History of Halloween

Editor 's note : The COVID-19 pandemic is still in full swing , meaning that Halloween 2020 must be celebrated differently compared to previous years .
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has published helpful guidelines for celebrating Halloween and other fall holidays in ways that will keep you safe and healthy .
Parents and kids alike are gearing up for Halloween , scrambling to put the final touches on costumes and Jack-o'-lanterns , not to mention stocking up on candy for Trick or Treaters .
But before you rush out on Oct. 31 , for what some consider @ @ @ @ @ @ @ here ’ s a look back at the origins of Halloween and all of its odd traditions .
Halloween , also known as All Hallows ' Eve , can be traced back about 2,000 years to a pre-Christian Celtic festival held around Nov. 1 called Samhain ( pronounced `` sah-win '' ) , loosely translates to `` summer 's end '' in Gaelic , according to the Indo-European Etymological Dictionaries .
[ 13 Halloween Superstitions & Traditions Explained ] Because ancient records are sparse and fragmentary , the exact nature of Samhain is @ @ @ @ @ @ @ an annual communal meeting at the end of the harvest year , a time to gather resources for the winter months and bring animals back from the pastures .
Samhain is also thought to have been a time of communing with the dead , according to folklorist John Santino .
`` There was a belief that it was a day when spirits of the dead would cross over into the other world , '' Santino told Live Science .
Such moments of transition in the year have always been thought to be special @ @ @ @ @ @ @ provides a safe way to play with the concept of death , Santino said .
People dress up as the living dead , and fake gravestones adorn front lawns — activities that would n't be tolerated at other times of the year , he said .
But according to Nicholas Rogers , a history professor at York University in Toronto and author of `` Halloween : From Pagan Ritual to Party Night '' ( Oxford University Press , 2003 ) , `` there is no hard evidence that Samhain was specifically devoted to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ `` According to the ancient sagas , Samhain was the time when tribal peoples paid tribute to their conquerors and when the sidh [ ancient mounds ] might reveal the magnificent palaces of the gods of the underworld , '' Rogers wrote .
Samhain was less about death or evil than about the changing of seasons and preparing for the dormancy ( and rebirth ) of nature as summer turned to winter , he said .
Though a direct connection between Halloween and Samhain has never been proven , many scholars believe that @ @ @ @ @ @ @ All Hallows ' Mass , celebrated on Nov. 1 ) and Samhain , are so close together on the calendar that they influenced each other and later combined into the celebration now called Halloween .
The tradition of dressing in costumes and trick-or-treating may go back to the practice of `` mumming '' and `` guising , '' in which people would disguise themselves and go door-to-door , asking for food , Santino said .
Early costumes were usually disguises , often woven out of straw , he said , and sometimes people @ @ @ @ @ @ @ skits .
The practice may also be related to the medieval custom of `` souling '' in Britain and Ireland , when poor people would knock on doors on Hallowmas ( Nov. 1 ) , asking for food in exchange for prayers for the dead .
Trick-or-treating did n't start in the United States until World War II , but American kids were known to go out on Thanksgiving and ask for food — a practice known as Thanksgiving begging , Santino said .
`` Mass solicitation rituals are pretty common , and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ '' Santino said .
While one tradition did n't necessarily cause the others , they were `` similar and parallel , '' he said .
These days , the `` trick '' part of the phrase `` trick or treat '' is mostly an empty threat , but pranks have long been a part of the holiday .
By the late 1800s , the tradition of playing tricks on Halloween was well established .
In the United States and Canada , the pranks included tipping over outhouses , opening farmers ' gates and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and 1930s , the celebrations more closely resembled an unruly block party , and the acts of vandalism got more serious .
Some people believe that because pranking was starting to get dangerous and out of hand , parents and town leaders began to encourage dressing up and trick-or-treating as a safe alternative to doing pranks , Santino said .
However , Halloween was as much a time for festivities and games as it was for playing tricks or asking for treats .
Apples are associated with Halloween , both as a treat @ @ @ @ @ @ @ apples , a game that since the colonial era in America was used for fortune-telling .
Legend has it that the first person to pluck an apple from the water-filled bucket without using his or her hands would be the first to marry , according to the book `` Halloween and Commemorations of the Dead '' ( Chelsea House , 2009 ) by Roseanne Montillo .
Apples were also part of another form of marriage prophecy .
According to legend , on Halloween ( sometimes at the stroke of midnight ) , young @ @ @ @ @ @ @ continuous strip and throw it over her shoulder .
The apple skin would supposedly land in the shape of the first letter of her future husband 's name .
Another Halloween ritual involved looking in a mirror at midnight by candlelight , for a future husband 's face was said to appear .
( A scary variation of this later became the `` Bloody Mary '' ritual familiar to many school kids . )
Like many such childhood games , it was likely done in fun , though at least some people took @ @ @ @ @ @ @ expressed concern that Halloween is somehow satanic because of its roots in pagan ritual .
However , ancient Celts did not worship anything resembling the Christian devil and had no concept of it .
In fact , the Samhain festival had long since vanished by the time the Catholic Church began persecuting witches in its search for satanic cabals .
And , of course , black cats do not need to have any association with witchcraft to be considered evil — simply crossing their path is considered bad luck any time of year @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , writing in `` American Folklore : An Encyclopedia '' ( Garland , 1996 ) , noted that `` Halloween beliefs and customs were brought to North America with the earliest Irish immigrants , then by the great waves of Irish immigrants fleeing the famines of the first half of the nineteenth century .
Known in the North American continent since colonial days , by the middle of the twentieth century Halloween had become largely a children 's holiday . ''
Since that time , the holiday 's popularity increased dramatically as adults @ @ @ @ @ @ @ schools , campuses and commercial haunted houses ) have embraced the event .
Through the ages , various supernatural entities — including fairies and witches — came to be associated with Halloween , and more than a century ago in Ireland , the event was said to be a time when spirits of the dead could return to their old haunting grounds .
Dressing up as ghosts or witches became fashionable , though as the holiday became more widespread and more commercialized ( and with the arrival of mass-manufactured costumes ) , the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ greatly expanded beyond monsters to include everything from superheroes to princesses to politicians .
This article was originally published in 2014 and has been updated by Alina Bradford , Tanya Lewis and Jeanna Bryner .
Read more about Halloween in this CNN report on creepy clowns ; on History.com ; and in this National Geographic video on YouTube .

