livescience--2020-11-10--Skin-eating fungus from Europe could invade US, decimate salamanders

The Southern Appalachian mountains are a global biodiversity hot spot for salamanders .
Dr. Deb Miller and Dr. Matt Gray lead the Amphibian Disease Laboratory at the University of Tennessee and are looking at various strategies to prevent a fungus that is deadly to salamanders from entering the U.S. via the international pet trade .
They are also conducting research to learn more about the disease , and looking at potential strategies to reduce the spread of the fungus in case it does enter the country .
Why do the Appalachian mountains have so many salamanders ?
The intersection of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a global biodiversity hot spot for salamanders .
Tennessee , for example , has around 60 species , more than the entire continent of Europe .
The southern Appalachian Mountain Range is one of the oldest mountain ranges in the world , so there has been a lot of opportunity for many species to evolve over a long period of time .
The temperate conditions and high elevations create a forest system with lots of moisture and accumulated leaf litter .
Over time , that creates the perfect habitat for salamanders .
What @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ?
Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans , or Bsal , is the second chytrid fungus that has been discovered .
The first chytrid fungus that many people have heard about is called Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis , or Bd , and that ’ s been associated with the decline of over 500 amphibian species globally and over 100 species extinctions .
Bsal fungus specifically attacks the outer covering of a salamander 's skin , but we are finding that it can attack frog skin as well .
The skin is one of the most important organs in an @ @ @ @ @ @ @ so important because some salamanders don ’ t have lungs , and so the skin is a major source for respiration for them .
It also maintains the right amount of hydration so that their body systems , including their heart , can function properly .
The name salamandrivorans literally means that it eats the salamander .
In actuality , it destroys the skin with a coating of fungus .
The skin stops functioning , and the animal shuts down and dies .
The fungus has n't yet entered North America , but @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Europe ?
The discovery of a new chytrid fungus in Northern Europe was very alarming .
It was discovered in 2010 , and since then , salamander populations all over Europe have seen precipitous declines .
There ’ s now research that indicates that it may have actually been introduced around Germany and spread out from there .
It has been found in Southeast Asia infecting salamanders but having no effects on them .
It seems to live with the salamanders there .
But it is believed to have been introduced to Europe @ @ @ @ @ @ @ have not detected Bsal yet here in North America , or any place in the Western Hemisphere , but we are concerned that the pet trade is the most likely route for introduction here .
What are the steps being taken to prevent it from entering the US ?
The United States has been fairly proactive in its response to Bsal .
The US Fish and Wildlife Service passed a moratorium in 2016 on the importation of around 200 species of salamanders that could serve as possible hosts to Bsal .
That effectively @ @ @ @ @ @ @ into our country .
However , since then , we ’ ve learned that frogs can become infected with Bsal too , which constitute 95 % of trade , so the threat of introduction to the U.S. remains .
There has been very limited surveillance for Bsal out in the pet industry , and we ’ re working on partnerships that would expand sampling for Bsal .
It ’ s also in the industry ’ s interest because it threatens the captive populations and their profits .
What is your research focusing on @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ’ re looking at a few different things .
One , what does it do to the body other than taking away the skin ?
What is the critical point at which we might be able to do something ?
And are there bacteria or other opportunistic pathogens playing a role in the sickness ?
In terms of research on transmission and disease intervention strategies , we ’ ve been looking at what happens if it gets into a pond system here .
Could we go into that pond system and reduce the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ humans are doing with social distancing during the pandemic ?
Bsal spreads through water , but also direct contact , and so we reduce that ability for either the pathogen to swim or for salamanders to bump into each other by increasing the number of plants around their habitat , and hence the habitat complexity .
We also are looking at plant-derived fungicides .
Salamander skin has lots of natural microbes on it , and we ’ re trying to supplement their natural microbiome on their skin to help in the defense of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ colleagues from several universities to investigate all of those questions .
What role do salamanders play in this ecosystem ?
It ’ s been estimated that in a typical pond system , amphibians can consume over a million insects in a year , including mosquitoes .
They consume adults as well as larvae before they can bite you or transmit a zoonotic disease .
Both tadpoles and salamander larvae love to eat the little mosquito larvae , which are very nutritious .
They play a similar role to that of bats in the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ The Conversation under a Creative Commons license .
Read the original article .
Follow all of the Expert Voices issues and debates — and become part of the discussion — on Facebook and Twitter .
The views expressed are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the publisher .

The Southern Appalachian mountains are a global biodiversity hot spot for salamanders. Dr. Deb Miller and Dr. Matt Gray lead the Amphibian Disease Laboratory at the University of Tennessee and are looking at various strategies to prevent a fungus that is deadly to salamanders from entering the U.S. via the international pet trade. They are also conducting research to learn more about the disease, and looking at potential strategies to reduce the spread of the fungus in case it does enter the country.
Why do the Appalachian mountains have so many salamanders?
The intersection of North Carolina, Tennessee and Georgia is a global biodiversity hot spot for salamanders. Tennessee, for example, has around 60 species, more than the entire continent of Europe.
The southern Appalachian Mountain Range is one of the oldest mountain ranges in the world, so there has been a lot of opportunity for many species to evolve over a long period of time. The temperate conditions and high elevations create a forest system with lots of moisture and accumulated leaf litter. Over time, that creates the perfect habitat for salamanders.
What is the fungus that threatens the salamanders?
Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans, or Bsal, is the second chytrid fungus that has been discovered. The first chytrid fungus that many people have heard about is called Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, or Bd, and that’s been associated with the decline of over 500 amphibian species globally and over 100 species extinctions.
Bsal fungus specifically attacks the outer covering of a salamander's skin, but we are finding that it can attack frog skin as well. The skin is one of the most important organs in an amphibian’s body. It is so important because some salamanders don’t have lungs, and so the skin is a major source for respiration for them. It also maintains the right amount of hydration so that their body systems, including their heart, can function properly.
The name salamandrivorans literally means that it eats the salamander. In actuality, it destroys the skin with a coating of fungus. The skin stops functioning, and the animal shuts down and dies.
The fungus hasn't yet entered North America, but what was its effect on amphibians in Europe?
The discovery of a new chytrid fungus in Northern Europe was very alarming. It was discovered in 2010, and since then, salamander populations all over Europe have seen precipitous declines. There’s now research that indicates that it may have actually been introduced around Germany and spread out from there.
It has been found in Southeast Asia infecting salamanders but having no effects on them. It seems to live with the salamanders there. But it is believed to have been introduced to Europe through the international pet trade. We have not detected Bsal yet here in North America, or any place in the Western Hemisphere, but we are concerned that the pet trade is the most likely route for introduction here.
What are the steps being taken to prevent it from entering the US?
The United States has been fairly proactive in its response to Bsal. The US Fish and Wildlife Service passed a moratorium in 2016 on the importation of around 200 species of salamanders that could serve as possible hosts to Bsal. That effectively stopped most of the salamander trade coming into our country. However, since then, we’ve learned that frogs can become infected with Bsal too, which constitute 95% of trade, so the threat of introduction to the U.S. remains.
There has been very limited surveillance for Bsal out in the pet industry, and we’re working on partnerships that would expand sampling for Bsal. It’s also in the industry’s interest because it threatens the captive populations and their profits.
What is your research focusing on?
With regard to pathology, we’re looking at a few different things. One, what does it do to the body other than taking away the skin? What is the critical point at which we might be able to do something? And are there bacteria or other opportunistic pathogens playing a role in the sickness?
In terms of research on transmission and disease intervention strategies, we’ve been looking at what happens if it gets into a pond system here. Could we go into that pond system and reduce the density of the salamanders, just as humans are doing with social distancing during the pandemic?
Bsal spreads through water, but also direct contact, and so we reduce that ability for either the pathogen to swim or for salamanders to bump into each other by increasing the number of plants around their habitat, and hence the habitat complexity.
We also are looking at plant-derived fungicides. Salamander skin has lots of natural microbes on it, and we’re trying to supplement their natural microbiome on their skin to help in the defense of this pathogen. So we collaborate with colleagues from several universities to investigate all of those questions.
What role do salamanders play in this ecosystem?
It’s been estimated that in a typical pond system, amphibians can consume over a million insects in a year, including mosquitoes. They consume adults as well as larvae before they can bite you or transmit a zoonotic disease. Both tadpoles and salamander larvae love to eat the little mosquito larvae, which are very nutritious. They play a similar role to that of bats in the air.
This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.
Follow all of the Expert Voices issues and debates — and become part of the discussion — on Facebook and Twitter. The views expressed are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the publisher.


livescience--2020-11-10--The fossil of a duckbill dinosaur has been found on the 'wrong' continent

