livescience--2020-08-20--COVID-19 has the potential to be as deadly as the 1918 flu

The COVID-19 pandemic has the potential to become more deadly than the 1918 flu pandemic , a new study suggests .
Remembered as the deadliest pandemic in recent history , the infected one-third of the world 's population and killed at least 50 million people , 675,000 of them in the U.S. , according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ( CDC ) .
At the time , there were no vaccines and no antibiotics to treat secondary infections that inevitably popped up in flu patients .
However , society employed measures like the ones being used today @ @ @ @ @ @ @ imposing quarantines and endorsing good personal hygiene , according to the CDC .
Over a century later , the world has found itself in the grip of another pandemic , this one caused by the SARS-CoV-2 — and it 's still not clear just how deadly it is .
The virus has now infected at least 22.2 million people and has claimed at least 783,525 lives worldwide , according to the Johns Hopkins dashboard .
To compare the current pandemic with last century 's , a group of researchers focused on a sliver @ @ @ @ @ @ @ by both viruses .
In the spring , SARS-CoV-2 hammered New York City , causing more than 19,000 known deaths — and more than 4,600 probable deaths or those that were likely caused by COVID-19 but there are n't positive laboratory tests to confirm , according to the NYC Department of Health and Mental Hygiene .
Using data from the CDC , the New York Department of Health and Mental Hygiene and the U.S. Census Bureau , the researchers compared the mortality rate in New York City during the early COVID-19 outbreak with @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the 1918 H1N1 influenza pandemic .
The researchers specifically analyzed deaths from all causes in New York City in October and November of 1918 — the peak of the influenza pandemic in the city — and compared them with all-cause deaths in the same months since 1914 .
They then calculated all-cause deaths for March 11 to May 11 of this year in New York City , when the COVID-19 outbreak peaked and subsided in New York .
The time periods they compared were each 61 days long .
The researchers chose to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the peak of the 1918 flu , rather than with the milder influenza wave that hit in the spring of 1918 , so that `` people can get context for how serious , '' this modern outbreak is , said lead author Dr. Jeremy Faust , an emergency physician at the Brigham and Women 's Hospital in Boston and instructor at Harvard Medical School .
They found that during the peak of the 1918 influenza outbreak in New York City , a total of 31,589 all-cause deaths ( this included death from any @ @ @ @ @ @ @ residents that lived there at the time .
The all-cause mortality in the peak of the influenza pandemic in 1918 was 2.8 times higher than during the same months in previous years .
In contrast , for the early 2020 COVID-19 outbreak in New York City , they found that 33,465 deaths from all causes occurred among 8.28 million residents between March 11 and May 11 .
The all-cause mortality in those months of 2020 were 4.15 times higher than those months between 2017 and 2019 .
That means that in the peak @ @ @ @ @ @ @ about 287 per 100,000 people died a month from any cause in NYC , whereas during the early COVID-19 outbreak , about 202 per 100,000 people died a month in the city .
So the all-cause mortality during the spring of 2020 was 70 % of the all cause mortality during the fall of 1918 .
`` When we do that , we see that COVID-19 really does have the potential and has already unfortunately caused per capita death rates that were in the same ballpark , '' Faust told Live Science .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ coronavirus vaccine candidates But there 's another way to look at the deaths related to each pandemic : comparing deaths during a pandemic to the baseline that you 'd expect during a particular time .
There were more `` excess deaths '' during the 1918 flu than the early COVID-19 outbreak .
But in relative terms , the COVID-19 outbreak in the spring actually looks worse , because the numbers quadrupled from pre-pandemic times ( from a baseline of around 50 deaths per 100,000 people per month ) , whereas in the peak @ @ @ @ @ @ @ less than tripled ( from a baseline of around 100 deaths per 100,000 people per month ) .
`` Its a bigger shock to our system , but that 's a little bit unfair because we started off at a lower death rate , '' than there was in 1918 , due to advances in hygiene , medicine , public health and safety , Faust said .
Really , we do n't yet know if the 1918 pandemic or the COVID-19 pandemic is more deadly , he added .
Maybe what happened in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ `` freak thing , '' before interventions such as masks and shutdowns took hold ; or maybe the numbers will slowly creep up to match the death tolls seen in the 1918 flu until an effective vaccine is found .
One limitation of the study is that it 's not possible to directly compare how infectious and harmful the two viruses are to people and it 's unknown how many deaths from SARS-CoV-2 were prevented because of modern interventions that were n't available a century ago , the authors wrote .
`` All @ @ @ @ @ @ @ slice of time that we looked at , there are certainly enough resemblances that it ca n't be just shrugged off , '' Faust said .
`` We 've asked the question how did this compare to the worst pandemic in modern history , and we 've given the first possible window into that and I think that further research will give us more answers as to whether it 's not as bad , similar or worse . ''
In the meantime , the take-home message is that shutting down hard-hit places , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ critical .
`` Unlike any other pandemic we 've ever confronted , flattening the curve can actually do more than just slow down the death rate ... it can actually buy us time to get a vaccine , '' Faust said .
`` If you do n't do these things , mayhem of historic proportions is actually possible .
It 's not guaranteed , but it 's possible . ''
The findings were published Aug. 13 in the journal .

The COVID-19 pandemic has the potential to become more deadly than the 1918 flu pandemic, a new study suggests.
Remembered as the deadliest pandemic in recent history, the 1918 influenza pandemic infected one-third of the world's population and killed at least 50 million people, 675,000 of them in the U.S., according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) . At the time, there were no vaccines and no antibiotics to treat secondary infections that inevitably popped up in flu patients. However, society employed measures like the ones being used today to curb the spread, such as imposing quarantines and endorsing good personal hygiene, according to the CDC.
Over a century later, the world has found itself in the grip of another pandemic, this one caused by the coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 — and it's still not clear just how deadly it is. The virus has now infected at least 22.2 million people and has claimed at least 783,525 lives worldwide, according to the Johns Hopkins dashboard .
Related: Coronavirus live updates
To compare the current pandemic with last century's, a group of researchers focused on a sliver of the world that was hard hit by both viruses. In the spring, SARS-CoV-2 hammered New York City, causing more than 19,000 known deaths — and more than 4,600 probable deaths or those that were likely caused by COVID-19 but there aren't positive laboratory tests to confirm, according to the NYC Department of Health and Mental Hygiene.
Using data from the CDC, the New York Department of Health and Mental Hygiene and the U.S. Census Bureau, the researchers compared the mortality rate in New York City during the early COVID-19 outbreak with the mortality rate during the peak of the 1918 H1N1 influenza pandemic.
The researchers specifically analyzed deaths from all causes in New York City in October and November of 1918 — the peak of the influenza pandemic in the city — and compared them with all-cause deaths in the same months since 1914. They then calculated all-cause deaths for March 11 to May 11 of this year in New York City, when the COVID-19 outbreak peaked and subsided in New York. The time periods they compared were each 61 days long.
The researchers chose to compare the early outbreak in NYC with the peak of the 1918 flu, rather than with the milder influenza wave that hit in the spring of 1918, so that "people can get context for how serious," this modern outbreak is, said lead author Dr. Jeremy Faust, an emergency physician at the Brigham and Women's Hospital in Boston and instructor at Harvard Medical School.
They found that during the peak of the 1918 influenza outbreak in New York City, a total of 31,589 all-cause deaths (this included death from any cause) occurred among the 5.5 million residents that lived there at the time. The all-cause mortality in the peak of the influenza pandemic in 1918 was 2.8 times higher than during the same months in previous years.
In contrast, for the early 2020 COVID-19 outbreak in New York City, they found that 33,465 deaths from all causes occurred among 8.28 million residents between March 11 and May 11. The all-cause mortality in those months of 2020 were 4.15 times higher than those months between 2017 and 2019.
That means that in the peak of the 1918 influenza pandemic in NYC about 287 per 100,000 people died a month from any cause in NYC, whereas during the early COVID-19 outbreak, about 202 per 100,000 people died a month in the city. So the all-cause mortality during the spring of 2020 was 70% of the all cause mortality during the fall of 1918. "When we do that, we see that COVID-19 really does have the potential and has already unfortunately caused per capita death rates that were in the same ballpark," Faust told Live Science.
Related: Here are the most promising coronavirus vaccine candidates
But there's another way to look at the deaths related to each pandemic: comparing deaths during a pandemic to the baseline that you'd expect during a particular time. There were more "excess deaths" during the 1918 flu than the early COVID-19 outbreak. But in relative terms, the COVID-19 outbreak in the spring actually looks worse, because the numbers quadrupled from pre-pandemic times (from a baseline of around 50 deaths per 100,000 people per month), whereas in the peak of the 1918 flu, the numbers less than tripled (from a baseline of around 100 deaths per 100,000 people per month).
"Its a bigger shock to our system, but that's a little bit unfair because we started off at a lower death rate," than there was in 1918, due to advances in hygiene, medicine, public health and safety, Faust said. Really, we don't yet know if the 1918 pandemic or the COVID-19 pandemic is more deadly, he added. Maybe what happened in New York in the spring was a "freak thing," before interventions such as masks and shutdowns took hold; or maybe the numbers will slowly creep up to match the death tolls seen in the 1918 flu until an effective vaccine is found.
One limitation of the study is that it's not possible to directly compare how infectious and harmful the two viruses are to people and it's unknown how many deaths from SARS-CoV-2 were prevented because of modern interventions that weren't available a century ago, the authors wrote.
"All we know is that in this little slice of time that we looked at, there are certainly enough resemblances that it can't be just shrugged off," Faust said. "We've asked the question how did this compare to the worst pandemic in modern history, and we've given the first possible window into that and I think that further research will give us more answers as to whether it's not as bad, similar or worse."
In the meantime, the take-home message is that shutting down hard-hit places, social distancing, quarantining and wearing masks are critical. "Unlike any other pandemic we've ever confronted, flattening the curve can actually do more than just slow down the death rate ... it can actually buy us time to get a vaccine," Faust said. "If you don't do these things, mayhem of historic proportions is actually possible. It's not guaranteed, but it's possible."
The findings were published Aug. 13 in the journal JAMA Network Open .
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-08-20--Crusader battlefield where 'Richard the Lionheart' defeated Muslims is unearthed in Israel