Editor's note: The COVID-19 pandemic is still in full swing, meaning that Halloween 2020 must be celebrated differently compared to previous years. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has published helpful guidelines for celebrating Halloween and other fall holidays in ways that will keep you safe and healthy.
Parents and kids alike are gearing up for Halloween, scrambling to put the final touches on costumes and Jack-o'-lanterns, not to mention stocking up on candy for Trick or Treaters. But before you rush out on Oct. 31, for what some consider the spookiest day of the year, here’s a look back at the origins of Halloween and all of its odd traditions.
Samhain
Halloween, also known as All Hallows' Eve, can be traced back about 2,000 years to a pre-Christian Celtic festival held around Nov. 1 called Samhain (pronounced "sah-win"), loosely translates to "summer's end" in Gaelic, according to the Indo-European Etymological Dictionaries. [13 Halloween Superstitions & Traditions Explained]
Because ancient records are sparse and fragmentary, the exact nature of Samhain is not fully understood; but it was an annual communal meeting at the end of the harvest year, a time to gather resources for the winter months and bring animals back from the pastures. Samhain is also thought to have been a time of communing with the dead, according to folklorist John Santino.
"There was a belief that it was a day when spirits of the dead would cross over into the other world," Santino told Live Science. Such moments of transition in the year have always been thought to be special and supernatural, he added.
Halloween provides a safe way to play with the concept of death, Santino said. People dress up as the living dead, and fake gravestones adorn front lawns — activities that wouldn't be tolerated at other times of the year, he said.
But according to Nicholas Rogers, a history professor at York University in Toronto and author of "Halloween: From Pagan Ritual to Party Night" (Oxford University Press, 2003), "there is no hard evidence that Samhain was specifically devoted to the dead or to ancestor worship.
"According to the ancient sagas, Samhain was the time when tribal peoples paid tribute to their conquerors and when the sidh [ancient mounds] might reveal the magnificent palaces of the gods of the underworld," Rogers wrote. Samhain was less about death or evil than about the changing of seasons and preparing for the dormancy (and rebirth) of nature as summer turned to winter, he said.
Though a direct connection between Halloween and Samhain has never been proven, many scholars believe that because All Saints' Day (or All Hallows' Mass, celebrated on Nov. 1) and Samhain, are so close together on the calendar that they influenced each other and later combined into the celebration now called Halloween.
Costumes and trick-or-treating
The tradition of dressing in costumes and trick-or-treating may go back to the practice of "mumming" and "guising," in which people would disguise themselves and go door-to-door, asking for food, Santino said. Early costumes were usually disguises, often woven out of straw, he said, and sometimes people wore costumes to perform in plays or skits.
The practice may also be related to the medieval custom of "souling" in Britain and Ireland, when poor people would knock on doors on Hallowmas (Nov. 1), asking for food in exchange for prayers for the dead.
Trick-or-treating didn't start in the United States until World War II, but American kids were known to go out on Thanksgiving and ask for food — a practice known as Thanksgiving begging, Santino said.
"Mass solicitation rituals are pretty common, and are usually associated with winter holidays," Santino said. While one tradition didn't necessarily cause the others, they were "similar and parallel," he said.
Tricks and games
These days, the "trick" part of the phrase "trick or treat" is mostly an empty threat, but pranks have long been a part of the holiday.
By the late 1800s, the tradition of playing tricks on Halloween was well established. In the United States and Canada, the pranks included tipping over outhouses, opening farmers' gates and egging houses. But by the 1920s and 1930s, the celebrations more closely resembled an unruly block party, and the acts of vandalism got more serious.
Some people believe that because pranking was starting to get dangerous and out of hand, parents and town leaders began to encourage dressing up and trick-or-treating as a safe alternative to doing pranks, Santino said.
However, Halloween was as much a time for festivities and games as it was for playing tricks or asking for treats. Apples are associated with Halloween, both as a treat and in the game of bobbing for apples, a game that since the colonial era in America was used for fortune-telling. Legend has it that the first person to pluck an apple from the water-filled bucket without using his or her hands would be the first to marry, according to the book "Halloween and Commemorations of the Dead" (Chelsea House, 2009) by Roseanne Montillo.
Apples were also part of another form of marriage prophecy. According to legend, on Halloween (sometimes at the stroke of midnight), young women would peel an apple into one continuous strip and throw it over her shoulder. The apple skin would supposedly land in the shape of the first letter of her future husband's name.
Another Halloween ritual involved looking in a mirror at midnight by candlelight, for a future husband's face was said to appear. (A scary variation of this later became the "Bloody Mary" ritual familiar to many school kids.) Like many such childhood games, it was likely done in fun, though at least some people took it seriously.
Christian/Irish Influence
Some evangelical Christians have expressed concern that Halloween is somehow satanic because of its roots in pagan ritual. However, ancient Celts did not worship anything resembling the Christian devil and had no concept of it. In fact, the Samhain festival had long since vanished by the time the Catholic Church began persecuting witches in its search for satanic cabals. And, of course, black cats do not need to have any association with witchcraft to be considered evil — simply crossing their path is considered bad luck any time of year.
As for modern Halloween, Santino, writing in "American Folklore: An Encyclopedia" (Garland, 1996), noted that "Halloween beliefs and customs were brought to North America with the earliest Irish immigrants, then by the great waves of Irish immigrants fleeing the famines of the first half of the nineteenth century. Known in the North American continent since colonial days, by the middle of the twentieth century Halloween had become largely a children's holiday."
Since that time, the holiday's popularity increased dramatically as adults, communities and institutions (such as schools, campuses and commercial haunted houses) have embraced the event.
Through the ages, various supernatural entities — including fairies and witches — came to be associated with Halloween, and more than a century ago in Ireland, the event was said to be a time when spirits of the dead could return to their old haunting grounds. Dressing up as ghosts or witches became fashionable, though as the holiday became more widespread and more commercialized (and with the arrival of mass-manufactured costumes), the selection of disguises for kids and adults greatly expanded beyond monsters to include everything from superheroes to princesses to politicians.
This article was originally published in 2014 and has been updated by Alina Bradford, Tanya Lewis and Jeanna Bryner.
Additional resources
Read more about Halloween in this CNN report on creepy clowns; on History.com; and in this National Geographic video on YouTube.


