scientificamerican--2020-08-12--Aardvarks are Ailing Amidst Heat and Drought

The aardvark is a rare animal—alphabetically at least , where it ’ s the first creature listed in English language dictionaries .
And they ’ re usually rarely seen in their African home .
But that ’ s because they ’ re nocturnal , solitary and live in underground burrows .
They ’ re actually fairly common .
And in recent years they ’ re being seen more frequently .
While that may be fortunate for tourists and wildlife enthusiasts , it 's not really good news for the aardvarks themselves .
`` Southern Africa is becoming gradually hotter and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ is occurring there more rapidly than in other parts of the world .
And I therefore chose to dedicate my PhD to investigating how climate change affects the aardvark in the hottest and driest habitat in Africa in which they occur , which is the Kalahari semi-desert . ''
Nora Weyer from South Africa 's University of the Witwatersrand .
For more than three years , she and her team followed the activities of a dozen aardvarks in the Kalahari via tiny tracking units they implanted in the animals .
Aardvarks generally sleep @ @ @ @ @ @ @ emerge during the cooler nighttime hours to eat ants and termites .
But Weyer found that during a drought they were likely to be active during the day .
The Kalahari is always arid , but one summer a lack of rain caused a big vegetation die off .
Ants and termites disappeared , which made aardvarks go hungry .
`` Usually , the period of the year during which very little food is available is winter .
So if you come out during a winter day , it 's nice and warm-ish @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the cold , dry winter , a hungry aardvark has trouble regulating its body temperature to stay warm .
The survival strategy they evolved is to become more active during the day , when it is warmer outside .
But Weyer 's aardvarks were going hungry during the summer .
Their strategy of being active during the day , which is a smart move during the winter , became a trap during the summer : they faced hunger , heat stress and dehydration .
The findings are in the journal Frontiers in Physiology @ @ @ @ @ @ @ al .
Increased diurnal activity is indicative of energy deficit in a nocturnal mammal , the aardvark . ]
`` These energy-saving mechanisms that aardvarks showed were not always enough for them to save energy during droughts .
And several aardvarks in our study , and also other aardvarks , died . ''
Climate change is expected to bring more frequent droughts and heat waves to the Kalahari .
And aardvarks might not be able to cope .
Aardvarks are ecosystem engineers .
Their burrows are used by warthogs , porcupines , meerkats @ @ @ @ @ @ @ shelter from heat and cold .
If aardvarks ca n't survive a hotter , drier Kalahari , what does it mean for the rest of their ecological community ?

Full Transcript
The aardvark is a rare animal—alphabetically, at least, where it’s the first creature listed in English-language dictionaries. And they’re usually rarely seen in their African home. But that’s because they’re nocturnal, solitary and live in underground burrows. They’re actually fairly common. And in recent years, they’re being seen more frequently. While that may be fortunate for tourists and wildlife enthusiasts, it’s not really good news for the aardvarks themselves.
“Southern Africa is becoming gradually hotter and drier due to climate change, which is occurring there more rapidly than in other parts of the world. And I therefore chose to dedicate my Ph.D. to investigating how climate change affects the aardvark in the hottest and driest habitat in Africa in which they occur, which is the Kalahari semi-desert.”
Nora Weyer from South Africa’s University of the Witwatersrand. For more than three years, she and her team followed the activities of a dozen aardvarks in the Kalahari via tiny tracking units they implanted in the animals.
Aardvarks generally sleep during the heat of the day and emerge during the cooler nighttime hours to eat ants and termites. But Weyer found that during a drought, they were likely to be active during the day. The Kalahari is always arid, but one summer a lack of rain caused a big vegetation die-off. Ants and termites disappeared, which made aardvarks go hungry.
“Usually, the period of the year during which very little food is available is winter. So if you come out during a winter day, it’s nice and warmish and not too hot.”
During the cold, dry winter, a hungry aardvark has trouble regulating its body temperature to stay warm. The survival strategy they evolved is to become more active during the day, when it is warmer outside.
But Weyer’s aardvarks were going hungry during the summer. Their strategy of being active during the day, which is a smart move during the winter, became a trap during the summer: they faced hunger, heat stress and dehydration. The findings are in the journal Frontiers in Physiology. [Nora Marie Weyer et al., Increased diurnal activity is indicative of energy deficit in a nocturnal mammal, the aardvark]
“These energy-saving mechanisms that aardvarks showed were not always enough for them to save energy during droughts. And several aardvarks in our study, and also other aardvarks, died.”
Climate change is expected to bring more frequent droughts and heat waves to the Kalahari. And aardvarks might not be able to cope.
Aardvarks are ecosystem engineers. Their burrows are used by warthogs, porcupines, meerkats and even by endangered pangolins as shelter from heat and cold. If aardvarks can’t survive a hotter, drier Kalahari, what does it mean for the rest of their ecological community?
—Jason G. Goldman
[The above text is a transcript of this podcast.]