An archaeologist in Israel has located one of the Third Crusade 's key battlefields — the spot where Richard I of England , also known as Richard the Lionheart , and his troops defeated Muslim forces .
His victory was short-lived .
Although King Richard 's Christian forces won the fight , known as the Battle of Arsuf , they ultimately lost the Third Crusade to the Muslims , who held onto the , said study researcher Rafael Lewis , an associate researcher at the Zinman Institute of Archaeology at the University of Haifa in Israel .
`` Unfortunately for @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the Battle of Arsuf , they did n't win it decisively enough , '' Lewis told Live Science .
`` The Muslim forces were still standing on their feet , and they were able to skirmish the Crusader army for another year .
This all ended with a treaty , which allowed Richard and his men to go up to Jerusalem to fulfill their pilgrimage to the city , but they did n't capture it . ''
During the Third Crusade ( 1189 to 1192 ) , Richard the Lionheart and other Christian @ @ @ @ @ @ @ sultan Saladin ( the Western name for Salah al-Din ibn Ayyub ) , who had united the Muslim world when he captured the Holy City from the Christians .
After the Muslim-held coastal city of Acre fell to the Christians , Richard I opted to take his troops to Jaffa , so they could capture its port — a move that would help the Crusaders secure provisions and possible reinforcements for the planned siege of Jerusalem , Lewis wrote in the study .
Over the next 17 days , the troops marched along @ @ @ @ @ @ @ where Saladin 's forces were waiting .
Both the Crusaders and the Muslims were hoping for a decisive result , with one side losing so badly that the war would have a clear winner , Lewis said .
But after making three charges against Saladin 's men , the Crusaders defeated , but did n't shatter , Saladin 's forces .
Other historians have tried to pinpoint the battle 's location , which they knew happened north of modern-day Tel Aviv .
But Lewis said he is the first to find the exact @ @ @ @ @ @ @ battle .
The location was described in May in the of the Sonia and Marco Nadler Institute of Archaeology .
Lewis knew the battle began near the village of Arsuf , `` but we did n't know exactly where , '' so he began `` going back in time '' by combing through documents such as aerial photography , historical photographs and written records kept by people passing through Arsuf .
Lewis also examined the shape of the landscape and archaeological accounts , until he had a good idea of where the battlefield @ @ @ @ @ @ @ there in person to search for battle artifacts .
In a limited metal-detector survey of the site , Lewis found an iron plate ( possibly from a helmet ) , iron horse harness fittings , and a violin key horseshoe nail , a tool used in England and France during the 12th and 13th centuries , he said .
Lewis also found two arrowheads : one designed to pierce armor ( in 12th century battles , men wore four layers of protective clothing and armor , Lewis noted ) and another that was @ @ @ @ @ @ @ designed to target , so that the animals would be wounded and rear up , throwing off their riders .
Written sources say the Battle of Arsuf took place near an oak woodland , and detail how the Crusaders stopped at the edge of the forest after the charge .
That forest is n't there anymore ( it was cut down by the beginning of the 20th century ) , but after Lewis consulted historical texts , maps and aerial photographs , he estimated the edge of the forest and deduced where the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ charge covered roughly 820 feet ( 250 meters ) in distance .
The new research `` gives us a fairly sound idea of where the battle took place , '' Adrian Boas , an archaeologist at Haifa University who specializes in the Crusades and was not involved with the study , .
In an interesting historical note , when Richard the Lionheart died in 1199 , his heart was preserved in a crystal box containing , mint , and several sweet-smelling plants , .
Meanwhile , Saladin died in 1193 , possibly of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ diagnosed him based on historical records , in 2018 .

An archaeologist in Israel has located one of the Third Crusade's key battlefields — the spot where Richard I of England, also known as Richard the Lionheart, and his troops defeated Muslim forces.
His victory was short-lived. Although King Richard's Christian forces won the fight, known as the Battle of Arsuf, they ultimately lost the Third Crusade to the Muslims, who held onto the Holy Land , said study researcher Rafael Lewis, an associate researcher at the Zinman Institute of Archaeology at the University of Haifa in Israel.
"Unfortunately for the Crusaders, even though they won the Battle of Arsuf, they didn't win it decisively enough," Lewis told Live Science. "The Muslim forces were still standing on their feet, and they were able to skirmish the Crusader army for another year. This all ended with a treaty, which allowed Richard and his men to go up to Jerusalem to fulfill their pilgrimage to the city, but they didn't capture it."
Related: Image album: A medieval knight's kin?
During the Third Crusade (1189 to 1192), Richard the Lionheart and other Christian forces went to recapture Jerusalem from the sultan Saladin (the Western name for Salah al-Din ibn Ayyub), who had united the Muslim world when he captured the Holy City from the Christians. After the Muslim-held coastal city of Acre fell to the Christians, Richard I opted to take his troops to Jaffa, so they could capture its port — a move that would help the Crusaders secure provisions and possible reinforcements for the planned siege of Jerusalem, Lewis wrote in the study. Over the next 17 days, the troops marched along the coast until they reached Arsuf, where Saladin's forces were waiting.
Both the Crusaders and the Muslims were hoping for a decisive result, with one side losing so badly that the war would have a clear winner, Lewis said. But after making three charges against Saladin's men, the Crusaders defeated, but didn't shatter, Saladin's forces.
Image 1 of 4 A metal detector survey revealed this medieval arrowhead at the site. (Image credit: Rafael Lewis) The violin key horseshoe nail found at the site. (Image credit: Rafael Lewis) The vast field, looking south toward Tel Aviv, in Israel. (Image credit: Rafael Lewis) A view of the field where the Sept. 7, 1191 Battle of Arsuf took place. (Image credit: Rafael Lewis)
Finding the battlefield
Other historians have tried to pinpoint the battle's location, which they knew happened north of modern-day Tel Aviv. But Lewis said he is the first to find the exact location of the Sept. 7, 1191 battle.
The location was described in May in the Monograph Series of the Sonia and Marco Nadler Institute of Archaeology.
Lewis knew the battle began near the village of Arsuf, "but we didn't know exactly where," so he began "going back in time" by combing through documents such as aerial photography, historical photographs and written records kept by people passing through Arsuf. Lewis also examined the shape of the landscape and archaeological accounts, until he had a good idea of where the battlefield might be. Then, he went there in person to search for battle artifacts.
In a limited metal-detector survey of the site, Lewis found an iron plate (possibly from a helmet), iron horse harness fittings, and a violin key horseshoe nail, a tool used in England and France during the 12th and 13th centuries, he said.
Lewis also found two arrowheads: one designed to pierce armor (in 12th century battles, men wore four layers of protective clothing and armor, Lewis noted) and another that was flatter, like a disc, and designed to target horses , so that the animals would be wounded and rear up, throwing off their riders.
Related: 10 epic battles that changed history
Written sources say the Battle of Arsuf took place near an oak woodland, and detail how the Crusaders stopped at the edge of the forest after the charge. That forest isn't there anymore (it was cut down by the beginning of the 20th century), but after Lewis consulted historical texts, maps and aerial photographs, he estimated the edge of the forest and deduced where the armies had fought, given that each charge covered roughly 820 feet (250 meters) in distance.
The new research "gives us a fairly sound idea of where the battle took place," Adrian Boas, an archaeologist at Haifa University who specializes in the Crusades and was not involved with the study, told Haaretz .
In an interesting historical note, when Richard the Lionheart died in 1199, his heart was preserved in a crystal box containing mercury , mint, frankincense and several sweet-smelling plants, Live Science previously reported . Meanwhile, Saladin died in 1193, possibly of typhoid, according to doctors who retroactively diagnosed him based on historical records, Live Science reported in 2018.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-08-20--FDA wants more proof COVID-19 plasma therapy works