livescience--2020-10-19--Coronavirus outbreak: Live updates

Coronavirus outbreak: Live updates

Refresh
90-year-old woman in the UK receives first dose of Pfizer vaccine, FDA review confirms vaccine is safe and effective A 90-year-old woman (who will turn 91 next week) became the first in the world to be given Pfizer's coronavirus vaccine outside of clinical trials, according to the BBC. Margaret Keenan, who is originally from Northern Ireland, was given the vaccine at the University Hospital in Coventry, England. She received the first of 800,000 doses expected to be administered in the U.K. in the coming weeks, according to the BBC. "I feel so privileged to be the first person vaccinated against Covid-19," Keenan said, according to the BBC."It's the best early birthday present I could wish for because it means I can finally look forward to spending time with my family and friends in the new year after being on my own for most of the year." "My advice to anyone offered the vaccine is to take it. If I can have it at 90, then you can have it too," she added. Up to four million doses of Pfizer's vaccine is expected to be given to people in the U.K. by the end of the month. Meanwhile, a 53-page Food and Drug Administration (FDA) review published Tuesday (Dec. 8) confirmed that Pfizer's vaccine is safe and effective, according to The Washington Post.
Pfizer's COVID-19 vaccine starts to work just 10 days after 1st dose Pfizer's new COVID-19 vaccine starts to protect people from the novel coronavirus just 10 days after the first dose, according to new documents from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The documents were released on Tuesday (Dec. 8), two days before a meeting of the FDA's vaccine advisory panel, which will vote on whether to recommend authorization of the vaccine in the U.S, Live Science reported . The FDA analyzed data from Pfizer's phase 3 clinical trial, which included some 44,000 people in the United States, Brazil, Argentina, Germany and Turkey, about half of whom received the vaccine while the other half received a placebo. Both groups received two shots, 21 days apart. About 10 days after the first dose, there was a noticeable drop-off in new COVID-19 cases in the vaccine group compared with the placebo group, indicating that even one dose provides some protection, the report said. However, scientists don't know how long the protection from a single dose will last, so it will still be important for people to receive two shots, according to The New York Times . Overall, the vaccine was 52% effective after the first dose and 95% effective after the second dose, the report said.
People with significant allergies should avoid Pfizer vaccine, UK warns The U.K.'s Regulatory Agency is advising people with a history of "significant" allergic reactions to avoid Pfizer's coronavirus vaccine, after two National Health Service members developed severe allergic reactions to it on Tuesday (Dec. 8), Live Science reported. "As is common with new vaccines the MHRA (Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency) have advised on a precautionary basis that people with a significant history of allergic reactions do not receive this vaccination after two people with a history of significant allergic reactions responded adversely yesterday," Stephen Powis, the national medical director for England's National Health Service said in a statement on Wednesday (Dec. 9). Both workers have a history of severe allergies and carry adrenaline auto injectors (such as EpiPens) around with them, according to The Guardian. Shortly after receiving the vaccine, both NHS workers developed anaphylaxis-like symptoms, or severe allergic reactions, but have recovered after receiving treatment. The MHRA will investigate further and Pfizer and BioNTech will support their investigation, according to Reuters. "Allergic reaction occurs with quite a number of vaccines, and perhaps even more frequently with drugs. So it is not unexpected," Stephen Evans, a professor of pharmacoepidemiology at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine said in remarks to journalists published by Britain's Science Media Center. “What would be wise, as the MHRA have already advised, would be for anyone who has known severe allergic reaction such that they need to carry an EpiPen, to delay having a vaccination until the reason for the allergic reaction has been clarified," he said. For the general population this does not mean that they would need to be anxious about receiving the vaccination, he added. "One has to remember that even things like marmite [a quintessential British food spread] can cause unexpected severe allergic reactions.”
Canada approves Pfizer's COVID-19 vaccine Canada has authorized Pfizer's new COVID-19 vaccine, with the first doses expected to be administered there as early as next week. Health Canada, the country's health regulatory agency, said in a statement on Wednesday (Dec. 9) that it had determined that the vaccine "meets the Department's stringent safety, efficacy and quality requirements for use in Canada," according to CTV News . "We expect vaccines to arrive maybe as early as Monday [Dec. 14]. It takes time to prepare the vaccine," said Maj.-Gen. Dany Fortin, the top military general leading the vaccine rollout for the Public Health Agency of Canada, according to CTV News. The first doses could be administered by the middle of next week, he said. Canada is the third country in the world to authorize the Pfizer vaccine, following the United Kingdom and Bahrain. The country should receive up to 249,000 doses of the vaccine by the end of December, and has purchased 20 million doses total, with the option to purchase more, CTV News reported.
Daily COVID-19 death toll in the U.S. reaches record-high, surpassed 9/11 On Wednesday (Dec. 9), the U.S. recorded 3,124 new COVID-19 deaths, the highest daily death toll to date, according to CNN . In comparison, 2,977 people were killed in the 9/11 attacks. The U.S. has now recorded 280,488 deaths related to the virus, according to The COVID Tracking Project . A forecast from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention predicts that the total death toll can increase to between 332,000 and 362,000 by January 2, according to CNN. There are currently 106,671 people hospitalized with the virus in the U.S.; 20,903 of them are currently in the ICU and 7,621 are currently on a ventilator, according to the COVID Tracking Project. On Thursday (Dec. 10), the Vaccines and Related Biological Products Advisory Committee is set to meet to discuss an emergency use authorization for the Pfizer-BioNTech coronavirus vaccine.
FDA panel recommends authorization of Pfizer's COVID-19 vaccine A panel of experts for the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has recommended that the agency authorize Pfizer's new COVID-19 vaccine in the United States. On Thursday (Dec. 10), the panel voted 17 to 4 to recommend that the vaccine receive emergency use authorization (EUA) for people ages 16 and older, according to The New York Times . The FDA typically follows the advice of its panels, and so today's vote is an important step towards the vaccine's authorization. It is anticipated that the agency will officially authorize the vaccine on Saturday (Dec. 12), the Times reported. Several countries have already authorized Pfizer's vaccine, including Canada, the United Kingdom and Bahrain.
Vaccine approval could come this weekend, as U.S. continues to record high daily death tolls On Thursday (Dec. 10), the U.S. recorded another 2,902 COVID-19 deaths, a day after the country set a record of 3,253 deaths, according to Reuters . “Probably for the next 60 to 90 days, we’re going to have more deaths per day than we had on 9/11 or we had at Pearl Harbor,” Dr. Robert Redfield, the director of the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, told the Council on Foreign Relations on Thursday, according to Reuters. "The reality is the vaccine approval this week is not going to really impact that, I think, to any degree for the next 60 days." On Thursday, the Vaccines and Related Biological Products Advisory Committee discussed, voted and recommended that the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) should grant an emergency use authorization for Pfizer's coronavirus vaccine. The Pfizer vaccine has already been approved in the U.K. and in Canada, and FDA approval for use in the U.S. could come this weekend.
Australia abandons local COVID-19 vaccine after it caused false-positive HIV tests An Australian COVID-19 vaccine that had shown promising results in early trials is being abandoned after researchers found that the shot caused false-positive results on HIV tests. On Friday (Dec. 11), Australian officials said they had canceled an order for some 51 million doses of the vaccine, which was being developed by The University of Queensland and CSL Ltd., a local biotech company, according to The New York Times . In an early trial with 216 participants, the vaccine appeared to be safe and to produce a robust immune response against COVID-19, according to a statement from CSL . But some volunteers falsely tested positive for HIV, which officials feared would undermine trust in the vaccine, the Times reported. The vaccine contained small fragments of an HIV protein, which helped stabilize the vaccine. Some of the participants developed antibodies against these fragments, and these antibodies triggered false positive results on some HIV tests. It's important to note that there is no way for the vaccine to cause an HIV infection, because it contains harmless fragments of the virus.
ICU nurse in New York becomes first person in the US to receive a coronavirus vaccine outside of clinical trials New York, the worst-hit state at the start of the pandemic, just became the first to administer a coronavirus vaccine outside of clinical trials, kicking off a long, massive effort to vaccinate the American people, Live Science reported. Around 9 a.m. E.T. on Monday (Dec. 14), the very first dose of Pfizer and BioNTech's coronavirus vaccine was given to Sandra Lindsay, an intensive care nurse in Long Island Jewish Medical Center in Queens, New York, according to The New York Times. This comes as the U.S. continues to battle a massive wave of the virus that has more than 109,000 people currently hospitalized, according to The COVID Tracking Project. Since the start of the pandemic, New York has recorded more than 780,000 cases of COVID-19 and more than 35,100 deaths, according to The Times. "This vaccine is exciting because I believe this is the weapon that will end the war," Gov. Andrew Cuomo said during a live broadcast of the first vaccination. "It's the beginning of the last chapter of the book, but now we just have to do it."
FDA analysis confirms Moderna's vaccine is safe and effective, emergency authorization is likely to come Friday A new briefing document from the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) released on Tuesday (Dec. 15) confirmed that Moderna's COVID-19 vaccine is safe and effective, according to NPR . Moderna's COVID-19 vaccine is 94% effective and has "a favorable safety profile," according to the document. A panel of experts is set to meet on Thursday (Dec. 17) to discuss the effectiveness and safety of the vaccine and vote on whether or not the FDA should grant emergency approval to the vaccine. Last week, the same panel voted that the FDA should grant emergency approval to Pfizer's coronavirus vaccine; the authorization came a day late and the first doses were given on Monday (Dec. 15). The FDA will likely approve Moderna's vaccine for emergency use on Friday (Dec. 18), according to The New York Times .
FDA authorizes first over-the-counter COVID-19 test The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has authorized the first over-the-counter COVID-19 test, which can be done at home and does not need a prescription. The test, made by the Australia-based company Ellume, provides results in as little as 20 minutes, according to a statement from the FDA . It is a "lateral flow antigen test," meaning it works in a similar way to a home pregnancy test, by running a "liquid sample along a surface with reactive molecules," the FDA said. The test works in conjunction with a smartphone app. Users take a nasal swab and place their sample in an analyzer, which communicates to the smartphone app via Bluetooth. The results are delivered through the app, and also reported to public health authorities (based on a user's zip code) through a secure cloud connection, the company said . Ellume is ramping up production of its test, and expects to produce three million tests in January 2021, and 20 million within the first half of 2021.
A wild mink tested positive for the coronavirus, it may be the first wild animal to have a confirmed case A wild mink in Utah may be the first "free-ranging, native wild animal" confirmed to be infected with SARS-CoV-2, according to the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), Live Science reported. The mink was found near a mink farm and likely picked up the infection from the farmed mink. There's no evidence that the virus spread to other minks or wild animals; but if the virus does begin circulating in wild animals, it could pick up mutations that COVID-19 vaccines may not protect well against if it spreads back to humans, according to the report. "If it does [establish a reservoir], then we've got a long-term issue here, where this virus has the potential to be with us for millennia," Sarah Olson, associate director of the health program at the Wildlife Conservation Society, told Vox. The U.S. Department of Agriculture's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service has screened other animal species for the virus near mink farms in Utah, Michigan and Wisconsin, but all of them have tested negative so far, according to a statement.
An FDA advisory panel will meet today to vote on whether to recommend Moderna's coronavirus vaccine for emergency approval On Thursday (Dec. 17), a Food and Drug Administration (FDA) advisory committee will meet to determine whether to recommend that Moderna’s coronavirus vaccine for emergency approval, according to The New York Times . This panel, composed of independent experts, will vote on whether to recommend the vaccine after hearing from the company, FDA scientists and the public, according to The Times. Last week, the same panel of experts met to discuss Pfizer’s coronavirus vaccine and voted to recommend emergency authorization; the authorization came the next day. There have now been more than 16.9 million cases of COVID-19 in the U.S. and more than 307,000 deaths, according to the Johns Hopkins dashboard . There are currently 113,090 people hospitalized across the country with more than 21,900 of them in the ICU and 7,778 on a ventilator, according to The COVID Tracking Project .
California becomes new epicenter of COVID-19 in U.S. California, once praised for its early pandemic response, is now the new U.S. hotspot for COVID-19 infections. The state has reported an alarming surge in cases, breaking previous records for daily cases. On Thursday (Dec. 17), the state reported some 50,000 COVID-19 infections in 24 hours, and nearly 100,000 in 48 hours, according to The Washington Post . That's more than the daily cases reported in many countries, including India, Germany and Britain, the Post reported. The state also set a record for daily deaths on Thursday, with 379 fatalities reported, up from the previous high of 293. Capacity in intensive care units has also dropped dramatically, with hospitals in Southern California reporting zero percent capacity on Thursday. "I want to be very clear: Our hospitals are under siege, and our model shows no end in sight," said Christina Ghaly, director of Los Angeles County's Department of Health Services, the Post reported.
FDA expected to authorize Moderna's vaccine on Friday The U.S. Food and Drug Administration is expected to authorize Moderna's COVID-19 vaccine on Friday (Dec. 18). Once authorized, it will be the second coronavirus vaccine to get the green light from the agency in just a week, with Pfizer's vaccine gaining authorization on Dec. 11. Moderna is expected to begin shipping 5.9 million doses of its vaccine on Sunday (Dec. 20), with the first deliveries arriving Monday (Dec. 21), according to The New York Times . Unlike the Pfizer vaccine, Moderna's vaccine does not require storage in extremely cold temperatures, and states are hoping to distribute the vaccine to rural hospitals and community health centers, the Times reported.
COVID-19 cases continue to surge across the U.S. There have now been more than 17 million cases of COVID-19 in the U.S. and more than 300,000 deaths, according to The COVID Tracking Project . There are currently 114,237 people hospitalized across the country and 21,900 people in the ICU. California is facing a massive surge in cases; the state reported 41,012 new COVID-19 cases and 300 new deaths on Thursday (Dec. 17), according to the state's COVID-19 dashboard . By comparison, at the start of November, California was reporting a seven-day average of 4,183 cases, compared to an average of 38,774 on Thursday, according to CNN . "We're experiencing an explosive and very deadly surge," Dr. Barbara Ferrer, Los Angeles County Public Health Director said, according to CNN. Intensive care unit beds are rapidly filling up across the state; there are only 1,234 ICU beds left available in California, according to the dashboard. Current closures across California are impacting around 98% of the state's population, according to CNN.
London and southeast England are under an emergency lockdown Following concerns of a new version of the coronavirus that might be more transmissible, London and most of southeast England are now under an emergency lockdown, according to The New York Times . Prime Minister Boris Johnson announced the lockdown on Saturday (Dec. 19) citing concerns that the mutated virus — which was detected a couple of weeks ago in southeast England — may be as much as 70% more transmissible than previous versions, according to the Times. The new version of the coronavirus is detected in more than 60% of new infections in London and have also been detected in several other countries, according to the Times. But it's not yet clear if this coronavirus version is any more infectious than the last and thorough analyses will need to be conducted before conclusions are made, scientists cautioned. In South Africa, a similar version of the virus has been found in up to 90% of new cases detected since mid-November, according to The Times . It's common for viruses to mutate, and this particular coronavirus has mutated many times since the start of the pandemic. But experts told The Times that it would take years for the virus to mutate enough such that it would make the current vaccines developed to fight COVID-19 ineffective.
Biden gets Pfizer's COVID-19 vaccine President-elect Joe Biden received a dose of Pfizer's new COVID-19 vaccine on Monday (Dec. 21), according to The New York Times . He received the shot on camera at the Christiana Hospital in Newark, Delaware. "I'm doing this to demonstrate that people should be prepared when it's available to take the vaccine. There's nothing to worry about," Biden said.
Antarctica has its 1st COVID-19 outbreak The first COVID-19 cases have been reported in Antarctica , meaning the disease has now spread to every continent in the world. On Tuesday (Dec. 22), Chilean officials reported an outbreak of 36 COVID-19 cases at the Chilean research base General Bernardo O'Higgins Riquelme on the Antarctic Peninsula, according to the BBC . Of these, 26 cases were military personnel and 10 were maintenance workers, the BBC reported. All of these cases have been evacuated from Antarctica to Punta Arenas, Chile, according to The Guardian . Antarctica had been COVID-19 free up until the current outbreak. The continent has no permanent residents, but about 1,000 people, including scientists and other workers, stayed there this past winter, The Guardian reported.
Live updates will continue in 2021!