scientificamerican--2020-08-11--How to Mine the Oceans Sustainably

How to Mine the Oceans Sustainably

Our ocean holds the key to some of our world ’ s greatest challenges , such as combating climate change and ensuring affordable and clean energy for all .
One of those challenges will be to satisfy the increasing global demand for critical minerals to support a future society based on renewable energy and technology .
As the world ’ s population continues to grow , from 7.8 billion today to 9.6 billion in 2050 , it will be critical to find new sources of reliable and ethically sourced minerals .
If extracted in an environmentally sustainable manner , metals @ @ @ @ @ @ @ nickel , copper , manganese and cobalt , have the potential to help meet our global clean energy goals .
But to make this happen , we need deep-sea research to help us identify the necessary measures to prevent and reduce potential environmental impacts .
Deep-sea research is also critical to advancing global knowledge of marine biodiversity and ecological processes .
Deep-sea science and innovation will be key to delivering a more sustainable ocean .
It is also essential to the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals ( SDGs ) , and it @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the Blue Economy .
Recently , 30 of the world ’ s top scientists and legal experts in the United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea ( UNCLOS ) wrapped up the 26th annual session of the International Seabed Authority ( ISA ) Legal and Technical Commission .
At the top of the agenda was a question : How can we sustainably develop marine mineral resources , whilst ensuring protection of the environment and biodiversity ?
In a report published recently , the World Bank estimates that more than three billion @ @ @ @ @ @ @ needed by 2050 to achieve the goals of the Paris Agreement and limit global warming to 2 degrees Celsius or less .
The production of battery metals such as lithium and cobalt alone will have to increase by nearly 500 percent by 2050 to meet the growing demand for clean energy technologies such as wind , solar and geothermal power , as well as the energy storage required to transition to a low-carbon economy .
Many of these critical minerals are found in the deep seabed .
Three types of resources have been @ @ @ @ @ @ @ polymetallic sulfides and cobalt-rich manganese crusts .
ISA ’ s mandate under international law is to ensure these minerals are extracted in a sustainable way : through a global regulatory framework that contains robust safeguards to ensure the protection of the marine environment and biodiversity .
ISA is an international organization made up of 167 member states and the European Union , along with 92 observers including 30 observer states , 32 intergovernmental organizations and 30 NGOs .
ISA is mandated under UNCLOS to regulate all mineral-related activities in the deep seabed area @ @ @ @ @ @ @ just over half of the seafloor of the ocean .
This area and its mineral resources have been set aside by UNCLOS as the common heritage of mankind , to be accessed only with the permission of ISA .
Financial and other economic benefits derived from activities undertaken in this area must be equitably shared among all States .
Over the last 25 years , ISA has developed a comprehensive set of regulations dealing with exploration for mineral resources in this area .
Building on this , and as exploration has become increasingly @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to develop regulations for the extraction of these minerals , known as the Mining Code .
Once in place , the code will require any mining companies planning to undertake activities in the international seabed area to abide by stringent global environmental requirements .
ISA and UNESCO ’ s Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission ( IOC-UNESCO ) have joined forces to harness the potential of deep-sea exploration , and contribute to the objectives of the U.N .
Decade , by improving mapping of the seabed and enhancing ocean observing networks .
By building an inclusive @ @ @ @ @ @ @ are meeting their strategic objectives and those of the U.N .
Decade to universally foster action to advance ocean science for the benefit of humankind .
Multilateral partnerships of this nature will be key to achieving the goals of the U.N .
Decade .
One of our most important assets in this effort are data .
ISA has harnessed the power of the industry involved in exploration work to gather critical scientific knowledge to inform decision-making processes .
Over the past 30 years , there have been more than 800 research cruises to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ alone , totalling more than 6,000 days at sea .
In financial terms , this represents an investment in marine science of several hundreds of million dollars .
This includes seafloor mapping , at extremely fine levels of resolution , of some of the deepest and most remote parts of the seafloor , as well as collection and analysis of thousands of rock and sediment samples , and biological specimens .
Most of what we have learnt about the geology of the seabed and its environmental characteristics over the past 25 years has @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ISA .
And it is through this research—broadly shared with all stakeholders through ISA ’ s first-ever deep-sea flora and fauna database , called DeepData—that we will be able to identify the best measures required to protect the marine environment now and into the future .
DeepData is a repository of all the information on these ecosystems found by deep-sea explorers under contract by ISA .
We now have the opportunity to deliver transformative knowledge on the biodiversity of the seabed , and to create a legacy of new data , tools and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
Together , we must strive to foster a greater understanding of our ocean and help deliver a more sustainable future for all .

