livescience--2020-10-21--Corgi-size pterosaurs walked in the rain 145 million years ago

At the end of the , corgi-size were searching for food along an ancient shoreline when they felt the cool pings of a light rain , new fossil track marks reveal .
Researchers found the fossilized track marks of these winged reptiles interspersed with raindrop impressions near Casper , Wyoming , which used to lie along the Sundance Seaway , a large inland sea that ran from what is now British Columbia in Canada to Utah during the late Jurassic .
`` I just picture several of these animals running up and down the coastline looking for something to eat @ @ @ @ @ @ @ study co-researcher Melissa Connely , the Klaenhammer Earth Science Chair at Casper College , told Live Science .
Related : Photos of pterosaurs : Flight in the age of dinosaurs The research on the pterosaur trackways , which is not yet published in a peer-reviewed journal , was presented online Oct. 15 at the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology 's annual conference ; the conference was virtual this year due to the COVID-19 .
Study co-researcher J.P. Cavigelli , collections manager at Tate Geological Museum at Casper College , found the 145 million-year-old trackway @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in the Sundance Formation in 2016 .
The tracks were hidden at the base of a massive cliff , making it challenging to reach .
So , Cavigelli returned in 2019 with museum volunteers , who helped excavate the slab — 13 feet by 20 inches ( 4 meters by 50 centimeters ) — a prehistoric masterpiece with about 40 pterosaur footprints and 30 handprints that looked like a colorless Jackson Pollock painting .
There are so many prints and they 're so jumbled , `` there 's actually no single trackway that @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , '' Cavigelli told Live Science .
`` It 's a fairly random distribution of handprints and footprints '' from many pterosaurs , he said .
When Connely and Cavigelli examined the slab back at the lab , they saw that it held fossilized ripple marks from the seaway and fossilized raindrop impressions .
`` That 's been on my bucket list , to find a rock with raindrop impressions on it , being a geologist , '' Connely said .
`` And to see them on pterodactyl [ a type of pterosaur @ @ @ @ @ @ @ with all the icing . ''
The tracks are fairly uniform in size , with the footprints measuring about 2.5 inches ( 6.5 cm ) wide and the handprints about 2.1 inches ( 5.5 cm ) across .
An analysis revealed that tracks belong to the ichnospecies Pteraichnus ( like fossilized bones , trace such as trackways , burrows and poop are given scientific names ) .
Pteraichnus tracks are found all over the world , including in Morocco , Utah and Wyoming .
Just like previously identified Pteraichnus tracks , the newfound @ @ @ @ @ @ @ `` double comma '' shaped wrist impressions , the researchers said .
Not much is known about the actual pterosaurs that left these prints , but they were likely the size of a small dog , like a corgi ( but not as fat ) , Connely said .
And , judging from their footprints and handprints , `` the pterosaurs were walking along the beach , possibly they 're coming in and out of the water or maybe looking for something along the shoreline that they could pick up and eat , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ '' Connely said .
( Of note , pterosaurs are flying reptiles , not dinosaurs . )
It 's unknown what these pterosaurs ate ( researchers have yet to find a skull belonging to this particular species ) , it 's a safe bet to say these flying reptiles chowed down on `` everything from small invertebrates to fish , '' she noted .
Connely added that some of the track marks were made on top of raindrops , while others have raindrops in them , suggesting that the pterosaurs `` were walking @ @ @ @ @ @ @ '' she said .
The rain is an important detail , because before scientists had established that pterosaurs used all four limbs to walk ( making them quadrupeds ) , some researchers wondered whether pterosaur track marks were made by swimming in the water .
However , this new finding `` nails the lid to the coffin '' on that interpretation , because the raindrop impressions clearly show that these track marks were made above water , and therefore could n't have been made underwater by swimming crocs , Cavigelli said .
In @ @ @ @ @ @ @ prints look nothing like pterosaur tracks , so it 's unlikely crocodilians made these prints above the water .
`` The context of the fossil — in this case the raindrop impressions — can in some cases be just as , or even more , informative than the fossil itself , '' Rachel Belben , a doctoral student of geology at the University of Leicester in England , who was n't involved in the research but who saw the presentation at the conference , told Live Science .
Ancient trackways are also useful @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , '' Connely said .
For instance , in the 2001 movie `` Jurassic Park III , '' a giant pterosaur lands on a bridge and begins walking menacingly on all fours toward the protagonists .
`` It 's walking on all fours because of the tracks in Wyoming [ and elsewhere ] and because we can interpret those behaviors — we can put in pop culture , movies or just give more life to them , '' Connely said .

The 13-foot-long (4 meters) slab has between 25 to 39 handprints and 39 to 42 footprints made by pterosaurs in the late Jurassic. (Key: Definite and possible footprints in red and orange; definite and possible handprints in blue and purple.)
At the end of the Jurassic period , corgi-size pterosaurs were searching for food along an ancient shoreline when they felt the cool pings of a light rain, new fossil track marks reveal.
Researchers found the fossilized track marks of these winged reptiles interspersed with raindrop impressions near Casper, Wyoming, which used to lie along the Sundance Seaway, a large inland sea that ran from what is now British Columbia in Canada to Utah during the late Jurassic.
"I just picture several of these animals running up and down the coastline looking for something to eat and enjoying a rainy day," study co-researcher Melissa Connely, the Klaenhammer Earth Science Chair at Casper College, told Live Science.
Related: Photos of pterosaurs: Flight in the age of dinosaurs
The research on the pterosaur trackways, which is not yet published in a peer-reviewed journal, was presented online Oct. 15 at the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology's annual conference; the conference was virtual this year due to the COVID-19 pandemic .
Study co-researcher J.P. Cavigelli, collections manager at Tate Geological Museum at Casper College, found the 145 million-year-old trackway at a private ranch near Casper, in the Sundance Formation in 2016. The tracks were hidden at the base of a massive cliff, making it challenging to reach. So, Cavigelli returned in 2019 with museum volunteers, who helped excavate the slab — 13 feet by 20 inches (4 meters by 50 centimeters) — a prehistoric masterpiece with about 40 pterosaur footprints and 30 handprints that looked like a colorless Jackson Pollock painting.
Image 1 of 5 The fossilized footprint of a pterosaur (in red) on top of raindrop impressions (yellow), showing that the winged reptile walked on top of raindrop marks. (Image credit: Jean-Pierre Cavigelli/ Copyright 2020 Tate Geological Museum at Casper College) A single pterosaur footprint surrounded by raindrop impressions. (Image credit: Jean-Pierre Cavigelli/ Copyright 2020 Tate Geological Museum at Casper College) The digitally-made blue marks show the comma-like wrist impressions made by the pterosaurs. (Image credit: Jean-Pierre Cavigelli/ Copyright 2020 Tate Geological Museum at Casper College) The trackway boarded the ancient Sundance Seaway. (Image credit: Jean-Pierre Cavigelli/ Copyright 2020 Tate Geological Museum at Casper College) This close-up shows fossilized wrist prints and raindrop impressions. (Image credit: Jean-Pierre Cavigelli/ Copyright 2020 Tate Geological Museum at Casper College)
There are so many prints and they're so jumbled, "there's actually no single trackway that we can follow where one individual walked," Cavigelli told Live Science. "It's a fairly random distribution of handprints and footprints" from many pterosaurs, he said.
When Connely and Cavigelli examined the slab back at the lab, they saw that it held fossilized ripple marks from the seaway and fossilized raindrop impressions. "That's been on my bucket list, to find a rock with raindrop impressions on it, being a geologist," Connely said. "And to see them on pterodactyl [a type of pterosaur] footprints was just a birthday cake with all the icing."
The tracks are fairly uniform in size, with the footprints measuring about 2.5 inches (6.5 cm) wide and the handprints about 2.1 inches (5.5 cm) across. An analysis revealed that tracks belong to the ichnospecies Pteraichnus (like fossilized bones, trace fossils such as trackways, burrows and poop are given scientific names).
Image 1 of 3 Dwaine Wagoner (left) and Beth Shively (right), volunteers at the Tate Geological Museum at Casper College, help excavate the trackway. (Image credit: Jean-Pierre Cavigelli/ Copyright 2020 Tate Geological Museum at Casper College) From left to right: Dwaine Wagoner, Beth Shively and Bryan Aivazian, volunteers with the Tate Geological Museum in Wyoming. (Image credit: Jean-Pierre Cavigelli/ Copyright 2020 Tate Geological Museum at Casper College) Bryan Aivazian, a volunteer with the Tate Geological Museum, looks at the Windy Hill Member of the Sundance Formation, where the trackway was found. (Image credit: Jean-Pierre Cavigelli/ Copyright 2020 Tate Geological Museum at Casper College)
Pteraichnus tracks are found all over the world, including in Morocco, Utah and Wyoming. Just like previously identified Pteraichnus tracks, the newfound prints have a four-toed footprint and shorter "double comma" shaped wrist impressions, the researchers said.
Not much is known about the actual pterosaurs that left these prints, but they were likely the size of a small dog, like a corgi (but not as fat), Connely said. And, judging from their footprints and handprints, "the pterosaurs were walking along the beach, possibly they're coming in and out of the water or maybe looking for something along the shoreline that they could pick up and eat, like most shorebirds do these days," Connely said. (Of note, pterosaurs are flying reptiles, not dinosaurs.)
It's unknown what these pterosaurs ate (researchers have yet to find a skull belonging to this particular species), it's a safe bet to say these flying reptiles chowed down on "everything from small invertebrates to fish," she noted.
Related: Photos: Baby pterosaurs couldn't fly as hatchlings
Connely added that some of the track marks were made on top of raindrops, while others have raindrops in them, suggesting that the pterosaurs "were walking around before and after the rain," she said. The rain is an important detail, because before scientists had established that pterosaurs used all four limbs to walk (making them quadrupeds), some researchers wondered whether pterosaur track marks were made by crocodilians swimming in the water. However, this new finding "nails the lid to the coffin" on that interpretation, because the raindrop impressions clearly show that these track marks were made above water, and therefore couldn't have been made underwater by swimming crocs, Cavigelli said. In addition, paleontologists now know that crocodilian prints look nothing like pterosaur tracks, so it's unlikely crocodilians made these prints above the water.
"The context of the fossil — in this case the raindrop impressions — can in some cases be just as, or even more, informative than the fossil itself," Rachel Belben, a doctoral student of geology at the University of Leicester in England, who wasn't involved in the research but who saw the presentation at the conference, told Live Science.
Ancient trackways are also useful to paleontologists because they "preserve behavior," Connely said. For instance, in the 2001 movie "Jurassic Park III," a giant pterosaur lands on a bridge and begins walking menacingly on all fours toward the protagonists. "It's walking on all fours because of the tracks in Wyoming [and elsewhere] and because we can interpret those behaviors — we can put in pop culture, movies or just give more life to them," Connely said.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-10-21--'Starman' just zipped past Mars in his rapidly-decaying Tesla Roadster

