was sitting in a movie theater by myself over in a corner. And I was watching people’s reactions and listening to their conversations as they left the theater. People were saying, “Oh, gosh, that’s really going on? I wonder if that’s happening in our water.”
It was great to hear. You know, Erin Brockovich is all of us, and the movie really sent a message that people could believe in themselves and take action themselves.
Did you get recognized in the theater?
Most people actually don’t know what I look like, and they’re shocked when they see me. I can’t tell you how many times people have said, ”You’re Erin Brockovich?” And I’m like, “Were you expecting Julia Roberts?” And they’re like, “Yeah, I think so!” [Laughs]
What did you make of the decision to cast Julia Roberts as you?
I believe the director, Steven Soderbergh, saw that we had similar mannerisms, even though we’re not look-alikes. And Julia Roberts is delightful. She did a fabulous job, in my opinion. I think real passion came from her.
How has your life changed since the movie came out?
It definitely gave me a platform and an amazing opportunity to be out on the lecture circuit. And that’s been so important to me. I grew up as an underdog, but while we may not have a Ph.D. or be part of an elite group, we still matter. We can still speak up.
You know, it’s overwhelming to me that 20 years later, we’re still talking about it. And in some ways, I think there’s more relevance to the film today than there was 20 years ago. The science has advanced. And now the policy needs to catch up.
The film focused on your successful lawsuit against Pacific Gas and Electric Co. over alleged contamination of drinking water. What are your thoughts on PG&E’s handling of wildfires in California today?
PG&E has really been kicking the can down the road. They’ve made more than enough money to have reinvested in their infrastructure, which is very antiquated. But they haven’t done that because they’ve put profits first. And what happened? Their old power lines caused the 2018 Camp Fire. And the $13.5 billion settlement was just handed down for the victims.
You know, I never would’ve thought that 20 years on, I’d still be talking about Pacific Gas and Electric. It’s very disheartening. And I hope that PG&E begins to plan and prepare and work with the communities to follow tree-trimming programs and reinvest in their infrastructure now, before next year gets here and we see another disaster.
How would you summarize your recent book “Superman’s Not Coming”?
Well, I’ve been down on the ground for 30-plus years in communities that have water issues. And there’s this idea that the EPA will come and clean it up, or a lawsuit will happen and help the community get through this.
But you know what? The EPA has already been there and deemed it a Superfund site. And not every lawsuit is won.
So you know what is going to be your form of justice? Bringing back power to the people. And we share in the book that many communities can actually make changes once they organize and get involved with their city council.
What is an example of one community in the book?
The ladies of Hannibal, Mo., had very high lead levels. We worked with them and educated them on why they had the problem. They had old infrastructure, and they were adding ammonia to the system, which causes all the lead to precipitate out and get delivered to your tap.
Well, they got involved with the City Council. One ran for office and won. And they created a referendum and put it out to a vote. The referendum basically said, “Do you want ammonia in your water? Yes or no.” And people overwhelmingly voted “no.”
So they didn’t wait for some state or federal official to come fix it. They got busy doing it themselves. And now they have a law saying they cannot use ammonia in the system anymore, and they have lead-free water. Imagine if every community did that across the board.
What are you up to these days?
I work with a firm called Shine Lawyers on PFOA and PFAS contamination in Australia. I visit towns and communities over there once a year. This chemical is a shit-in-your-mess situation, if you will. I know that’s crude and highly unprofessional and not spoken eloquently. But it’s the best way I know how to say that when this chemical’s in the water, it’s contaminating our food supply.
I’m also working on a new TV series called “Rebel.” It’s inspired by my life, and it’s a legal drama. ABC has ordered 10 episodes that are going to air in 2021. And I think you’re going to find a cast of characters that you might get really invested in.
So I’m really busy these days. But, you know, my work is my life. It really encompasses everything that I love: people and the environment.
This interview has been edited and condensed for clarity.
Reprinted from Greenwire with permission from E&E News. E&E provides daily coverage of essential energy and environmental news at www.eenews.net.


scientificamerican--2020-12-28--Debunking the False Claim That COVID Death Counts Are Inflated

A persistent falsehood has been circulating on social media : the number of COVID deaths is much lower than official @ @ @ @ @ danger of the disease has been overblown .