The final chapter of dinosaur history is a tale stretching across two very different worlds , each a vast supercontinent dominated by its own unique mix of predators and herbivores .
Fossilized remains of a plant eater common to one of the two major land masses have been unexpectedly unearthed in rocks belonging to the other , prompting paleontologists to ask just how it managed to make such a leap .
`` It was completely out of place , like finding a kangaroo in Scotland , '' says University of Bath paleontologist Nicholas Longrich , who led a study on @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ' was in fact a newly categorized type of crested duckbilled browser known as a hadrosaurid ( of a lambeosaurine variety to be precise ) .
Some 66 million years ago , as the Cretaceous period was drawing to a cataclysmic close , hadrosaurs of many different varieties were among the most common of herbivorous dinosaurs .
At least , that was the case on the supercontinent Laurasia – a mass that would later split to give us today 's continents of North America , Europe , and much of Asia .
Far @ @ @ @ @ @ @ mass known as Gondwana was instead ruled by a diversity of long-necked , lumbering sauropods .
The remains of these giants are commonly found in places such as Africa , India , Australia , and South America .
Where Hollywood might see fit to mix the two groups together , broad stretches of water between the continents and long periods of isolation meant by the late Cretaceous , duck-bills and long-necks would only have potentially mingled in distinct regions , such as in what is today Europe .
This newest member of the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ exception .
Based on little more than some jaw pieces and a handful of teeth pulled out of a phosphate mine in Morocco , the find is evidence that at least one of these animals must have wandered farther out of Laurasia than ever suspected possible .
Well , maybe not wandered , so much as paddled .
`` It was impossible to walk to Africa , '' says Longrich .
`` These dinosaurs evolved long after continental drift split the continents , and we have no evidence of land bridges .
The @ @ @ @ @ @ @ oceans .
If so , the only way to get there is by water . ''
The idea is n't as far-fetched as it might first seem .
Hadrosaurs seem quite at home near aquatic environments and come in all shapes and sizes .
Some have measured up to 15 meters ( 45 feet ) in length , with large tails and powerful legs capable of making them competent swimmers .
At a more petite 3 meters ( 9 feet ) long , this hadrosaur might have had a little more difficulty making @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of kilometers of open water .
But theories of smaller animals rapidly crossing oceans on floating rafts of vegetation abound – why not a relatively tiny dinosaur ?
`` Once-in-a-century events are likely to happen many times .
Ocean crossings are needed to explain how lemurs and hippos got to Madagascar , or how monkeys and rodents crossed from Africa to South America , '' says Longrich .
Combining the Arabic word for foreigner with the name of the famous Greek seafarer , scientists have dubbed the hadrosaur Ajnabia odysseus .
The same @ @ @ @ @ @ @ given up a rare few other dinosaur bones , including Gondwana staples of titanosaurs and meat-eating theropods called abelisaurs .
It might not be quite enough to reimagine the division between the Cretaceous supercontinents in the moments before an asteroid changed everything .
But it should give us enough pause to claim an ocean would be an insurmountable barrier .
`` As far as I know , we 're the first to suggest ocean crossings for dinosaurs , '' says Longrich .
This research was published in Cretaceous Research .
This article was @ @ @ @ @ @ @ original article here .

The final chapter of dinosaur history is a tale stretching across two very different worlds, each a vast supercontinent dominated by its own unique mix of predators and herbivores.
Fossilized remains of a plant eater common to one of the two major land masses have been unexpectedly unearthed in rocks belonging to the other, prompting paleontologists to ask just how it managed to make such a leap.
"It was completely out of place, like finding a kangaroo in Scotland," says University of Bath paleontologist Nicholas Longrich, who led a study on the recent discovery.
This out-of-place 'kangaroo' was in fact a newly categorized type of crested duckbilled browser known as a hadrosaurid (of a lambeosaurine variety to be precise).
Some 66 million years ago, as the Cretaceous period was drawing to a cataclysmic close, hadrosaurs of many different varieties were among the most common of herbivorous dinosaurs.
At least, that was the case on the supercontinent Laurasia – a mass that would later split to give us today's continents of North America, Europe, and much of Asia.
Far across the ocean, a separate land mass known as Gondwana was instead ruled by a diversity of long-necked, lumbering sauropods.
The remains of these giants are commonly found in places such as Africa, India, Australia, and South America.
Where Hollywood might see fit to mix the two groups together, broad stretches of water between the continents and long periods of isolation meant by the late Cretaceous, duck-bills and long-necks would only have potentially mingled in distinct regions, such as in what is today Europe.
Ajnabia odysseus would have been about the size of a pony. (Image credit: Nick Longrich)
This newest member of the hadrosaurid family just might be a new exception.
Based on little more than some jaw pieces and a handful of teeth pulled out of a phosphate mine in Morocco, the find is evidence that at least one of these animals must have wandered farther out of Laurasia than ever suspected possible.
Well, maybe not wandered, so much as paddled.
"It was impossible to walk to Africa," says Longrich.
"These dinosaurs evolved long after continental drift split the continents, and we have no evidence of land bridges. The geology tells us Africa was isolated by oceans. If so, the only way to get there is by water."
Here's where duckbill dinosaurs were located during the Cretaceous period. (Image credit: NickLongrich)
The idea isn't as far-fetched as it might first seem. Hadrosaurs seem quite at home near aquatic environments and come in all shapes and sizes. Some have measured up to 15 meters (45 feet) in length, with large tails and powerful legs capable of making them competent swimmers.
At a more petite 3 meters (9 feet) long, this hadrosaur might have had a little more difficulty making a marathon that could have included hundreds of kilometers of open water.
But theories of smaller animals rapidly crossing oceans on floating rafts of vegetation abound – why not a relatively tiny dinosaur?
"Once-in-a-century events are likely to happen many times. Ocean crossings are needed to explain how lemurs and hippos got to Madagascar, or how monkeys and rodents crossed from Africa to South America," says Longrich.
Combining the Arabic word for foreigner with the name of the famous Greek seafarer, scientists have dubbed the hadrosaur Ajnabia odysseus.
The same assemblage that contained the Ajnabia jaw has given up a rare few other dinosaur bones, including Gondwana staples of titanosaurs and meat-eating theropods called abelisaurs.
It might not be quite enough to reimagine the division between the Cretaceous supercontinents in the moments before an asteroid changed everything. But it should give us enough pause to claim an ocean would be an insurmountable barrier.
"As far as I know, we're the first to suggest ocean crossings for dinosaurs," says Longrich.
This research was published in Cretaceous Research.
This article was originally published by ScienceAlert. Read the original article here.


livescience--2020-11-10--'Alien-hunting' Arecibo Observatory suffers more damage as second cable fails

The famed in Puerto Rico has suffered another major blow in a difficult year that has seen two snapped cables damage the fragile dish .
The facility 's heart is a massive , delicate radio telescope built into the island 's geology and surrounded by jungle .
Arecibo Observatory has operated for more than five decades , including perhaps most famously broadcasting in 1974 the so-called Arecibo Message meant to update any intelligent life about our technical skills .
But lately , the observatory has been battered : First it suffered `` `` damage during 2017 's massive Hurricane Maria @ @ @ @ @ @ @ batch of and then lost one of its , which snapped and damaged the dish in August .
Now , another cable has snapped just three months later .
`` This is certainly not what we wanted to see , but the important thing is that no one got hurt , '' Francisco Cordova , the director of the observatory , released by the University of Central Florida , which manages the facility .
`` We have been thoughtful in our evaluation and prioritized safety in planning for repairs that were supposed to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ referring to the work planned to fix the cable that broke in August .
`` Now this .
There is much uncertainty until we can stabilize the structure .
It has our full attention .
We are evaluating the situation with our experts and hope to have more to share soon . ''
According to the statement , the newly broken cable was one of the main supporting cables connecting to the same tower as the cable that damaged the dish in August .
That cable slipped out of its socket and potentially @ @ @ @ @ @ @ fully snapped on Nov. 6 and damaged both other cables and the main dish , the university said .
The incident did n't cause any injuries but has prompted the observatory to limit access to the area .
Now , observatory personnel hope to be able to install reinforcements to the tower to protect other cables while evaluating what additional repairs will be necessary .
`` This is not good , but we remain committed to getting the facility back online , '' Cordova said .
`` It 's just too important of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . ''
Email Meghan Bartels at mbartels @ space.com or follow her on Twitter @ meghanbartels .
Follow us on Twitter @ Spacedotcom and on Facebook .