Starman — the dummy riding a cherry-red Tesla Roadster through space — has made his closest approach ever to Mars .
That electric convertible with its mannequin passenger bolted to the top of a Falcon Heavy rocket as a stunt during the SpaceX rocket 's first test launch Feb , 6 , 2018 .
( It 's common for test launches to include heavy payloads , but they 're usually more boring than cherry-red sportscars . )
Two years later , the Falcon Heavy upper stage and the vehicle at its tip are making their second trip around the sun @ @ @ @ @ @ @ who tracks space objects as a side project , found that Starman passed 4.6 million miles ( 7.4 million kilometers ) from Mars at 2:25 a.m. EDT Oct. 7 .
That 's about 19 times the distance from Earth to the moon , and 35 times closer than anyone on Earth has gotten to Mars .
Related : 8 ways you can see Einstein 's theory of relativity in real life No one can see the Falcon Heavy upper stage at its current distance .
And the strange , beautiful images it once @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ceased .
But orbits over periods of a few years are fairly straightforward to predict , and McDowell used data about how the rocket was moving when it left Earth 's gravity behind to pinpoint its recent movements .
The Roadster-bearing rocket stage is on an asymmetrical orbital course that takes it as far as 1.66 times Earth 's distance from the sun at one end of its trek — out beyond the orbit of Mars — and then back within Earth 's orbit at the other end , 0.99 times Earth 's @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Starman circled the sun , McDowell said , it crossed Mars ' orbit while the Red Planet was quite far away .
But this time the crossing lined up with a fairly close approach — though still not close enough to feel a strong tug of Martian gravity .
At this point , if you were to go look at the Roadster , it probably would look pretty different .
As Live Science reported in 2018 , the harsh solar radiation environment between the planets would probably have wrecked all the exposed organic @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , leather seats and the like ) , breaking the carbon bonds that hold them together .
And without Earth 's protective atmosphere and magnetic shielding , even the robust plastics in the windshield and carbon fiber materials would start to disintegrate .
Over the course of decades or centuries , the car should be reduced to its aluminum frame and sturdiest glass parts — assuming none of them get destroyed in impacts with passing space rocks .

Starman — the dummy riding a cherry-red Tesla Roadster through space — has made his closest approach ever to Mars.
That electric convertible with its mannequin passenger bolted to the top of a Falcon Heavy rocket as a stunt during the SpaceX rocket's first test launch Feb, 6, 2018. (It's common for test launches to include heavy payloads, but they're usually more boring than cherry-red sportscars.) Two years later, the Falcon Heavy upper stage and the vehicle at its tip are making their second trip around the sun. Jonathan McDowell, a Harvard astrophysicist who tracks space objects as a side project, found that Starman passed 4.6 million miles (7.4 million kilometers) from Mars at 2:25 a.m. EDT Oct. 7. That's about 19 times the distance from Earth to the moon, and 35 times closer than anyone on Earth has gotten to Mars.
(The closest recent approach between the two planets was 34.8 million miles (56 million km) in 2003, according to World Atlas, though the planets are often hundreds of millions of miles apart.)
Starman, last seen leaving Earth, made its first close approach with Mars today—within 0.05 astronomical units, or under 5 million miles, of the Red Planet pic.twitter.com/gV8barFTm7October 7, 2020 See more
Related: 8 ways you can see Einstein's theory of relativity in real life
No one can see the Falcon Heavy upper stage at its current distance. And the strange, beautiful images it once beamed home to Earth have long since ceased. But orbits over periods of a few years are fairly straightforward to predict, and McDowell used data about how the rocket was moving when it left Earth's gravity behind to pinpoint its recent movements.
The Roadster-bearing rocket stage is on an asymmetrical orbital course that takes it as far as 1.66 times Earth's distance from the sun at one end of its trek — out beyond the orbit of Mars — and then back within Earth's orbit at the other end, 0.99 times Earth's distance from the sun.
The stage has passed through the second aphelion of its 0.99 x 1.66 AU orbit and a couple of days ago passed back inside the orbit of Mars. pic.twitter.com/C6b8LffPuyOctober 7, 2020 See more
Last time Starman circled the sun, McDowell said, it crossed Mars' orbit while the Red Planet was quite far away. But this time the crossing lined up with a fairly close approach — though still not close enough to feel a strong tug of Martian gravity.
At this point, if you were to go look at the Roadster, it probably would look pretty different. As Live Science reported in 2018, the harsh solar radiation environment between the planets would probably have wrecked all the exposed organic materials (red paint, rubber tires, leather seats and the like), breaking the carbon bonds that hold them together. And without Earth's protective atmosphere and magnetic shielding, even the robust plastics in the windshield and carbon fiber materials would start to disintegrate. Over the course of decades or centuries, the car should be reduced to its aluminum frame and sturdiest glass parts — assuming none of them get destroyed in impacts with passing space rocks.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-10-21--You can't squish this 'iron' beetle. Now, scientists know why.

Diabolical ironclad beetles are almost unbreakable — you can smack them , stomp on them or run them over with a car , and they 'll scamper away uncrushed .
Now , scientists know why these beetles ' outer wing cases , known as elytra , are so tough — they 're made up of a series of smoothly interlocking puzzle parts ; the geometry and internal structure of this `` jigsaw '' design increase the strength of the beetle 's armor .
Ironclad beetles ( Phloeodes diabolicus ) measure about 0.6 to 1 inch ( 15 to 25 millimeters @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in woodland habitats in western North America , where they live under tree bark .
Though their ancestors could fly , ironclad beetles lost their flight capabilities long ago , and their elytra are fused together , forming a crush-resistant shield .
Entomologists are all too familiar with the toughness of these barriers .
Efforts to pin ironclad beetle specimens for mounting , display and storage frequently end with an unpierced insect and a pile of bent steel pins , scientists wrote in their new study , published online today ( Oct. 21 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ researchers performed compression tests on the beetles to see just how much force those shields could withstand before cracking .
They discovered that the `` iron '' beetles could resist continuous forces up to 149 newtons , or 33 lbs .
( 15 kilograms ) .
This was about 39,000 times the beetles ' body weight , and more than twice as much force than other species of terrestrial beetles can endure , according to the study .
Microscopic analysis of exoskeleton cross-sections showed lateral support structures that made some parts of the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ weight uniformly over the beetle 's back and protect its organs .
And further reinforcement came from the seam where the elytra fused together .
In the ironclad beetle 's flying relatives , the elytra notch together in `` a tongue-and-groove design , '' allowing them to smoothly open , close and release the lower wings for flight , the researchers reported .
But in ironclad beetles , the fused elytra fit together like pieces in a jigsaw puzzle along the length of the insect 's abdomen .
The protruding parts of these @ @ @ @ @ @ @ distribute stress across the exoskeleton , preventing it from cracking .
When the researchers 3D-printed samples to test the strength of the jigsaw connections , they found that sutures with five blades were stiffest and could bear heavier loads .
The scientists also detected layered microstructures in cross-sections of the blades that further diverted stresses away from the most vulnerable parts , protecting the narrow `` necks '' of the interlocking puzzle pieces from fractures and actually causing the pieces to lock together more securely .
Revealing the biological architecture that makes ironclad @ @ @ @ @ @ @ structures that are more impact-resistant , and the researchers put this to the test with their own 3D-printed designs .
`` We demonstrate this by creating interlocking sutures from biomimetic composites that show a considerable increase in toughness compared with a frequently used engineering joint , '' the scientists wrote in the study .