livescience--2020-10-19--NASA is about to play 'tag' with asteroid Bennu: Here's how it will work.

NASA 's OSIRIS-Rex spacecraft will `` TAG '' asteroid Bennu Tuesday ( Oct. 20 ) and collect a sample for return to Earth .
OSIRIS-REx is NASA 's first asteroid-sampling spacecraft .
The `` touch-and-go '' ( TAG ) sample collection attempt involves a series of maneuvers that will bring the spacecraft down to the asteroid 's surface .
The location selected for touchdown is called Nightingale , which is a rocky area measuring 52 feet ( 16 meters ) in diameter and located in Bennu 's northern hemisphere , according to NASA .
`` We have never done this @ @ @ @ @ @ @ mission operations manager for the OSIRIS-REx mission , said in a video from NASA .
`` We are actually going to collect a sample and bring it back down to Earth for further examination by scientists . ''
Video : Grabbing some asteroid is not easy : NASA explains the challenges Related : NASA 's asteroid-sampling mission in pictures To achieve this , the spacecraft has been orbiting Bennu since 2018 and studying the asteroid in great detail , searching for the optimal landing spot — a location that is large enough , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
However , finding this type of area was challenging , resulting in a number of additional close flybys and observations to select an appropriate sample site .
The OSIRIS-REx team considered other potential locations such as Osprey , Kingfisher and Sandpiper before choosing Nightingale , which has the greatest amount of unobstructed fine-grained material , according to NASA .
NASA 's OSIRIS-REx spacecraft will perform three separate maneuvers to reach the asteroid 's surface .
The first step is called a checkpoint burn , during which the spacecraft will fire its thrusters @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Nightingale sample site .
When OSIRIS-REx reaches an approximate altitude of 177 feet ( 54 m ) , another maneuver called a matchpoint burn will slow the spacecraft 's descent and target a path to match the asteroid 's rotation at the time of contact , according to NASA .
The spacecraft 's robotic sampling arm , called the touch-and-go sample acquisition mechanism ( TAGSAM ) , will then make contact with Bennu 's surface for less than 16 seconds before heading back up to orbit .
Upon contact with the asteroid , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ fire , stirring up a sample of dust and small rocks that can then be caught in the arm 's collector head and stored for return to Earth .
The descent to the surface of Bennu will take roughly four hours .
The spacecraft will use natural feature tracking ( NFT ) to recognize landmarks during its descent and update its position , if needed , to navigate around large boulders and ensure a safe landing on a relatively clear space , David Lorenz , TAG campaign lead , explained in the video @ @ @ @ @ @ @ could go wrong , and we also have to be prepared that we wo n't be successful on our first try at Nightingale , '' Mike Moreau , deputy project manager for OSIRIS-REx , said in the video . ''
In the event that the first TAG attempt is not successful , the spacecraft is equipped with backup pressurized nitrogen canisters , which will allow for additional sample collection attempts .
The team hopes to collect 2 oz .
( 60 grams ) of fine-grained material from the asteroid 's surface , which @ @ @ @ @ @ @ space since the Apollo program , according to NASA .
The OSIRIS-REx team has also studied Nightingale to identify areas within the sample site that could potentially harm the spacecraft .
A hazard map of the site was developed and programmed into the spacecraft 's navigation system , so that if the NFT system detects a dangerous landmark , the spacecraft will autonomously back away from the asteroid .
This will allow the mission to reattempt sample collection at a future date , according to the video .
After collecting its sample , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ away from Bennu .
If all goes according to plan during collection , the team will verify the sample by taking a picture of the TAGSAM head to see if it contains surface material .
A spin maneuver will also be performed on Saturday ( Oct. 24 ) to measure the mass of the sample and ensure at least 2 oz .
( 60 grams ) of material was collected and can be stored for return to Earth in 2023 .
However , if a sufficient sample was not collected , the spacecraft @ @ @ @ @ @ @ attempts , according to the video .
`` It is really exciting to know that we are finally going to be able to touch the surface of the asteroid and collect a sample to return back to Earth , '' Castro said .
Follow Samantha Mathewson @ Sam_Ashley13 .
Follow us on Twitter @ Spacedotcom and on Facebook .

NASA's OSIRIS-Rex spacecraft will "TAG" asteroid Bennu Tuesday (Oct. 20) and collect a sample for return to Earth.
OSIRIS-REx is NASA's first asteroid-sampling spacecraft. The "touch-and-go" (TAG) sample collection attempt involves a series of maneuvers that will bring the spacecraft down to the asteroid's surface. The location selected for touchdown is called Nightingale, which is a rocky area measuring 52 feet (16 meters) in diameter and located in Bennu's northern hemisphere, according to NASA.
"We have never done this before," Nayi Castro, a mission operations manager for the OSIRIS-REx mission, said in a video from NASA. "We are actually going to collect a sample and bring it back down to Earth for further examination by scientists."
Video: Grabbing some asteroid is not easy: NASA explains the challenges
Related: NASA's asteroid-sampling mission in pictures
NASA's OSIRIS-REx spacecraft will collect a sample from the asteroid Bennu on Oct. 20 using a robotic sampling arm in an event called "touch-and-go," or TAG. (Image credit: NASA/Goddard/University of Arizona)
To achieve this, the spacecraft has been orbiting Bennu since 2018 and studying the asteroid in great detail, searching for the optimal landing spot — a location that is large enough, relatively flat and covered in fine-grained material.
However, finding this type of area was challenging, resulting in a number of additional close flybys and observations to select an appropriate sample site. The OSIRIS-REx team considered other potential locations such as Osprey, Kingfisher and Sandpiper before choosing Nightingale, which has the greatest amount of unobstructed fine-grained material, according to NASA.
How TAG will work
NASA's OSIRIS-REx spacecraft will perform three separate maneuvers to reach the asteroid's surface. The first step is called a checkpoint burn, during which the spacecraft will fire its thrusters to adjust its position relative to the Nightingale sample site. When OSIRIS-REx reaches an approximate altitude of 177 feet (54 m), another maneuver called a matchpoint burn will slow the spacecraft's descent and target a path to match the asteroid's rotation at the time of contact, according to NASA.
The spacecraft's robotic sampling arm, called the touch-and-go sample acquisition mechanism (TAGSAM), will then make contact with Bennu's surface for less than 16 seconds before heading back up to orbit. Upon contact with the asteroid, one of three pressurized nitrogen canisters will fire, stirring up a sample of dust and small rocks that can then be caught in the arm's collector head and stored for return to Earth.
The descent to the surface of Bennu will take roughly four hours. The spacecraft will use natural feature tracking (NFT) to recognize landmarks during its descent and update its position, if needed, to navigate around large boulders and ensure a safe landing on a relatively clear space, David Lorenz, TAG campaign lead, explained in the video.
An artist's depiction of how OSIRIS-REx will use natural feature tracking to compare real-time images of the asteroid's surface to a bank of previous photos in order to steer itself to the sampling site. (Image credit: NASA/Goddard/University of Arizona)
"There are several things that could go wrong, and we also have to be prepared that we won't be successful on our first try at Nightingale," Mike Moreau, deputy project manager for OSIRIS-REx, said in the video."
In the event that the first TAG attempt is not successful, the spacecraft is equipped with backup pressurized nitrogen canisters, which will allow for additional sample collection attempts. The team hopes to collect 2 oz. (60 grams) of fine-grained material from the asteroid's surface, which will be the largest sample return from space since the Apollo program, according to NASA.
The OSIRIS-REx team has also studied Nightingale to identify areas within the sample site that could potentially harm the spacecraft. A hazard map of the site was developed and programmed into the spacecraft's navigation system, so that if the NFT system detects a dangerous landmark, the spacecraft will autonomously back away from the asteroid. This will allow the mission to reattempt sample collection at a future date, according to the video.
Related: How NASA's asteroid sample-return mission works (infographic)
This image shows sample site Nightingale, OSIRIS-REx’s primary sample collection site on asteroid Bennu. The image is overlaid with a graphic of the OSIRIS-REx spacecraft to illustrate the scale of the site. (Image credit: NASA/Goddard/University of Arizona)
After collecting its sample, OSIRIS-REx will fire its thrusters to back away from Bennu. If all goes according to plan during collection, the team will verify the sample by taking a picture of the TAGSAM head to see if it contains surface material. A spin maneuver will also be performed on Saturday (Oct. 24) to measure the mass of the sample and ensure at least 2 oz. (60 grams) of material was collected and can be stored for return to Earth in 2023. However, if a sufficient sample was not collected, the spacecraft will be able to make two more attempts, according to the video.
"It is really exciting to know that we are finally going to be able to touch the surface of the asteroid and collect a sample to return back to Earth," Castro said.
Follow Samantha Mathewson @Sam_Ashley13. Follow us on Twitter @Spacedotcom and on Facebook.