The famed Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico has suffered another major blow in a difficult year that has seen two snapped cables damage the fragile dish.
The facility's heart is a massive, delicate radio telescope built into the island's geology and surrounded by jungle. Arecibo Observatory has operated for more than five decades, including perhaps most famously broadcasting in 1974 the so-called Arecibo Message meant to update any intelligent life about our technical skills. But lately, the observatory has been battered: First it suffered " relatively minor " damage during 2017's massive Hurricane Maria; this year already it endured a batch of earthquakes in January and then lost one of its thick cables , which snapped and damaged the dish in August. Now, another cable has snapped just three months later.
"This is certainly not what we wanted to see, but the important thing is that no one got hurt," Francisco Cordova, the director of the observatory, said in a statement released by the University of Central Florida, which manages the facility.
Related: The Arecibo Observatory: Puerto Rico's giant radio telescope in photos
"We have been thoughtful in our evaluation and prioritized safety in planning for repairs that were supposed to begin Tuesday," Cordova said, referring to the work planned to fix the cable that broke in August. "Now this. There is much uncertainty until we can stabilize the structure. It has our full attention. We are evaluating the situation with our experts and hope to have more to share soon."
According to the statement, the newly broken cable was one of the main supporting cables connecting to the same tower as the cable that damaged the dish in August. That cable slipped out of its socket and potentially put extra weight on the cable that fully snapped on Nov. 6 and damaged both other cables and the main dish, the university said.
The incident didn't cause any injuries but has prompted the observatory to limit access to the area. Now, observatory personnel hope to be able to install reinforcements to the tower to protect other cables while evaluating what additional repairs will be necessary.
"This is not good, but we remain committed to getting the facility back online," Cordova said. "It's just too important of a tool for the advancement of science."
Email Meghan Bartels at mbartels@space.com or follow her on Twitter @meghanbartels. Follow us on Twitter @Spacedotcom and on Facebook.


livescience--2020-11-10--Archaeologists finally peer inside Egyptian mummies first found in 1615

Two ancient mummies discovered in a rock-cut tomb in Egypt more than 400 years ago are finally spilling their secrets , now that scientists have CT scanned their remains , a new study finds .
Both mummies , as well as a third on display in Egypt , represent the only known surviving `` stucco-shrouded portrait mummies , '' from Saqqara , an ancient Egyptian necropolis .
Unlike other mummies , who were buried in coffins , these individuals were placed on wooden boards , wrapped in a textile and a `` beautiful mummy shroud , '' and decorated with @ @ @ @ @ @ @ portrait , said study lead researcher Stephanie Zesch , a physical anthropologist and Egyptologist at the German Mummy Project at Reiss Engelhorn Museum in Mannheim , Germany .
Now , reveal that at least one of these three stucco-shrouded portrait mummies was buried with organs ( even the brain ) and that the two females were interred with beautiful necklaces , the researchers found .
Related : In photos : A look inside an Egyptian mummy The CT scans also showed that after the deaths of these individuals — a man , woman @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Roman period ( 30 B.C .
to A.D. 395 ) — their mummies were interred with artifacts likely thought useful in the afterlife , including coins that were possibly meant to pay Charon , the Roman and Greek deity thought to carry souls across the River Styx .
The CT scans also revealed several medical problems , including arthritis in the woman .
`` The examination of the individuals yielded that they died at rather young ages … however , the cause of death of the individuals could not be determined , '' @ @ @ @ @ @ @ these mummies have traveled far and wide .
In 1615 , Pietro Della Valle ( 1586−1652 ) , an Italian composer , took a pilgrimage to the Holy Land and ended up traveling through Egypt .
He learned about two stucco-shrouded portrait mummies — a man and woman — discovered by locals in Saqqara .
Della Valle acquired these mummies and brought them to Rome , making them the `` earliest examples of portrait mummies to have become known in Europe , '' the researchers wrote in the study .
After passing through @ @ @ @ @ @ @ for wear , the mummies ended up in the Dresden State Art Collections in Germany , where they were X-rayed in the late 1980s .
However , the CT scan revealed much more about their insides .
For instance , the CT scan revealed that the male died between the ages of 25 and 30 .
He stood about 5 ' 4 '' inches ( 164 centimeters ) tall , and had two unerupted permanent teeth and several cavities .
Some of his bones were broken and jumbled , probably because someone unwrapped @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , the researchers wrote in the study .
While the man 's brain was not preserved , there 's no evidence it was removed through his nose .
Nor were many embalming substances used .
Instead , he was wrapped up and painted .
Two metal objects found during the CT scan are likely seals from the workshop that handled his remains , Zesch said .
The woman 's brain was n't preserved either , but the teenager 's was — it had shrunk , but the cerebrum and brainstem were still identifiable @ @ @ @ @ @ @ organs were also present .
`` We are quite sure there was no removing the brain or the internal organs '' from these mummies , Zesch said .
`` It 's very probable that those mummies were only preserved because of a kind of dehydration with the use of [ the desiccation mixture ] natron , but there is not a huge amount of embalming liquids . ''
The woman , who died between the ages of 30 and 40 , stood about 4'11 '' ( 151 cm ) tall .
She had @ @ @ @ @ @ @ The teenager , who wore a hairpin , according to the CT scan , died between the ages of 17 and 19 , and stood about 5 ' 1 '' ( 156 cm ) tall .
She had a benign tumor in her spine known as a vertebral hemangioma , which is more common in people over 40 , the researchers said .
Both women were buried with multiple necklaces .
It 's exciting to see these necklaces , but it 's not unexpected , Zesch said .
`` Because of these very @ @ @ @ @ @ @ those individuals have to be members of the higher socioeconomic class , '' meaning that they could have easily afforded jewelry , Zesch said .
Zesch noted that she studied the three mummies with a multidisciplinary team from the German Mummy Project , the Dresden State Art Collections , the Institute for Mummy Studies at Eurac Research in Bolzano , Italy and the American-Egyptian Horus Study Group .
Their work informed a now-live interactive exhibit of the male and female mummy in Dresden .
The teenager 's mummy is on display at the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Egypt .
The study was published online Nov. 4 in the journal .

The male (left) and female (right) mummies first found in Saqqara, Egypt in 1615.
Two ancient mummies discovered in a rock-cut tomb in Egypt more than 400 years ago are finally spilling their secrets, now that scientists have CT scanned their remains, a new study finds.
Both mummies, as well as a third on display in Egypt, represent the only known surviving "stucco-shrouded portrait mummies," from Saqqara, an ancient Egyptian necropolis. Unlike other mummies, who were buried in coffins, these individuals were placed on wooden boards, wrapped in a textile and a "beautiful mummy shroud," and decorated with 3D plaster, gold and a whole-body portrait, said study lead researcher Stephanie Zesch, a physical anthropologist and Egyptologist at the German Mummy Project at Reiss Engelhorn Museum in Mannheim, Germany.
Now, CT (computed tomography) scans reveal that at least one of these three stucco-shrouded portrait mummies was buried with organs (even the brain) and that the two females were interred with beautiful necklaces, the researchers found.
Related: In photos: A look inside an Egyptian mummy
The CT scans also showed that after the deaths of these individuals — a man, woman and teenage girl dating to the late Roman period (30 B.C. to A.D. 395) — their mummies were interred with artifacts likely thought useful in the afterlife, including coins that were possibly meant to pay Charon, the Roman and Greek deity thought to carry souls across the River Styx.
The CT scans also revealed several medical problems, including arthritis in the woman. "The examination of the individuals yielded that they died at rather young ages … however, the cause of death of the individuals could not be determined," Zesch told Live Science.
Image 1 of 8 The CT scan showed the beads from the necklace around the woman's neck and body. (Image credit: Zesch S, et al. PLOS One (2020); CC BY 4.0) A close-up of the mummy portraits and jewelry featured on the shrouds. (Image credit: Zesch S, et al. PLOS One (2020); © Sculpture Collection, Dresden State Art Collections, photos: H.-P. Klut/E. Estel; CC BY 4.0) A portrait (left) of Pietro Della Valle, who brought the mummies to Rome; a depiction (right) of the mummies' discovery at Saqqara. (Image credit: Zesch S, et al. PLOS One (2020); CC BY 4.0) The male (left) hold a golden cup and flowers in his portrait, while the female (right) holds a lekythos, a Greek vessel for oil. (Image credit: Zesch S, et al. PLOS One (2020); © Sculpture Collection, Dresden State Art Collections, photos: M. Gander/M. Loth; CC BY 4.0) Two circles (A) found in the woman's mummy might be coins or medallions, while two nails (arrow) were located near her stomach. The wooden board (B) behind the woman was intact. (Image credit: Zesch S, et al. PLOS One (2020); CC BY 4.0) Some of the male mummy's bones were broken and jumbled. (Image credit: Zesch S, et al. PLOS One (2020);) Two metal objects (A) in the male mummy could be seals from the mummification workshop; The arrows (B) point to where the wooden board broke. (Image credit: Zesch S, et al. PLOS One (2020); CC BY 4.0) A lead seal on the outside of the male mummy. (Image credit: Zesch S, et al. PLOS One (2020); CC BY 4.0; © Sculpture Collection, Dresden State Art Collections, photos: M. Gander/M. Loth)
Long journey
Two of these mummies have traveled far and wide. In 1615, Pietro Della Valle (1586−1652), an Italian composer, took a pilgrimage to the Holy Land and ended up traveling through Egypt. He learned about two stucco-shrouded portrait mummies — a man and woman — discovered by locals in Saqqara. Della Valle acquired these mummies and brought them to Rome, making them the "earliest examples of portrait mummies to have become known in Europe," the researchers wrote in the study.
After passing through several owners, and a little worse for wear, the mummies ended up in the Dresden State Art Collections in Germany, where they were X-rayed in the late 1980s. However, the CT scan revealed much more about their insides.
For instance, the CT scan revealed that the male died between the ages of 25 and 30. He stood about 5'4" inches (164 centimeters) tall, and had two unerupted permanent teeth and several cavities. Some of his bones were broken and jumbled, probably because someone unwrapped him shortly after the mummy's discovery, the researchers wrote in the study.
Image 1 of 4 Just like her mummy portrait suggests, this teenager was buried with multiple necklaces. (Image credit: Zesch S, et al. PLOS One (2020); © I. Badr; CC BY 4.0) The teenage girl's stucco-shrouded portrait mummy, which is housed at housed at the Museum of Egyptian Antiquities, Cairo. (Image credit: Zesch S, et al. PLOS One (2020); © I. Badr; CC BY 4.0) The teenage girl's mummy portrait included red-brown pointed shoes with white seams and stars. (Image credit: Zesch S, et al. PLOS One (2020); © I. Badr; CC BY 4.0) The teenager's brain had shrunk over the millennia, but it was still preserved. (Image credit: Zesch S, et al. PLOS One (2020); CC BY 4.0)
While the man's brain was not preserved, there's no evidence it was removed through his nose. Nor were many embalming substances used. Instead, he was wrapped up and painted. Two metal objects found during the CT scan are likely seals from the mummification workshop that handled his remains, Zesch said. The woman's brain wasn't preserved either, but the teenager's was — it had shrunk, but the cerebrum and brainstem were still identifiable — and the teenager's other internal organs were also present.
"We are quite sure there was no removing the brain or the internal organs" from these mummies, Zesch said. "It's very probable that those mummies were only preserved because of a kind of dehydration with the use of [the desiccation mixture] natron, but there is not a huge amount of embalming liquids."
Related: Photos: Canine catacomb was tribute to ancient death god
The woman, who died between the ages of 30 and 40, stood about 4'11" (151 cm) tall. She had advanced arthritis in her left knee. The teenager, who wore a hairpin, according to the CT scan, died between the ages of 17 and 19, and stood about 5'1" (156 cm) tall. She had a benign tumor in her spine known as a vertebral hemangioma, which is more common in people over 40, the researchers said.
Both women were buried with multiple necklaces. It's exciting to see these necklaces, but it's not unexpected, Zesch said. "Because of these very precious shrouds, we are sure that those individuals have to be members of the higher socioeconomic class," meaning that they could have easily afforded jewelry, Zesch said.
Zesch noted that she studied the three mummies with a multidisciplinary team from the German Mummy Project, the Dresden State Art Collections, the Institute for Mummy Studies at Eurac Research in Bolzano, Italy and the American-Egyptian Horus Study Group. Their work informed a now-live interactive exhibit of the male and female mummy in Dresden. The teenager's mummy is on display at the Museum of Egyptian Antiquities, Cairo, Egypt.
The study was published online Nov. 4 in the journal PLOS One .
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-11-10--'Diseases of despair' on the rise across the US