Diabolical ironclad beetles are almost unbreakable — you can smack them, stomp on them or run them over with a car, and they'll scamper away uncrushed.
Now, scientists know why these beetles' outer wing cases, known as elytra, are so tough — they're made up of a series of smoothly interlocking puzzle parts; the geometry and internal structure of this "jigsaw" design increase the strength of the beetle's armor.
Ironclad beetles (Phloeodes diabolicus) measure about 0.6 to 1 inch (15 to 25 millimeters) in length, and are found in woodland habitats in western North America, where they live under tree bark. Though their ancestors could fly, ironclad beetles lost their flight capabilities long ago, and their elytra are fused together, forming a crush-resistant shield.
Related: Meet the beetles: Stunning museum specimens from London
Entomologists are all too familiar with the toughness of these barriers. Efforts to pin ironclad beetle specimens for mounting, display and storage frequently end with an unpierced insect and a pile of bent steel pins, scientists wrote in their new study, published online today (Oct. 21) in the journal Nature.
The researchers performed compression tests on the beetles to see just how much force those shields could withstand before cracking. They discovered that the "iron" beetles could resist continuous forces up to 149 newtons, or 33 lbs. (15 kilograms). This was about 39,000 times the beetles' body weight, and more than twice as much force as other species of terrestrial beetles can endure, according to the study.
Jigsaw joins
Microscopic analysis of exoskeleton cross-sections showed lateral support structures that made some parts of the elytra stiffer than others, to distribute weight uniformly over the beetle's back and protect its organs. And further reinforcement came from the seam where the elytra fused together.
In the ironclad beetle's flying relatives, the elytra notch together in "a tongue-and-groove design," allowing them to smoothly open, close and release the lower wings for flight, the researchers reported. But in ironclad beetles, the fused elytra fit together like pieces in a jigsaw puzzle along the length of the insect's abdomen. The protruding parts of these interlocking pieces, called blades, also distribute stress across the exoskeleton, preventing it from cracking.
A cross-section of a diabolical ironclad beetle reveals layers of lateral support inside its exoskeleton. (Image credit: David Kisalius)
When the researchers 3D-printed samples to test the strength of the jigsaw connections, they found that sutures with five blades were stiffest and could bear heavier loads. The scientists also detected layered microstructures in cross-sections of the blades that further diverted stresses away from the most vulnerable parts, protecting the narrow "necks" of the interlocking puzzle pieces from fractures and actually causing the pieces to lock together more securely.
Revealing the biological architecture that makes ironclad beetle exoskeletons near-uncrushable could help engineers design structures that are more impact-resistant, and the researchers put this to the test with their own 3D-printed designs.
"We demonstrate this by creating interlocking sutures from biomimetic composites that show a considerable increase in toughness compared with a frequently used engineering joint," the scientists wrote in the study.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-10-21--NASA spacecraft makes historic attempt to snag samples of asteroid Bennu

For the first time ever , a NASA probe has performed a sample-snagging operation on an asteroid in deep space .
The agency 's spiraled down to the surface of the near-Earth asteroid Bennu Tuesday afternoon ( Oct. 20 ) to grab material that mission team members hope harbors clues about the solar system 's early days and the rise of life on Earth .
`` We did it ! ''
OSIRIS-REx principal investigator Dante Lauretta , of the University of Arizona , said during a webcast that provided updates about the maneuver .
`` We tagged the surface of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to Bennu now to see how the event went . ''
The goal was to collect at least 60 grams ( 2.1 ounces ) of dirt and gravel from Bennu 's rubbly surface .
It could take up to 10 days to determine if OSIRIS-REx achieved this aim , mission team members have said .
And it 's not a disaster if the haul turns out to be a little light ; the probe can go back down for two more tries if need be .
“ This amazing first for NASA demonstrates @ @ @ @ @ @ @ country came together and persevered through incredible challenges to expand the boundaries of knowledge , '' NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine said in a statement after the touchdown .
`` Our industry , academic , and international partners have made it possible to hold a piece of the most ancient solar system in our hands . ''
Related : The greatest asteroid encounters of all time !
Lauretta and his fellow OSIRIS-REx scientists and engineers watched over the asteroid sample-snatching attempt from a mission operations center at Lockheed Martin Space in Littleton , Colorado @ @ @ @ @ @ @ for NASA . )
And while the mood was certainly jubilant , the impact of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic was clear .
For example , everyone wore face masks and maintained appropriate social distancing for much of the event .
While there were some hugs after news of OSIRIS-REx 's asteroid touchdown , they were few in NASA 's live webcast , with hand sanitizer clearly on hand after such celebrations .
`` This is one of those moments where we 're all aware of COVID-19 , '' NASA astronomer Michelle Thaller of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the webcast just after touchdown .
`` Because I want the hugs and the high fives and everything , but we 're all going to keep each other safe . ''
The $ 800 million OSIRIS-REx mission launched in September 2016 and arrived at the 1,640-foot-wide ( 500 meters ) Bennu in December 2018 .
The probe has been taking the asteroid 's measure ever since , mapping its surface in incredible detail to prepare for the maneuver .
That work has revealed a world far more rugged than the mission team had @ @ @ @ @ @ @ surface , limiting the available options for a safe sample grab .
The team eventually homed in on a small as its top choice , because the site sports relatively fresh and fine-grained material that has n't been exposed to the harsh deep-space environment for long .
But Nightingale is surrounded by hazards , including a big outcrop the mission team nicknamed `` Mount Doom . ''
There are obstacles within the crater as well , so the spacecraft targeted a relatively flat , boulder-free area just 26 feet ( 8 m ) @ @ @ @ @ @ @ considering that OSIRIS-REx is the size of a 15-passenger van and the original mission plan envisioned a touchdown zone 165 feet ( 50 m ) wide .
`` So , for some perspective : The next time you park your car in front of your house or in front of a coffee shop and walk inside , think about the challenge of navigating OSIRIS-REx into one of these spots from 200 million miles away , '' Mike Moreau , OSIRIS-REx deputy project manager at NASA 's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ last month .
It currently takes more than 18 minutes for commands to travel from Earth to OSIRIS-REx , so Moreau and his colleagues can not control the probe in real time .
The craft therefore performed the operation autonomously .
Shortly before 2 p.m. EDT ( 1600 GMT ) Tuesday , OSIRIS-REx fired its thrusters to get out of orbit around Bennu and head down toward the surface .
At 6:12 p.m. EDT ( 2212 GMT ) , the probe `` kissed '' the asteroid for about 10 seconds with its sample-collecting @ @ @ @ @ @ @ end of OSIRIS-REx 's 11-foot-long ( 3.4 m ) robotic arm .
During the brief touchdown , the spacecraft blasted Bennu 's surface with nitrogen gas .
This stirred up dirt and rock that could then be collected by the arm 's sampling head , which mission team members have likened to an older car 's air filter .
We should expect OSIRIS-REx 's first images of the operation to start coming down to Earth tomorrow morning ( Oct. 21 ) , mission team members said .
The OSIRIS-REx team will spend the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ asteroid material was collected .
The probe 's handlers have expressed confidence that this first attempt will succeed ; OSIRIS-REx 's sampler was designed to snag at least 150 grams ( 5.3 ounces ) and could theoretically get up to 4 kilograms ( 8.8 lbs . )
of material if everything went perfectly .
But if OSIRIS-REx is deemed to have come up short on collected material Tuesday , another attempt could be made , at a backup site known as Osprey , as soon as January 2021 .
A third try would @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ; the probe carries three bottles of surface-disturbing nitrogen gas .
Those are contingency plans , however .
If things went according to plan , OSIRIS-REx remains on course to depart in March 2021 .
The collected samples are scheduled to land here on Earth , encased in a special return capsule , in September 2023 .
Scientists will then study the material in labs around the world , scrutinizing the stuff in far more detail than OSIRIS-REx , or any other single probe , could do on its own in deep space @ @ @ @ @ @ @ from the planet-formation epoch , so such analyses could reveal key insights about our solar system 's very early days , NASA officials have said .
`` This was an incredible feat — and today [ Tuesday ] we 've advanced both science and engineering and our prospects for future missions to study these mysterious ancient storytellers of the solar system , '' said Thomas Zurbuchen , NASA 's associate administrator for science missions , in the NASA statement .
`` A piece of primordial rock that has witnessed our solar system ’ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to come home for generations of scientific discovery , and we can ’ t wait to see what comes next . ''
Related : Pieces of heaven : A brief history of sample-return missions In addition , Bennu is rich in hydrated minerals and carbon-containing organic compounds .
Asteroids like it may have helped Earth become habitable long ago , seeding our planet with the ingredients needed for life as we know it .
`` And also , having the samples back here on Earth allows us to preserve them for future generations @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to analyze the samples using techniques and instruments that haven ’ t been invented , and to ask questions that we don ’ t even know to ask yet , '' Lori Glaze , director of NASA ’ s Planetary Science Division , said during today 's webcast .
Getting these samples down to Earth is OSIRIS-REx 's top priority .
But the mission also has other goals , as indicated by its full name — `` Origins , Spectral Interpretation , Resource Identification , Security , Regolith Explorer . ''
For example @ @ @ @ @ @ @ orbiting Bennu should help scientists better understand how asteroids move through space , NASA officials have said .
This information could improve trajectory projections for , a category that includes Bennu .
( There 's a 1-in-2,700 chance that Bennu will hit Earth during a close approach in the late 2100s , researchers say . )
OSIRIS-REx 's sample wo n't be the first pristine asteroid material brought down to Earth by a space mission .
Japan 's Hayabusa probe returned some grains of the stony asteroid Itokawa in 2010 , and its @ @ @ @ @ @ @ material from Ryugu is scheduled to land on Earth this December .
The OSIRIS-REx and Hayabusa2 teams have been working together for the past few years , and that collaboration will continue after the missions ' samples touch down on Earth , NASA officials have stressed .
Editor 's note : This story was updated Oct. 21 to include more reactions from NASA chief Jim Bridenstine and other agency officials .
Mike Wall is the author of `` Out There '' ( Grand Central Publishing , 2018 ; illustrated by Karl Tate ) @ @ @ @ @ @ @ alien life .
Follow him on Twitter @ michaeldwall .
Follow us on Twitter @ Spacedotcom or Facebook .