livescience--2020-10-19--24 million-year-old nursery for baby megasharks discovered in South Carolina

About 24 million years ago , baby shark ancestors of the giant beast called needed a place to grow big before heading into the open ocean , so they swam around a coastal spot replete with easy-to-catch prey — a nursery in what is now South Carolina , according to new research .
Until now , scientists knew of just two fossil shark nurseries : a 10 million-year-old in Panama and a 5 million-year in Chile .
In addition to being the third such nursery , the new discovery is also the first nursery on record for Carcharocles angustidens , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( 34 million to 23 million years ago ) , said co-researcher Robert Boessenecker , a research fellow at the Mace Brown Museum of Natural History at the College of Charleston , in South Carolina .
When Boessenecker and his colleague examined one of the shark teeth from the nursery site , they found another surprise ; it came from the largest C. angustidens on record , according to an equation that calculates a shark 's body length based on its tooth size .
The new estimate changes the understanding of how big @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , the record holder was from a , which put the now-extinct shark at a maximum length of 27.8 feet ( 8.47 meters ) .
`` Our recalculated maximum length for C. angustidens is 8.85 meters [ 29 feet ] , '' said co-researcher Addison Miller , who graduated with a bachelor of science in geology from the College of Charleston in May .
`` This came out to be slightly larger than the New Zealand specimen . ''
In comparison , the modern ( Carcharodon carcharias ) can reach lengths of 20 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ most are smaller , Live Science previously reported .
The research on the shark teeth found in the nursery , which is not yet published in a peer-reviewed journal , was presented online Oct. 13 at the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology 's annual conference , which was virtual this year due to the COVID-19 .
The research `` appears to be an ongoing work , '' but the claim that this may be a paleo-shark nursery is exciting , said Kenshu Shimada , a professor of paleobiology at DePaul University who was n't @ @ @ @ @ @ @ learned about the project at the conference , told Live Science .
If supported with more evidence , this finding `` would indicate that the behavior and adaptive strategy of using nursery areas had already evolved by the Oligocene about 24 million years ago for the megatooth shark lineage . ''
The researchers discovered the shark teeth primarily in one rock unit : the fossil-rich Chandler Bridge Formation in the town of Summerville , South Carolina .
In total , the researchers examined 87 C. angustidens teeth from this and the neighboring Ashley @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Because these particular parts of the fossil formation were n't picked over by amateur fossil collectors , the shark teeth collected from these formations are thought to be accurate representations of the sharks that lived there .
This is important , because `` everybody and their mother goes out and digs up shark teeth and sells them here '' in South Carolina , and people usually snag the largest teeth they can find , Boessenecker said .
This can cause headaches for paleontologists , who may find sites with lots of small shark @ @ @ @ @ @ @ nursery ) that 's not a true representation of the sharks that lived there , because all of the large shark teeth have already been carted away .
To investigate , Miller analyzed the teeth from the two formations .
With the new maximum length for C. angustidens , she was able to calculate the approximate body size categories for infant sharks , juveniles and adults .
Then , using tooth-to-body-length equations ( there is a different equation for each tooth , depending on its position in the mouth ) , she determined @ @ @ @ @ @ @ In all , Miller found that of the 87 teeth , three ( 3 % ) were infants , 77 ( 89 % ) were juveniles and seven ( 8 % ) were adults .
`` Our total body length mean was 4.8 meters [ 15.7 feet ] , meaning that this was looking more and more like a C. angustidens nursery , '' Miller told Live Science in an email .
South Carolina 's Oligocene waters were also home to easily accessible prey for C. angustidens , including billfish , tuna , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ sea turtles , dolphins , baleen whales , sea cows , and other sharks and rays , Boessenecker said .
In addition , this place was likely a shallow area that would have offered natural protection to young sharks that were n't ready for life in the deep sea , he said .

About 24 million years ago, baby shark ancestors of the giant beast called megalodon needed a place to grow big before heading into the open ocean, so they swam around a coastal spot replete with easy-to-catch prey — a nursery in what is now South Carolina, according to new research.
Until now, scientists knew of just two fossil shark nurseries: a 10 million-year-old megalodon nursery in Panama and a 5 million-year great white shark nursery in Chile. In addition to being the third such nursery, the new discovery is also the first nursery on record for Carcharocles angustidens, a megatoothed shark that lived during the Oligocene epoch (34 million to 23 million years ago), said co-researcher Robert Boessenecker, a research fellow at the Mace Brown Museum of Natural History at the College of Charleston, in South Carolina.
When Boessenecker and his colleague examined one of the shark teeth from the nursery site, they found another surprise; it came from the largest C. angustidens on record, according to an equation that calculates a shark's body length based on its tooth size. The new estimate changes the understanding of how big these ancient carnivores could get.
Previously, the record holder was from a C. angustidens tooth found in New Zealand , which put the now-extinct shark at a maximum length of 27.8 feet (8.47 meters). "Our recalculated maximum length for C. angustidens is 8.85 meters [29 feet]," said co-researcher Addison Miller, who graduated with a bachelor of science in geology from the College of Charleston in May. "This came out to be slightly larger than the New Zealand specimen."
Related: Image gallery: great white sharks
In comparison, the modern great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) can reach lengths of 20 feet (6 m), but most are smaller, Live Science previously reported.
The research on the shark teeth found in the nursery, which is not yet published in a peer-reviewed journal, was presented online Oct. 13 at the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology's annual conference, which was virtual this year due to the COVID-19 pandemic .
The research "appears to be an ongoing work," but the claim that this may be a paleo-shark nursery is exciting, said Kenshu Shimada, a professor of paleobiology at DePaul University who wasn't involved with the research, but who learned about the project at the conference, told Live Science. If supported with more evidence, this finding "would indicate that the behavior and adaptive strategy of using nursery areas had already evolved by the Oligocene about 24 million years ago for the megatooth shark lineage."
Image 1 of 4 Researchers found dozens of ancient teeth from the megalodon ancestor Carcharocles angustidens in South Carolina. (Image credit: Addison Miller) Addison Miller examines the collections of Oligocene shark teeth. (Image credit: Robert Boessenecker) Sarah Boessenecker looks for fossil shark teeth from the ancient Carcharocles angustidens. (Image credit: Robert Boessenecker) The Boesseneckers looked for fossil shark teeth at all hours of the day. (Image credit: Robert Boessenecker)
Collecting shark teeth
The researchers discovered the shark teeth primarily in one rock unit: the fossil-rich Chandler Bridge Formation in the town of Summerville, South Carolina. In total, the researchers examined 87 C. angustidens teeth from this and the neighboring Ashley Formation dating to the late Oligocene.
Because these particular parts of the fossil formation weren't picked over by amateur fossil collectors, the shark teeth collected from these formations are thought to be accurate representations of the sharks that lived there. This is important, because "everybody and their mother goes out and digs up shark teeth and sells them here" in South Carolina, and people usually snag the largest teeth they can find, Boessenecker said. This can cause headaches for paleontologists, who may find sites with lots of small shark teeth (one indication of a shark nursery) that's not a true representation of the sharks that lived there, because all of the large shark teeth have already been carted away.
To investigate, Miller analyzed the teeth from the two formations. With the new maximum length for C. angustidens, she was able to calculate the approximate body size categories for infant sharks, juveniles and adults. Then, using tooth-to-body-length equations (there is a different equation for each tooth, depending on its position in the mouth), she determined the sharks' corresponding body sizes.
Related: The 10 coolest shark stories of 2019
In all, Miller found that of the 87 teeth, three (3%) were infants, 77 ( 89%) were juveniles and seven (8%) were adults. "Our total body length mean was 4.8 meters [15.7 feet], meaning that this was looking more and more like a C. angustidens nursery," Miller told Live Science in an email.
South Carolina's Oligocene waters were also home to easily accessible prey for C. angustidens, including billfish, tuna, mackerel, cheloniid sea turtles, leatherback sea turtles, dolphins, baleen whales, sea cows, and other sharks and rays, Boessenecker said. In addition, this place was likely a shallow area that would have offered natural protection to young sharks that weren't ready for life in the deep sea, he said.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-10-19--Half-male, half-female songbird discovered in Pennsylvania