Our ocean holds the key to some of our world’s greatest challenges, such as combating climate change and ensuring affordable and clean energy for all.
One of those challenges will be to satisfy the increasing global demand for critical minerals to support a future society based on renewable energy and technology. As the world’s population continues to grow, from 7.8 billion today to 9.6 billion in 2050, it will be critical to find new sources of reliable and ethically sourced minerals.
If extracted in an environmentally sustainable manner, metals found in the deep seabed such as nickel, copper, manganese and cobalt, have the potential to help meet our global clean energy goals.
But to make this happen, we need deep-sea research to help us identify the necessary measures to prevent and reduce potential environmental impacts. Deep-sea research is also critical to advancing global knowledge of marine biodiversity and ecological processes.
Deep-sea science and innovation will be key to delivering a more sustainable ocean. It is also essential to the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and it is pivotal to unleashing the promises of the Blue Economy.
Recently, 30 of the world’s top scientists and legal experts in the United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) wrapped up the 26th annual session of the International Seabed Authority (ISA) Legal and Technical Commission. At the top of the agenda was a question: How can we sustainably develop marine mineral resources, whilst ensuring protection of the environment and biodiversity?
MEETING CLEAN ENERGY DEMAND
In a report published recently, the World Bank estimates that more than three billion tons of minerals and metals will be needed by 2050 to achieve the goals of the Paris Agreement and limit global warming to 2 degrees Celsius or less.
The production of battery metals such as lithium and cobalt alone will have to increase by nearly 500 percent by 2050 to meet the growing demand for clean energy technologies such as wind, solar and geothermal power, as well as the energy storage required to transition to a low-carbon economy.
Many of these critical minerals are found in the deep seabed. Three types of resources have been identified so far: polymetallic nodules, polymetallic sulfides and cobalt-rich manganese crusts. ISA’s mandate under international law is to ensure these minerals are extracted in a sustainable way: through a global regulatory framework that contains robust safeguards to ensure the protection of the marine environment and biodiversity.
A GLOBAL RESOURCE
ISA is an international organization made up of 167 member states and the European Union, along with 92 observers including 30 observer states, 32 intergovernmental organizations and 30 NGOs. ISA is mandated under UNCLOS to regulate all mineral-related activities in the deep seabed area beyond national jurisdiction. That’s just over half of the seafloor of the ocean.
This area and its mineral resources have been set aside by UNCLOS as the common heritage of mankind, to be accessed only with the permission of ISA. Financial and other economic benefits derived from activities undertaken in this area must be equitably shared among all States.
Over the last 25 years, ISA has developed a comprehensive set of regulations dealing with exploration for mineral resources in this area. Building on this, and as exploration has become increasingly mature, a major effort is underway to develop regulations for the extraction of these minerals, known as the Mining Code. Once in place, the code will require any mining companies planning to undertake activities in the international seabed area to abide by stringent global environmental requirements.
SUSTAINABILITY PARTNERSHIPS
ISA and UNESCO’s Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC-UNESCO) have joined forces to harness the potential of deep-sea exploration, and contribute to the objectives of the U.N. Decade, by improving mapping of the seabed and enhancing ocean observing networks.
By building an inclusive and innovative partnership, ISA and IOC-UNESCO are meeting their strategic objectives and those of the U.N. Decade to universally foster action to advance ocean science for the benefit of humankind.
Multilateral partnerships of this nature will be key to achieving the goals of the U.N. Decade.
SHARING DATA
One of our most important assets in this effort are data. ISA has harnessed the power of the industry involved in exploration work to gather critical scientific knowledge to inform decision-making processes.
Over the past 30 years, there have been more than 800 research cruises to the Clarion-Clipperton Zone in the Pacific Ocean alone, totalling more than 6,000 days at sea. In financial terms, this represents an investment in marine science of several hundreds of million dollars.
This includes seafloor mapping, at extremely fine levels of resolution, of some of the deepest and most remote parts of the seafloor, as well as collection and analysis of thousands of rock and sediment samples, and biological specimens.
Most of what we have learnt about the geology of the seabed and its environmental characteristics over the past 25 years has come from the exploration projects authorized by ISA.
And it is through this research—broadly shared with all stakeholders through ISA’s first-ever deep-sea flora and fauna database, called DeepData—that we will be able to identify the best measures required to protect the marine environment now and into the future.
DeepData is a repository of all the information on these ecosystems found by deep-sea explorers under contract by ISA. We now have the opportunity to deliver transformative knowledge on the biodiversity of the seabed, and to create a legacy of new data, tools and training to effectively protect the marine environment.
Together, we must strive to foster a greater understanding of our ocean and help deliver a more sustainable future for all.


scientificamerican--2020-08-11--Amazon Deforestation Falls Where Land Is Under Indigenous Control

Indigenous people in the Brazilian Amazon with full ownership rights over their land saw a two-thirds decrease in the rate of deforestation on their land in the world 's most important rainforest , a new study finds .
At issue is the impact of homologation — the final step in designating land as Indigenous property in a process laid out in Brazil 's Constitution — on destruction of Earth 's largest tropical forest .
After homologation , economic activity ca n't be carried out in designated lands without consent from both the tribe and the federal government .
And the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ California , San Diego , and Columbia University found that between 1982 and 2016 , deforestation inside homologated territories declined from an average of about 3 % a year to 1 % a year .
`` Indigenous tribes are really linked to biodiversity management and reductions in deforestation , and it 's because they live on the land and I think they have kind of a very keen sense of what it would mean to upset the ecosystem around them , '' said Kathryn Baragwanath , a UCSD researcher and one of the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of the property rights gives them the legal basis to actually ensure that these ecosystems are preserved in the lands where they live . ''
But no new land has been demarcated for Indigenous use under Brazilian President Jair Bolsonaro or Michel Temer , his immediate predecessor .
And Bolsonaro has taken steps to erode protections for Indigenous land and to make it easier for non-Indigenous Brazilians to carry out economic activity in the Amazon .
He has tried to shift more authority , including over Indigenous land demarcation , away from agencies @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and toward the Ministry of Agriculture , which has a vested interest in expanding development .
Not all of those efforts have been successful , but the study , published yesterday in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , estimates that the Bolsonaro and Temer presidencies ' refusal to grant Indigenous communities control of new territories may have resulted in an extra 1.5 million hectares of deforestation per year .
That translates to carbon dioxide leaked into the global atmosphere that would otherwise remain sequestered in the Amazon .
But Bolsonaro has @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the world has a stake in Brazil 's land-use policies because of climate change .
He used his speech at the start of the U.N. General Assembly gathering in New York last year to declare it a `` fallacy '' that the Amazon is the `` lungs of the world '' because of its role in sequestering carbon .
He said his foreign critics `` called into question that which we hold as the most sacred value : our own sovereignty . ''
Deforestation and forest fires are linked in the Amazon .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ land for agricultural development in the region , often by farmers who believe they have the president 's support in conducting burns .
Last year 's vicious fire season drew international attention , but Bolsonaro vehemently denied that the scale of the burn was unusual or that his policies had anything to do with it .
Eduardo Taveira , environment secretary for the Brazilian state of Amazonas , told E & E News in New York City last September that the Amazonian fires are `` a cultural and historical process . ''
`` @ @ @ @ @ @ @ new technologies to use better the land , try to produce without fire , '' said Taveira , who attended last year 's Climate Week NYC as part of a delegation of environment ministers tasked with addressing global concern about the Amazon fires .
But Taveira , who is from the same political party as Bolsonaro , called it a local issue .
`` The world has a wrong perspective about this problem in the Amazon , '' he said .
`` I know we have some issues to address for the next @ @ @ @ @ @ @ have fires in the forest .
But the problem is how to control the fire , how to deliver for the farmers new technology to fight the fires . ''
This year , Bolsonaro 's government has introduced some new measures to stop illegal burning , but early indications are that the fire season could be worse than last year 's .
Reprinted from Climatewire with permission from E & E News .
E & E provides daily coverage of essential energy and environmental news at www.eenews.net .