For the first time ever, a NASA probe has performed a sample-snagging operation on an asteroid in deep space.
The agency's OSIRIS-REx spacecraft spiraled down to the surface of the near-Earth asteroid Bennu Tuesday afternoon (Oct. 20) to grab material that mission team members hope harbors clues about the solar system's early days and the rise of life on Earth.
"We did it!" OSIRIS-REx principal investigator Dante Lauretta, of the University of Arizona, said during a webcast that provided updates about the maneuver. "We tagged the surface of the asteroid, and it's up to Bennu now to see how the event went."
The goal was to collect at least 60 grams (2.1 ounces) of dirt and gravel from Bennu's rubbly surface. It could take up to 10 days to determine if OSIRIS-REx achieved this aim, mission team members have said. And it's not a disaster if the asteroid haul turns out to be a little light; the probe can go back down for two more tries if need be.
“This amazing first for NASA demonstrates how an incredible team from across the country came together and persevered through incredible challenges to expand the boundaries of knowledge," NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine said in a statement after the touchdown. "Our industry, academic, and international partners have made it possible to hold a piece of the most ancient solar system in our hands."
Related: The greatest asteroid encounters of all time!
Members of NASA's OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission team celebrate after receiving word that the probe completed an attempt to collect samples of asteroid Bennu 207 million miles from Earth on Oct. 20, 2020. (Image credit: NASA TV)
Lauretta and his fellow OSIRIS-REx scientists and engineers watched over the asteroid sample-snatching attempt from a mission operations center at Lockheed Martin Space in Littleton, Colorado. (Lockheed Martin built the spacecraft for NASA.) And while the mood was certainly jubilant, the impact of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic was clear.
For example, everyone wore face masks and maintained appropriate social distancing for much of the event. While there were some hugs after news of OSIRIS-REx's asteroid touchdown, they were few in NASA's live webcast, with hand sanitizer clearly on hand after such celebrations.
"This is one of those moments where we're all aware of COVID-19," NASA astronomer Michelle Thaller of the Goddard Space Flight Center said in the webcast just after touchdown. "Because I want the hugs and the high fives and everything, but we're all going to keep each other safe."
Related: NASA's OSIRIS-REx asteroid-sampling mission in pictures
An artist's depiction of NASA's OSIRIS-REx spacecraft approaching asteroid Bennu for its sampling attempt. (Image credit: NASA/Goddard/University of Arizona)
The $800 million OSIRIS-REx mission launched in September 2016 and arrived at the 1,640-foot-wide (500 meters) Bennu in December 2018. The probe has been taking the asteroid's measure ever since, mapping its surface in incredible detail to prepare for the maneuver.
That work has revealed a world far more rugged than the mission team had expected. House-sized boulders stud Bennu's surface, limiting the available options for a safe sample grab. The team eventually homed in on a small crater called Nightingale as its top choice, because the site sports relatively fresh and fine-grained material that hasn't been exposed to the harsh deep-space environment for long.
But Nightingale is surrounded by hazards, including a big outcrop the mission team nicknamed "Mount Doom." There are obstacles within the crater as well, so the spacecraft targeted a relatively flat, boulder-free area just 26 feet (8 m) wide — quite an ambitious goal, considering that OSIRIS-REx is the size of a 15-passenger van and the original mission plan envisioned a touchdown zone 165 feet (50 m) wide.
"So, for some perspective: The next time you park your car in front of your house or in front of a coffee shop and walk inside, think about the challenge of navigating OSIRIS-REx into one of these spots from 200 million miles away," Mike Moreau, OSIRIS-REx deputy project manager at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, said during a news conference last month.
It currently takes more than 18 minutes for commands to travel from Earth to OSIRIS-REx, so Moreau and his colleagues cannot control the probe in real time. The craft therefore performed the operation autonomously.
Shortly before 2 p.m. EDT (1600 GMT) Tuesday, OSIRIS-REx fired its thrusters to get out of orbit around Bennu and head down toward the surface. At 6:12 p.m. EDT (2212 GMT), the probe "kissed" the asteroid for about 10 seconds with its sample-collecting mechanism, which is affixed to the end of OSIRIS-REx's 11-foot-long (3.4 m) robotic arm.
The asteroid Bennu, as seen by NASA's OSIRIS-REx spacecraft on Dec. 2, 2018. (Image credit: NASA/Goddard/University of Arizona)
During the brief touchdown, the spacecraft blasted Bennu's surface with nitrogen gas. This stirred up dirt and rock that could then be collected by the arm's sampling head, which mission team members have likened to an older car's air filter.
We should expect OSIRIS-REx's first images of the operation to start coming down to Earth tomorrow morning (Oct. 21), mission team members said.
The OSIRIS-REx team will spend the next week or so assessing how much asteroid material was collected. The probe's handlers have expressed confidence that this first attempt will succeed; OSIRIS-REx's sampler was designed to snag at least 150 grams (5.3 ounces) and could theoretically get up to 4 kilograms (8.8 lbs.) of material if everything went perfectly.
But if OSIRIS-REx is deemed to have come up short on collected material Tuesday, another attempt could be made, at a backup site known as Osprey, as soon as January 2021. A third try would be possible, too, if needed; the probe carries three bottles of surface-disturbing nitrogen gas.
Those are contingency plans, however. If things went according to plan, OSIRIS-REx remains on course to depart Bennu in March 2021. The collected samples are scheduled to land here on Earth, encased in a special return capsule, in September 2023.
Scientists will then study the material in labs around the world, scrutinizing the stuff in far more detail than OSIRIS-REx, or any other single probe, could do on its own in deep space. Asteroids are building blocks left over from the planet-formation epoch, so such analyses could reveal key insights about our solar system's very early days, NASA officials have said.
"This was an incredible feat — and today [Tuesday] we've advanced both science and engineering and our prospects for future missions to study these mysterious ancient storytellers of the solar system," said Thomas Zurbuchen, NASA's associate administrator for science missions, in the NASA statement. "A piece of primordial rock that has witnessed our solar system’s entire history may now be ready to come home for generations of scientific discovery, and we can’t wait to see what comes next."
Related: Pieces of heaven: A brief history of sample-return missions
In addition, Bennu is rich in hydrated minerals and carbon-containing organic compounds. Asteroids like it may have helped Earth become habitable long ago, seeding our planet with the ingredients needed for life as we know it.
"And also, having the samples back here on Earth allows us to preserve them for future generations to come and allows for future explorers to analyze the samples using techniques and instruments that haven’t been invented, and to ask questions that we don’t even know to ask yet," Lori Glaze, director of NASA’s Planetary Science Division, said during today's webcast.
Getting these samples down to Earth is OSIRIS-REx's top priority. But the mission also has other goals, as indicated by its full name — "Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource Identification, Security, Regolith Explorer."
For example, observations the probe has made while orbiting Bennu should help scientists better understand how asteroids move through space, NASA officials have said. This information could improve trajectory projections for potentially hazardous asteroids , a category that includes Bennu. (There's a 1-in-2,700 chance that Bennu will hit Earth during a close approach in the late 2100s, researchers say.)
OSIRIS-REx's sample won't be the first pristine asteroid material brought down to Earth by a space mission. Japan's Hayabusa probe returned some grains of the stony asteroid Itokawa in 2010, and its successor, Hayabusa2, recently grabbed pieces of the carbon-rich rock Ryugu . The material from Ryugu is scheduled to land on Earth this December.
The OSIRIS-REx and Hayabusa2 teams have been working together for the past few years, and that collaboration will continue after the missions' samples touch down on Earth, NASA officials have stressed.
Editor's note: This story was updated Oct. 21 to include more reactions from NASA chief Jim Bridenstine and other agency officials.
Mike Wall is the author of "Out There" (Grand Central Publishing, 2018; illustrated by Karl Tate), a book about the search for alien life. Follow him on Twitter @michaeldwall. Follow us on Twitter @Spacedotcom or Facebook.