Biologists recently made a `` once-in-a-lifetime '' discovery of a bird that 's male on the right side and female on the left .
Researchers captured the bird , a rose-breasted grosbeak ( Pheucticus ludovicianus ) , at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History 's Powdermill Nature Reserve , an environmental research center in Rector , Pennsylvania .
Plumage colors usually signal if a grosbeak is male or female , but this bird has both sexes ' signature shades .
Scientists who captured the bird saw male coloration — pink wing `` pits , '' a red breast splash and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ side of its body .
But the bird 's left wing was browner and had yellow `` pits , '' a color combination found in females , museum representatives .
This condition , in which an animal possesses male and female traits divided down the middle of its body , is called bilateral gynandromorphism .
In birds , is thought to stem from an error during egg formation .
Unfertilized eggs typically contain one sex : a Z or a W ( male birds are ZZ , while females are ZW ) .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ with two nuclei , one containing a Z chromosome and the other a W chromosome .
If this egg is fertilized , it unites with sperm that carry the Z chromosome to produce an embryo with some cells that are ZZ , producing male traits , and some that are ZW , producing female traits , .
`` We caught the bird during normal banding operations , '' said Annie Lindsay , Powdermill 's Avian Research Center ( ARC ) bird banding program manager .
`` The bird received an individually numbered band @ @ @ @ @ @ @ '' Lindsay told Live Science in an email .
The scientists recorded the grosbeak 's age , sex and body measurements .
They then collected feathers for genetic analysis and took photos and video before releasing the bird .
`` Every member of the banding crew expressed delighted surprise and joy in experiencing the banding of this rare bird , '' Lindsay said .
Researchers have identified gynandromorphy in many animals , including crustaceans , spiders , , and ; but gynandromorphs are rare , so very few individual animals express the trait @ @ @ @ @ @ @ birds since 1961 , and its dataset holds more than 800,000 records .
In that time , scientists have documented only five examples of bilateral gynandromorphs , Lindsay said .
Male rose-breasted grosbeaks are more colorful and more visually striking than females .
Their heads and backs are deep black with white flecks , and their snowy breasts are marked with a splash of vivid crimson under their throats , according to the .
Females , on the other hand , sport earthy tones of brown and cream , with a pale , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , '' according to the Cornell Lab .
Interestingly , immature males share some coloration in common with females , such as the white eyebrow and dark speckles around the throat and chest .
Because gynandromorphs are so rare , many questions about their sexual traits and behavior remain unanswered .
For example , scientists do n't know if this grosbeak will be able to reproduce — though `` in theory , it could be possible , '' Lindsay said .
`` In female songbirds , the left ovary is the functional ovary @ @ @ @ @ @ @ side is the female side , it may be able to produce viable eggs , '' Lindsay explained .
`` However , the bird would also need to behave as a female to attract a male mate , and that is n't something we are able to observe during normal banding operations , '' she added .

The grosbeak displayed male coloration on the right side of its body, while female coloration dominated on the left side.
Biologists recently made a "once-in-a-lifetime" discovery of a bird that's male on the right side and female on the left.
Researchers captured the bird, a rose-breasted grosbeak (Pheucticus ludovicianus), at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History's Powdermill Nature Reserve, an environmental research center in Rector, Pennsylvania.
Plumage colors usually signal if a grosbeak is male or female, but this bird has both sexes' signature shades. Scientists who captured the bird saw male coloration — pink wing "pits," a red breast splash and black wing feathers — on the right side of its body. But the bird's left wing was browner and had yellow "pits," a color combination found in females, museum representatives said in a statement .
Related: Image gallery: Stunning dual-sex animals
This condition, in which an animal possesses male and female traits divided down the middle of its body, is called bilateral gynandromorphism. In birds, gynandromorphy is thought to stem from an error during egg formation. Unfertilized eggs typically contain one sex chromosome : a Z or a W (male birds are ZZ, while females are ZW). But very rarely, an egg develops with two nuclei, one containing a Z chromosome and the other a W chromosome. If this egg is fertilized, it unites with sperm that carry the Z chromosome to produce an embryo with some cells that are ZZ, producing male traits, and some that are ZW, producing female traits, Natural History Magazine reported .
"We caught the bird during normal banding operations," said Annie Lindsay, Powdermill's Avian Research Center (ARC) bird banding program manager. "The bird received an individually numbered band just like all birds we catch," Lindsay told Live Science in an email.
The scientists recorded the grosbeak's age, sex and body measurements. They then collected feathers for genetic analysis and took photos and video before releasing the bird.
"Every member of the banding crew expressed delighted surprise and joy in experiencing the banding of this rare bird," Lindsay said.
Plumage colors in female rose-breasted grosbeaks (left) and males (right). (Image credit: Shutterstock)
Rare and unusual
Researchers have identified gynandromorphy in many animals, including crustaceans, spiders, birds , butterflies and bees ; but gynandromorphs are rare, so very few individual animals express the trait. The ARC has collected and banded birds since 1961, and its dataset holds more than 800,000 records. In that time, scientists have documented only five examples of bilateral gynandromorphs, Lindsay said.
Male rose-breasted grosbeaks are more colorful and more visually striking than females. Their heads and backs are deep black with white flecks, and their snowy breasts are marked with a splash of vivid crimson under their throats, according to the Cornell Lab of Ornithology . Females, on the other hand, sport earthy tones of brown and cream, with a pale, speckled breast and a white "eyebrow," according to the Cornell Lab. Interestingly, immature males share some coloration in common with females, such as the white eyebrow and dark speckles around the throat and chest.
Because gynandromorphs are so rare, many questions about their sexual traits and behavior remain unanswered. For example, scientists don't know if this grosbeak will be able to reproduce — though "in theory, it could be possible," Lindsay said.
"In female songbirds, the left ovary is the functional ovary, and because this bird's left side is the female side, it may be able to produce viable eggs," Lindsay explained. "However, the bird would also need to behave as a female to attract a male mate, and that isn't something we are able to observe during normal banding operations," she added.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-10-20--New Nazca Line geoglyph discovered: A 120-foot-long cat

Archaeologists have discovered a gigantic cat geoglyph adorning a hillside in southern Peru , making it the latest of the — a group of mysterious and enormous human-made outlines of animals , plants and fantastic figures in the desert dating to Pre-Columbian times — to be uncovered in recent years , according to Peru 's Ministry Of Culture .
The kitty , which looks like the most gigantic children 's doodle ever , was found while archaeologists with the Nazca-Palpa Management Plan , which is supported by the Ministry of Culture , were remodeling a natural viewpoint in the Pampa @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 15 statement from the ministry .
At first , the workers could barely see the cat , because natural erosion on the hillside had almost erased the ancient feline outline .
However , after about a week 's worth of conservation , archaeologists restored the geoglyph , which dates to between about 200 B.C .
and 100 B.C.
, according to the ministry .
Like other Nazca Lines — including a monkey , , hummingbird and — the cat is so huge , it 's better seen from above , such as from @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 's `` lines '' are between 12 and 16 inches ( 30 and 40 centimeters ) wide , and the entire feline is about 121 feet ( 37 meters ) long .
The cat 's style — that is , a profile with its head turned toward the viewer — indicates it was made in the Late Paracas period ( the Paracas culture predated the Nazca culture , which began in about 100 B.C.
, ) .
In addition , the Paracas culture is well known for its depictions of felines on its @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
The Nazca Lines are recognized on the World Heritage list curated by the United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ) .
The majority of the known Nazca Lines date to between 200 B.C .
and A.D. 500 , but earlier lines , made with piled stones , date as far back as 500 B.C.
, Live Science previously reported .
In recent years , researchers have found between 80 and 100 previously unknown geoglyphs in the Nazca and Palpa valleys , all of which predate the Nazca culture @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of the Nazca Lines conservation mission at the Ministry of Culture , told The Guardian .
`` These are smaller in size , drawn on to hillsides , and clearly belong to an earlier tradition , '' he said .
`` It might seem surprising that new designs are still being found , but we know there are more out there , '' Isla told local press , according to the Evening Standard .
`` In the last few years , the use of drones , which enable us to take images of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ possible . ''