Indigenous people in the Brazilian Amazon with full ownership rights over their land saw a two-thirds decrease in the rate of deforestation on their land in the world's most important rainforest, a new study finds.
At issue is the impact of homologation — the final step in designating land as Indigenous property in a process laid out in Brazil's Constitution — on destruction of Earth's largest tropical forest. After homologation, economic activity can't be carried out in designated lands without consent from both the tribe and the federal government. And the study by researchers at the University of California, San Diego, and Columbia University found that between 1982 and 2016, deforestation inside homologated territories declined from an average of about 3% a year to 1% a year.
"Indigenous tribes are really linked to biodiversity management and reductions in deforestation, and it's because they live on the land and I think they have kind of a very keen sense of what it would mean to upset the ecosystem around them," said Kathryn Baragwanath, a UCSD researcher and one of the study's co-authors. "The granting of the property rights gives them the legal basis to actually ensure that these ecosystems are preserved in the lands where they live."
But no new land has been demarcated for Indigenous use under Brazilian President Jair Bolsonaro or Michel Temer, his immediate predecessor. And Bolsonaro has taken steps to erode protections for Indigenous land and to make it easier for non-Indigenous Brazilians to carry out economic activity in the Amazon. He has tried to shift more authority, including over Indigenous land demarcation, away from agencies whose mission is to protect Indigenous rights and toward the Ministry of Agriculture, which has a vested interest in expanding development.
Not all of those efforts have been successful, but the study, published yesterday in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, estimates that the Bolsonaro and Temer presidencies' refusal to grant Indigenous communities control of new territories may have resulted in an extra 1.5 million hectares of deforestation per year.
That translates to carbon dioxide leaked into the global atmosphere that would otherwise remain sequestered in the Amazon. But Bolsonaro has pushed back fiercely against all suggestions that the world has a stake in Brazil's land-use policies because of climate change. He used his speech at the start of the U.N. General Assembly gathering in New York last year to declare it a "fallacy" that the Amazon is the "lungs of the world" because of its role in sequestering carbon.
He said his foreign critics "called into question that which we hold as the most sacred value: our own sovereignty."
Fire cycle
Deforestation and forest fires are linked in the Amazon. Fires are frequently set intentionally to clear land for agricultural development in the region, often by farmers who believe they have the president's support in conducting burns. Last year's vicious fire season drew international attention, but Bolsonaro vehemently denied that the scale of the burn was unusual or that his policies had anything to do with it.
Eduardo Taveira, environment secretary for the Brazilian state of Amazonas, told E&E News in New York City last September that the Amazonian fires are "a cultural and historical process."
"We need to find new ways, new technologies to use better the land, try to produce without fire," said Taveira, who attended last year's Climate Week NYC as part of a delegation of environment ministers tasked with addressing global concern about the Amazon fires.
But Taveira, who is from the same political party as Bolsonaro, called it a local issue.
"The world has a wrong perspective about this problem in the Amazon," he said. "I know we have some issues to address for the next year; probably next year we'll have fires in the forest. But the problem is how to control the fire, how to deliver for the farmers new technology to fight the fires."
This year, Bolsonaro's government has introduced some new measures to stop illegal burning, but early indications are that the fire season could be worse than last year's.
Reprinted from Climatewire with permission from E&E News. E&E provides daily coverage of essential energy and environmental news at www.eenews.net.


scientificamerican--2020-08-11--Why Hasn't Africa Gone Digital?

Why Hasn't Africa Gone Digital?

COVID-19 has spurred massive changes in how the world works , learns and does business—changes made possible by the internet and digital infrastructure .
But without power , there is no internet .
The entire digital ecosystem relies so heavily on reliable , affordable electricity , from home internet connections to the base stations that underpin cellular networks to the data centers that store the internet ’ s content .
This means that countries with weak power infrastructures—which were already struggling to compete in the new digital economy—are facing bleak prospects in a post-lockdown world in which Zoom , Dropbox @ @ @ @ @ @ @ or school .
Sub-Saharan Africa , where the digital transition has long been touted as a way to leapfrog traditional infrastructure , is especially vulnerable to falling behind .
Chronic challenges in the power sector here—such as low electrification rates , high prices and appalling reliability—have significantly impacted the region ’ s digital competitiveness .
And COVID-19 is already widening this gap across the region .
Lack of electricity , for instance , is undermining Kenya ’ s ability to deliver its remote learning initiative , while professionals stuck working from home are @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a weak power grid that has been impacted by heavy rains , vandalism and technical faults during the lockdown .
Even South Africa , which has by far the most power capacity on the continent , will struggle to power basic mobile data for simple WhatsApp calls once its dramatic “ load-shedding ” program of scheduled countrywide blackouts is reinstituted after the lockdown ends .
The power-internet gap in sub-Saharan Africa will only get wider in an increasingly digital post-COVID world , if current energy system challenges remain unaddressed .
This vicious cycle @ @ @ @ @ @ @ by the data centers that sit at the core of the internet 's infrastructure—centralizing data storage , computing power and networking equipment .
Data centers drive energy efficiency in the digital ecosystem as they concentrate equipment and processes , but as such they are large power consumers with strong sensitivity to changes in electricity cost and reliability .
In fact , power generally represents two thirds of their operating costs .
Demand for more Africa-based data centers is growing dramatically to serve the continent 's burgeoning internet use with low-latency and high-bandwidth connectivity @ @ @ @ @ @ @ expected to grow to 600 megawatts in 2020—and just that growth alone represents a projected capital investment of more than $ 1 billion in the region .
Notably , it is local African businesses , including Vodacom/Safaricom , MTN , Rack Center Nigeria , Africa Data Centers and Teraco that are at the forefront of this growing industry , owning more than 95 percent of data center capacity in the region .
But without cheap and reliable power , data centers wo n't get built in Africa—wasting a tremendous economic opportunity .
And @ @ @ @ @ @ @ with hefty data requirements like remote work , digital classrooms , video streaming and data analytics—all especially needed in the COVID-19 era—will start to crumble .
And sub-Saharan Africa will start to see slower growth in its technological industries overall .
No power , no digital transformation .
The same factors that make data centers such a challenge for business-as-usual approaches to energy in sub-Saharan Africa should also make them the catalyst for new approaches that could finally begin to close the continent 's energy gap .
Governments and actors in the information @ @ @ @ @ @ @ power sectors need to seize the moment and come together to solve sub-Saharan Africa 's power-internet nexus challenge .
Governments must put solving power at the heart of spurring Africa ’ s digital transformation .
Ministries of information and communication technology need to turn to their ministry of energy colleagues and emphasize , “ No power , no digital transformation.
” And governments need to support and hold accountable their local utilities to increase grid capacity , improve the overall health of our power systems , invest in infrastructure across transmission and distribution @ @ @ @ @ @ @ current pandemic moment , governments must especially recognize the power and ICT sectors both as responses to the current crisis and as building blocks for long-term resilience .
Data centers can also drive the solution , offering immense collaborative possibilities between the ICT and power sectors for transforming how and at what cost power is delivered to the region .
They can be a new source of stable long-term revenue for the many utilities that are in financial distress and hungry for creditworthy customers .
This is because data centers offer utilities a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , 24/7 electricity consumer—one that uses power “ off-peak ” at night , which otherwise often goes to waste .
Moreover , data centers can actually improve the technical quality of the grid—both through their own investments and in partnership with utilities .
Often , data centers will pay the local utility to build out the substations and large capacity power lines to their site , public infrastructure that later benefits other customers .
Plus , many global data center customers are demanding renewable or low carbon power .
This provides a willing @ @ @ @ @ @ @ renewable energy generation .
Recognizing that digital infrastructure can benefit the growth of the entire power sector , sub-Saharan Africa utilities can develop specific strategies to attract “ anchor ICT customers ” through expedited power connections , aligned tariffs , and availability of renewable energy .
The COVID-19 pandemic has deepened the reliance of every nation on the digital economy—and has exposed the lack of readiness in sub-Saharan Africa to provide inexpensive , reliable and abundant power to that economy moving forward .
This lack of readiness is n't just about the health @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 's about the economic emergency that the region will face if decision-makers do n't prioritize a robust ICT-power sector partnership .
No power , no internet , no digital transformation .
And no chance of making sub-Saharan Africa more economically competitive in a world recovering from COVID-19 where being digital is assumed , not aspirational .