In August , President Donald Trump retweeted @ @ @ @ @ 6 percent of these reported deaths were actually from COVID-19 .
( The tweet originated @ @ @ @ @ debunked conspiracy fantasy QAnon . )
Twitter removed the post for containing false information , @ @ @ @ @ continue to spread .
In September outgoing U.S. Representative Roger Marshall of Kansas—now incoming senator—complained @ @ @ @ @ post in which he claimed that 94 percent of COVID-19 deaths reported by the Centers @ @ @ @ @ “ were the result of 2-3 additional serious illnesses and were of advanced age .
@

*Editor's Note (1/3/21): The number of COVID deaths in the U.S. is now more than 350,000, as of the beginning of January, according to the Johns Hopkins University Coronavirus Resource Center.
A persistent falsehood has been circulating on social media: the number of COVID deaths is much lower than official statistics, and therefore the danger of the disease has been overblown. In August, President Donald Trump retweeted a post claiming that only 6 percent of these reported deaths were actually from COVID-19. (The tweet originated from a follower of the debunked conspiracy fantasy QAnon.) Twitter removed the post for containing false information, but fabrications such as these continue to spread. In September outgoing U.S. Representative Roger Marshall of Kansas—now incoming senator—complained that Facebook had removed a post in which he claimed that 94 percent of COVID-19 deaths reported by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention “were the result of 2-3 additional serious illnesses and were of advanced age.”
Now some facts: Researchers know beyond a doubt that the number of COVID-19 deaths in the U.S. surpassed a quarter of a million people by November 2020. This number is supported by three lines of evidence, including death certificates. The inaccurate idea that only 6 percent of the deaths were really caused by the coronavirus is “a gross misinterpretation” of how death certificates work, says Robert Anderson, chief mortality statistician at the CDC's National Center for Health Statistics.
The scope of the coronavirus's deadly toll is clear, even if the exact toll varies by a small fraction depending on the reporting system. “We're pretty confident about the scale and order of magnitude of deaths, but we're not clear on the exact number yet,” says Justin Lessler, an infectious disease epidemiologist at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health. To understand why the figures converge, even if they contain some uncertainty, it is important to know how they are collected and calculated.
The first source of death data is called case surveillance. Health-care providers are required to report cases and deaths from certain diseases, including measles, mumps and now COVID-19, to state health departments, which pass this information along to the CDC, Anderson says. The surveillance data are a kind of “quick and dirty” accounting, says Shawna Webster, executive director of the National Association for Public Health Statistics and Information Systems. States gather all the information they can on these diseases, but this is the first pass—no one has time to double-check the information or look for missing laboratory tests, she says. For that, you have to look for the next source of information: vital records.
Credit: Youyou Zhou; Sources: U.S. Census, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and National Center for Health Statistics
Credit: Youyou Zhou; Sources: U.S. Census, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and National Center for Health Statistics
Credit: Youyou Zhou; Sources: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics
This second line of evidence comes from the National Vital Statistics System, which records birth and death certificates. When somebody dies, a death certificate is filed in the state where the death occurred. After the records are registered at a state level, they are sent to the National Center for Health Statistics, which tracks deaths at a national level. Death certificates are not filed in the system until outstanding test results are in and the information is as complete as possible. By the time a record gets to the vital records system, “it is as close to perfect as it's going to get,” Webster says.
A physician, medical examiner or coroner fills out the cause of mortality on the death certificate. That specialist is instructed to include only conditions that caused or contributed to death, Anderson says. One field lists the sequence of events leading to the death. “What we're really trying to get at is the condition or disease that started the chain of events leading to the death,” Anderson says. “For COVID-19, that might be something like acute respiratory distress due to pneumonia due to COVID-19.” A second part of the certificate lists other conditions that may have contributed to the death yet were not part of the sequence of events that led up to it, he says. These are called comorbidities, and although they can be contributing factors, they cannot be directly involved in the chain of cause and effect that ended in death. Medical conditions such as diabetes or heart disease are common comorbidities, and they can make a person more vulnerable to the coronavirus, Anderson says, “but the fact is: they're not dying from that preexisting condition.”