Archaeologists have discovered a gigantic cat geoglyph adorning a hillside in southern Peru, making it the latest of the Nazca Lines — a group of mysterious and enormous human-made outlines of animals, plants and fantastic figures in the desert dating to Pre-Columbian times — to be uncovered in recent years, according to Peru's Ministry Of Culture.
The kitty, which looks like the most gigantic children's doodle ever, was found while archaeologists with the Nazca-Palpa Management Plan, which is supported by the Ministry of Culture, were remodeling a natural viewpoint in the Pampa de Nazca, according to an Oct. 15 statement from the ministry .
At first, the workers could barely see the cat, because natural erosion on the hillside had almost erased the ancient feline outline. However, after about a week's worth of conservation, archaeologists restored the geoglyph, which dates to between about 200 B.C. and 100 B.C., according to the ministry.
Related: In images: The mysterious Nazca Lines
This giant feline dates to 200 B.C. to 100 B.C. (Image credit: Johny Isla/Ministerio de Cultura)
Like other Nazca Lines — including a monkey, killer whale , hummingbird and humanoid — the cat is so huge, it's better seen from above, such as from a plane or drone. The cat's "lines" are between 12 and 16 inches (30 and 40 centimeters) wide, and the entire feline is about 121 feet (37 meters) long.
The cat's style — that is, a profile with its head turned toward the viewer — indicates it was made in the Late Paracas period (the Paracas culture predated the Nazca culture, which began in about 100 B.C., Live Science previously reported ). In addition, the Paracas culture is well known for its depictions of felines on its ceramics and textiles, the ministry reported.
This cat is one of many "new" Nazca Lines discovered in recent years. (Image credit: Johny Isla/Ministerio de Cultura)
The Nazca Lines are recognized on the World Heritage list curated by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The majority of the known Nazca Lines date to between 200 B.C. and A.D. 500, but earlier lines, made with piled stones, date as far back as 500 B.C., Live Science previously reported.
In recent years, researchers have found between 80 and 100 previously unknown geoglyphs in the Nazca and Palpa valleys, all of which predate the Nazca culture, archaeologist Johny Isla, the director of the Nazca Lines conservation mission at the Ministry of Culture, told The Guardian. "These are smaller in size, drawn on to hillsides, and clearly belong to an earlier tradition," he said.
"It might seem surprising that new designs are still being found, but we know there are more out there," Isla told local press, according to the Evening Standard . "In the last few years, the use of drones, which enable us to take images of the sides of hills, makes that possible."
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-10-20--The very first forms of life may have been more animal-like than we ever realized

Early life may have been far more like animals than we thought , suggests new research that shows bacteria can 'develop ' like an embryo .
When bacteria band together , they ooze out a protective communal home of slime to form thriving , densely packed colonies known as biofilms .
Together these teeny organisms are more powerful .
Within the safety of the biofilm , they can better withstand environmental changes , communicate long-range to cells outside their communities , and even share a collective memory of sorts – essentially behaving like one multicellular organism .
Now an international @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Momir Futo from the Ruđer Bošković Institute in Croatia has discovered biofilms develop like a multicellular organism , too .
Most cells on Earth live in the form of these biofilms .
They can be composed of multiple species , and we 're increasingly finding more ways in which they act like multicellular beings – including division of labor , programmed cell death , and self-recognition .
In the lab , Futo and the team investigated rod-shaped Bacillus subtilis , which is commonly found in soil , cows and us .
The researchers @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the whole biofilm as it developed , from a few initial cells until it was two months old .
They also compared the products of the bacteria 's genes with those of others in its family tree , mapping out a timeline for their evolutionary relationships .
`` Surprisingly , we found that evolutionary younger genes were increasingly expressed towards the later time points of biofilm growth , '' explained geneticist Tomislav Domazet-Lošo from the Catholic University of Croatia .
The order of gene expression during biofilm growth mirrors the timing of these @ @ @ @ @ @ @ expressions of genes in developing animal embryos .
And that is not the only way the biofilms mimicked embryogenesis ( the development of an animal embryo ) .
The step-by-step organization of the gene expression observed is also seen in embryos , as is a big increase in communication between cells during the middle of development , which in the biofilm coincides with growing 3D wrinkles .
`` This means that bacteria are true multicellular organisms just like we are , '' said Domazet-Lošo .
`` Considering that the oldest known fossils are @ @ @ @ @ @ @ that the first life was also multicellular , and not a single-celled creature as considered so far . ''
The phylostratigraphy method the researchers used is relatively new and still has some questions around its reliability , so the team double-checked their results using older genetic tools , and found they supported their findings .
The team cautions these results are limited to single-species biofilms in laboratory conditions , so more research is required to see if the findings also hold true in the natural environment with multi-species interactions .
It also remains @ @ @ @ @ @ @ – like localized waves of new gene expressions – are also present in biofilms .
But the similarities they have observed are quite striking .
As biofilms are responsible for more than 80 percent of microbial infections in our bodies , they would certainly also play a large role in how our friendly bacteria function too , so understanding how these not-so-single organisms develop and work together could help with a myriad of medical problems .
`` It is indisputable that the cell is the basic unit of life ; however , that @ @ @ @ @ @ @ life was strictly unicellular , '' the researchers concluded .
This research was published in Molecular Biology and Evolution .
This article was originally published by ScienceAlert .
Read the original article here .

Early life may have been far more like animals than we thought, suggests new research that shows bacteria can 'develop' like an embryo.
When bacteria band together, they ooze out a protective communal home of slime to form thriving, densely packed colonies known as biofilms. Together these teeny organisms are more powerful.
Within the safety of the biofilm, they can better withstand environmental changes, communicate long-range to cells outside their communities, and even share a collective memory of sorts – essentially behaving like one multicellular organism.
Now an international team of researchers led by evolutionary geneticist Momir Futo from the Ruđer Bošković Institute in Croatia has discovered biofilms develop like a multicellular organism, too.
Most cells on Earth live in the form of these biofilms. They can be composed of multiple species, and we're increasingly finding more ways in which they act like multicellular beings – including division of labor, programmed cell death, and self-recognition.
In the lab, Futo and the team investigated rod-shaped Bacillus subtilis, which is commonly found in soil, cows and us. The researchers established a timeline of gene expression across the whole biofilm as it developed, from a few initial cells until it was two months old.
They also compared the products of the bacteria's genes with those of others in its family tree, mapping out a timeline for their evolutionary relationships.
"Surprisingly, we found that evolutionary younger genes were increasingly expressed towards the later time points of biofilm growth," explained geneticist Tomislav Domazet-Lošo from the Catholic University of Croatia.
The order of gene expression during biofilm growth mirrors the timing of these genes' evolution - just like the expressions of genes in developing animal embryos.
And that is not the only way the biofilms mimicked embryogenesis (the development of an animal embryo). The step-by-step organization of the gene expression observed is also seen in embryos, as is a big increase in communication between cells during the middle of development, which in the biofilm coincides with growing 3D wrinkles.
"This means that bacteria are true multicellular organisms just like we are," said Domazet-Lošo. "Considering that the oldest known fossils are bacterial biofilms, it is quite likely that the first life was also multicellular, and not a single-celled creature as considered so far."
The phylostratigraphy method the researchers used is relatively new and still has some questions around its reliability, so the team double-checked their results using older genetic tools, and found they supported their findings.
The team cautions these results are limited to single-species biofilms in laboratory conditions, so more research is required to see if the findings also hold true in the natural environment with multi-species interactions.
It also remains to be seen if other embryogenesis features – like localized waves of new gene expressions – are also present in biofilms. But the similarities they have observed are quite striking.
As biofilms are responsible for more than 80 percent of microbial infections in our bodies, they would certainly also play a large role in how our friendly bacteria function too, so understanding how these not-so-single organisms develop and work together could help with a myriad of medical problems.
"It is indisputable that the cell is the basic unit of life; however, that does not readily imply that the first life was strictly unicellular," the researchers concluded.
This research was published in Molecular Biology and Evolution.
This article was originally published by ScienceAlert. Read the original article here.


livescience--2020-10-20--Artemis Accords: Why many countries are refusing to sign moon exploration agreement