COVID-19 has spurred massive changes in how the world works, learns and does business—changes made possible by the internet and digital infrastructure.
But without power, there is no internet. The entire digital ecosystem relies so heavily on reliable, affordable electricity, from home internet connections to the base stations that underpin cellular networks to the data centers that store the internet’s content. This means that countries with weak power infrastructures—which were already struggling to compete in the new digital economy—are facing bleak prospects in a post-lockdown world in which Zoom, Dropbox and Google Classroom are the new office or school.
Sub-Saharan Africa, where the digital transition has long been touted as a way to leapfrog traditional infrastructure, is especially vulnerable to falling behind. Chronic challenges in the power sector here—such as low electrification rates, high prices and appalling reliability—have significantly impacted the region’s digital competitiveness.
And COVID-19 is already widening this gap across the region. Lack of electricity, for instance, is undermining Kenya’s ability to deliver its remote learning initiative, while professionals stuck working from home are faced with frequent internet disruptions due to a weak power grid that has been impacted by heavy rains, vandalism and technical faults during the lockdown. Even South Africa, which has by far the most power capacity on the continent, will struggle to power basic mobile data for simple WhatsApp calls once its dramatic “load-shedding” program of scheduled countrywide blackouts is reinstituted after the lockdown ends.
The power-internet gap in sub-Saharan Africa will only get wider in an increasingly digital post-COVID world, if current energy system challenges remain unaddressed. This vicious cycle in the power-internet nexus is best exemplified by the data centers that sit at the core of the internet's infrastructure—centralizing data storage, computing power and networking equipment. Data centers drive energy efficiency in the digital ecosystem as they concentrate equipment and processes, but as such they are large power consumers with strong sensitivity to changes in electricity cost and reliability. In fact, power generally represents two thirds of their operating costs.
Demand for more Africa-based data centers is growing dramatically to serve the continent's burgeoning internet use with low-latency and high-bandwidth connectivity. Africa's data center industry is expected to grow to 600 megawatts in 2020—and just that growth alone represents a projected capital investment of more than $1 billion in the region. Notably, it is local African businesses, including Vodacom/Safaricom, MTN, Rack Center Nigeria, Africa Data Centers and Teraco that are at the forefront of this growing industry, owning more than 95 percent of data center capacity in the region. But without cheap and reliable power, data centers won't get built in Africa—wasting a tremendous economic opportunity.
And without robust data center development, activities with hefty data requirements like remote work, digital classrooms, video streaming and data analytics—all especially needed in the COVID-19 era—will start to crumble. And sub-Saharan Africa will start to see slower growth in its technological industries overall. No power, no digital transformation.
The same factors that make data centers such a challenge for business-as-usual approaches to energy in sub-Saharan Africa should also make them the catalyst for new approaches that could finally begin to close the continent's energy gap.
Governments and actors in the information and communications technology (ICT) and power sectors need to seize the moment and come together to solve sub-Saharan Africa's power-internet nexus challenge.
Governments must put solving power at the heart of spurring Africa’s digital transformation. Ministries of information and communication technology need to turn to their ministry of energy colleagues and emphasize, “No power, no digital transformation.”
And governments need to support and hold accountable their local utilities to increase grid capacity, improve the overall health of our power systems, invest in infrastructure across transmission and distribution, and increase reliability. In the current pandemic moment, governments must especially recognize the power and ICT sectors both as responses to the current crisis and as building blocks for long-term resilience.
Data centers can also drive the solution, offering immense collaborative possibilities between the ICT and power sectors for transforming how and at what cost power is delivered to the region.
They can be a new source of stable long-term revenue for the many utilities that are in financial distress and hungry for creditworthy customers. This is because data centers offer utilities a new category of the reliable, large-scale, 24/7 electricity consumer—one that uses power “off-peak” at night, which otherwise often goes to waste.
Moreover, data centers can actually improve the technical quality of the grid—both through their own investments and in partnership with utilities. Often, data centers will pay the local utility to build out the substations and large capacity power lines to their site, public infrastructure that later benefits other customers.
Plus, many global data center customers are demanding renewable or low carbon power. This provides a willing customer aligned to government mandates to boost renewable energy generation. Recognizing that digital infrastructure can benefit the growth of the entire power sector, sub-Saharan Africa utilities can develop specific strategies to attract “anchor ICT customers” through expedited power connections, aligned tariffs, and availability of renewable energy.
The COVID-19 pandemic has deepened the reliance of every nation on the digital economy—and has exposed the lack of readiness in sub-Saharan Africa to provide inexpensive, reliable and abundant power to that economy moving forward.
This lack of readiness isn't just about the health emergency facing the region now. It's about the economic emergency that the region will face if decision-makers don't prioritize a robust ICT-power sector partnership.
No power, no internet, no digital transformation. And no chance of making sub-Saharan Africa more economically competitive in a world recovering from COVID-19 where being digital is assumed, not aspirational.