“When we ask if COVID killed somebody, it means ‘Did they die sooner than they would have if they didn't have the virus?’” Lessler says. Even a person with a potentially life-shortening condition such as heart disease may have lived another five, 10 or more years, had they not become infected with COVID-19.
The 6 percent number touted by Trump and QAnon comes from a weekly CDC report stating that in 6 percent of the coronavirus mortality cases it counted, COVID-19 was the only condition listed on the death certificate. That observation most likely means that those death certificates were incomplete because the certifiers gave only the underlying cause of death and not the full causal sequence that led to it, Anderson says. Even someone who does not have another health condition and dies from COVID-19 will also have comorbidities in the form of symptoms, such as respiratory failure, caused by the coronavirus. The idea that a death certificate with ailments listed in addition to COVID-19 means that the person did not really die from the virus is simply false, Anderson says.
Medical personnel move a deceased patient to a refrigerated truck serving as a makeshift morgue at Brooklyn Hospital Center in New York City on April 9, 2020. Credit: Angela Weiss Getty Images
The surveillance and vital statistics data provide a pretty good picture of how many deaths are attributable to the coronavirus, but they do not capture all of them, and that is where the final line of evidence come in: excess deaths. They are the number of deaths that occur above and beyond the historical pattern for that time period, says Steven Woolf, a physician and population health researcher at the Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine. In a paper published in October 2020 in JAMA, Woolf and his colleagues examined death records in the U.S. from March 1 through August 1 and compared them with the expected mortality numbers. They found that there was a 20 percent increase in deaths during this time period—for a total of 225,530 excess deaths—compared with previous years.
Two thirds of these cases were attributed to COVID-19 on the death certificates, and Woolf says there are two types of explanations for the rest: Some of them were COVID-19 deaths that simply were not documented as such, perhaps because the person died at home and was never tested or because the certificate was miscoded. And some of the extra deaths were probably a consequence of the pandemic yet not necessarily of the virus itself. For instance, he says, imagine a patient with chest pain who is scared to go to the hospital because he or she does not want to get the virus and then dies of a heart attack. Woolf calls this “indirect mortality.” “The deaths aren't literally caused by the virus itself, but the pandemic is claiming lives,” he says.
The numbers in Woolf's study come from provisional death data, the kind that the CDC has not yet checked for miscoding or other issues. What builds his confidence in these results, however, is that they have been replicated numerous times by his group and others. “All serious analyses of these data are showing that the number of deaths we're hearing on the news is an undercount,” he says.
COVID-19 is now the third leading cause of death in the U.S., and the toll continues to rise as cases, hospitalizations and fatalities surge across the country. The complete number may never be known, even after the pandemic ends, but already it is a staggering number of lives cut short.


scientificamerican--2020-12-29--Earth Is on Fire

Earth Is on Fire

I 've never known an Earth that was n't on fire .
I 'm 23 years old , and my entire generation has come of age in a world so defined by climate change and other forms of environmental degradation that it 's sometimes been hard to fathom what an even more dismal future might look like .
It has , that is , until the pandemic reared its ugly head .
The fate of nature , like so much else , has temporarily become an agonizing side story to COVID—and now the environment is a real-time plot followed mostly @ @ @ @ @ @ @ us young enough to one day see the worst of it .
At first , things seemed hopeful .
Struggling to adjust to the new normal of life in quarantine in March and April , we were relieved to read that emissions levels had dipped , even if only temporarily , and that the skies over New Delhi and Los Angeles and Buenos Aires had cleared of smog .
I smiled , as we all did , to notice that animals were roaming free through quiet , traffic-free cities .
Nature seemed to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ In the midst of so much present grief , these story lines gave us faith in the planet 's resilience .
Maybe , some optimists speculated , it would even inspire us to be better stewards of our world when this was over .
This “ anthropause ” was a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity for humans to understand our impact on wildlife in a crowded world that seemed , for a moment , a little less crowded .
But only for a moment .
Pandemics like this happen and will keep happening because we humans @ @ @ @ @ @ @ increasing the chances of spillovers of disease from animals to people .
In the temporary absence of international watchdogs and local enforcement , South America 's Pantanal , the world 's largest tropical wetland , has burned like never before .
In May there was a major oil spill in the Russian Arctic , followed by others in places such as Mauritius and Venezuela—terrible ecological catastrophes that are buried underneath headlines of case numbers and mortality rates .