Eight countries have signed the Artemis Accords , a set of guidelines surrounding the Artemis Program for crewed exploration of the moon .
The United Kingdom , Italy , Australia , Canada , Japan , Luxembourg , the United Arab Emirates and the US are now all participants in the project , which aims to return humans to the moon by 2024 and establish a crewed lunar base by 2030 .
This may sound like progress .
Nations have for a number of years struggled with the issue of how to govern a human settlement on the moon and deal @ @ @ @ @ @ @ But a number of key countries have serious concerns about the accords and have so far refused to sign them .
Previous attempts to govern space have been through painstakingly negotiated international treaties .
The Outer Space Treaty 1967 laid down the foundational principles for human space exploration – it should be peaceful and benefit all mankind , not just one country .
But the treaty has little in the way of detail .
The moon Agreement of 1979 attempted to prevent commercial exploitation of outer-space resources , but only a small number @ @ @ @ @ @ @ US , China and Russia haven ’ t .
Now that the US is pursuing the Artemis Program , the question of how states will behave in exploring the moon and using its resources has come to a head .
The signing of the accords represents a significant political attempt to codify key principles of space law and apply them to the program .
You can hear more about some of the governance issues facing nations who want to explore the moon in the podcast To the moon and beyond , see link @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and not binding instruments of international law .
But by establishing practice in the area , they could have a significant influence on any subsequent governance framework for human settlements on Mars and beyond .
All seven partners who have agreed to the accords with the US are natural collaborators on the Artemis Program and will easily adhere to the stated principles .
Japan is keen to engage in lunar exploration .
Luxembourg has dedicated legislation allowing for space mining and has also signed an additional collaborative agreement with the US .
The @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to establish collaborative links with the broader space industry , so this represents a perfect opportunity for them to build up capacity .
Italy , the UK and Canada all have ambitions to develop their space manufacturing industries and will see this as a chance to grow their economies .
The contents of the accords are relatively uncontentious .
Throughout , there is reference to the existing Outer Space Treaty framework , so they are tied closely to existing norms of space law .
As such , the accords appear deliberately designed to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ instruction on how to behave from a hegemonic power .
There is an explicit statement that the mining of space resources is in accordance with international law .
This follows on from the controversial passing of the Space Act 2015 , which put the right to use and trade space resources into American domestic law .
But section 10 ( 4 ) of the accords also commits to ongoing discussions at the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space as to how the legal framework should develop .
The rest of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ operations , transparency and interoperability ( which refers to the ability of space systems to work in conjunction with each other ) .
If the substance is reassuring , the US promotion of the accords outside of the `` normal '' channels of international space law – such as the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space – will be a cause of consternation for some states .
By requiring potential collaborators to sign bilateral agreements on behavior instead , some nations will see the US as trying to impose their @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the US leveraging partnership agreements and lucrative financial contracts to reinforce its own dominant leadership position .
Russia has already stated that the Artemis Program is too `` US-centric '' to sign it in its present form .
China ’ s absence is explained by the US congressional prohibition on collaboration with the country .
Concerns that this is a power grab by the US and its allies are fueled by the lack of any African or South American countries amongst the founding partner states .
Intriguingly Germany , France and India are @ @ @ @ @ @ @ well developed space programs that would surely have benefited from being involved in Project Artemis .
Their opposition may be down to a preference for the moon Agreement and a desire to see a properly negotiated treaty governing lunar exploration .
The European Space Agency ( ESA ) as an organization has not signed on to the accords either , but a number of ESA member states have .
This is unsurprising .
The ambitious US deadline for the project will clash with the lengthy consultation of the 17 member states required for @ @ @ @ @ @ @ whole .
Ultimately , the Artemis Accords are revolutionary in the field of space exploration .
Using bilateral agreements that dictate norms of behavior as a condition of involvement in a program is a significant change in space governance .
With Russia and China opposing them , the accords are sure to meet diplomatic resistance and their very existence may provoke antagonism in traditional UN forums .
Questions also remain about the impact that the looming US election and the COVID-19 pandemic will have on the program .
We already know that President @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the moon by 2024 .
The approach of his Democratic rival , Joe Biden , is a lot less clear .
He may well be less wedded to the 2024 deadline and instead aim for broader diplomatic consensus on behavior through engagement at the UN .
While broader international acceptance may be desirable , the US believes that the lure of the opportunities afforded by the Artemis Program will bring other partners on board soon enough .
Space-active states now face a stark choice : miss out on being the first to use @ @ @ @ @ @ @ accept the price of doing business and sign up to the Artemis Accords .
This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license .
Read the original article .
Follow all of the Expert Voices issues and debates — and become part of the discussion — on Facebook and Twitter .
The views expressed are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the publisher .
This version of the article was originally published on Live Science .

Eight countries have signed the Artemis Accords, a set of guidelines surrounding the Artemis Program for crewed exploration of the moon. The United Kingdom, Italy, Australia, Canada, Japan, Luxembourg, the United Arab Emirates and the US are now all participants in the project, which aims to return humans to the moon by 2024 and establish a crewed lunar base by 2030.
This may sound like progress. Nations have for a number of years struggled with the issue of how to govern a human settlement on the moon and deal with the management of any resources. But a number of key countries have serious concerns about the accords and have so far refused to sign them.
Previous attempts to govern space have been through painstakingly negotiated international treaties. The Outer Space Treaty 1967 laid down the foundational principles for human space exploration – it should be peaceful and benefit all mankind, not just one country. But the treaty has little in the way of detail. The moon Agreement of 1979 attempted to prevent commercial exploitation of outer-space resources, but only a small number of states have ratified it – the US, China and Russia haven’t.
Now that the US is pursuing the Artemis Program, the question of how states will behave in exploring the moon and using its resources has come to a head. The signing of the accords represents a significant political attempt to codify key principles of space law and apply them to the program. You can hear more about some of the governance issues facing nations who want to explore the moon in the podcast To the moon and beyond, see link below.
The accords are bilateral agreements and not binding instruments of international law. But by establishing practice in the area, they could have a significant influence on any subsequent governance framework for human settlements on Mars and beyond.
Natural allies
All seven partners who have agreed to the accords with the US are natural collaborators on the Artemis Program and will easily adhere to the stated principles. Japan is keen to engage in lunar exploration. Luxembourg has dedicated legislation allowing for space mining and has also signed an additional collaborative agreement with the US.
The UAE and Australia are both actively trying to establish collaborative links with the broader space industry, so this represents a perfect opportunity for them to build up capacity. Italy, the UK and Canada all have ambitions to develop their space manufacturing industries and will see this as a chance to grow their economies.
The contents of the accords are relatively uncontentious. Throughout, there is reference to the existing Outer Space Treaty framework, so they are tied closely to existing norms of space law. As such, the accords appear deliberately designed to reassure countries that this is not an instruction on how to behave from a hegemonic power.
There is an explicit statement that the mining of space resources is in accordance with international law. This follows on from the controversial passing of the Space Act 2015, which put the right to use and trade space resources into American domestic law. But section 10(4) of the accords also commits to ongoing discussions at the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space as to how the legal framework should develop.
The rest of the accords focus on safety in space operations, transparency and interoperability (which refers to the ability of space systems to work in conjunction with each other).
Controversial issues
If the substance is reassuring, the US promotion of the accords outside of the "normal" channels of international space law – such as the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space – will be a cause of consternation for some states. By requiring potential collaborators to sign bilateral agreements on behavior instead, some nations will see the US as trying to impose their own quasi-legal rules. This could see the US leveraging partnership agreements and lucrative financial contracts to reinforce its own dominant leadership position.
NASA's outline for lunar exploration. (Image credit: NASA)
Russia has already stated that the Artemis Program is too "US-centric" to sign it in its present form. China’s absence is explained by the US congressional prohibition on collaboration with the country. Concerns that this is a power grab by the US and its allies are fueled by the lack of any African or South American countries amongst the founding partner states.
Intriguingly Germany, France and India are also absent. These are countries with well developed space programs that would surely have benefited from being involved in Project Artemis. Their opposition may be down to a preference for the moon Agreement and a desire to see a properly negotiated treaty governing lunar exploration.
The European Space Agency (ESA) as an organization has not signed on to the accords either, but a number of ESA member states have. This is unsurprising. The ambitious US deadline for the project will clash with the lengthy consultation of the 17 member states required for the ESA to sign on as a whole.
Ultimately, the Artemis Accords are revolutionary in the field of space exploration. Using bilateral agreements that dictate norms of behavior as a condition of involvement in a program is a significant change in space governance. With Russia and China opposing them, the accords are sure to meet diplomatic resistance and their very existence may provoke antagonism in traditional UN forums.
Questions also remain about the impact that the looming US election and the COVID-19 pandemic will have on the program. We already know that President Trump is keen to see astronauts on the moon by 2024. The approach of his Democratic rival, Joe Biden, is a lot less clear. He may well be less wedded to the 2024 deadline and instead aim for broader diplomatic consensus on behavior through engagement at the UN.
While broader international acceptance may be desirable, the US believes that the lure of the opportunities afforded by the Artemis Program will bring other partners on board soon enough. Space-active states now face a stark choice: miss out on being the first to use the resources of the moon, or accept the price of doing business and sign up to the Artemis Accords.
This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.
Follow all of the Expert Voices issues and debates — and become part of the discussion — on Facebook and Twitter. The views expressed are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the publisher. This version of the article was originally published on Live Science.