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) wo n't authorize the use of blood plasma to treat COVID-19 patients until more data about the treatment can be reviewed , federal officials announced .
Convalescent plasma ( CP ) therapy relies on blood plasma donations from people who have recovered from an infectious disease , such as COVID-19 , .
The recovered person 's blood contains that recognize the coronavirus , and in theory these molecules should help the of a sick person take down the pathogen .
But no clinical trials have definitively shown that CP therapy helps @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of evidence , the country 's top disease experts urged the FDA not to issue a so-called emergency use authorization for the therapy , .
Emergency authorization does not require the same degree of evidence as full FDA approval , but would allow doctors to widely apply CP therapy for COVID-19 `` when there are no adequate , approved and available alternatives , '' according to the federal agency .
Right now , people receiving CP are doing so only through clinical trials .
But because it is challenging to set up trials @ @ @ @ @ @ @ helps patients has been slow to come out .
Authorizing the therapy too soon could make it even more difficult to gauge whether CP truly works , Dr. Mila Ortigoza , an infectious disease specialist at NYU Langone Health and co-leader of a , told the Times .
Related : Treatments for COVID-19 : Drugs being tested against the coronavirus The FDA had already drafted an emergency use authorization form for CP therapy as of last week , but that process has now been put on hold after leading experts weighed in ; @ @ @ @ @ @ @ director of the National Institutes of Health ( NIH ) , Dr. Anthony Fauci , director of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases ( NIAID ) and Dr. H. Clifford Lane , NIAID clinical director .
`` The three of us are pretty aligned on the importance of robust data through randomized control trials , and that a pandemic does not change that , '' Lane said in an interview Aug. 19 , according to The New York Times .
In a randomized controlled trial , or RCT , patients are @ @ @ @ @ @ @ or the standard of care , to see if the treatment works .
`` We want to make sure that when we say [ CP therapy ] works , we are confident , with indisputable evidence , '' Ortigoza told the Times .
`` We 're dealing with patients ' lives here , '' she said .
Unfortunately , if history tells us anything , it 's that it 's exceedingly difficult to organize randomized trials for CP therapy , especially during a pandemic .
Doctors have studied convalescent plasma treatments since before @ @ @ @ @ @ @ also applied the therapy during the 2003 SARS outbreak , the 2009 H1N1 pandemic and the 2014 Ebola outbreak , Live Science previously reported .
However , studies conducted during past viral outbreaks often lacked control groups , meaning patients who got CP therapy were n't compared to patients who did n't , to see if it truly improved outcomes .
What 's more , doctors can recruit patients for clinical trials only as they check into the hospital , and they can provide plasma only as donations become available .
Related : @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in history Both study recruitment and plasma donations vary with the prevalence of COVID-19 in different regions , meaning that many clinical trials for CP often do n't recruit enough participants to yield meaningful results — at least not quickly .
In an effort to speed up the process and reach the necessary enrollment numbers , Ortigoza and others at NYU have organized an from many ongoing randomized controlled trials of CP therapy .
`` When evidence with a high degree of confidence emerges , the data and safety monitoring board will make @ @ @ @ @ @ @ all trials , '' according to a statement on the .
In the meantime , preliminary data from a dozen completed trials , including three very small RCTS , hint that COVID-19 patients treated with CP therapy die at significantly lower rates than those given standard treatments alone , according to a meta analysis posted July 30 to the preprint database .
Additional data from the and also hint at the therapy 's safety and efficacy , but neither meet the standard of an RCT , according to the Times .
A leader @ @ @ @ @ @ @ R. Scott Wright , told the Times that plasma shortages and the need to organize the trial over conference calls has posed challenges .
`` In a pandemic , you ca n't always get a definitive 'ah-ha ' study '' that clearly demonstrates a therapy 's efficacy , Dr. Michael Joyner , an anesthesiologist and physician-researcher at the Mayo Clinic and author of the bioRxiv report , told Live Science in early August .
Lane of the NIAID said that the FDA could still grant emergency use authorization in the near future , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Times reported .
`` We will keep going , because we 're in desperate need of a randomized placebo-controlled trial for convalescent plasma , '' Ortigoza told the Times .
`` This is something our country and the world really needs right now . ''

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) won't authorize the use of blood plasma to treat COVID-19 patients until more data about the treatment can be reviewed, federal officials announced.
Convalescent plasma (CP) therapy relies on blood plasma donations from people who have recovered from an infectious disease, such as COVID-19, Live Science previously reported . The recovered person's blood contains antibodies that recognize the coronavirus, and in theory these molecules should help the immune system of a sick person take down the pathogen.
But no clinical trials have definitively shown that CP therapy helps coronavirus patients recover. Citing this lack of evidence, the country's top disease experts urged the FDA not to issue a so-called emergency use authorization for the therapy, The New York Times reported . Emergency authorization does not require the same degree of evidence as full FDA approval, but would allow doctors to widely apply CP therapy for COVID-19 "when there are no adequate, approved and available alternatives," according to the federal agency .
Right now, people receiving CP are doing so only through clinical trials. But because it is challenging to set up trials for CP, data showing whether it helps patients has been slow to come out. Authorizing the therapy too soon could make it even more difficult to gauge whether CP truly works, Dr. Mila Ortigoza, an infectious disease specialist at NYU Langone Health and co-leader of a clinical trial of CP therapy for COVID-19 , told the Times.
Related: Treatments for COVID-19: Drugs being tested against the coronavirus
The FDA had already drafted an emergency use authorization form for CP therapy as of last week, but that process has now been put on hold after leading experts weighed in; these experts included Dr. Francis Collins, director of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), Dr. Anthony Fauci, director of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) and Dr. H. Clifford Lane, NIAID clinical director.
"The three of us are pretty aligned on the importance of robust data through randomized control trials, and that a pandemic does not change that," Lane said in an interview Aug. 19, according to The New York Times. In a randomized controlled trial, or RCT, patients are randomly assigned to receive an experimental treatment or the standard of care, to see if the treatment works. "We want to make sure that when we say [CP therapy] works, we are confident, with indisputable evidence," Ortigoza told the Times. "We're dealing with patients' lives here," she said.
Unfortunately, if history tells us anything, it's that it's exceedingly difficult to organize randomized trials for CP therapy, especially during a pandemic.
Doctors have studied convalescent plasma treatments since before the 1918 flu pandemic, and they also applied the therapy during the 2003 SARS outbreak, the 2009 H1N1 pandemic and the 2014 Ebola outbreak, Live Science previously reported. However, studies conducted during past viral outbreaks often lacked control groups, meaning patients who got CP therapy weren't compared to patients who didn't, to see if it truly improved outcomes. What's more, doctors can recruit patients for clinical trials only as they check into the hospital, and they can provide plasma only as donations become available.
Related: 20 of the worst epidemics and pandemics in history
Both study recruitment and plasma donations vary with the prevalence of COVID-19 in different regions, meaning that many clinical trials for CP often don't recruit enough participants to yield meaningful results — at least not quickly. In an effort to speed up the process and reach the necessary enrollment numbers, Ortigoza and others at NYU have organized an initiative to pool data from many ongoing randomized controlled trials of CP therapy.
"When evidence with a high degree of confidence emerges, the data and safety monitoring board will make a joint recommendation to the leadership of all trials," according to a statement on the initiative's website .
In the meantime, preliminary data from a dozen completed trials, including three very small RCTS, hint that COVID-19 patients treated with CP therapy die at significantly lower rates than those given standard treatments alone, according to a meta analysis posted July 30 to the preprint database bioRxiv . Additional data from the Mayo Clinic and Houston Methodist hospitals also hint at the therapy's safety and efficacy, but neither meet the standard of an RCT, according to the Times. A leader of the Mayo Clinic trial, Dr. R. Scott Wright, told the Times that plasma shortages and the need to organize the trial over conference calls has posed challenges.
"In a pandemic, you can't always get a definitive 'ah-ha' study" that clearly demonstrates a therapy's efficacy, Dr. Michael Joyner, an anesthesiologist and physician-researcher at the Mayo Clinic and author of the bioRxiv report, told Live Science in early August.
Lane of the NIAID said that the FDA could still grant emergency use authorization in the near future, barring more data from RCTs, the Times reported.
"We will keep going, because we're in desperate need of a randomized placebo-controlled trial for convalescent plasma," Ortigoza told the Times. "This is something our country and the world really needs right now."
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-08-20--Coronavirus outbreak: Live updates