Poaching is on the rise in Africa .
The list goes on .
And in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ less thoughtful in our daily choices—accepting that extra plastic bag at the supermarket , ordering takeout despite all the single-use containers and , if we 're privileged enough , driving instead of taking public transportation—because , well , “ it 's a global pandemic.
” Take a walk outside , and you 'll find masks and latex gloves littering our streets and beaches and parks that will eventually fill rivers , lakes and seas .
It 's as if the pandemic has suddenly given people everywhere even more of a license to dirty @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , if not outright contempt .
I fear that for every day it continues , today 's young people will be paying the ecological price for the rest of our lives .
I 'm not just talking about those of us living in developed nations .
I 'm talking about children from impoverished families worldwide whose health and food security have plunged into even more uncertainty because of the devastating one-two punch of climate change and the coronavirus—both of which have laid bare systemic racism and socioeconomic inequities .
I 'm talking about @ @ @ @ @ @ @ have been calling out people 's ignorance of science for years and feel now more than ever that they 're screaming into a void .
And , perhaps most brutally , I 'm talking about young Indigenous people in Latin America , whose entire cultures ( many of them predicated on harmony with nature ) are being erased as their elders die of infection and as ranchers and miners violently and illegally drive them from their ancestral lands .
In today 's pandemic moment , nature 's story line has reached a low @ @ @ @ @ @ @ that some people can still so easily shrug it off—especially if they have kids or love anyone who is younger than they are—while for so many in my generation , it is such a constant , excruciating worry .
Apathy , let alone denial , is no longer an acceptable option , because we know that if we stay on this course , the destruction will inevitably come for us , too .
But I like to think that the anthropause still gives some hope—that perhaps if we all live a little lighter @ @ @ @ @ @ @ are in harmony with the land and if we take solace in all that there is to love in the world , nature might meet us halfway .
The planet and our fates hang in the balance .

I've never known an Earth that wasn't on fire.
I'm 23 years old, and my entire generation has come of age in a world so defined by climate change and other forms of environmental degradation that it's sometimes been hard to fathom what an even more dismal future might look like. It has, that is, until the pandemic reared its ugly head. The fate of nature, like so much else, has temporarily become an agonizing side story to COVID—and now the environment is a real-time plot followed mostly, I think, by those of us young enough to one day see the worst of it.
At first, things seemed hopeful. Struggling to adjust to the new normal of life in quarantine in March and April, we were relieved to read that emissions levels had dipped, even if only temporarily, and that the skies over New Delhi and Los Angeles and Buenos Aires had cleared of smog. I smiled, as we all did, to notice that animals were roaming free through quiet, traffic-free cities. Nature seemed to be reclaiming spaces humans had abandoned. In the midst of so much present grief, these story lines gave us faith in the planet's resilience. Maybe, some optimists speculated, it would even inspire us to be better stewards of our world when this was over. This “anthropause” was a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity for humans to understand our impact on wildlife in a crowded world that seemed, for a moment, a little less crowded.
But only for a moment. Pandemics like this happen and will keep happening because we humans have long encroached on wild spaces, increasing the chances of spillovers of disease from animals to people. In the temporary absence of international watchdogs and local enforcement, South America's Pantanal, the world's largest tropical wetland, has burned like never before. In May there was a major oil spill in the Russian Arctic, followed by others in places such as Mauritius and Venezuela—terrible ecological catastrophes that are buried underneath headlines of case numbers and mortality rates. Poaching is on the rise in Africa. The list goes on.
And in the U.S., we've somehow become less thoughtful in our daily choices—accepting that extra plastic bag at the supermarket, ordering takeout despite all the single-use containers and, if we're privileged enough, driving instead of taking public transportation—because, well, “it's a global pandemic.” Take a walk outside, and you'll find masks and latex gloves littering our streets and beaches and parks that will eventually fill rivers, lakes and seas.