livescience--2020-10-22--Physicists clock the fastest possible speed of sound

Scientists have discovered the fastest possible speed of sound , a zippy 22 miles ( 36 kilometers ) per second .
Sound waves move at different speeds in , and , and within those states of matter — for instance , they travel faster in warmer liquids compared with colder ones .
Physicist Kostya Trachenko of Queen Mary University of London and his colleagues wanted to figure out the upper limits of how fast sound could travel .
This exercise was largely theoretical : The researchers found that the answer , which is about twice as fast as sound moves @ @ @ @ @ @ @ fundamental numbers in the universe .
The first is the fine structure constant , which is a number that describes the electromagnetic force that holds together such as electrons and protons .
( It happens to be approximately 1/137 . )
The second is the proton-to-electron mass ratio of a material , which , as it sounds , is the ratio of mass from protons and mass from electrons within the atomic structure of the material .
Related : In photos : Large numbers that define the universe It 's not possible to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ real world , because the math predicts that sound moves at its top speed in the lowest-mass .
The lowest-mass atom is hydrogen , but hydrogen is n't solid —— unless it 's under super-duper pressure that 's a million times stronger than that of Earth 's atmosphere .
That might happen at the core of a gas giant like Jupiter , but it does n't happen anywhere nearby where scientific testing is possible .
So instead , Trachenko and his colleagues turned to quantum mechanics and math to calculate what would happen @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of .
They found that sound could travel close to the theoretical limit of 79,200 mph ( 127,460 km/h ) , confirming their initial calculations .
In contrast , the speed of sound in air is roughly 767 mph ( 1,235 km/h ) .
The movement of sound in such extreme and specific environments may seem unimportant , but because sound waves are traveling vibrations of molecules , the speed of sound is related to many other properties of materials , such as the ability to resist stress , study co-author Chris Pickard @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of Cambridge , .
Thus , understanding the fundamentals of sound could help illuminate other fundamental properties of materials in extreme circumstances , Trachenko added in the statement .
For instance , previous research has suggested that solid atomic hydrogen could be a superconductor .
So knowing its fundamental properties could be important for future superconductivity research .
Sound could also reveal more about the hot mix of quarks and gluons that made up the universe an instant after the Big Bang , and could be applied to the strange physics around the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( Other researchers have studied `` `` to gather insight into these cosmic objects . )
`` We believe the findings of this study could have further scientific applications by helping us to find and understand limits of different properties , such as viscosity and thermal conductivity , relevant for high-temperature superconductivity , quark-gluon plasma , and even black hole physics , '' Trachenko said .
The researchers reported their findings Oct. 9 in the journal .

Scientists have discovered the fastest possible speed of sound, a zippy 22 miles (36 kilometers) per second.
Sound waves move at different speeds in solids , liquids and gases , and within those states of matter — for instance, they travel faster in warmer liquids compared with colder ones. Physicist Kostya Trachenko of Queen Mary University of London and his colleagues wanted to figure out the upper limits of how fast sound could travel.
This exercise was largely theoretical: The researchers found that the answer, which is about twice as fast as sound moves through solid diamond, depends on some fundamental numbers in the universe. The first is the fine structure constant, which is a number that describes the electromagnetic force that holds together elementary particles such as electrons and protons. (It happens to be approximately 1/137.) The second is the proton-to-electron mass ratio of a material, which, as it sounds, is the ratio of mass from protons and mass from electrons within the atomic structure of the material.
Related: In photos: Large numbers that define the universe
It's not possible to test this theoretical top speed in the real world, because the math predicts that sound moves at its top speed in the lowest-mass atoms . The lowest-mass atom is hydrogen, but hydrogen isn't solid —— unless it's under super-duper pressure that's a million times stronger than that of Earth's atmosphere. That might happen at the core of a gas giant like Jupiter, but it doesn't happen anywhere nearby where scientific testing is possible.
So instead, Trachenko and his colleagues turned to quantum mechanics and math to calculate what would happen to sound zipping through a solid atom of hydrogen . They found that sound could travel close to the theoretical limit of 79,200 mph (127,460 km/h), confirming their initial calculations. In contrast, the speed of sound in air is roughly 767 mph (1,235 km/h).
The movement of sound in such extreme and specific environments may seem unimportant, but because sound waves are traveling vibrations of molecules, the speed of sound is related to many other properties of materials, such as the ability to resist stress, study co-author Chris Pickard, a materials scientist at the University of Cambridge, said in a statement . Thus, understanding the fundamentals of sound could help illuminate other fundamental properties of materials in extreme circumstances, Trachenko added in the statement.
For instance, previous research has suggested that solid atomic hydrogen could be a superconductor. So knowing its fundamental properties could be important for future superconductivity research. Sound could also reveal more about the hot mix of quarks and gluons that made up the universe an instant after the Big Bang, and could be applied to the strange physics around the gravity wells that are black holes. (Other researchers have studied " sonic black holes " to gather insight into these cosmic objects.)
"We believe the findings of this study could have further scientific applications by helping us to find and understand limits of different properties, such as viscosity and thermal conductivity, relevant for high-temperature superconductivity, quark-gluon plasma, and even black hole physics," Trachenko said.
The researchers reported their findings Oct. 9 in the journal Science Advances .
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-10-22--'Lost' tectonic plate called Resurrection hidden under the Pacific

Scientists have reconstructed a long-lost that may have given rise to an arc of volcanoes in the Pacific Ocean 60 million years ago .
The plate , dubbed Resurrection , has long been controversial among geophysicists , as some believe it never existed .
But the new reconstruction puts the edge of the rocky plate along a line of known ancient , suggesting that it was once part of the crust ( Earth 's top layer ) in what is today northern Canada .
`` Volcanoes form at plate boundaries , and the more plates you have , the more @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , a geologist at the University of Houston , .
`` Volcanoes also affect .
So , when you are trying to model the Earth and understand how climate has changed ... you really want to know how many volcanoes there have been on . ''
Wu and his co-author , University of Houston geology doctoral candidate Spencer Fuston , used a computer model of Earth 's crust to `` unfold '' the movement of tectonic plates since the early , the geological era that began 66 million years ago .
Geophysicists already @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the Pacific at that time , the Kula plate and the Farallon plate .
Because lots of is present east of the former location of these plates in what is today Alaska and Washington , some geophysicists argued there was a missing piece in the puzzle — a theoretical plate they called Resurrection .
This magma would have been left behind by volcanic activity at the plate 's edge .
All of these plates have long since dived beneath Earth 's crust in a process called subduction .
Wu and Fuston used the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ virtually raising the plates back to the surface and rewinding their motion .
When they did , they found that Resurrection did indeed fit into the picture .
They reported their findings Oct. 19 in the journal .
`` When 'raised ' back to the Earth 's surface and reconstructed , the boundaries of this ancient Resurrection tectonic plate match well with the ancient volcanic belts in Washington State and Alaska , providing a much sought-after link between the ancient Pacific Ocean and the North American geologic record , '' Wu said .

Scientists have reconstructed a long-lost tectonic plate that may have given rise to an arc of volcanoes in the Pacific Ocean 60 million years ago.
The plate, dubbed Resurrection, has long been controversial among geophysicists, as some believe it never existed. But the new reconstruction puts the edge of the rocky plate along a line of known ancient volcanoes , suggesting that it was once part of the crust (Earth's top layer) in what is today northern Canada.
"Volcanoes form at plate boundaries, and the more plates you have, the more volcanoes you have," Jonny Wu, a geologist at the University of Houston, said in a statement . "Volcanoes also affect climate change . So, when you are trying to model the Earth and understand how climate has changed ... you really want to know how many volcanoes there have been on Earth ."
Related: 10 ways Earth revealed its weirdness
Image 1 of 2 A 3D block diagram across North America showing a mantle tomography image reveals the Slab Unfolding method used to flatten the Farallon tectonic plate. By doing this, Fuston and Wu were able to locate the lost Resurrection plate. (Image credit: University of Houston) This image shows plate tectonic reconstruction of western North America 60 million years ago showing subduction of three key tectonic plates, Kula, Farallon and Resurrection. (Image credit: University of Houston)
Wu and his co-author, University of Houston geology doctoral candidate Spencer Fuston, used a computer model of Earth's crust to "unfold" the movement of tectonic plates since the early Cenozoic , the geological era that began 66 million years ago. Geophysicists already knew that there were two plates in the Pacific at that time, the Kula plate and the Farallon plate.
Because lots of magma is present east of the former location of these plates in what is today Alaska and Washington, some geophysicists argued there was a missing piece in the puzzle — a theoretical plate they called Resurrection. This magma would have been left behind by volcanic activity at the plate's edge.
All of these plates have long since dived beneath Earth's crust in a process called subduction. Wu and Fuston used the computer reconstruction to undo this subduction, virtually raising the plates back to the surface and rewinding their motion . When they did, they found that Resurrection did indeed fit into the picture. They reported their findings Oct. 19 in the journal GSA Bulletin .
"When 'raised' back to the Earth's surface and reconstructed, the boundaries of this ancient Resurrection tectonic plate match well with the ancient volcanic belts in Washington State and Alaska, providing a much sought-after link between the ancient Pacific Ocean and the North American geologic record," Wu said.
Originally published in Live Science.


livescience--2020-10-22--Turbulent environment set the stage for leaps in human evolution 320,000 years ago