scientificamerican--2020-08-11--Cracking the Neural Code with Phantom Smells

In the opening of The Matrix , columns of strange keyboard characters stream down an old monochrome computer screen .
They represent the peeled back digital curtain of experience , reminding us that every taste , smell and color that we experience is , in a way , a deception—a story computed bit by literal bit in a brain working in the quiet darkness of the skull .
We don ’ t need special hardware to enter the Matrix .
We just need to understand the special hardware we ’ ve been given : our brain .
The reason we @ @ @ @ @ @ @ liking , Matrix-style , is that we don ’ t really understand the neural code .
There ’ s no Alan Turing for the brain who can study an arbitrary pattern of brain activity and say , “ Right now an image of a beige cat is being experienced.
” Neuroscientists know that the specific contents of a sensory experience have to do with the timing and/or spatial patterning of brain activity .
But when put to the test , with even the most basic mechanistic questions , our ignorance quickly shows itself @ @ @ @ @ @ @ had fired a half-second earlier , would you still see the beige cat ?
What if three additional cells had fired in quick succession ?
In response , all neuroscientists could do was shrug and make some generic claims about codes , patterns and the likely importance of timing .
But Dmitry Rinberg of New York University and his research group may have just uncovered a partial answer .
In a fascinating recent paper , the researchers used precisely controlled pinpoints of light to directly insert a phantom smell into a mouse ’ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ nose altogether .
They were also able to systematically adjust that pattern and test how the animal ’ s experience changed .
The study is one of the most audacious and systematic efforts at “ experience hacking ” yet .
Implanting a specific , reproducible , easily adjustable and completely synthetic percept is no small feat .
To do so , Rinberg and his colleagues used genetically modified mice with a light-sensitive channelrhodopsin protein smuggled into their olfactory neurons .
When light shines on one of these modified neurons , it evokes neural @ @ @ @ @ @ @ are the basic language of the nervous system—with timing that can be exquisitely controlled .
Because the part of the brain that processes sensory information from the nose is conveniently located near the surface of the skull , the researchers were able to skip the nose and write in an artificial odor of their own design .
By stimulating the olfactory brain directly , the team essentially had complete control over which cells were active , what their arrangement was and when they were activated .
The scientists had created odors made to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ light switch .
Most natural smells will evoke widespread and temporally complex activity in the brain .
For the purposes of probing and hacking the neural code , though , the researchers opted for a modest and manageable pattern of six small points , randomly distributed and stimulated in succession—a six-note neuronal melody lasting about a third of a second .
The mice will never be able to tell us for sure , but this pattern of “ notes ” presumably smelled like something to them because it could be distinguished from other @ @ @ @ @ @ @ patterns in behavioral tests .
In the key part of the experiment , the mice played a game of “ spot the difference.
” Because they were first trained to exhibit a licking behavior only in response to the original six-note template , the experimenters could measure how much licking persisted as the pattern was adjusted—and thus how much the mice were fooled by the change .
If a specific change—say , leaving out just the first note of the ensemble—was detected easily and reliably , then it was an indicator that that @ @ @ @ @ @ @ In contrast , if , for example , changing the identity of the sixth neuronal note wasn ’ t noticeable , then it had less of an effect on the experience .
Consistent with earlier work , much of which was done by Rinberg ’ s group , the early neuronal notes tended to be more information-rich and important for perception than the later ones .
The precise timing of neural activity , more generally , was found to be a key variable for odor coding , which contradicted some influential models that @ @ @ @ @ @ @ timing differences .
The brain , it seems , cares about the ordering of its notes into melodic patterns—and doesn ’ t just hear them as stacked chords .
Ideas about neural coding were historically developed from the study of communication systems and computers , meaning they tended to be pretty abstract and framed in terms of idealized “ gates , ” “ nodes ” and “ channels.
” While there ’ s no shortage of high-level theoretical proposals concerning the storage , representation and routing of information in the brain , they @ @ @ @ @ @ @ arena of flesh , blood and behavior .
Given this situation , support for theoretical paradigms is often based on evidence that is indirect and correlative , even if it is highly suggestive , and tantalizingly analogous to processes observed in digital computers .
The beauty of the Rinberg team ’ s paradigm is that it so readily makes the abstract testable ( at least , in the context of olfactory coding ) .
As an example of such a test , take the theoretical proposal of “ bar code ” representation , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a pattern of neural activity—a single cell failing to fire , for example—results in a completely different sensory experience .
If this hypothetical highly-finicky coding scheme were actually used by the brain , then a single small tweak of the original six-note template pattern should be just as noticeable as a completely new pattern .
In fact , the researchers found nearly the opposite .
Just like one flat note in a melody doesn ’ t render it completely unrecognizable , one slightly nudged note of the original odor “ melody ” only @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
Importantly , as more “ wrong notes ” were deliberately added , they had a simple additive effect on experience ( at least , as measured by the animal ’ s ability to distinguish between smells ) .
Perhaps most impressively of all , the team incorporated this observation about the code ’ s linearity into a statistical model that accurately predicted the mouse ’ s behavioral response to any arbitrary scrambling of the six-note pattern .
The paper is an unprecedentedly granular look at what , in the brain , makes @ @ @ @ @ @ @ The answer , at least in the context of olfaction , has a humanistic ring to it : an experience is a matter of timing and the sum of many small particulars .
It ’ s still not clear how generalizable these results are outside of olfaction or sensation more broadly .
Different brain areas have different computational goals and constraints , so it may be more accurate to speak of the organ ’ s various codes than some single all-purpose one .
We ’ re also still mostly in the dark about @ @ @ @ @ @ @ up a complex perceptual experience that ’ s chosen in advance .
Rinberg and his colleagues ’ work very strategically only asked how things smelled relative to a starting template .
For now , the Matrix is still a long way off .
But if we were to achieve full-on Matrix-like simulations in the distant future , this study will have been an important early milestone .