It's as if the pandemic has suddenly given people everywhere even more of a license to dirty the world—if that's even possible—with carelessness, if not outright contempt. I fear that for every day it continues, today's young people will be paying the ecological price for the rest of our lives. I'm not just talking about those of us living in developed nations. I'm talking about children from impoverished families worldwide whose health and food security have plunged into even more uncertainty because of the devastating one-two punch of climate change and the coronavirus—both of which have laid bare systemic racism and socioeconomic inequities. I'm talking about young climate organizers across the globe who have been calling out people's ignorance of science for years and feel now more than ever that they're screaming into a void. And, perhaps most brutally, I'm talking about young Indigenous people in Latin America, whose entire cultures (many of them predicated on harmony with nature) are being erased as their elders die of infection and as ranchers and miners violently and illegally drive them from their ancestral lands.
In today's pandemic moment, nature's story line has reached a low point. It's unfathomable to me that some people can still so easily shrug it off—especially if they have kids or love anyone who is younger than they are—while for so many in my generation, it is such a constant, excruciating worry. Apathy, let alone denial, is no longer an acceptable option, because we know that if we stay on this course, the destruction will inevitably come for us, too.
But I like to think that the anthropause still gives some hope—that perhaps if we all live a little lighter, if we listen to those who are in harmony with the land and if we take solace in all that there is to love in the world, nature might meet us halfway. The planet and our fates hang in the balance.


scientificamerican--2020-12-29--When Our Gaze Is a Physical Force

When Our Gaze Is a Physical Force

Have you ever sensed that someone might be watching you ?
You get a prickly feeling at the back of your neck and turn to see a stranger staring at you across the room .
It sometimes seems that we can feel a person ’ s gaze as a physical sensation .
And , from a single glance , we can tell a lot about a person , such as their moods , intentions and focus .
Is their gaze dangerous , interesting or attractive ?
Do they stare directly or glance to the side ?
If “ eyes are @ @ @ @ @ @ @ then a glance reveals far more than we know .
Recent studies demonstrate that humans attribute gaze with physical properties .
We create tacit mental schemes in which the visual attention of others is computed as a forceful beam emitted from the viewer ’ s eye and directed at the object of interest .
These mental schemes allow us to take cognitive shortcuts to process peoples ’ visual attention quickly and efficiently .
Gaze is an elemental form of communication that can coordinate activities and convey social dynamics without a gesture or spoken @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of the meaning behind another ’ s gaze , but the trade-off for the speed of that interpretation is the mistaken understanding of gaze as something that can move things in our environment .
These studies show that this interpretation is subconscious and automatic , and that it occurs even in those who would consciously deny that vision exerts any force .
You might expect that such an erroneous interpretation would be detrimental .
In fact , while there seem to be few if any adverse consequences these findings may underlie rich and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and power of the gaze .
The results of the experiment demonstrate an ancient human idea linking gaze with physical properties .
This notion , as old as the Greeks , is known as the “ extramission ” theory of vision .
Extramission literally means “ sending out , ” and the extramission theory is the belief that vision is a force emitted from the eye .
It is an intuitive understanding of vision common among children that persists among many adults .
In contrast , the modern visual theory is called “ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the notion that vision results from light entering the eyes .
Using a series of ingeniously simple experiments in one study , researchers found that subjects associate gaze with a physical force .
Subjects viewed a computer display that had an image of a tube , roughly the size of the end of the paper towel roll , standing vertically on a table .
At one end of the table was an image of a face gazing at the tube ( researchers dubbed the face avatar Kevin ) .
Subjects were instructed to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ image using specific keys on a keyboard until they felt the tube had reached the critical angle at which it would tip over .
The critical angle reported by subjects depended upon whether Kevin was blindfolded .
If Kevin was perceived as gazing at the tube , the critical angle was greater than when Kevin was blindfolded , suggesting that his gaze was impressing some force upon the tube that needed to be overcome for the tube to fall .
Likewise , in a second experiment , subjects were presented with the image @ @ @ @ @ @ @ or gazing away in the opposite direction and asked to report the critical angle of the tube before toppling .
Once again , the angle depended on Kevin ’ s perceived gaze and was much greater when Kevin gazed straight at the tube compared to when Kevin was turned away .
Finally , in a third experiment subjects were told that Kevin was either looking directly at the tube or focused beyond the tube at a wall at the other end of the table .
Once again , the critical tilt angle was @ @ @ @ @ @ @ at the tube rather than the wall .
Participants in this study were screened for belief in extramission beforehand and those who expressed such a belief were excluded .