People thrive all across the globe , at every temperature , altitude and landscape .
How did human beings become so successful at adapting to whatever environment we wind up in ?
Human origins researchers like me are interested in how this quintessential human trait , adaptability , evolved .
At a site in Kenya , my colleagues and I have been working on this puzzle for decades .
It ’ s a place where we see big changes happening in the archaeological and fossil records hundreds of thousands of years ago .
But what external factors drove the emergence @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , Homo sapiens , interacts with its surroundings ?
We wanted to know if we could connect what was happening in the environment at the time to these shifts in technology and the human species that lived there .
Based on our analysis , published in the journal Science Advances , we conclude that the roots of Homo sapiens ‘ evolutionary adaptations stem from our ability to adjust to environmental change .
Famed prehistoric site Olorgesailie is in southern Kenya .
It lies within the Rift Valley , a seismically active area where @ @ @ @ @ @ @ over time , burying and preserving fossilized bones and ancient stone tools .
At Olorgesailie , our scientific team has found evidence that ’ s potentially related to the origin of Homo sapiens in the form of a critical transition from one technology to another .
The older technology is typified by large , oval cutting implements called handaxes .
Typical of what ’ s called Acheulean stone technology , nearly two dozen layers of these handaxes and other Acheulean tools have been unearthed at Olorgesailie .
They span an immense period of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ when fossil remains show that the hominin species Homo erectus and Homo heidelbergensis inhabited eastern Africa .
The last Acheulean archeological sites at Olorgesailie are 500,000 years old , at which point there is a frustrating 180,000-year gap in these sediments caused by erosion .
The archaeological record starts up again around 320,000 years ago , as sediments began to fill in the landscape .
But the Acheulean was gone .
In its place was Middle Stone Age technology , consisting typically of smaller , more easily carried implements than the clunky Acheulean @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , the Middle Stone Age technology is associated with the earliest African Homo sapiens .
These toolmakers often used sharp-edged black obsidian as a raw material .
Archaeologists Alison Brooks , John Yellen and others chemically traced the obsidian to distant outcrops in several different directions , up to 95 kilometers away from Olorgesailie .
They concluded that the far-off obsidian sources provide evidence of resource exchange among groups , a phenomenon unknown in Acheulean times .
Our Middle Stone Age excavations also contained black and red coloring materials .
Archaeologists view pigments @ @ @ @ @ @ @ symbolic communication .
Think of all the ways people use color – in flags , clothing and the many other ways people visually claim their identity as part of a group .
So here we had the extinction of the Acheulean way of life as well as its replacement by dramatically new behaviors including technological innovations , intergroup exchange of obsidian and the use of pigments .
But we had no way to examine what happened in the 180,000-year gap when this transition took place .
We needed to recover that time .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ sediments from somewhere nearby that would have recorded the environments and survival challenges associated with this shift in early human adaptation .
Turning to geology for clues about early humans Different types of sediment are laid down in lakes , streams and soils , and the sediment layers tell the story of changing environments over time .
Geologists Kay Behrensmeyer and Alan Deino joined me in the field in southern Kenya to figure out where we might drill for sediments that could fill in the Olorgesailie time gap .
We surmised that the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ lie beneath a flat , grassy plain about 24 kilometers south of our Olorgesailie excavations .
Together with colleagues including René Dommain and collaborators from the National Lacustrine Core Facility , we drilled in September 2012 until we reached the volcanic rock floor of the Rift Valley .
The result was a core 139 meters deep containing a sequence of ancient lake and lake margin habitats and soils , all riddled with volcanic layers we could date to yield the most precisely dated East African environmental record for the past 1 million years @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and other colleagues , I assembled an international team of earth scientists and paleoecologists to sample and analyze the core .
We figured out ways to convert many different measures of past environment – microscopic bits of plants , single-celled diatoms from the ancient lake deposits and various chemical signals – into ecological measures of freshwater availability and vegetation cover .
The newly published study provides our findings .
The sediment record showed that during the era 1 million to 500,000 years ago , when Acheulean toolmakers were busy in the Olorgesailie basin @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Fresh water was reliably available .
Grazing zebra , rhinoceros , baboons , elephants and pigs altered the regional vegetation of wooded grassland to create short , nutritious grassy plains .
And then what happened in the time gap ?
The core is very well preserved in the previously mysterious time interval .
We determined that right around 400,000 years ago , a critical environmental transition took place .
From a relatively stable setting , we started to see repeated fluctuation in the vegetation , available water and other ecological resources on which @ @ @ @ @ @ @ According to the anthropological literature , hunter-gatherers today and in recent history respond to periods of uncertain resources by investing time and energy to refine their technology .
They connect with distant groups to sustain networks of resource and information exchange .
And they develop symbolic markers that strengthen these social connections and group identity .
Sound familiar ?
These behaviors resemble how the ancient Middle Stone Age lifestyle at Olorgesailie differed from the Acheulean way of life .
Equally notable , the large grazing species typical of Acheulean times became extinct after @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 300,000 years ago , ecologically flexible herbivore species smaller in size , less water-dependent and reliant on both short and tall grass and tree leaves , had replaced the specialized grazers such as now-extinct species of zebras and the huge baboon .
These changes in the animal community reflect the advantage of adaptable diets , a parallel to how our Middle Stone Age ancestors adjusted to environmental uncertainty .
For the past two decades , many human origins researchers have thought of climate as the primary , if not sole , driver of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ draws attention , though , to several factors in the Acheulean-Middle Stone Age transition in southern Kenya .
Yes , rainfall varied strongly after the environmental transition 400,000 years ago .
But the terrain across the region also became fractured by tectonic activity and blanketed with volcanic ash .
And big herbivores exerted different influences on the vegetation before and after this transition .
[ Deep knowledge , daily .
Sign up for The Conversation ’ s newsletter . ]
The result was an ecological cascade of changes that included the early humans @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of life .
We propose that all of these factors together instigated this critical evolutionary change .
The Middle Stone Age might hold a lesson for today .
As humanity now confronts an era of environmental uncertainty on a global scale , is our species sufficiently nimble to engage social networks , new technologies , and reliable sources of information to adjust to the environmental disruptions ahead ?
This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license .
Read the original article .
Follow all of the Expert Voices issues @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the discussion — on Facebook and Twitter .
The views expressed are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the publisher .
This version of the article was originally published on Live Science .

People thrive all across the globe, at every temperature, altitude and landscape. How did human beings become so successful at adapting to whatever environment we wind up in? Human origins researchers like me are interested in how this quintessential human trait, adaptability, evolved.
At a site in Kenya, my colleagues and I have been working on this puzzle for decades. It’s a place where we see big changes happening in the archaeological and fossil records hundreds of thousands of years ago. But what external factors drove the emergence of behaviors that typify how our species, Homo sapiens, interacts with its surroundings?
We wanted to know if we could connect what was happening in the environment at the time to these shifts in technology and the human species that lived there. Based on our analysis, published in the journal Science Advances, we conclude that the roots of Homo sapiens‘ evolutionary adaptations stem from our ability to adjust to environmental change.
Aerial view of the Olorgesailie region today.. (Image credit: Human Origins Program, Smithsonian)
Missing time in the archaeological record
Famed prehistoric site Olorgesailie is in southern Kenya. It lies within the Rift Valley, a seismically active area where lakes and streams produced sediments that accumulated over time, burying and preserving fossilized bones and ancient stone tools.
At Olorgesailie, our scientific team has found evidence that’s potentially related to the origin of Homo sapiens in the form of a critical transition from one technology to another.
The older technology is typified by large, oval cutting implements called handaxes. Typical of what’s called Acheulean stone technology, nearly two dozen layers of these handaxes and other Acheulean tools have been unearthed at Olorgesailie. They span an immense period of about 700,000 years, covering a time when fossil remains show that the hominin species Homo erectus and Homo heidelbergensis inhabited eastern Africa.
The last Acheulean archeological sites at Olorgesailie are 500,000 years old, at which point there is a frustrating 180,000-year gap in these sediments caused by erosion. The archaeological record starts up again around 320,000 years ago, as sediments began to fill in the landscape.
But the Acheulean was gone. In its place was Middle Stone Age technology, consisting typically of smaller, more easily carried implements than the clunky Acheulean handaxes. In other areas of Africa, the Middle Stone Age technology is associated with the earliest African Homo sapiens.
These toolmakers often used sharp-edged black obsidian as a raw material. Archaeologists Alison Brooks, John Yellen and others chemically traced the obsidian to distant outcrops in several different directions, up to 95 kilometers away from Olorgesailie. They concluded that the far-off obsidian sources provide evidence of resource exchange among groups, a phenomenon unknown in Acheulean times.
Our Middle Stone Age excavations also contained black and red coloring materials. Archaeologists view pigments like these as signs of increasingly complex symbolic communication. Think of all the ways people use color – in flags, clothing and the many other ways people visually claim their identity as part of a group.
So here we had the extinction of the Acheulean way of life as well as its replacement by dramatically new behaviors including technological innovations, intergroup exchange of obsidian and the use of pigments. But we had no way to examine what happened in the 180,000-year gap when this transition took place.
We needed to recover that time. We started strategizing how we could unearth sediments from somewhere nearby that would have recorded the environments and survival challenges associated with this shift in early human adaptation.
Turning to geology for clues about early humans
Different types of sediment are laid down in lakes, streams and soils, and the sediment layers tell the story of changing environments over time. Geologists Kay Behrensmeyer and Alan Deino joined me in the field in southern Kenya to figure out where we might drill for sediments that could fill in the Olorgesailie time gap.
We surmised that the key to understanding the big transition would lie beneath a flat, grassy plain about 24 kilometers south of our Olorgesailie excavations. Together with colleagues including René Dommain and collaborators from the National Lacustrine Core Facility, we drilled in September 2012 until we reached the volcanic rock floor of the Rift Valley.
The result was a core 139 meters deep containing a sequence of ancient lake and lake margin habitats and soils, all riddled with volcanic layers we could date to yield the most precisely dated East African environmental record for the past 1 million years.
With advice from geologist Andy Cohen and other colleagues, I assembled an international team of earth scientists and paleoecologists to sample and analyze the core. We figured out ways to convert many different measures of past environment – microscopic bits of plants, single-celled diatoms from the ancient lake deposits and various chemical signals – into ecological measures of freshwater availability and vegetation cover. The newly published study provides our findings.
Environments during the time gap
The sediment record showed that during the era 1 million to 500,000 years ago, when Acheulean toolmakers were busy in the Olorgesailie basin, ecological resources were relatively stable. Fresh water was reliably available. Grazing zebra, rhinoceros, baboons, elephants and pigs altered the regional vegetation of wooded grassland to create short, nutritious grassy plains.
And then what happened in the time gap?
The core is very well preserved in the previously mysterious time interval. We determined that right around 400,000 years ago, a critical environmental transition took place. From a relatively stable setting, we started to see repeated fluctuation in the vegetation, available water and other ecological resources on which our ancestors and other mammals depend.
According to the anthropological literature, hunter-gatherers today and in recent history respond to periods of uncertain resources by investing time and energy to refine their technology. They connect with distant groups to sustain networks of resource and information exchange. And they develop symbolic markers that strengthen these social connections and group identity.
Sound familiar? These behaviors resemble how the ancient Middle Stone Age lifestyle at Olorgesailie differed from the Acheulean way of life.
Equally notable, the large grazing species typical of Acheulean times became extinct after 500,000 years ago. Between 360,000 and 300,000 years ago, ecologically flexible herbivore species smaller in size, less water-dependent and reliant on both short and tall grass and tree leaves, had replaced the specialized grazers such as now-extinct species of zebras and the huge baboon.
These changes in the animal community reflect the advantage of adaptable diets, a parallel to how our Middle Stone Age ancestors adjusted to environmental uncertainty.
For the past two decades, many human origins researchers have thought of climate as the primary, if not sole, driver of hominin adaptive evolution. Our new study draws attention, though, to several factors in the Acheulean-Middle Stone Age transition in southern Kenya.
Yes, rainfall varied strongly after the environmental transition 400,000 years ago. But the terrain across the region also became fractured by tectonic activity and blanketed with volcanic ash. And big herbivores exerted different influences on the vegetation before and after this transition.
[Deep knowledge, daily. Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter.]
The result was an ecological cascade of changes that included the early humans who practiced the Middle Stone Age way of life. We propose that all of these factors together instigated this critical evolutionary change.
The Middle Stone Age might hold a lesson for today. As humanity now confronts an era of environmental uncertainty on a global scale, is our species sufficiently nimble to engage social networks, new technologies, and reliable sources of information to adjust to the environmental disruptions ahead?
This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.
Follow all of the Expert Voices issues and debates — and become part of the discussion — on Facebook and Twitter. The views expressed are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the publisher. This version of the article was originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-10-22--The ozone hole over Antarctica has grown much deeper and wider in 2020

The hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica has expanded to one of its greatest recorded sizes in recent years .
In 2019 , scientists revealed that the Antarctic ozone hole had hit its smallest annual peak since tracking began in 1982 , but the 2020 update on this atmospheric anomaly – like other things this year – brings a sobering perspective .
`` Our observations show that the 2020 ozone hole has grown rapidly since mid-August , and covers most of the Antarctic continent – with its size well above average , '' explains project manager Diego Loyola from @ @ @ @ @ @ @ from the European Space Agency 's Copernicus Sentinel-5P satellite show that the ozone hole reached its maximum size of around 25 million square kilometres ( about 9.6 million square miles ) on 2 October this year .
That puts it in about the same ballpark as 2018 and 2015 's ozone holes , which respectively recorded peaks of 22.9 and 25.6 million square kilometres .
`` There is much variability in how far ozone hole events develop each year , '' says atmospheric scientist Vincent-Henri Peuch from the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather @ @ @ @ @ @ @ resembles the one from 2018 , which also was a quite large hole , and is definitely in the upper part of the pack of the last 15 years or so . ''
As well as fluctuating from year to year , the ozone hole over Antarctica also shrinks and grows annually , with ozone concentrations inside the hole depleting when temperatures in the stratosphere become colder .
When this happens - specifically , when polar stratosphere clouds form at temperatures below –78°C ( –108.4°F ) - chemical reactions destroy ozone molecules in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ With the sunlight returning to the South Pole in the last weeks , we saw continued ozone depletion over the area , '' Peuch says .
`` After the unusually small and short-lived ozone hole in 2019 , which was driven by special meteorological conditions , we are registering a rather large one again this year , which confirms that we need to continue enforcing the Montreal Protocol banning emissions of ozone depleting chemicals . ''
The Montreal Protocol was a milestone in humanity 's environmental achievements , phasing out the manufacturing of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ previously used in refrigerators , packaging , and sprays – that destroy ozone molecules in sunlight .
While we now know that human action on this front is helping us to fix the Antarctic ozone hole , the ongoing fluctuations from year to year show that the healing process will be long .
A 2018 assessment by the World Meteorological Organisation found that ozone concentrations above Antarctica would return to relatively normal pre-1980s levels by about 2060 .
To realise that goal , we have to stick to the protocol and ride out @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 're seeing this year .
While 2020 's maximum peak is n't the largest on record – that was seen back in 2000 , with a 29.9 million square kilometre hole – it is still significant , with the hole also being one of the deepest in recent years .
Researchers say the 2020 event has been driven by a strong polar vortex : a wind phenomenon keeping stratospheric temperatures above Antarctica cold .
In contrast , warmer temperatures last year were what brought about 2019 's record-low ozone hole size , as @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 's important to recognise that what we 're seeing [ in 2019 ] is due to warmer stratospheric temperatures , '' Paul Newman , the chief scientist for Earth Sciences at NASA 's Goddard Space Flight Centre in Greenbelt , Maryland , said at the time .
`` It 's not a sign that atmospheric ozone is suddenly on a fast track to recovery . ''
While there may be no fast track , and we can likely expect a few more scary peaks in the years ahead , the Montreal Protocol has @ @ @ @ @ @ @ get there one day if we hold true .
This article was originally published by ScienceAlert .
Read the original article here .

Here, a false-color view of total ozone over the Antarctic pole on Oct. 19, 2020. The purple and blue colors are where there is the least ozone, and the yellows and reds are where there is more ozone.
The hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica has expanded to one of its greatest recorded sizes in recent years.
In 2019, scientists revealed that the Antarctic ozone hole had hit its smallest annual peak since tracking began in 1982, but the 2020 update on this atmospheric anomaly – like other things this year – brings a sobering perspective.
"Our observations show that the 2020 ozone hole has grown rapidly since mid-August, and covers most of the Antarctic continent – with its size well above average," explains project manager Diego Loyola from the German Aerospace Center.
New measurements from the European Space Agency's Copernicus Sentinel-5P satellite show that the ozone hole reached its maximum size of around 25 million square kilometres (about 9.6 million square miles) on 2 October this year.
That puts it in about the same ballpark as 2018 and 2015's ozone holes, which respectively recorded peaks of 22.9 and 25.6 million square kilometres.
"There is much variability in how far ozone hole events develop each year," says atmospheric scientist Vincent-Henri Peuch from the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts.
"The 2020 ozone hole resembles the one from 2018, which also was a quite large hole, and is definitely in the upper part of the pack of the last 15 years or so."
As well as fluctuating from year to year, the ozone hole over Antarctica also shrinks and grows annually, with ozone concentrations inside the hole depleting when temperatures in the stratosphere become colder.
When this happens - specifically, when polar stratosphere clouds form at temperatures below –78°C (–108.4°F) - chemical reactions destroy ozone molecules in the presence of solar radiation.
"With the sunlight returning to the South Pole in the last weeks, we saw continued ozone depletion over the area," Peuch says.
"After the unusually small and short-lived ozone hole in 2019, which was driven by special meteorological conditions, we are registering a rather large one again this year, which confirms that we need to continue enforcing the Montreal Protocol banning emissions of ozone depleting chemicals."
The Montreal Protocol was a milestone in humanity's environmental achievements, phasing out the manufacturing of harmful chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) – chemicals previously used in refrigerators, packaging, and sprays – that destroy ozone molecules in sunlight.
While we now know that human action on this front is helping us to fix the Antarctic ozone hole, the ongoing fluctuations from year to year show that the healing process will be long.
A 2018 assessment by the World Meteorological Organisation found that ozone concentrations above Antarctica would return to relatively normal pre-1980s levels by about 2060. To realise that goal, we have to stick to the protocol and ride out the bumps, like the one we're seeing this year.
While 2020's maximum peak isn't the largest on record – that was seen back in 2000, with a 29.9 million square kilometre hole – it is still significant, with the hole also being one of the deepest in recent years.
Researchers say the 2020 event has been driven by a strong polar vortex: a wind phenomenon keeping stratospheric temperatures above Antarctica cold.
In contrast, warmer temperatures last year were what brought about 2019's record-low ozone hole size, as scientists explained back then.
"It's important to recognise that what we're seeing [in 2019] is due to warmer stratospheric temperatures," Paul Newman, the chief scientist for Earth Sciences at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Centre in Greenbelt, Maryland, said at the time.
"It's not a sign that atmospheric ozone is suddenly on a fast track to recovery."
While there may be no fast track, and we can likely expect a few more scary peaks in the years ahead, the Montreal Protocol has our back. We're going to get there one day if we hold true.
This article was originally published by ScienceAlert. Read the original article here.