Coronavirus outbreak: Live updates

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90-year-old woman in the UK receives first dose of Pfizer vaccine, FDA review confirms vaccine is safe and effective A 90-year-old woman (who will turn 91 next week) became the first in the world to be given Pfizer's coronavirus vaccine outside of clinical trials, according to the BBC. Margaret Keenan, who is originally from Northern Ireland, was given the vaccine at the University Hospital in Coventry, England. She received the first of 800,000 doses expected to be administered in the U.K. in the coming weeks, according to the BBC. "I feel so privileged to be the first person vaccinated against Covid-19," Keenan said, according to the BBC."It's the best early birthday present I could wish for because it means I can finally look forward to spending time with my family and friends in the new year after being on my own for most of the year." "My advice to anyone offered the vaccine is to take it. If I can have it at 90, then you can have it too," she added. Up to four million doses of Pfizer's vaccine is expected to be given to people in the U.K. by the end of the month. Meanwhile, a 53-page Food and Drug Administration (FDA) review published Tuesday (Dec. 8) confirmed that Pfizer's vaccine is safe and effective, according to The Washington Post.
Pfizer's COVID-19 vaccine starts to work just 10 days after 1st dose Pfizer's new COVID-19 vaccine starts to protect people from the novel coronavirus just 10 days after the first dose, according to new documents from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The documents were released on Tuesday (Dec. 8), two days before a meeting of the FDA's vaccine advisory panel, which will vote on whether to recommend authorization of the vaccine in the U.S, Live Science reported . The FDA analyzed data from Pfizer's phase 3 clinical trial, which included some 44,000 people in the United States, Brazil, Argentina, Germany and Turkey, about half of whom received the vaccine while the other half received a placebo. Both groups received two shots, 21 days apart. About 10 days after the first dose, there was a noticeable drop-off in new COVID-19 cases in the vaccine group compared with the placebo group, indicating that even one dose provides some protection, the report said. However, scientists don't know how long the protection from a single dose will last, so it will still be important for people to receive two shots, according to The New York Times . Overall, the vaccine was 52% effective after the first dose and 95% effective after the second dose, the report said.
People with significant allergies should avoid Pfizer vaccine, UK warns The U.K.'s Regulatory Agency is advising people with a history of "significant" allergic reactions to avoid Pfizer's coronavirus vaccine, after two National Health Service members developed severe allergic reactions to it on Tuesday (Dec. 8), Live Science reported. "As is common with new vaccines the MHRA (Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency) have advised on a precautionary basis that people with a significant history of allergic reactions do not receive this vaccination after two people with a history of significant allergic reactions responded adversely yesterday," Stephen Powis, the national medical director for England's National Health Service said in a statement on Wednesday (Dec. 9). Both workers have a history of severe allergies and carry adrenaline auto injectors (such as EpiPens) around with them, according to The Guardian. Shortly after receiving the vaccine, both NHS workers developed anaphylaxis-like symptoms, or severe allergic reactions, but have recovered after receiving treatment. The MHRA will investigate further and Pfizer and BioNTech will support their investigation, according to Reuters. "Allergic reaction occurs with quite a number of vaccines, and perhaps even more frequently with drugs. So it is not unexpected," Stephen Evans, a professor of pharmacoepidemiology at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine said in remarks to journalists published by Britain's Science Media Center. “What would be wise, as the MHRA have already advised, would be for anyone who has known severe allergic reaction such that they need to carry an EpiPen, to delay having a vaccination until the reason for the allergic reaction has been clarified," he said. For the general population this does not mean that they would need to be anxious about receiving the vaccination, he added. "One has to remember that even things like marmite [a quintessential British food spread] can cause unexpected severe allergic reactions.”
Canada approves Pfizer's COVID-19 vaccine Canada has authorized Pfizer's new COVID-19 vaccine, with the first doses expected to be administered there as early as next week. Health Canada, the country's health regulatory agency, said in a statement on Wednesday (Dec. 9) that it had determined that the vaccine "meets the Department's stringent safety, efficacy and quality requirements for use in Canada," according to CTV News . "We expect vaccines to arrive maybe as early as Monday [Dec. 14]. It takes time to prepare the vaccine," said Maj.-Gen. Dany Fortin, the top military general leading the vaccine rollout for the Public Health Agency of Canada, according to CTV News. The first doses could be administered by the middle of next week, he said. Canada is the third country in the world to authorize the Pfizer vaccine, following the United Kingdom and Bahrain. The country should receive up to 249,000 doses of the vaccine by the end of December, and has purchased 20 million doses total, with the option to purchase more, CTV News reported.
Daily COVID-19 death toll in the U.S. reaches record-high, surpassed 9/11 On Wednesday (Dec. 9), the U.S. recorded 3,124 new COVID-19 deaths, the highest daily death toll to date, according to CNN . In comparison, 2,977 people were killed in the 9/11 attacks. The U.S. has now recorded 280,488 deaths related to the virus, according to The COVID Tracking Project . A forecast from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention predicts that the total death toll can increase to between 332,000 and 362,000 by January 2, according to CNN. There are currently 106,671 people hospitalized with the virus in the U.S.; 20,903 of them are currently in the ICU and 7,621 are currently on a ventilator, according to the COVID Tracking Project. On Thursday (Dec. 10), the Vaccines and Related Biological Products Advisory Committee is set to meet to discuss an emergency use authorization for the Pfizer-BioNTech coronavirus vaccine.
FDA panel recommends authorization of Pfizer's COVID-19 vaccine A panel of experts for the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has recommended that the agency authorize Pfizer's new COVID-19 vaccine in the United States. On Thursday (Dec. 10), the panel voted 17 to 4 to recommend that the vaccine receive emergency use authorization (EUA) for people ages 16 and older, according to The New York Times . The FDA typically follows the advice of its panels, and so today's vote is an important step towards the vaccine's authorization. It is anticipated that the agency will officially authorize the vaccine on Saturday (Dec. 12), the Times reported. Several countries have already authorized Pfizer's vaccine, including Canada, the United Kingdom and Bahrain.
Vaccine approval could come this weekend, as U.S. continues to record high daily death tolls On Thursday (Dec. 10), the U.S. recorded another 2,902 COVID-19 deaths, a day after the country set a record of 3,253 deaths, according to Reuters . “Probably for the next 60 to 90 days, we’re going to have more deaths per day than we had on 9/11 or we had at Pearl Harbor,” Dr. Robert Redfield, the director of the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, told the Council on Foreign Relations on Thursday, according to Reuters. "The reality is the vaccine approval this week is not going to really impact that, I think, to any degree for the next 60 days." On Thursday, the Vaccines and Related Biological Products Advisory Committee discussed, voted and recommended that the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) should grant an emergency use authorization for Pfizer's coronavirus vaccine. The Pfizer vaccine has already been approved in the U.K. and in Canada, and FDA approval for use in the U.S. could come this weekend.
Australia abandons local COVID-19 vaccine after it caused false-positive HIV tests An Australian COVID-19 vaccine that had shown promising results in early trials is being abandoned after researchers found that the shot caused false-positive results on HIV tests. On Friday (Dec. 11), Australian officials said they had canceled an order for some 51 million doses of the vaccine, which was being developed by The University of Queensland and CSL Ltd., a local biotech company, according to The New York Times . In an early trial with 216 participants, the vaccine appeared to be safe and to produce a robust immune response against COVID-19, according to a statement from CSL . But some volunteers falsely tested positive for HIV, which officials feared would undermine trust in the vaccine, the Times reported. The vaccine contained small fragments of an HIV protein, which helped stabilize the vaccine. Some of the participants developed antibodies against these fragments, and these antibodies triggered false positive results on some HIV tests. It's important to note that there is no way for the vaccine to cause an HIV infection, because it contains harmless fragments of the virus.