Though the COVID-19 pandemic has captured the country 's attention , the U.S. has also been facing another deadly , but less visible , public health crisis .
`` Diseases of despair '' or those related to substance abuse , alcohol dependency and suicidal thoughts and behaviors , have been surging in the U.S. over the past decade , according to a new study .
Diagnosis of diseases of despair increased by 68 % between 2009 and 2018 among a cohort of people studied in the U.S. , according to a study published today ( Nov. 9 ) in the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ increased by 170 % in that time frame , the authors found .
Previous research hinted that despair-related diseases were increasing across the U.S. but mainly focused on mortality .
Life expectancy in the U.S. has declined steadily from 2015 to 2017 , the longest sustained decline since about a century ago , and all-cause deaths among middle-age white people increased between 1999 and 2015 , according to the study .
Many of the premature deaths were `` deaths of despair '' such as suicides , overdoses and alcohol-related liver diseases .
Related @ @ @ @ @ @ @ tips for today 's parents These trends coincide with decades of economic decline for less educated and unskilled workers , stagnant or falling wages and incomes , lower marriage rates and increases in single-parent households , and fewer people who are actively working or looking for work , according to the study .
`` It is theorised that these changes have fostered growing feelings of despair , that is , disillusionment , precariousness and resignation , '' the authors wrote in the study .
`` Despair may in turn trigger emotional , cognitive @ @ @ @ @ @ @ increasing the likelihood of diseases that can progress and ultimately culminate in these deaths of despair . ''
In the current study , researchers analyzed the incidence of such diseases in 12 million people enrolled in health insurance plans between 2007 and 2018 through a large U.S.-based company called Highmark .
The enrollees were concentrated in Pennsylvania , West Virginia and Delaware , three states that have been disproportionately affected by deaths of despair , .
They found that 515,830 of these people , or 1 in 20 , were diagnosed with at @ @ @ @ @ @ @ time period .
About 54 % of those people were diagnosed with an alcohol-related disorder ; over 44 % with a substance-related disorder ; over 16 % with suicidal thoughts/behaviors ; and a little under 13 % with more than one disorder .
Between 2009 and 2018 , the rates of diagnoses of `` diseases of despair '' increased by 68 % ; the rate of alcohol-related diagnoses increased by 37 % ; substance related-diagnoses increased by 94 % ; and suicide-related diagnoses increased by 170 % , according to the statement .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ years old saw the largest increase in alcohol and substance abuse diagnoses , according to the study .
Substance-related diagnoses in infants , from maternal drug abuse , increased by 114 % across the study period .
Suicide-related diagnoses increased by 287 % among 1 to 17 year olds , by 210 % among 18 to 34 year olds and 70 % in everyone else .
Since the cohort enrolled with this insurance was concentrated in states with high prevalence of despair , the rates may not be as high everywhere in the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ these conditions were found nationwide , '' said lead author Emily Brignone , a senior research data scientist at Highmark Health .
The study had several limitations .
The data was drawn from people that filed insurance claims , `` and the true rates of these conditions are likely even higher among those who are uninsured , '' Brignone told Live Science .
What 's more , previous research suggests that trends in deaths of despair vary by race and ethnicity but such data was n't available in this study , she said @ @ @ @ @ @ @ able to directly link diseases of despair to deaths of despair for individuals .
`` Rather , we compare trends in morbidity and mortality in more general terms , '' she said .
It will also be important to understand the impact of COVID-19 on diseases of despair , Brignone said .
`` COVID-19 highlights many of our existing vulnerabilities , '' Brignone said .
The disease has exacerbated unemployment , isolation , uncertainty and barriers to care , which are all associated with an increased risk of diseases of despair , she @ @ @ @ @ @ @ have effective treatments for depression and addiction , '' she said .
`` We have to improve outreach to people in need and remove barriers to care , '' such as with the institution of telehealth .
Policies and programs to prevent the loss of healthcare coverage and replace lost income will likely also help decrease the impact of COVID-19 on diseases of despair , she said .

Though the COVID-19 pandemic has captured the country's attention, the U.S. has also been facing another deadly, but less visible, public health crisis. "Diseases of despair" or those related to substance abuse, alcohol dependency and suicidal thoughts and behaviors, have been surging in the U.S. over the past decade, according to a new study.
Diagnosis of diseases of despair increased by 68% between 2009 and 2018 among a cohort of people studied in the U.S., according to a study published today (Nov. 9) in the journal BMJ Open . Strikingly, diagnoses related to suicide increased by 170% in that time frame, the authors found.
Previous research hinted that despair-related diseases were increasing across the U.S. but mainly focused on mortality.
Life expectancy in the U.S. has declined steadily from 2015 to 2017, the longest sustained decline since about a century ago, and all-cause deaths among middle-age white people increased between 1999 and 2015, according to the study. Many of the premature deaths were "deaths of despair" such as suicides, overdoses and alcohol-related liver diseases.
Related: The drug talk: 7 new tips for today's parents
These trends coincide with decades of economic decline for less educated and unskilled workers, stagnant or falling wages and incomes, lower marriage rates and increases in single-parent households, and fewer people who are actively working or looking for work, according to the study.
"It is theorised that these changes have fostered growing feelings of despair, that is, disillusionment, precariousness and resignation," the authors wrote in the study. "Despair may in turn trigger emotional, cognitive, behavioural and even biological changes, increasing the likelihood of diseases that can progress and ultimately culminate in these deaths of despair."
In the current study, researchers analyzed the incidence of such diseases in 12 million people enrolled in health insurance plans between 2007 and 2018 through a large U.S.-based company called Highmark. The enrollees were concentrated in Pennsylvania, West Virginia and Delaware, three states that have been disproportionately affected by deaths of despair, according to a statement . They found that 515,830 of these people, or 1 in 20, were diagnosed with at least one disease of despair during that time period.
About 54% of those people were diagnosed with an alcohol-related disorder; over 44% with a substance-related disorder; over 16% with suicidal thoughts/behaviors; and a little under 13% with more than one disorder. Between 2009 and 2018, the rates of diagnoses of "diseases of despair" increased by 68%; the rate of alcohol-related diagnoses increased by 37%; substance related-diagnoses increased by 94%; and suicide-related diagnoses increased by 170%, according to the statement.
People who were between 55 and 74 years old saw the largest increase in alcohol and substance abuse diagnoses, according to the study. Substance-related diagnoses in infants, from maternal drug abuse, increased by 114% across the study period. Suicide-related diagnoses increased by 287% among 1 to 17 year olds, by 210% among 18 to 34 year olds and 70% in everyone else.
Since the cohort enrolled with this insurance was concentrated in states with high prevalence of despair, the rates may not be as high everywhere in the U.S. Still, "increases in these conditions were found nationwide," said lead author Emily Brignone, a senior research data scientist at Highmark Health.
The study had several limitations. The data was drawn from people that filed insurance claims, "and the true rates of these conditions are likely even higher among those who are uninsured," Brignone told Live Science. What's more, previous research suggests that trends in deaths of despair vary by race and ethnicity but such data wasn't available in this study, she said. Also, the researchers weren't able to directly link diseases of despair to deaths of despair for individuals. "Rather, we compare trends in morbidity and mortality in more general terms," she said.
It will also be important to understand the impact of COVID-19 on diseases of despair, Brignone said.
"COVID-19 highlights many of our existing vulnerabilities," Brignone said. The disease has exacerbated unemployment, isolation, uncertainty and barriers to care, which are all associated with an increased risk of diseases of despair, she said.
"Fortunately, we do have effective treatments for depression and addiction," she said. "We have to improve outreach to people in need and remove barriers to care," such as with the institution of telehealth. Policies and programs to prevent the loss of healthcare coverage and replace lost income will likely also help decrease the impact of COVID-19 on diseases of despair, she said.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-11-11--Viking ship in Norway buried near cult temple, feast hall and funeral mounds