So , it is remarkable that all remaining participants intuited a force based upon gaze , even while they disavowed any belief in such a force emanating from the eye .
What has emerged in this study is an implicit , unrecognized cognitive shortcut employed by humans to rapidly process gaze , but which leads us to comprehend it as something that affects objects @ @ @ @ @ @ @ theory , researchers employed brain imaging methods to demonstrate that gaze perception activates brain regions associated with motion .
In this case , subjects were presented images of moving dots or an image of a face gazing at a tree .
Brain activity was measured using functional magnetic resonance imaging ( fMRI ) , which detects brain activity by measuring local brain oxygen consumption .
Areas of the brain involved in processing visual motion ( the right middle temporal cortical areas ) and in understanding the thoughts and intentions of others ( the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in processing the face ’ s gaze when staring at the tree .
However , just as with the blindfolded Kevin , these fMRI signals halted when the face in these studies was blindfolded .
Here , the brain processes the gaze as movement even when no movement occurs , again showing an extraordinary misapprehension of reality .
Belief in the power of gaze appears in stories and myths throughout the centuries .
Medusa turned people to stone with her gaze .
The catoblepas and , more famously , the basilisk , both @ @ @ @ @ @ @ kill with the single glance .
In Shakespeare ’ s Venus and Adonis , Venus complains of the pain caused by Adonis ’ glance : “ Thine eye darts forth the fire that burneth me.
” While in John Donne ’ s The Ecstasy , the glances of the lovers intertwine and bind them as if they were their clasped hands .
And , of course , no list of cultural references to gaze would be complete without mention of the Jedi master or Superman .
Gaze is a powerful element of social @ @ @ @ @ @ @ is focusing their attention , and , when directed at us , it can have a strong emotional effect .
Gaze can play a role in social organization , with a direct gaze demonstrating social dominance and gaze aversion indicating passivity .
Eye contact can elicit alertness and bodily awareness , while indifference or aversion to eye contact can signal emotional or neurological disorders .
When we direct our gaze at something or someone , others who notice subconsciously direct their gaze in the same manner .
We can take advantage of this @ @ @ @ @ @ @ others .
Magicians take advantage of the ability to redirect gaze and attention to enhance their sleight of hand .
Visual artists can manipulate attributes of a work of art such as luminosity in order to direct visual gaze to specific features of a painting .
In dance , gaze can be used to convey the power dynamics between the characters on stage , while musicians rely upon gaze as an essential means of communication , using it to help in cuing and synchronization during the performances of orchestras and choirs .
Gaze @ @ @ @ @ @ @ us in many ways , subconsciously and quickly , so quickly and energetically that one investigator described the effects of gaze as “ exuberant.
” And while magicians may know how to manipulate gaze to enhance their illusions , the illusion of gaze as a physical force is magic enough .

Have you ever sensed that someone might be watching you? You get a prickly feeling at the back of your neck and turn to see a stranger staring at you across the room. It sometimes seems that we can feel a person’s gaze as a physical sensation. And, from a single glance, we can tell a lot about a person, such as their moods, intentions and focus. Is their gaze dangerous, interesting or attractive? Do they stare directly or glance to the side? If “eyes are the window into the soul,” then a glance reveals far more than we know.
Recent studies demonstrate that humans attribute gaze with physical properties. We create tacit mental schemes in which the visual attention of others is computed as a forceful beam emitted from the viewer’s eye and directed at the object of interest. These mental schemes allow us to take cognitive shortcuts to process peoples’ visual attention quickly and efficiently.
Gaze is an elemental form of communication that can coordinate activities and convey social dynamics without a gesture or spoken word. It requires a rapid interpretation of the meaning behind another’s gaze, but the trade-off for the speed of that interpretation is the mistaken understanding of gaze as something that can move things in our environment. These studies show that this interpretation is subconscious and automatic, and that it occurs even in those who would consciously deny that vision exerts any force.
You might expect that such an erroneous interpretation would be detrimental. In fact, while there seem to be few if any adverse consequences these findings may underlie rich and diverse cultural references to the outward force and power of the gaze. The results of the experiment demonstrate an ancient human idea linking gaze with physical properties. This notion, as old as the Greeks, is known as the “extramission” theory of vision. Extramission literally means “sending out,” and the extramission theory is the belief that vision is a force emitted from the eye. It is an intuitive understanding of vision common among children that persists among many adults. In contrast, the modern visual theory is called “intromission,” and is based on the notion that vision results from light entering the eyes.