ICU nurse in New York becomes first person in the US to receive a coronavirus vaccine outside of clinical trials New York, the worst-hit state at the start of the pandemic, just became the first to administer a coronavirus vaccine outside of clinical trials, kicking off a long, massive effort to vaccinate the American people, Live Science reported. Around 9 a.m. E.T. on Monday (Dec. 14), the very first dose of Pfizer and BioNTech's coronavirus vaccine was given to Sandra Lindsay, an intensive care nurse in Long Island Jewish Medical Center in Queens, New York, according to The New York Times. This comes as the U.S. continues to battle a massive wave of the virus that has more than 109,000 people currently hospitalized, according to The COVID Tracking Project. Since the start of the pandemic, New York has recorded more than 780,000 cases of COVID-19 and more than 35,100 deaths, according to The Times. "This vaccine is exciting because I believe this is the weapon that will end the war," Gov. Andrew Cuomo said during a live broadcast of the first vaccination. "It's the beginning of the last chapter of the book, but now we just have to do it."
FDA analysis confirms Moderna's vaccine is safe and effective, emergency authorization is likely to come Friday A new briefing document from the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) released on Tuesday (Dec. 15) confirmed that Moderna's COVID-19 vaccine is safe and effective, according to NPR . Moderna's COVID-19 vaccine is 94% effective and has "a favorable safety profile," according to the document. A panel of experts is set to meet on Thursday (Dec. 17) to discuss the effectiveness and safety of the vaccine and vote on whether or not the FDA should grant emergency approval to the vaccine. Last week, the same panel voted that the FDA should grant emergency approval to Pfizer's coronavirus vaccine; the authorization came a day late and the first doses were given on Monday (Dec. 15). The FDA will likely approve Moderna's vaccine for emergency use on Friday (Dec. 18), according to The New York Times .
FDA authorizes first over-the-counter COVID-19 test The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has authorized the first over-the-counter COVID-19 test, which can be done at home and does not need a prescription. The test, made by the Australia-based company Ellume, provides results in as little as 20 minutes, according to a statement from the FDA . It is a "lateral flow antigen test," meaning it works in a similar way to a home pregnancy test, by running a "liquid sample along a surface with reactive molecules," the FDA said. The test works in conjunction with a smartphone app. Users take a nasal swab and place their sample in an analyzer, which communicates to the smartphone app via Bluetooth. The results are delivered through the app, and also reported to public health authorities (based on a user's zip code) through a secure cloud connection, the company said . Ellume is ramping up production of its test, and expects to produce three million tests in January 2021, and 20 million within the first half of 2021.
A wild mink tested positive for the coronavirus, it may be the first wild animal to have a confirmed case A wild mink in Utah may be the first "free-ranging, native wild animal" confirmed to be infected with SARS-CoV-2, according to the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), Live Science reported. The mink was found near a mink farm and likely picked up the infection from the farmed mink. There's no evidence that the virus spread to other minks or wild animals; but if the virus does begin circulating in wild animals, it could pick up mutations that COVID-19 vaccines may not protect well against if it spreads back to humans, according to the report. "If it does [establish a reservoir], then we've got a long-term issue here, where this virus has the potential to be with us for millennia," Sarah Olson, associate director of the health program at the Wildlife Conservation Society, told Vox. The U.S. Department of Agriculture's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service has screened other animal species for the virus near mink farms in Utah, Michigan and Wisconsin, but all of them have tested negative so far, according to a statement.
An FDA advisory panel will meet today to vote on whether to recommend Moderna's coronavirus vaccine for emergency approval On Thursday (Dec. 17), a Food and Drug Administration (FDA) advisory committee will meet to determine whether to recommend that Moderna’s coronavirus vaccine for emergency approval, according to The New York Times . This panel, composed of independent experts, will vote on whether to recommend the vaccine after hearing from the company, FDA scientists and the public, according to The Times. Last week, the same panel of experts met to discuss Pfizer’s coronavirus vaccine and voted to recommend emergency authorization; the authorization came the next day. There have now been more than 16.9 million cases of COVID-19 in the U.S. and more than 307,000 deaths, according to the Johns Hopkins dashboard . There are currently 113,090 people hospitalized across the country with more than 21,900 of them in the ICU and 7,778 on a ventilator, according to The COVID Tracking Project .
California becomes new epicenter of COVID-19 in U.S. California, once praised for its early pandemic response, is now the new U.S. hotspot for COVID-19 infections. The state has reported an alarming surge in cases, breaking previous records for daily cases. On Thursday (Dec. 17), the state reported some 50,000 COVID-19 infections in 24 hours, and nearly 100,000 in 48 hours, according to The Washington Post . That's more than the daily cases reported in many countries, including India, Germany and Britain, the Post reported. The state also set a record for daily deaths on Thursday, with 379 fatalities reported, up from the previous high of 293. Capacity in intensive care units has also dropped dramatically, with hospitals in Southern California reporting zero percent capacity on Thursday. "I want to be very clear: Our hospitals are under siege, and our model shows no end in sight," said Christina Ghaly, director of Los Angeles County's Department of Health Services, the Post reported.
FDA expected to authorize Moderna's vaccine on Friday The U.S. Food and Drug Administration is expected to authorize Moderna's COVID-19 vaccine on Friday (Dec. 18). Once authorized, it will be the second coronavirus vaccine to get the green light from the agency in just a week, with Pfizer's vaccine gaining authorization on Dec. 11. Moderna is expected to begin shipping 5.9 million doses of its vaccine on Sunday (Dec. 20), with the first deliveries arriving Monday (Dec. 21), according to The New York Times . Unlike the Pfizer vaccine, Moderna's vaccine does not require storage in extremely cold temperatures, and states are hoping to distribute the vaccine to rural hospitals and community health centers, the Times reported.
COVID-19 cases continue to surge across the U.S. There have now been more than 17 million cases of COVID-19 in the U.S. and more than 300,000 deaths, according to The COVID Tracking Project . There are currently 114,237 people hospitalized across the country and 21,900 people in the ICU. California is facing a massive surge in cases; the state reported 41,012 new COVID-19 cases and 300 new deaths on Thursday (Dec. 17), according to the state's COVID-19 dashboard . By comparison, at the start of November, California was reporting a seven-day average of 4,183 cases, compared to an average of 38,774 on Thursday, according to CNN . "We're experiencing an explosive and very deadly surge," Dr. Barbara Ferrer, Los Angeles County Public Health Director said, according to CNN. Intensive care unit beds are rapidly filling up across the state; there are only 1,234 ICU beds left available in California, according to the dashboard. Current closures across California are impacting around 98% of the state's population, according to CNN.
London and southeast England are under an emergency lockdown Following concerns of a new version of the coronavirus that might be more transmissible, London and most of southeast England are now under an emergency lockdown, according to The New York Times . Prime Minister Boris Johnson announced the lockdown on Saturday (Dec. 19) citing concerns that the mutated virus — which was detected a couple of weeks ago in southeast England — may be as much as 70% more transmissible than previous versions, according to the Times. The new version of the coronavirus is detected in more than 60% of new infections in London and have also been detected in several other countries, according to the Times. But it's not yet clear if this coronavirus version is any more infectious than the last and thorough analyses will need to be conducted before conclusions are made, scientists cautioned. In South Africa, a similar version of the virus has been found in up to 90% of new cases detected since mid-November, according to The Times . It's common for viruses to mutate, and this particular coronavirus has mutated many times since the start of the pandemic. But experts told The Times that it would take years for the virus to mutate enough such that it would make the current vaccines developed to fight COVID-19 ineffective.
Biden gets Pfizer's COVID-19 vaccine President-elect Joe Biden received a dose of Pfizer's new COVID-19 vaccine on Monday (Dec. 21), according to The New York Times . He received the shot on camera at the Christiana Hospital in Newark, Delaware. "I'm doing this to demonstrate that people should be prepared when it's available to take the vaccine. There's nothing to worry about," Biden said.
Antarctica has its 1st COVID-19 outbreak The first COVID-19 cases have been reported in Antarctica , meaning the disease has now spread to every continent in the world. On Tuesday (Dec. 22), Chilean officials reported an outbreak of 36 COVID-19 cases at the Chilean research base General Bernardo O'Higgins Riquelme on the Antarctic Peninsula, according to the BBC . Of these, 26 cases were military personnel and 10 were maintenance workers, the BBC reported. All of these cases have been evacuated from Antarctica to Punta Arenas, Chile, according to The Guardian . Antarctica had been COVID-19 free up until the current outbreak. The continent has no permanent residents, but about 1,000 people, including scientists and other workers, stayed there this past winter, The Guardian reported.
Live updates will continue in 2021!