A ship that was laid to rest centuries ago was n't alone underground .
A feast hall and a cult temple were also buried at the cemetery site , hinting at the elite standing of the community that conducted the burials .
Archaeologists , after conducting surveys with ground-penetrating radar ( GPR ) at Gjellestad in southeastern Norway .
Since then , further scans and excavations uncovered more clues about the site and the people who created it centuries ago .
GPR scans revealed a total of 13 burial mounds including the ship grave ; some of these circular mounds @ @ @ @ @ @ @ wide .
Other burials included buildings that may have been used in rituals , scientists reported in a new study .
The researchers found the mound cluster to the north of a large , previously excavated Iron Age mound — Jell Mound — which dates to about 1,500 years ago ( radiocarbon dating revealed that the ship was buried hundreds of years later , likely around the ninth century ) .
Linking Jell Mound to a larger network of burials suggests that Gjellestad was an important cemetery that stood for centuries , according @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a gold ornament found near Jell Mound hinted that Gjellestad was a site of some significance .
Pendants such as these were often included in burials of high-status women during the Iron Age , around A.D. 1 to A.D. 400 , according to the study .
Numerous funerary mounds once studded the landscape around Gjellestad , but many of these were plowed up by farmers during the 19th century , the scientists wrote .
However , even after a mound has been destroyed , GPR can still reveal its former location — and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ship grave , GPR located two large circular mounds , with seven smaller mounds clustered to the north .
Four rectangular `` settlement structures '' lay to the west ; the longest was 125 feet ( 38 m ) in length .
One of the smaller buildings may have been a farmhouse ; another may represent a temple ; and the largest building was similar in structure and size to feasting halls found in other Viking settlements , the scientists reported .
`` The only structure that can be securely dated to the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ burial but , taking the whole site into consideration , we can probably say that it was important for the elite to exhibit their status through lavish and carefully planned burial rituals , '' said lead study author Lars Gustavsen , an archaeologist with the Norwegian Institute for Cultural Heritage Research ( NIKU ) .
`` We believe that the inclusion of a ship burial in what was probably an already existing — and long-lived — mound cemetery was an effort to associate oneself with an already existing power structure , '' Gustavsen @ @ @ @ @ @ @ The ship burial itself was highly unusual .
Viking burials of boats measuring under 39 feet ( 12 m ) are common , but finding a ship this large — 66 feet ( 20 m ) in length — is exceptionally rare .
In fact , only a handful of such burials are known across Norway , Gustavsen said .
The last excavations of large Viking ships took place more than a century ago , during the late 19th and early 20th centuries .
This is the first such ship to be found @ @ @ @ @ @ @ for discovering more ship burials that are still hidden , according to the study .
But why did Vikings bury their ships ?
`` We do not really know for certain , '' Gustavsen said .
`` Since these were societies whose identity was closely tied to the sea and seafaring , the ship could , in this specific context , be seen as a vessel transporting the dead from the realm of the living to the realm of the dead , '' he said .
`` Or it could simply be a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ that one belonged to a certain social and political class . ''
After the ship 's discovery in 2018 , the team partially excavated the ship and quickly realized that damp conditions combined with periods of drought had left the ship badly decomposed and riddled with fungus , .
Over the summer of 2020 , archaeologists mounted a full excavation to recover and preserve what they could of the decaying ship .
In October , the team found something unexpected : animal bones , according to a statement published by the University of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ are relatively large in size , so we think that they are the remains of an ox or a horse that has been sacrificed to be part of the burial , '' museum representatives said in the statement .
`` Although the topmost layers of the bones are heavily decomposed , they seem to be better preserved further down .
This indicates that it is quite likely that things are better preserved deeper into the ship burial . ''
Work on the site is still underway , and is expected to be completed @ @ @ @ @ @ @ The findings were published online Tuesday ( Nov. 11 ) in the journal .

Ground-penetrating radar map of the ship burial from two depth ranges below the ground's surface: 0.3 to 0.5 meters (left) and 0.9 to 1.1 meters (right).
A Viking ship that was laid to rest centuries ago wasn't alone underground. A feast hall and a cult temple were also buried at the cemetery site, hinting at the elite standing of the community that conducted the burials.
Archaeologists discovered the ship in 2018 , after conducting surveys with ground-penetrating radar (GPR) at Gjellestad in southeastern Norway. Since then, further scans and excavations uncovered more clues about the site and the people who created it centuries ago.
GPR scans revealed a total of 13 burial mounds including the ship grave; some of these circular mounds were 98 feet (30 meters) wide. Other burials included buildings that may have been used in rituals, scientists reported in a new study.
Related: Photos: Vikings accessorized with tiny metal dragons
The researchers found the mound cluster to the north of a large, previously excavated Iron Age mound — Jell Mound — which dates to about 1,500 years ago (radiocarbon dating revealed that the ship was buried hundreds of years later, likely around the ninth century). Linking Jell Mound to a larger network of burials suggests that Gjellestad was an important cemetery that stood for centuries, according to the study.
In 2017, a gold ornament found near Jell Mound hinted that Gjellestad was a site of some significance. Pendants such as these were often included in burials of high-status women during the Iron Age, around A.D. 1 to A.D. 400, according to the study.
Numerous funerary mounds once studded the landscape around Gjellestad, but many of these were plowed up by farmers during the 19th century, the scientists wrote. However, even after a mound has been destroyed, GPR can still reveal its former location — and what was buried there.
Gold pendant found near the Jell Mound. This type or ornament was common in high-status female burials from A.D. 1 to A.D. 400. (Image credit: Copyright Antiquity Publications Ltd/Kirsten Helgeland, Museum of Cultural History, University of Oslo/CC BY-SA 4.0 )
Near the ship grave, GPR located two large circular mounds, with seven smaller mounds clustered to the north. Four rectangular "settlement structures" lay to the west; the longest was 125 feet (38 m) in length. One of the smaller buildings may have been a farmhouse; another may represent a temple; and the largest building was similar in structure and size to feasting halls found in other Viking settlements, the scientists reported.
"The only structure that can be securely dated to the Viking Age at Gjellestad is the ship burial but, taking the whole site into consideration, we can probably say that it was important for the elite to exhibit their status through lavish and carefully planned burial rituals," said lead study author Lars Gustavsen, an archaeologist with the Norwegian Institute for Cultural Heritage Research (NIKU).
"We believe that the inclusion of a ship burial in what was probably an already existing — and long-lived — mound cemetery was an effort to associate oneself with an already existing power structure," Gustavsen told Live Science in an email.
A truck conducts ground-penetrating radar analysis near the Jell Mound. (Image credit: Copyright Antiquity Publications Ltd/NIKU )
A grave situation
The ship burial itself was highly unusual. Viking burials of boats measuring under 39 feet (12 m) are common, but finding a ship this large — 66 feet (20 m) in length — is exceptionally rare. In fact, only a handful of such burials are known across Norway, Gustavsen said.
The last excavations of large Viking ships took place more than a century ago, during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This is the first such ship to be found through GPR-scanning technology, which bodes well for discovering more ship burials that are still hidden, according to the study.
But why did Vikings bury their ships? "We do not really know for certain," Gustavsen said. "Since these were societies whose identity was closely tied to the sea and seafaring, the ship could, in this specific context, be seen as a vessel transporting the dead from the realm of the living to the realm of the dead," he said.
"Or it could simply be a display of wealth, or to demonstrate that one belonged to a certain social and political class."
Archaeologists mapped the Gjellestad site using data collected by GPR scans. (Image credit: Copyright Antiquity Publications Ltd/L. Gustavsen )
After the ship's discovery in 2018, the team partially excavated the ship and quickly realized that damp conditions combined with periods of drought had left the ship badly decomposed and riddled with fungus, Live Science previously reported .
Over the summer of 2020, archaeologists mounted a full excavation to recover and preserve what they could of the decaying ship. In October, the team found something unexpected: animal bones, according to a statement published by the University of Oslo's Museum of Cultural History .
"The animal bones are relatively large in size, so we think that they are the remains of an ox or a horse that has been sacrificed to be part of the burial," museum representatives said in the statement. "Although the topmost layers of the bones are heavily decomposed, they seem to be better preserved further down. This indicates that it is quite likely that things are better preserved deeper into the ship burial."
Work on the site is still underway, and is expected to be completed in December, according to Gustavsen.
The findings were published online Tuesday (Nov. 11) in the journal Antiquity .
Originally published on Live Science.