Using a series of ingeniously simple experiments in one study, researchers found that subjects associate gaze with a physical force. Subjects viewed a computer display that had an image of a tube, roughly the size of the end of the paper towel roll, standing vertically on a table. At one end of the table was an image of a face gazing at the tube (researchers dubbed the face avatar Kevin). Subjects were instructed to tilt the tube towards Kevin’s image using specific keys on a keyboard until they felt the tube had reached the critical angle at which it would tip over. The critical angle reported by subjects depended upon whether Kevin was blindfolded. If Kevin was perceived as gazing at the tube, the critical angle was greater than when Kevin was blindfolded, suggesting that his gaze was impressing some force upon the tube that needed to be overcome for the tube to fall.
Likewise, in a second experiment, subjects were presented with the image of Kevin either gazing at the tube or gazing away in the opposite direction and asked to report the critical angle of the tube before toppling. Once again, the angle depended on Kevin’s perceived gaze and was much greater when Kevin gazed straight at the tube compared to when Kevin was turned away. Finally, in a third experiment subjects were told that Kevin was either looking directly at the tube or focused beyond the tube at a wall at the other end of the table. Once again, the critical tilt angle was greater if subjects thought Kevin was gazing at the tube rather than the wall.
Participants in this study were screened for belief in extramission beforehand and those who expressed such a belief were excluded. So, it is remarkable that all remaining participants intuited a force based upon gaze, even while they disavowed any belief in such a force emanating from the eye. What has emerged in this study is an implicit, unrecognized cognitive shortcut employed by humans to rapidly process gaze, but which leads us to comprehend it as something that affects objects in the world.
To test this theory, researchers employed brain imaging methods to demonstrate that gaze perception activates brain regions associated with motion. In this case, subjects were presented images of moving dots or an image of a face gazing at a tree. Brain activity was measured using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), which detects brain activity by measuring local brain oxygen consumption. Areas of the brain involved in processing visual motion (the right middle temporal cortical areas) and in understanding the thoughts and intentions of others (the right temporal parietal junction) were involved in processing the face’s gaze when staring at the tree. However, just as with the blindfolded Kevin, these fMRI signals halted when the face in these studies was blindfolded. Here, the brain processes the gaze as movement even when no movement occurs, again showing an extraordinary misapprehension of reality.
Belief in the power of gaze appears in stories and myths throughout the centuries. Medusa turned people to stone with her gaze. The catoblepas and, more famously, the basilisk, both described by Pliny the Elder, could kill with the single glance. In Shakespeare’s Venus and Adonis, Venus complains of the pain caused by Adonis’ glance: “Thine eye darts forth the fire that burneth me.” While in John Donne’s The Ecstasy, the glances of the lovers intertwine and bind them as if they were their clasped hands. And, of course, no list of cultural references to gaze would be complete without mention of the Jedi master or Superman.
Gaze is a powerful element of social interaction. It reveals where a person is focusing their attention, and, when directed at us, it can have a strong emotional effect. Gaze can play a role in social organization, with a direct gaze demonstrating social dominance and gaze aversion indicating passivity. Eye contact can elicit alertness and bodily awareness, while indifference or aversion to eye contact can signal emotional or neurological disorders. When we direct our gaze at something or someone, others who notice subconsciously direct their gaze in the same manner. We can take advantage of this tendency to deliberately influence the gaze of others. Magicians take advantage of the ability to redirect gaze and attention to enhance their sleight of hand. Visual artists can manipulate attributes of a work of art such as luminosity in order to direct visual gaze to specific features of a painting. In dance, gaze can be used to convey the power dynamics between the characters on stage, while musicians rely upon gaze as an essential means of communication, using it to help in cuing and synchronization during the performances of orchestras and choirs.
Gaze is a means of communication that impacts us in many ways, subconsciously and quickly, so quickly and energetically that one investigator described the effects of gaze as “exuberant.” And while magicians may know how to manipulate gaze to enhance their illusions, the illusion of gaze as a physical force is magic enough.