livescience--2020-10-22--Asteroid Bennu: Successful touchdown —but sample return mission has only just begun

Relief showed clearly on the faces of the team of NASA scientists and engineers as they were told : `` Touchdown is complete . ''
Then applause a few seconds later for `` back away burn complete . ''
The most hazardous part of the mission was over – and seemingly successful , although we will have to wait for a few more days to hear the scale of the success .
OSIRIS-REx ( for Origins , Spectral Interpretation , Resource Identification , Security , Regolith Explorer ) ) was launched in September 2016 , arriving at its target asteroid @ @ @ @ @ @ @ purpose of the mission was to characterize the asteroid , then bring some of it back for study on Earth .
The spacecraft spent two years circling Bennu , making detailed maps of its surface , learning as much as possible about the asteroid before the next phase of the mission : looking for somewhere safe to land .
Or , rather , not to land , but to make a very rapid `` touch-and-go '' visit to the surface – where it would collect fragments of material to return to Earth .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ that prompted the clapping and cheering in mission control .
Why Bennu ?
And why the relief ?
After all , this is not the first asteroid that a spacecraft has visited – and it is not the first small body that has been landed on .
That record is held by the NEAR spacecraft that made a controlled crash-landing on Asteroid 433 Eros in 2001 .
And I still remember the emotion in the control room when Philae landed on comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko in 2014 .
The relief was because Bennu is small @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a fact that was known when it was selected as a target .
But it is oddly shaped and active – two things that were not known .
It looks a bit like an old-fashioned spinning top , or a rough diamond , pointed at the top and bottom and fatter in the middle .
Because it is so small it was assumed that Bennu would be quiescent – it wouldn ’ t , for instance , be behaving like a comet and ejecting bursts of gas and rocks .
But because nothing @ @ @ @ @ @ @ when OSIRIS-Rex got close to Bennu , it found that the asteroid was throwing small amounts of material from its surface .
The particles were less than a centimeter across , and most of them landed back on the asteroid – generally closer to the equator than the poles , which changed its shape over time .
One of the consequences of the activity – explained by changes in temperature fracturing larger boulders and breaking up the rocks — is that the surface of Bennu is completely covered in rubble , much more @ @ @ @ @ @ @ selecting a site for sample collection more difficult .
Bennu is a Near Earth Asteroid – it has a one-in-2700 chance of colliding with the Earth in about 170 years ’ time .
It is also believed to be rich in the type of organic compounds that might have seeded the Earth to enable life to arise .
Another surprising find that came from the mapping campaign was that Bennu was not only rich in clay minerals , but that veins of carbonate were present .
Clay and carbonates require water – lots @ @ @ @ @ @ @ have formed when Bennu was part of a larger asteroid .
There is no running water there now – but there might be small pockets of ice below the surface .
While this ice will not be collected by OSIRIS_Rex , the effects of water should be seen in the material it ’ s gathered .
Studying these materials will help us understand the primitive dust from which the solar system grew , and the range of organic compounds present .
It will also tell us the physical properties of something that might @ @ @ @ @ @ @ stop it .
It was always going to be tricky to collect material from the surface – any attempt to land would be unlikely to succeed , because the low gravitational pull of Bennu would not grab onto a lander and hold it in place .
A lander would bounce off , back into space .
This is why NASA used the touch-and-go approach – the spacecraft approached the asteroid very slowly , hovering only a meter or so from its surface , while an arm was extended to touch the surface to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ by blowing a jet of nitrogen gas onto the surface , which was sufficiently powerful to throw material into the collection cannister .
The slow approach to the surface took several nail-biting hours , while the collection operation took a matter of seconds .
Collection over , and the spacecraft backed away – hence the relief at mission control at the `` back away , burn complete '' message , showing that OSIRIS-Rex was moving away from the surface .
We don ’ t yet know how much material was blown into the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ know until it arrives back on Earth in September 2023 .
It might be 60 grams – which is the target – or it might be as much as a kilogram .
An attempt will be made later this week to see how the moment of inertia of the spacecraft – its uniform motion in a straight line – has changed , which should give a first approximation of the amount collected .
When the sample comes back to Earth , it will be analyzed by an international team of scientists who will @ @ @ @ @ @ @ s composition and structure , especially the organic and water contents of the soil .
This is when we ’ ll get some answers , which will tell us about our own origins as much as about the origin of asteroid Bennu .
This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license .
Read the original article .
Follow all of the Expert Voices issues and debates — and become part of the discussion — on Facebook and Twitter .
The views expressed are those of the author and do @ @ @ @ @ @ @ publisher .
This version of the article was originally published on Live Science .

Relief showed clearly on the faces of the team of NASA scientists and engineers as they were told: "Touchdown is complete." Then applause a few seconds later for "back away burn complete." The most hazardous part of the mission was over – and seemingly successful, although we will have to wait for a few more days to hear the scale of the success.
OSIRIS-REx (for Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource Identification, Security, Regolith Explorer)) was launched in September 2016, arriving at its target asteroid 101955 Bennu in December 2018. The purpose of the mission was to characterize the asteroid, then bring some of it back for study on Earth.
The spacecraft spent two years circling Bennu, making detailed maps of its surface, learning as much as possible about the asteroid before the next phase of the mission: looking for somewhere safe to land. Or, rather, not to land, but to make a very rapid "touch-and-go" visit to the surface – where it would collect fragments of material to return to Earth. It was completion of the touch-and-go maneuver that prompted the clapping and cheering in mission control.
Why Bennu? And why the relief? After all, this is not the first asteroid that a spacecraft has visited – and it is not the first small body that has been landed on. That record is held by the NEAR spacecraft that made a controlled crash-landing on Asteroid 433 Eros in 2001. And I still remember the emotion in the control room when Philae landed on comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko in 2014.
The relief was because Bennu is small – only about 500 meters across - a fact that was known when it was selected as a target. But it is oddly shaped and active – two things that were not known. It looks a bit like an old-fashioned spinning top, or a rough diamond, pointed at the top and bottom and fatter in the middle. Because it is so small it was assumed that Bennu would be quiescent – it wouldn’t, for instance, be behaving like a comet and ejecting bursts of gas and rocks.
But because nothing in the solar system is simple, when OSIRIS-Rex got close to Bennu, it found that the asteroid was throwing small amounts of material from its surface. The particles were less than a centimeter across, and most of them landed back on the asteroid – generally closer to the equator than the poles, which changed its shape over time.
Image of Bennu taken by OSIRIS-REx in 2018. (Image credit: NASA/Goddard/University of Arizona)
One of the consequences of the activity – explained by changes in temperature fracturing larger boulders and breaking up the rocks — is that the surface of Bennu is completely covered in rubble, much more than had been expected. This made selecting a site for sample collection more difficult.
Secrets of the solar system
Bennu is a Near Earth Asteroid – it has a one-in-2700 chance of colliding with the Earth in about 170 years’ time. It is also believed to be rich in the type of organic compounds that might have seeded the Earth to enable life to arise.
Another surprising find that came from the mapping campaign was that Bennu was not only rich in clay minerals, but that veins of carbonate were present. Clay and carbonates require water – lots of it – so these minerals must have formed when Bennu was part of a larger asteroid. There is no running water there now – but there might be small pockets of ice below the surface. While this ice will not be collected by OSIRIS_Rex, the effects of water should be seen in the material it’s gathered.
Studying these materials will help us understand the primitive dust from which the solar system grew, and the range of organic compounds present. It will also tell us the physical properties of something that might hit the Earth, potentially helping us stop it.
It was always going to be tricky to collect material from the surface – any attempt to land would be unlikely to succeed, because the low gravitational pull of Bennu would not grab onto a lander and hold it in place. A lander would bounce off, back into space. This is why NASA used the touch-and-go approach – the spacecraft approached the asteroid very slowly, hovering only a meter or so from its surface, while an arm was extended to touch the surface to collect a sample.
It did this by blowing a jet of nitrogen gas onto the surface, which was sufficiently powerful to throw material into the collection cannister. The slow approach to the surface took several nail-biting hours, while the collection operation took a matter of seconds. Collection over, and the spacecraft backed away – hence the relief at mission control at the "back away, burn complete" message, showing that OSIRIS-Rex was moving away from the surface.
We don’t yet know how much material was blown into the cannister – and we won’t know until it arrives back on Earth in September 2023. It might be 60 grams – which is the target – or it might be as much as a kilogram. An attempt will be made later this week to see how the moment of inertia of the spacecraft – its uniform motion in a straight line – has changed, which should give a first approximation of the amount collected.
When the sample comes back to Earth, it will be analyzed by an international team of scientists who will measure all aspects of the material’s composition and structure, especially the organic and water contents of the soil.
This is when we’ll get some answers, which will tell us about our own origins as much as about the origin of asteroid Bennu.
This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.
Follow all of the Expert Voices issues and debates — and become part of the discussion — on Facebook and Twitter. The views expressed are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the publisher. This version of the article was originally published on Live Science.