livescience--2020-08-20--How Earth's gravity changed record-breaking asteroid's path forever

The record-breaking 2020 QG wo n't soon forget its run-in with Earth .
Early Sunday morning ( Aug. 16 ) , the car-sized 2020 QG zoomed just 1,830 miles ( 2,950 kilometers ) above the Indian Ocean , making the by an asteroid that did n't end up slamming into our planet .
Though 2020 QG survived the encounter , its path through space was altered significantly , scientists said .
`` It 's really cool to see a small asteroid come by this close , because we can see the Earth 's gravity dramatically bend its trajectory , '' @ @ @ @ @ @ @ for Near-Earth Object Studies at NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California , .
`` Our calculations show that this asteroid got turned by 45 degrees or so as it swung by our planet . ''
Researchers did n't learn of 2020 QG 's existence until the Zwicky Transient Facility , a survey telescope in Southern California funded by the U.S. National Science Foundation and NASA , captured an image of the asteroid zooming away from Earth , six hours after closest approach .
That image shows 2020 QG as a blurry @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the space rock was rocketing along at about 29,000 mph ( 46,700 kph ) .
As speedy as that is , it 's a little slower than average for a near-Earth asteroid , Chodas said .
There are many millions of out there about the same size as 2020 QG , which is thought to be 10 to 20 feet ( 3 to 6 meters ) wide .
Such tiny space rocks are very hard to detect , but they pose no danger to life on Earth .
`` If it [ 2020 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ impact trajectory , it would likely have become a as it broke up in Earth 's atmosphere , which happens several times a year , '' NASA officials wrote in the same statement .
( Fireballs are meteors that blaze more brightly than Venus in our skies . )
Big asteroids are a bit worrisome , however .
For example , scientists think a 6-mile-wide ( 10 km ) space rock did in the dinosaurs when it barreled into Earth 66 million years ago .
NASA has found and tracked more than 95 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 's neighborhood , and none of them pose an in the foreseeable future .
The space agency is currently working to compile a similarly comprehensive catalog of the near-Earth asteroids at least 460 feet ( 140 m ) wide , which would do devastating damage on a regional scale if they hit .
Such work has practical applications beyond simply warning people about an impending impact .
With enough notice — at least a few years , preferably — humanity could , experts say .
Mike Wall is the author of `` Out @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 2018 ; illustrated by Karl Tate ) , a book about the search for alien life .
Follow him on Twitter @ michaeldwall .
Follow us on Twitter @ Spacedotcom or Facebook .

The circled streak in the center of this image is asteroid 2020 QG, which came closer to Earth than any other non-impacting asteroid on record. It was detected by the Zwicky Transient Facility on Sunday (Aug. 16), six hours after its closest approach, which took place that day at 12:08 a.m. EDT (Saturday, Aug. 15 at 9:08 p.m. PDT).
The record-breaking asteroid 2020 QG won't soon forget its run-in with Earth.
Early Sunday morning (Aug. 16), the car-sized 2020 QG zoomed just 1,830 miles (2,950 kilometers) above the Indian Ocean, making the closest known flyby by an asteroid that didn't end up slamming into our planet.
Though 2020 QG survived the encounter, its path through space was altered significantly, scientists said.
Related: Famous asteroid flybys and close calls (infographic)
"It's really cool to see a small asteroid come by this close, because we can see the Earth's gravity dramatically bend its trajectory," Paul Chodas, director of the Center for Near-Earth Object Studies at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California, said in a statement . "Our calculations show that this asteroid got turned by 45 degrees or so as it swung by our planet."
Researchers didn't learn of 2020 QG's existence until the Zwicky Transient Facility, a survey telescope in Southern California funded by the U.S. National Science Foundation and NASA, captured an image of the asteroid zooming away from Earth, six hours after closest approach.
That image shows 2020 QG as a blurry streak — no surprise, considering that the space rock was rocketing along at about 29,000 mph (46,700 kph). As speedy as that is, it's a little slower than average for a near-Earth asteroid, Chodas said.
There are many millions of near-Earth asteroids out there about the same size as 2020 QG, which is thought to be 10 to 20 feet (3 to 6 meters) wide. Such tiny space rocks are very hard to detect, but they pose no danger to life on Earth.
This illustration shows asteroid 2020 QG's trajectory bending during its close approach to Earth on Aug. 16, 2020. It came within 1,830 miles (2,945 kilometers) to Earth, the closest ever seen without an impact. (Image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech)
"If it [2020 QG] had actually been on an impact trajectory, it would likely have become a fireball as it broke up in Earth's atmosphere, which happens several times a year," NASA officials wrote in the same statement. (Fireballs are meteors that blaze more brightly than Venus in our skies.)
Big asteroids are a bit worrisome, however. For example, scientists think a 6-mile-wide (10 km) space rock did in the dinosaurs when it barreled into Earth 66 million years ago.
NASA has found and tracked more than 95% of the mountain-sized asteroids in Earth's neighborhood, and none of them pose an impact risk in the foreseeable future. The space agency is currently working to compile a similarly comprehensive catalog of the near-Earth asteroids at least 460 feet (140 m) wide, which would do devastating damage on a regional scale if they hit.
Such work has practical applications beyond simply warning people about an impending impact. With enough notice — at least a few years, preferably — humanity could deflect an incoming asteroid , experts say.
Mike Wall is the author of "Out There" (Grand Central Publishing, 2018; illustrated by Karl Tate), a book about the search for alien life. Follow him on Twitter @michaeldwall. Follow us on Twitter @Spacedotcom or Facebook.


livescience--2020-08-20--Fossilized 'ocean lizard' found inside corpse of ancient sea monster

About 240 million years ago , one giant sea monster ate another , and then died with chunks of the beast in its belly .
Researchers in China have now discovered and analyzed the fossilized corpses of these beasts , which they are calling the oldest evidence of megapredation — when one large animal eats another — on record .
It remains a mystery , however , exactly how the larger predator — an ichthyosaur , a dolphin-like marine reptile that lived during the dinosaur age — came to feast on the slightly smaller sea monster , a thalattosaur , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ during the latter part of the .
The ichthyosaur may have attacked and killed the thalattosaur before eating it , but it 's also feasible that the ichthyosaur was simply scavenging the thalattosaur 's remains , the researchers said .
Whatever happened , the ichthyosaur , likely a new species from the genus Guizhouichthyosaurus , never took another bite .
`` It is most likely that the thalattosaur was its last meal , given that the prey had poorly been digested when the predator died , '' study co-lead researcher Ryosuke Motani , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , Davis , told Live Science in an email .
Researchers found the remarkable fossil in the fall of 2010 , while digging at a quarry in the Falang Formation in the southwestern province of Guizhou , China .
`` We could see a small piece of the fossil hidden in the hill '' and realized that `` it must be from a large ichthyosaur , '' study co-lead researcher Da-yong Jiang , a paleobiologist at Peking University in Beijing , China , told Live Science in an email .
As the researchers @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ) specimen to study , they realized it held the bones of the ichthyosaur 's last meal bulging out of its abdomen .
`` Finding any animal other than fish or squid in an ichthyosaur 's stomach contents is incredibly rare ( in fact , finding fish/squid in an ichthyosaur stomach is also quite rare ) ; only a handful of other different types of animal have been found inside an ichthyosaur 's stomach , as food , '' Dean Lomax , a paleontologist and visiting scientist at the University of Manchester in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the study , told Live Science in an email .
`` The discovery of a fairly large ( 4.8 m ) ichthyosaur with a comparatively very large ( 4 m ) thalattosaur dinner is highly unusual , '' Lomax added .
The head and tail of the more slender thalattosaur , identified as Xinpusaurus xingyiensis , were not swallowed by the ichthyosaur , so it appears that the ichthyosaur took four enormous bites of the thalattosaur 's midsection , based on the pieces the researchers found in the predator 's abdomen .
About @ @ @ @ @ @ @ from the Guizhouichthyosaurus , the researchers found the fossil of a Xinpusaurus tail that might belong to the same Xinpusaurus that ended up in the ichthyosaur 's stomach .
`` If this is correct , then it might suggest that the predator had 'bitten off more than it could chew , ' so to speak , in that it was a much larger meal than it had anticipated , and which could have led to its downfall , '' Lomax said .
Researchers often guess what ancient predators ate by analyzing their tooth @ @ @ @ @ @ @ this genus of ichthyosaur , which usually measured between 13 and 20 feet ( 4 and 6 m ) long , or just smaller than a ( Orcinus orca ) — was not previously thought to be an apex predator .
`` This predator did not have a typical dentition of the top predator — its teeth look like they are good for grasping squids , '' Motani said .
`` So , it was a surprise to find such large prey '' in its stomach .
The finding changes the view of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 's .
They `` may have also been megapredators , although we did not consider them as such before , '' Motani said .
In other words , fierce megapredators did n't necessarily need sharp , slicing teeth to be dangerous , Motani noted .
Perhaps Guizhouichthyosaurus used its blunt teeth to grip prey , possibly breaking the spine with the force of its strong bite , just as modern apex predators such as orcas , leopard seals and crocodiles do today , the researchers said .
`` This study has compelling evidence @ @ @ @ @ @ @ megapredator taxa in marine ecosystems , '' said Eric Metz , the manager of a paleobiology laboratory at Montana State University , who was n't involved with this study .
Because megapredators rely on a vast food chain beneath them for survival , their prevalence can reveal whether an ecosystem was doing well .
For instance , earlier research on the , which killed more than 96 % of marine and 70 % of land animals about 252 million years ago , used the presence of megapredator fossils to show when ecosystems had @ @ @ @ @ @ @ megapredators , `` This could have an impact on our understanding of the recovery rate of marine ecosystems following the Permian mass extinction event , '' Metz said .
The study was published online today ( Aug. 20 ) in the journal .