In the opening of The Matrix, columns of strange keyboard characters stream down an old monochrome computer screen. They represent the peeled back digital curtain of experience, reminding us that every taste, smell and color that we experience is, in a way, a deception—a story computed bit by literal bit in a brain working in the quiet darkness of the skull. We don’t need special hardware to enter the Matrix. We just need to understand the special hardware we’ve been given: our brain.
The reason we can’t bend experience to our liking, Matrix-style, is that we don’t really understand the neural code. There’s no Alan Turing for the brain who can study an arbitrary pattern of brain activity and say, “Right now an image of a beige cat is being experienced.” Neuroscientists know that the specific contents of a sensory experience have to do with the timing and/or spatial patterning of brain activity. But when put to the test, with even the most basic mechanistic questions, our ignorance quickly shows itself. If a couple of brain cells had fired a half-second earlier, would you still see the beige cat? What if three additional cells had fired in quick succession? In response, all neuroscientists could do was shrug and make some generic claims about codes, patterns and the likely importance of timing. But Dmitry Rinberg of New York University and his research group may have just uncovered a partial answer.
In a fascinating recent paper, the researchers used precisely controlled pinpoints of light to directly insert a phantom smell into a mouse’s olfactory brain centers, bypassing the nose altogether. They were also able to systematically adjust that pattern and test how the animal’s experience changed. The study is one of the most audacious and systematic efforts at “experience hacking” yet.
Implanting a specific, reproducible, easily adjustable and completely synthetic percept is no small feat. To do so, Rinberg and his colleagues used genetically modified mice with a light-sensitive channelrhodopsin protein smuggled into their olfactory neurons. When light shines on one of these modified neurons, it evokes neural activity—the brief electrical “spikes” that are the basic language of the nervous system—with timing that can be exquisitely controlled. Because the part of the brain that processes sensory information from the nose is conveniently located near the surface of the skull, the researchers were able to skip the nose and write in an artificial odor of their own design. By stimulating the olfactory brain directly, the team essentially had complete control over which cells were active, what their arrangement was and when they were activated. The scientists had created odors made to order with the flip of a simple light switch.
Most natural smells will evoke widespread and temporally complex activity in the brain. For the purposes of probing and hacking the neural code, though, the researchers opted for a modest and manageable pattern of six small points, randomly distributed and stimulated in succession—a six-note neuronal melody lasting about a third of a second. The mice will never be able to tell us for sure, but this pattern of “notes” presumably smelled like something to them because it could be distinguished from other odors, as well as other six-note patterns in behavioral tests.
In the key part of the experiment, the mice played a game of “spot the difference.” Because they were first trained to exhibit a licking behavior only in response to the original six-note template, the experimenters could measure how much licking persisted as the pattern was adjusted—and thus how much the mice were fooled by the change. If a specific change—say, leaving out just the first note of the ensemble—was detected easily and reliably, then it was an indicator that that note was consequential to the experience. In contrast, if, for example, changing the identity of the sixth neuronal note wasn’t noticeable, then it had less of an effect on the experience. Consistent with earlier work, much of which was done by Rinberg’s group, the early neuronal notes tended to be more information-rich and important for perception than the later ones. The precise timing of neural activity, more generally, was found to be a key variable for odor coding, which contradicted some influential models that had argued that the brain disregards fine-scaled timing differences. The brain, it seems, cares about the ordering of its notes into melodic patterns—and doesn’t just hear them as stacked chords.
Ideas about neural coding were historically developed from the study of communication systems and computers, meaning they tended to be pretty abstract and framed in terms of idealized “gates,” “nodes” and “channels.” While there’s no shortage of high-level theoretical proposals concerning the storage, representation and routing of information in the brain, they are quite difficult to test in the arena of flesh, blood and behavior. Given this situation, support for theoretical paradigms is often based on evidence that is indirect and correlative, even if it is highly suggestive, and tantalizingly analogous to processes observed in digital computers. The beauty of the Rinberg team’s paradigm is that it so readily makes the abstract testable (at least, in the context of olfactory coding).
As an example of such a test, take the theoretical proposal of “bar code” representation, in which even the slightest change in a pattern of neural activity—a single cell failing to fire, for example—results in a completely different sensory experience. If this hypothetical highly-finicky coding scheme were actually used by the brain, then a single small tweak of the original six-note template pattern should be just as noticeable as a completely new pattern. In fact, the researchers found nearly the opposite. Just like one flat note in a melody doesn’t render it completely unrecognizable, one slightly nudged note of the original odor “melody” only changed the mouse’s experience slightly. Importantly, as more “wrong notes” were deliberately added, they had a simple additive effect on experience (at least, as measured by the animal’s ability to distinguish between smells). Perhaps most impressively of all, the team incorporated this observation about the code’s linearity into a statistical model that accurately predicted the mouse’s behavioral response to any arbitrary scrambling of the six-note pattern.
The paper is an unprecedentedly granular look at what, in the brain, makes a given experience that particular experience. The answer, at least in the context of olfaction, has a humanistic ring to it: an experience is a matter of timing and the sum of many small particulars. It’s still not clear how generalizable these results are outside of olfaction or sensation more broadly. Different brain areas have different computational goals and constraints, so it may be more accurate to speak of the organ’s various codes than some single all-purpose one. We’re also still mostly in the dark about how to stimulate the brain to cook up a complex perceptual experience that’s chosen in advance. Rinberg and his colleagues’ work very strategically only asked how things smelled relative to a starting template. For now, the Matrix is still a long way off. But if we were to achieve full-on Matrix-like simulations in the distant future, this study will have been an important early milestone.