What is biology?

Biology is the study of life .
The word `` biology '' is derived from the Greek words `` bios '' ( meaning life ) and `` logos '' ( meaning `` study '' ) .
In general , biologists study the structure , function , growth , origin , evolution and distribution of living organisms .
Biology is important because it helps us understand how living things work and how they function and interact on multiple levels , according to the Encyclopedia Britannica .
Advances in biology have helped scientists do things such as develop better medicines and treatments @ @ @ @ @ @ @ environment might affect plants and animals , produce enough food for a growing human population and predict how eating new food or sticking to an exercise regimen might affect our bodies .
Four principles unify modern biology , according to the book `` Managing Science '' ( Springer New York , 2010 ) : • Cell theory is the principle that all living things are made of fundamental units called cells , and all cells come from preexisting cells .
• Gene theory is the principle that all living things have DNA , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of cells and get passed to offspring .
• Homeostasis is the principle that all living things maintain a state of balance that enables organisms to survive in their environment .
• Evolution is the principle that describes how all living things can change to have traits that enable them to survive better in their environments .
These traits result from random mutations in the organism 's genes that are `` selected '' via a process called natural selection .
During natural selection , organisms that have traits better-suited for their environment have @ @ @ @ @ @ @ pass those traits to their offspring .
The many branches of biology Although there are only four unifying principles , biology covers a broad range of topics that are broken into many disciplines and subdisciplines .
On a high level , the different fields of biology can each be thought of as the study of one type of organism , according to `` Blackie 's Dictionary of Biology '' ( S Chand , 2014 ) .
For example , zoology is the study of animals , botany is the study of plants and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Within those broader fields , many biologists specialize in researching a specific topic or problem .
For example , a scientist may study behavior of a certain fish species , while another scientist may research the neurological and chemical mechanisms behind the behavior .
There are numerous branches and subdisciplines of biology , but here is a short list of some of the more broad fields that fall under the umbrella of biology : • Biochemistry : The study of the chemical processes that take place in or are related to living things @ @ @ @ @ @ @ For example , pharmacology is a type of biochemistry research that focuses on studying how drugs interact with chemicals in the body , as described in a 2010 review in the journal Biochemistry .
• Ecology : The study of how organisms interact with their environment .
For example , an ecologist may study how honeybee behavior is affected by humans living nearby .
• Genetics : The study of heredity .
Geneticists study how genes are passed down by parents to their offspring , and how they vary from person to person @ @ @ @ @ @ @ several genes and genetic mutations that influence human lifespan , as reported in a 2019 review published in the journal Nature Reviews Genetics .
• Physiology : The study of how living things work .
Physiology , which is applicable to any living organism , `` deals with the life-supporting functions and processes of living organisms or their parts , '' according to Nature .
Physiologists seek to understand biological processes , such as how a particular organ works , what its function is and how it 's affected by outside stimuli .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ listening to music can cause physical changes in the human body , such as a slower or faster heart rate .
Biology is often researched in conjunction with other fields of study , including mathematics , engineering and the social sciences .
Here are a few examples : • Astrobiology is the study of the evolution of life in the universe , including the search for extraterrestrial life , according to NASA .
This field incorporates principles of biology with astronomy .
• Bioarchaeologists are biologists who incorporate archaeological techniques to study skeletal @ @ @ @ @ @ @ lived in the past , according to George Mason University .
• Bioengineering is the application of engineering principles to biology and vice versa , according to the University of California Berkeley .
For example , a bioengineer might develop a new medical technology that better images the inside of the body , like an improved MRI that scans the human body at a faster rate and higher resolution , or apply biological knowledge to create artificial organs .
• Biotechnology involves using biological systems to develop products , according to the Norwegian @ @ @ @ @ @ @ example , biotechnologists in Russia genetically engineered a better-tasting and more disease-resistant strawberry , which the researchers described in their 2007 study published in the journal Biotechnology and Sustainable Agriculture 2006 and Beyond .
• Biophysics employs the principles of physics to understand how biological systems work , according to the Biophysical Society .
For example , biophysicists may study how genetic mutations leading to changes in protein structure impacts protein evolution .
What do biologists do ?
Biologists can work in many different fields , including research , healthcare , environmental conservation @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Institute of Biological Sciences .
Here are a few examples : • Research : Biologists can perform research in many types of settings .
Microbiologists , for instance , may study bacterial cultures in a laboratory setting .
Other biologists may perform field research , where they observe animals or plants in their native habitat .
Many biologists may work in the lab and in the field — for example , scientists may collect soil or water samples from the field and analyze them further in the lab , like at North Carolina @ @ @ @ @ @ @ • Healthcare : People who study biology can go on to work in healthcare , whether they work as doctors or nurses , join a pharmaceutical company to develop new drugs and vaccines , research the efficacy of medical treatments or become veterinarians to help treat sick animals , according to the American Institute of Biological Sciences .
• Conservation : Biologists can help with efforts in environmental conservation by studying and determining how to protect and conserve the natural world for the future .
For example , biologists may help educate the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ animal 's natural habitat and participate in endangered species recovery programs to stop the decline of an endangered species , according to the U.S .
Fish & Wildlife Service .
• Art : Biologists who also have a background in art have both the technical knowledge and artistic skill to create visuals that will communicate complex biological information to a wide variety of audiences .
One example of this is in medical illustration , in which an illustrator may perform background research , collaborate with experts , and observe a medical procedure to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ part , according to the Association of Medical Illustrators .
• Learn more about the basics of biology at Khan Academy .
• Curious about just how wide-reaching biology is ?
The University of North Carolina at Pembroke has listed a number of biology subdisciplines on their website .
• Interested in a career in biology ?
Check out some options at the American Institute of Biological Sciences website .