The 240 million-year-old fossil of an ichthyosaur contained a hearty meal; the partial remains of a thalattosaur, another marine reptile that was only slightly smaller in size.
About 240 million years ago, one giant sea monster ate another, and then died with chunks of the beast in its belly. Researchers in China have now discovered and analyzed the fossilized corpses of these beasts, which they are calling the oldest evidence of megapredation — when one large animal eats another — on record.
It remains a mystery, however, exactly how the larger predator — an ichthyosaur, a dolphin-like marine reptile that lived during the dinosaur age — came to feast on the slightly smaller sea monster, a thalattosaur, a fearsome lizard-like marine reptile that lived during the latter part of the Triassic period .
The ichthyosaur may have attacked and killed the thalattosaur before eating it, but it's also feasible that the ichthyosaur was simply scavenging the thalattosaur's remains, the researchers said.
Related: Image gallery: Ancient monsters of the sea
Whatever happened, the ichthyosaur, likely a new species from the genus Guizhouichthyosaurus, never took another bite. "It is most likely that the thalattosaur was its last meal, given that the prey had poorly been digested when the predator died," study co-lead researcher Ryosuke Motani, a paleobiologist at the University of California, Davis, told Live Science in an email.
Researchers found the remarkable fossil in the fall of 2010, while digging at a quarry in the Falang Formation in the southwestern province of Guizhou, China. "We could see a small piece of the fossil hidden in the hill" and realized that "it must be from a large ichthyosaur," study co-lead researcher Da-yong Jiang, a paleobiologist at Peking University in Beijing, China, told Live Science in an email.
As the researchers prepared the nearly 16-foot-long (4.8 meters) specimen to study, they realized it held the bones of the ichthyosaur's last meal bulging out of its abdomen.
"Finding any animal other than fish or squid in an ichthyosaur's stomach contents is incredibly rare (in fact, finding fish/squid in an ichthyosaur stomach is also quite rare); only a handful of other different types of animal have been found inside an ichthyosaur's stomach, as food," Dean Lomax, a paleontologist and visiting scientist at the University of Manchester in England, who wasn't involved with the study, told Live Science in an email.
"The discovery of a fairly large (4.8 m) ichthyosaur with a comparatively very large (4 m) thalattosaur dinner is highly unusual," Lomax added.
Image 1 of 6 That bulge on the ichthyosaur fossil are its chunky stomach contents (i.e. the slabs of thalattosaur). (Image credit: Ryosuke Motani) A close-up photo of the thalattosaur remains found in the ichthyosaur's stomach. (Image credit: Jiang et al./iScience) The ichthyosaur's robust teeth. The white line suggests the location of its gum line on the upper jaw. (Image credit: Jiang et al./iScience) A branch of the Xingyi Geopark Museum, which houses the ichthyosaur specimen in its main building. (Image credit: Ryosuke Motani) The quarry where the ichthyosaur fossil was uncovered. The site is now housed in the Xingyi Geopark Museum. (Image credit: Ryosuke Motani) Another view of the quarry at Xingyi Geopark Museum. (Image credit: Ryosuke Motani)
The head and tail of the more slender thalattosaur, identified as Xinpusaurus xingyiensis, were not swallowed by the ichthyosaur, so it appears that the ichthyosaur took four enormous bites of the thalattosaur's midsection, based on the pieces the researchers found in the predator's abdomen.
Related: The 10 weirdest sea monsters of 2017
About 80 feet (25 m) away from the Guizhouichthyosaurus, the researchers found the fossil of a Xinpusaurus tail that might belong to the same Xinpusaurus that ended up in the ichthyosaur's stomach. "If this is correct, then it might suggest that the predator had 'bitten off more than it could chew,' so to speak, in that it was a much larger meal than it had anticipated, and which could have led to its downfall," Lomax said.
Researchers often guess what ancient predators ate by analyzing their tooth shape and body size. Surprisingly, this genus of ichthyosaur, which usually measured between 13 and 20 feet (4 and 6 m) long, or just smaller than a killer whale (Orcinus orca) — was not previously thought to be an apex predator.
"This predator did not have a typical dentition of the top predator — its teeth look like they are good for grasping squids," Motani said. "So, it was a surprise to find such large prey" in its stomach. The finding changes the view of other large reptiles with teeth like Guizhouichthyosaurus's. They "may have also been megapredators, although we did not consider them as such before," Motani said.
In other words, fierce megapredators didn't necessarily need sharp, slicing teeth to be dangerous, Motani noted. Perhaps Guizhouichthyosaurus used its blunt teeth to grip prey, possibly breaking the spine with the force of its strong bite, just as modern apex predators such as orcas, leopard seals and crocodiles do today, the researchers said.
"This study has compelling evidence that we are underestimating the number of megapredator taxa in marine ecosystems," said Eric Metz, the manager of a paleobiology laboratory at Montana State University, who wasn't involved with this study.
Because megapredators rely on a vast food chain beneath them for survival, their prevalence can reveal whether an ecosystem was doing well. For instance, earlier research on the end-Permian mass extinction , which killed more than 96% of marine and 70% of land animals about 252 million years ago, used the presence of megapredator fossils to show when ecosystems had recovered.
If paleontologists have been undercounting megapredators, "This could have an impact on our understanding of the recovery rate of marine ecosystems following the Permian mass extinction event," Metz said.
The study was published online today (Aug. 20) in the journal iScience .
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-08-20--Mummified kitten 'strangled' to death before being offered to the gods, new 3D scans reveal

Two thousand years ago , an Egyptian priest picked up a baby cobra by its tail , whipped it through the air and slapped it hard against the ground .
Thwack !
As the snake 's skull and spine cracked , its brief and uncomfortable life was over .
But its usefulness to the Egyptians was just beginning .
The young snake would soon become an animal — just one of of linen-bound corpses that were dressed , blessed and offered to the gods between roughly 700 B.C .
and A.D. 300 .
While the practice was far more pervasive @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 70 million animal mummies may have been created during this period , according to the University of Manchester ) , many details remain a mystery .
( Studying a specimen , unfortunately , often involves destroying its brittle remains . )
Now , a new study published today ( Aug. 20 ) in the journal unwraps the proverbial bandages a little bit further .
Using a non-invasive imaging technique called X-ray micro , which involves taking thousands of rapid-fire scans of an object on a rotating platform , researchers have created 3D digital @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a cat , a bird and the aforementioned cobra — revealing how the creatures lived and died in unprecedented detail .
`` Using micro CT we can effectively carry out a post-mortem on these animals , more than 2,000 years after they died in , '' lead study author Richard Johnston , an associate professor in the Materials Research Centre at Swansea University in the United Kingdom , .
`` With a resolution up to 100 times higher than a medical CT scan , we were able to piece together… possible causes of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ which was meant to ensure a person 's rebirth in the afterlife , primarily to become votive offerings to the gods , similar to how candles may be offered in churches today , the researchers wrote .
The practice spawned a thriving industry .
Entire farms were devoted to breeding the cats , , birds and reptiles that were destined for mummification , while entire cemeteries were erected to house their remains .
The new micro CT study reveals how some of those ill-fated animals were treated during their time among the living @ @ @ @ @ @ @ peered directly through the mummies ' bandages , exposing the gnarled bones within .
The cat , for example , was found to be a kitten younger than 5 months old , based on the development of its teeth and bones .
Breaks around the feline 's neck suggest it was strangled to death before its mummification , according to the study .
The , which was also a juvenile , met a similarly crushing end , the team found .
Fractures in its skull and spine suggested that the cobra had been @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a `` whipping '' motion shortly before being mummified ; after this , the snake 's jaw was broken and its mouth stuffed with some sort of dirt or clay — possibly natron , a natural sodium carbonate mixture often used to dehydrate corpses during mummification , the researchers said .
The snake was also dehydrated in life , leading to calcium deposits in its kidneys and the onset of .
It 's likely the young snake was intentionally deprived of water in captivity , the team wrote .
While the bird 's @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , the team measured its bones and concluded it most closely resembled a Eurasian kestrel , one of the birds of prey associated with the gods Horus , Sokar and Re , the team wrote .
It 's unclear whether the bird was captured from the wild or bred with mummification in mind .
Ultimately , the researchers wrote , this study shows that micro CT scanning can reveal valuable insights about the past without damaging the brittle specimens on the lab bench .
But it also reminds us that , even in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ sacred messengers of the gods , humans ' relationship with nature has more than a few fractures .