scientificamerican--2020-08-11--Our Planet, Our Choice

Our Planet, Our Choice

In September 2019 millions of workers and students around the world walked out of their schools and off their jobs to protest governments ’ inaction on climate change .
For the protesters , the consequences of global warming were all too apparent .
Last year Australia ’ s Black Summer bushfires brought destruction and death , killing hundreds of millions of animals .
Hotter conditions have triggered record-setting ice melt , heat waves , low crop yields and bleached reefs—and have even , some argue , set the scene for the novel coronavirus pandemic .
Scientists have known for decades @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
But in the past several years we have gained a better scientific understanding of when , where and how the impacts of global warming are being felt .
To catch up on the basics , this issue opens with a useful primer on what ’ s happening to our planet—and dispels the tiresome arguments made by climate change deniers .
Accelerating rates of Arctic ice melting promise to raise sea levels and displace millions , and thawing permafrost threatens to double the warming that has already occurred .
The impacts on human @ @ @ @ @ @ @ jet streams and weather patterns and fuels more extreme storms .
Intensified floods , droughts and storms alter how and where people live and how diseases spread among us .
Shifting climatic conditions force human emigrations and boost geopolitical tensions among nation-states .
The changes will affect nearly every species on earth .
As the oceans absorb carbon dioxide from the air , the waters acidify and imperil creatures therein .
Biologists are breeding heat-tolerant corals for transplantation to the most endangered reefs .
The reproductive and migration patterns of Arctic plants and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ help threatened trees , dendrologists have developed a type of human-controlled artificial selection that pinpoints species better able to survive .
The specter of climate change is frightening , but we ’ ve also learned more about effective mitigation strategies .
Urban design can ease the release of CO and other harmful human outputs .
Stronger policies that disincentivize fossil-fuel harvesting and place a smart tax on carbon can help us put a dent in U.S. emissions .
To avoid the worst outcomes , we will likely still need to extract some CO @ @ @ @ @ @ @ are emerging to answer the call .
We can ’ t mobilize these solutions soon enough .
A recent report from the National Bureau of Economic Research stated that financial suffering as a result of climate change will be widespread—damaging infrastructure , gutting labor productivity and affecting agricultural yields for the worse .
We ’ re facing a complete reordering of the earth ’ s ecosystems and the human societies that depend on them .
No doubt remains about the problems that face our planet .
But how , or if , we @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .

In September 2019 millions of workers and students around the world walked out of their schools and off their jobs to protest governments’ inaction on climate change. For the protesters, the consequences of global warming were all too apparent. Last year Australia’s Black Summer bushfires brought destruction and death, killing hundreds of millions of animals. Hotter conditions have triggered record-setting ice melt, heat waves, low crop yields and bleached reefs—and have even, some argue, set the scene for the novel coronavirus pandemic. Scientists have known for decades that climate change would spur dire outcomes. But in the past several years we have gained a better scientific understanding of when, where and how the impacts of global warming are being felt.
To catch up on the basics, this issue opens with a useful primer on what’s happening to our planet—and dispels the tiresome arguments made by climate change deniers. Accelerating rates of Arctic ice melting promise to raise sea levels and displace millions, and thawing permafrost threatens to double the warming that has already occurred.
The impacts on human society are unavoidable. Hotter air manipulates jet streams and weather patterns and fuels more extreme storms. Intensified floods, droughts and storms alter how and where people live and how diseases spread among us. Shifting climatic conditions force human emigrations and boost geopolitical tensions among nation-states.
The changes will affect nearly every species on earth. As the oceans absorb carbon dioxide from the air, the waters acidify and imperil creatures therein. Biologists are breeding heat-tolerant corals for transplantation to the most endangered reefs. The reproductive and migration patterns of Arctic plants and animals continue to shift, and to help threatened trees, dendrologists have developed a type of human-controlled artificial selection that pinpoints species better able to survive.
The specter of climate change is frightening, but we’ve also learned more about effective mitigation strategies. Urban design can ease the release of CO 2 and other harmful human outputs. Stronger policies that disincentivize fossil-fuel harvesting and place a smart tax on carbon can help us put a dent in U.S. emissions. To avoid the worst outcomes, we will likely still need to extract some CO 2 from the atmosphere, and innovative technologies are emerging to answer the call.
We can’t mobilize these solutions soon enough. A recent report from the National Bureau of Economic Research stated that financial suffering as a result of climate change will be widespread—damaging infrastructure, gutting labor productivity and affecting agricultural yields for the worse. We’re facing a complete reordering of the earth’s ecosystems and the human societies that depend on them. No doubt remains about the problems that face our planet. But how, or if, we fix them is entirely up to us.