Biology is the study of all living organisms, including this adorable jewel bug and the plant it's perched on.
Biology is the study of life. The word "biology" is derived from the Greek words "bios" (meaning life) and "logos" (meaning "study"). In general, biologists study the structure, function, growth, origin, evolution and distribution of living organisms.
Biology is important because it helps us understand how living things work and how they function and interact on multiple levels, according to the Encyclopedia Britannica. Advances in biology have helped scientists do things such as develop better medicines and treatments for diseases, understand how a changing environment might affect plants and animals, produce enough food for a growing human population and predict how eating new food or sticking to an exercise regimen might affect our bodies.
The basic principles of modern biology
Four principles unify modern biology, according to the book "Managing Science" (Springer New York, 2010):
Cell theory is the principle that all living things are made of fundamental units called cells , and all cells come from preexisting cells. Gene theory is the principle that all living things have DNA, molecules that code the structures and functions of cells and get passed to offspring. Homeostasis is the principle that all living things maintain a state of balance that enables organisms to survive in their environment. Evolution is the principle that describes how all living things can change to have traits that enable them to survive better in their environments. These traits result from random mutations in the organism's genes that are "selected" via a process called natural selection. During natural selection, organisms that have traits better-suited for their environment have higher rates of survival, and then pass those traits to their offspring.
The many branches of biology
Although there are only four unifying principles, biology covers a broad range of topics that are broken into many disciplines and subdisciplines.
On a high level, the different fields of biology can each be thought of as the study of one type of organism, according to "Blackie's Dictionary of Biology" (S Chand, 2014). For example, zoology is the study of animals, botany is the study of plants and microbiology is the study of microorganisms.
A botanist is a biologist who studies plants. (Image credit: Shutterstock)
Within those broader fields, many biologists specialize in researching a specific topic or problem. For example, a scientist may study behavior of a certain fish species, while another scientist may research the neurological and chemical mechanisms behind the behavior.
There are numerous branches and subdisciplines of biology, but here is a short list of some of the more broad fields that fall under the umbrella of biology:
Biochemistry: The study of the chemical processes that take place in or are related to living things, according to the Biochemical Society. For example, pharmacology is a type of biochemistry research that focuses on studying how drugs interact with chemicals in the body, as described in a 2010 review in the journal Biochemistry.
Ecology: The study of how organisms interact with their environment. For example, an ecologist may study how honeybee behavior is affected by humans living nearby.
Genetics: The study of heredity. Geneticists study how genes are passed down by parents to their offspring, and how they vary from person to person. For example, scientists have identified several genes and genetic mutations that influence human lifespan, as reported in a 2019 review published in the journal Nature Reviews Genetics.
Physiology: The study of how living things work. Physiology, which is applicable to any living organism, "deals with the life-supporting functions and processes of living organisms or their parts," according to Nature. Physiologists seek to understand biological processes, such as how a particular organ works, what its function is and how it's affected by outside stimuli. For example, physiologists have studied how listening to music can cause physical changes in the human body , such as a slower or faster heart rate , according to the journal Psychological Health Effects of Musical Experiences. .
The multidisciplinary nature of biology
Biology is often researched in conjunction with other fields of study, including mathematics , engineering and the social sciences. Here are a few examples:
Astrobiology is the study of the evolution of life in the universe, including the search for extraterrestrial life, according to NASA. This field incorporates principles of biology with astronomy.
Bioarchaeologists are biologists who incorporate archaeological techniques to study skeletal remains and derive insights about how people lived in the past, according to George Mason University.
Bioengineering is the application of engineering principles to biology and vice versa, according to the University of California Berkeley. For example, a bioengineer might develop a new medical technology that better images the inside of the body, like an improved Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) that scans the human body at a faster rate and higher resolution, or apply biological knowledge to create artificial organs, according to the journal Cell Transplant.
Biotechnology involves using biological systems to develop products, according to the Norwegian University of Science and Technology. For example, biotechnologists in Russia genetically engineered a better-tasting and more disease-resistant strawberry, which the researchers described in their 2007 study published in the journal Biotechnology and Sustainable Agriculture 2006 and Beyond.
Biophysics employs the principles of physics to understand how biological systems work, according to the Biophysical Society. For example, biophysicists may study how genetic mutations leading to changes in protein structure impacts protein evolution, according to the Journal of the Royal Society
A 3d Illustration of the chain of amino acids that make up protein. (Image credit: Getty Images)
What do biologists do?
Biologists can work in many different fields, including research, healthcare, environmental conservation and art, according to the American Institute of Biological Sciences. Here are a few examples:
Research: Biologists can perform research in many types of settings. Microbiologists, for instance, may study bacterial cultures in a laboratory setting. Other biologists may perform field research, where they observe animals or plants in their native habitat. Many biologists may work in the lab and in the field — for example, scientists may collect soil or water samples from the field and analyze them further in the lab, like at North Carolina University's Soil and Water Lab.
Conservation: Biologists can help with efforts in environmental conservation by studying and determining how to protect and conserve the natural world for the future. For example, biologists may help educate the public on the importance of preserving an animal's natural habitat and participate in endangered species recovery programs to stop the decline of an endangered species, according to the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service.
An ecologist taking a water samples from a creek. (Image credit: Getty Images)
Healthcare: People who study biology can go on to work in healthcare, whether they work as doctors or nurses, join a pharmaceutical company to develop new drugs and vaccines, research the efficacy of medical treatments or become veterinarians to help treat sick animals, according to the American Institute of Biological Sciences.
Art: Biologists who also have a background in art have both the technical knowledge and artistic skill to create visuals that will communicate complex biological information to a wide variety of audiences. One example of this is in medical illustration, in which an illustrator may perform background research, collaborate with experts, and observe a medical procedure to create an accurate visual of a body part, according to the Association of Medical Illustrators.
Additional resources
If you’re curious about just how wide-reaching biology is, The University of North Carolina at Pembroke has listed a number of biology subdisciplines on their website. Interested in a career in biology? Check out some options at the American Institute of Biological Sciences website.
Bibliography
Lornande Loss Woodruff, “History of Biology”, The Scientific Monthly, Volume 12, March 1921, http://www.jstor.org/stable/6836.
P.N. Campbell, “Biology in Profile: A Guide to the Many Branches of Biology”, Elsevier, October 2013.
The University of North Carolina at Pembroke, “Biology Sub-disciplines”, October 2010.
University of Minnesota Duluth, “What is Biology?”, January 2022.
Eric J. Simon et al, “Campbell Essential Biology”, Pearson Education, January 2018.


livescience--2020-11-10--Mama and baby bear shot to death aboard Russian nuclear submarine

A mother bear and her cub were shot and killed while trying to board a nuclear submarine in Russia , according to news reports .
The sub was docked near the village of Rybachiy in Russia 's far-eastern , which has served as a submarine construction base since the 1960s .
In a video shared on social media on Nov. 8 , crewmembers aboard the sub watch as the two bears swim up from the adjacent bay and climb aboard the vessel 's deck .
According to the Moscow Times , naval personnel called a local hunting instructor to dispatch @ @ @ @ @ @ @ weapon . ''
In an unedited version of the video , a shotgun blast rings out before the bear cub falls from the sub 's deck and into the bay .
Why the bears were heart-set on becoming submariners is anyone 's guess , but the Russian military has already been barraged with social media scrutiny for killing the creatures , seemingly without cause .
A spokesperson from the Russian Navy 's Pacific Fleet told the that the bears had been seen several times in recent days , and posed a threat to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ heard speaking in the video echoes this sentiment .
`` There 's no other way , '' he says , according to the Moscow Times ( which translated the clip from Russian ) .
`` If you chase it out , it 'll wander into the villages .
That 's how you fight bears in Kamchatka . ''
An estimated 24,000 wild bears inhabit the Kamchatka Peninsula , according to .
If the mother and cub were searching for food , as the Russian Navy spokesperson suggested , then they are hardly the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ human territory in search of sustenance .
In February 2019 , more than 50 polar bears invaded a town in the Russian Arctic when thinning sea ice forced them away from their regular hunting grounds , .
Climate change has caused the Arctic to as the rest of the world , resulting in every year , according to a December 2018 report released by the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) .

A mother bear and her cub were shot and killed while trying to board a nuclear submarine in Russia, according to news reports.
The sub was docked near the village of Rybachiy in Russia's far-eastern Kamchatka Peninsula , which has served as a submarine construction base since the 1960s. In a video shared on social media on Nov. 8, crewmembers aboard the sub watch as the two bears swim up from the adjacent bay and climb aboard the vessel's deck.
According to the Moscow Times , naval personnel called a local hunting instructor to dispatch the bears with a "specialized hunting weapon." In an unedited version of the video, a shotgun blast rings out before the bear cub falls from the sub's deck and into the bay.
Why the bears were heart-set on becoming submariners is anyone's guess, but the Russian military has already been barraged with social media scrutiny for killing the creatures, seemingly without cause. A spokesperson from the Russian Navy's Pacific Fleet told the Russian news agency Interfax that the bears had been seen several times in recent days, and posed a threat to villagers.
One crewmember who can be heard speaking in the video echoes this sentiment. "There's no other way," he says, according to the Moscow Times (which translated the clip from Russian). "If you chase it out, it'll wander into the villages. That's how you fight bears in Kamchatka."
An estimated 24,000 wild bears inhabit the Kamchatka Peninsula, according to BBC News . If the mother and cub were searching for food, as the Russian Navy spokesperson suggested, then they are hardly the first of their kind to venture into human territory in search of sustenance. In February 2019, more than 50 polar bears invaded a town in the Russian Arctic when thinning sea ice forced them away from their regular hunting grounds, Live Science previously reported . Climate change has caused the Arctic to warm twice as fast as the rest of the world, resulting in huge declines in sea ice every year, according to a December 2018 report released by the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-11-10--Alien-like photo shows snake eel dangling out of heron's stomach in midair

A snake eel fighting for its life pulled an `` alien '' move by bursting out of the stomach of a heron that had just swallowed it whole , according to photos snapped by an amateur photographer in Delaware .
The photos show the snake eel , its head dangling in midair , as the heron — looking surprisingly unbothered — flies onward .
The unusual event attracted a lot of attention among the local predators , said Sam Davis , an engineer from Maryland who took the photos on the Delaware shore .
Several juvenile and a were following @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a meal in case the heron or the snake eel did n't make it , he said .
Related : 15 of the largest animals of their kind on Earth When Davis first spotted the bizarre flight , he thought that a snake or eel had bitten the heron 's neck .
Davis was about 75 yards to 100 yards ( 68 to 91 meters ) away from the animals , but he had a telephoto lens for long-range photography , and so he shot photos as he watched the heron fly about @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the eel still attached to it .
`` The heron did n't seem to act much differently , '' Davis told Live Science .
`` It was in the water and flying around . ''
Meanwhile , the eel was arching its body , `` so i guess it was still alive at some point , '' he said .
It was n't until Davis returned home and edited the photos that he realized that the snake eel was n't biting the heron .
After enlarging the photos , `` I could see @ @ @ @ @ @ @ eyes , '' he said .
`` It was actually coming out the other end '' — headfirst .
The photos show `` a pretty amazing sight , said John Pogonoski , an ichthyologist with the Australian National Fish Collection at the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation ( CSIRO ) , who was n't involved with the heron and snake eel 's encounter .
`` I would think this is either very rare or very rarely seen in a bird species , at least as far as I am aware . ''
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ colleagues published a study in the journal Memoirs of the Queensland Museum on snake eels ( a fish from the family Ophichthidae ) , detailing how snake eels can burrow out of the guts of fish that prey on them .
`` But usually they do n't get very far , '' he told Live Science in an email .
Once swallowed , fish eels can use their hard heads or tails to bust out of the digestive tract , but usually end up in the predator 's body cavity , muscle tissues @ @ @ @ @ @ @ snake eels often `` become 'mummified ' or 'encysted ' [ closed up in a cyst ] and die rather than escape , '' he said .
In one instance , `` a co-author of the paper once discovered a live snake eel inside a fish he caught when he cleaned the fish to eat it , '' Pogonoski said .
Davis never learned what happened to the heron and snake eel photographed in Delaware in 2011 ( he uploaded the photos to a wildlife site only a few months ago ) .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ heron was still flying around with the snake eel hanging below it .
According to Pogonoski , `` the heron possibly survived , it did n't look too inconvenienced , but would depend on how well the wound healed and if it was able to avoid an infection . ''
As for the snake eel , it `` would only have survived if it was dropped over or very close to water with a salinity it could normally tolerate , '' he said .

A heron likely regretted eating an eel after it burst out in midair.
Update, Dec. 17 at 2:40 pm EST: Live Science has learned that the animal dangling from the heron is an American eel (Anguilla rostrata), not a snake eel. American eels are common in Delaware waters and along the U.S. Atlantic coast, according to the Delaware Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control (DNREC). "It is rare for a heron to swallow an American eel that big and even rarer for the eel to burst out of the heron," a DNREC fisheries biologist told Live Science.
The original story, posted Nov. 10, is below.
A snake eel fighting for its life pulled an "alien" move by bursting out of the stomach of a heron that had just swallowed it whole, according to photos snapped by an amateur photographer in Delaware.
The photos show the snake eel, its head dangling in midair, as the heron — looking surprisingly unbothered — flies onward.
The unusual event attracted a lot of attention among the local predators, said Sam Davis, an engineer from Maryland who took the photos on the Delaware shore. Several juvenile eagles and a fox were following the heron, possibly hoping to scavenge a meal in case the heron or the snake eel didn't make it, he said.
Related: 15 of the largest animals of their kind on Earth
When Davis first spotted the bizarre flight, he thought that a snake or eel had bitten the heron's neck. Davis was about 75 yards to 100 yards (68 to 91 meters) away from the animals, but he had a telephoto lens for long-range photography, and so he shot photos as he watched the heron fly about and even land in the water with the eel still attached to it. "The heron didn't seem to act much differently," Davis told Live Science. "It was in the water and flying around."
Meanwhile, the eel was arching its body, "so i guess it was still alive at some point," he said.
It wasn't until Davis returned home and edited the photos that he realized that the snake eel wasn't biting the heron. After enlarging the photos, "I could see the eel, you could see its eyes," he said. "It was actually coming out the other end" — headfirst.
Image 1 of 8 Snake eels are usually known for burrowing out of the stomachs of fish. (Image credit: Sam Davis) The heron appeared unbothered by the snake eel. (Image credit: Sam Davis) Amateur photographer Sam Davis snapped these photos on the Delaware shore back in 2011. (Image credit: Sam Davis) Two juvenile eagles watched the bizarre duo. (Image credit: Sam Davis) A fox tracks the heron with the snake eel hanging out of its stomach. (Image credit: Sam Davis) It's possible the fox was hoping for an easy meal. (Image credit: Sam Davis) The snake eel limply dangles from the heron. (Image credit: Sam Davis) The snake eel arches its body. It's unknown if it survived. (Image credit: Sam Davis)
The photos show "a pretty amazing sight," said John Pogonoski, an ichthyologist with the Australian National Fish Collection at the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), who wasn't involved with the heron and snake eel's encounter. "I would think this is either very rare or very rarely seen in a bird species, at least as far as I am aware."
Earlier this year, Pogonoski and his colleagues published a study in the journal Memoirs of the Queensland Museum on snake eels (a fish from the family Ophichthidae), detailing how snake eels can burrow out of the guts of fish that prey on them. "But usually they don't get very far," he told Live Science in an email. Once swallowed, snake eels can use their hard heads or tails to bust out of the digestive tract, but usually end up in the predator's body cavity, muscle tissues or swim bladder. Once trapped, snake eels often "become 'mummified' or 'encysted' [closed up in a cyst] and die rather than escape," he said.
In one instance, "a co-author of the paper once discovered a live snake eel inside a fish he caught when he cleaned the fish to eat it," Pogonoski said.
Davis never learned what happened to the heron and snake eel photographed in Delaware in 2011 (he uploaded the photos to a wildlife site only a few months ago). When he left the shore, the heron was still flying around with the snake eel hanging below it.
According to Pogonoski, "the heron possibly survived, it didn't look too inconvenienced, but would depend on how well the wound healed and if it was able to avoid an infection."
As for the snake eel, it "would only have survived if it was dropped over or very close to water with a salinity it could normally tolerate," he said.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-11-10--2020 Atlantic hurricane season shatters record

With the formation of tropical storm Theta , 2020 has now logged more tropical cyclones than ever recorded .
Theta is 2020 's 29th named storm in the Atlantic Ocean .
Theta , which does n't pose a danger to land , formed a few hundred miles off the coast of Liberia Monday ( Nov. 9 ) , shattering the record for total number of named storms in the Atlantic hurricane season .
( When a tropical cyclone 's sustained winds reach 39 to 73 mph ( 63 to 118 km/h ) , it is considered a tropical storm and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ record for busiest was 28 , set in 2005 — the only other time in history that the National Hurricane Center has exhausted its list of Atlantic storm names and moved on to Greek letters .
In 2005 , the final storm did n't form until late December , so there 's still plenty of time for 2020 to run up the score .
is making more powerful and dangerous , on average , but it 's not yet clear whether it 's making them more common , according to .
In the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the brunt of the beating from this Atlantic storm season .
A record-breaking five named storms made landfall in Louisiana .
The worst of these was Hurricane Laura in August , one of the most powerful storms ever to hit the state — arriving just after the weaker Tropical Storm Marco .
After Laura left thousands homeless , three more storms made landfall along the Louisiana coastline and several more made landfall in the surrounding region before passing over Louisiana .
All told , the 2020 Atlantic season 's death toll runs into @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 31 people in Haiti according to the Jamaica Observer and 28 in Louisiana , .
Hurricane Eta left 150 dead or missing in Guatemala , according to .
Powerful hurricanes are n't the only dramatic symptom of climate change to impact the U.S. this year .
Wildfires turned the skies orange over the West Coast , forcing tens of thousands to evacuate across several states and killing dozens .
And the that climate change raises the risk of pandemics , and has helped spread insect-borne illnesses like .
The western Pacific has also @ @ @ @ @ @ @ this year .
Super Typhoon Goni , the strongest storm of the year , hit the Philippines in early November .

Tropical Storm Theta formed in the eastern Atlantic Monday (Nov. 9). The deadly Tropical Storm Eta (formerly a hurricane) is still active in the Gulf of Mexico.
With the formation of tropical storm Theta, 2020 has now logged more tropical cyclones than ever recorded.
Theta is 2020's 29th named storm in the Atlantic Ocean. Theta, which doesn't pose a danger to land, formed a few hundred miles off the coast of Liberia Monday (Nov. 9), shattering the record for total number of named storms in the Atlantic hurricane season. (When a tropical cyclone's sustained winds reach 39 to 73 mph (63 to 118 km/h), it is considered a tropical storm and gets a name.)
The previous record for busiest hurricane season was 28, set in 2005 — the only other time in history that the National Hurricane Center has exhausted its list of Atlantic storm names and moved on to Greek letters. In 2005, the final storm didn't form until late December, so there's still plenty of time for 2020 to run up the score.
Climate change is making hurricanes more powerful and dangerous, on average, but it's not yet clear whether it's making them more common, according to Yale Climate Connections .
Related: A history of destruction: 8 great hurricanes
In the U.S., the Gulf of Mexico took the brunt of the beating from this Atlantic storm season. A record-breaking five named storms made landfall in Louisiana. The worst of these was Hurricane Laura in August, one of the most powerful storms ever to hit the state — arriving just after the weaker Tropical Storm Marco. After Laura left thousands homeless, three more storms made landfall along the Louisiana coastline and several more made landfall in the surrounding region before passing over Louisiana.
All told, the 2020 Atlantic season's death toll runs into the hundreds. Hurricane Laura alone killed 31 people in Haiti according to the Jamaica Observer and 28 in Louisiana, according to Fox 8 . Hurricane Eta left 150 dead or missing in Guatemala, according to CBS News .
Powerful hurricanes aren't the only dramatic symptom of climate change to impact the U.S. this year. Wildfires turned the skies orange over the West Coast, forcing tens of thousands to evacuate across several states and killing dozens. And the Harvard School of Public Health says that climate change raises the risk of pandemics, and has helped spread insect-borne illnesses like Lyme disease .
The western Pacific has also had its share of dangerous tropical cyclones this year. Super Typhoon Goni, the strongest storm of the year according to CNN , hit the Philippines in early November.
Originally published on Live Science.