Two thousand years ago, an Egyptian priest picked up a baby cobra by its tail, whipped it through the air and slapped it hard against the ground. Thwack! As the snake's skull and spine cracked, its brief and uncomfortable life was over. But its usefulness to the Egyptians was just beginning.
The young snake would soon become an animal mummy — just one of millions of linen-bound corpses that were dressed, blessed and offered to the gods between roughly 700 B.C. and A.D. 300. While the practice was far more pervasive than human mummification (As many as 70 million animal mummies may have been created during this period, according to the University of Manchester ), many details remain a mystery. (Studying a specimen, unfortunately, often involves destroying its brittle remains.)
Now, a new study published today (Aug. 20) in the journal Scientific Reports unwraps the proverbial bandages a little bit further. Using a non-invasive imaging technique called X-ray micro CT scanning , which involves taking thousands of rapid-fire X-ray scans of an object on a rotating platform, researchers have created 3D digital images of three ancient animal mummies — a cat, a bird and the aforementioned cobra — revealing how the creatures lived and died in unprecedented detail.
"Using micro CT we can effectively carry out a post-mortem on these animals, more than 2,000 years after they died in ancient Egypt ," lead study author Richard Johnston, an associate professor in the Materials Research Centre at Swansea University in the United Kingdom, said in a statement . "With a resolution up to 100 times higher than a medical CT scan, we were able to piece together… possible causes of death."
Unlike human mummification, which was meant to ensure a person's rebirth in the afterlife, animals were mummified primarily to become votive offerings to the gods, similar to how candles may be offered in churches today, the researchers wrote. The practice spawned a thriving industry. Entire farms were devoted to breeding the cats, dogs , birds and reptiles that were destined for mummification, while entire cemeteries were erected to house their remains.
The new micro CT study reveals how some of those ill-fated animals were treated during their time among the living. With their scans, the team peered directly through the mummies' bandages, exposing the gnarled bones within. The cat, for example, was found to be a kitten younger than 5 months old, based on the development of its teeth and bones. Breaks around the feline's neck suggest it was strangled to death before its mummification, according to the study.
The cobra , which was also a juvenile, met a similarly crushing end, the team found. Fractures in its skull and spine suggested that the cobra had been grabbed by the tail and killed in a "whipping" motion shortly before being mummified; after this, the snake's jaw was broken and its mouth stuffed with some sort of dirt or clay — possibly natron, a natural sodium carbonate mixture often used to dehydrate corpses during mummification, the researchers said. The snake was also dehydrated in life, leading to calcium deposits in its kidneys and the onset of gout . It's likely the young snake was intentionally deprived of water in captivity, the team wrote.
While the bird's skeleton was too damaged to reveal much, the team measured its bones and concluded it most closely resembled a Eurasian kestrel, one of the birds of prey associated with the gods Horus, Sokar and Re, the team wrote. It's unclear whether the bird was captured from the wild or bred with mummification in mind.
Ultimately, the researchers wrote, this study shows that micro CT scanning can reveal valuable insights about the past without damaging the brittle specimens on the lab bench. But it also reminds us that, even in a culture where certain animals were considered sacred messengers of the gods, humans' relationship with nature has more than a few fractures.
The three mummies as they appeared before being scanned: bird (A), cat (B) and snake (C) (Image credit: Swansea University)
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-08-21--Is honey really a miracle cure for coughs and colds?

Is honey a better treatment for coughs and colds than over-the-counter medications and antibiotics ?
A new review of research says yes — though with the caveat that over-the-counter medications do n't actually offer much relief for sore throats , hacking coughs and sniffling .
In other words , the bar for success is n't very high .
( And antibiotics do absolutely nothing for viral infections such as colds . )
Treating colds with may sound a little hippie-dippy , but it 's been a standard recommendation from doctors for children for at least a decade .
The research @ @ @ @ @ @ @ murkier : Only five out of the 14 studies in the new research review , which was published Aug. 18 in the journal , included adult patients , and several of those studies included combination treatments like honey in coffee , or honey-and-herbal syrups .
( Some of the underlying research was also funded by a honey company . )
Researchers are n't sure why honey might help treat cold symptoms , but it could have to do with its antioxidants or the fact that it 's viscous and thus coats an irritated @ @ @ @ @ @ @ with honey is a low-risk endeavor .
Honey is also cheap and readily available , said study author Hibatullah Abuelgasim , a fifth-year medical student at the University of Oxford in England .
`` First , do no harm , '' said Ian Paul , a professor of pediatrics at the Penn State College of Medicine , who was not involved in the review but has done research on honey and coughing in children .
Cough and cold medications have side effects , Paul told Live Science , and they do n't work @ @ @ @ @ @ @ n't expect honey to work miracles , but do n't dismiss it , either .
It may make the experience of getting over a nasty cold just a little less miserable .
Honey has long been a home remedy for soothing sore throats and calming coughs — both of which can be grouped as infections of the upper .
It 's particularly well-known as a respiratory infection treatment in Ayurveda , the healing tradition of India 's ancient Vedic culture .
And honey mixed with hot water and lemon is up there with @ @ @ @ @ @ @ cures that grandma would make .
In 2004 , Paul and his colleagues published a study in the journal finding that the two commonly used over-the-counter cough medicines used in children , dextromethorphan and diphenhydramine , did not work better than a placebo at helping kids with coughs to feel better and sleep at night .
And the two drugs had side effects , including drowsiness for some kids and difficulty sleeping for others .
`` Parents at that time asked me , 'Well , where can I get that placebo ? '
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ to give something . ''
So in 2007 , Paul and his team followed up with another study , also published in , comparing dextromethorphan , honey and no treatment in nighttime cough in 130 kids .
They found that honey consistently scored best for reducing cough frequency and severity and improving nighttime sleep over both dextromethorphan and no treatment , according to parents ' ratings .
That study was partially supported by the industry-funded National Honey Board , but the grant was unrestricted , meaning the money was given by the board @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of research it would be used on .
Other research in kids has shown similar results , including a double-blind , placebo-controlled and randomized study published in in 2012 .
Double-blind means that neither the children , their parents nor the researchers knew if the kids were getting honey or a flavored placebo , in this case silan date extract .
On night one , the children got no treatment , and on night two they got either one of three honey products or a placebo .
All the groups , including the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 2 , the researchers reported , but those who got a honey-containing product reported the most improvement .
( This study was also partially funded by a honey industry group , which again did not have any say in the design or process of the research . )
In April 2018 , the charitable organization Cochrane released a review on all research on honey and cough in children and concluded that honey probably helps reduce cough symptoms and improves night sleep more than a placebo in kids .
( However , honey should @ @ @ @ @ @ @ age of 1 because of the risk of infant botulism . )
The new review , led by Abuelgasim , comes to the same conclusions for all ages .
Honey is an especially good alternative to prescribing antibiotics , they wrote ; most upper respiratory tract infections are the result of , and antibiotics do nothing against viral infections .
In addition , overuse of these drugs leads to antibiotic resistance in microbes .
Previous research also finds that there 's no great evidence for over-the-counter cough medicines working in adults , according @ @ @ @ @ @ @ on several studies on honey in adults .
One was a double-blind , randomized control trial in Iran that compared honey plus coffee to a steroid or to the expectorant guaifenesin ( sometimes sold under the brand name Mucinex ) for adults with a persistent cough lasting more than three weeks after a respiratory infection had cleared up .
The honey and coffee treatment proved to reduce the frequency of coughing the most , the researchers reported in .
Another study , published in the , found that patients with a sore throat @ @ @ @ @ @ @ anti-inflammatory drugs , antibiotics and antiseptic gargles than when given all of those treatments without honey .
In another study , published in the journal , a honey-containing Ayurvedic cough syrup performed as well as a typical over-the-counter cough syrup in adults .
`` A strength was that the majority of studies we included were randomized , '' Abuelgasim said , referring to the practice of assigning patients to different treatment groups at random .
`` Weaknesses were that some studies had relatively small sample sizes , and some were not blinded , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ what treatment each person received .
Not blinding a study by hiding what treatment patients are getting is a possible source of bias .
The researchers found other potential sources of bias in the studies they reviewed , including incomplete data due to participants dropping out of the study , and selection bias , which occurs when the individuals studied are n't representative of the larger population .
One unanswered question is why honey would help soothe cold symptoms more than over-the-counter medicines .
A possibility is that the antimicrobial ingredients in honey @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , Paul said .
Another is that honey is viscous and coats and soothes an irritated throat .
Honey — like most cough syrups — is also sweet , and the part of the brain that processes sweetness is near the part of the brain that controls cough , so there may be some interaction of nerves or neurotransmitters that calms cough in response to sugary flavors , Paul said .
Sweetness also causes salivation , which might thin mucus .
`` Nobody really knows , '' Paul said .

Is honey a better treatment for coughs and colds than over-the-counter medications and antibiotics? A new review of research says yes — though with the caveat that over-the-counter medications don't actually offer much relief for sore throats, hacking coughs and sniffling noses . In other words, the bar for success isn't very high. (And antibiotics do absolutely nothing for viral infections such as colds.)
Treating colds with honey may sound a little hippie-dippy, but it's been a standard recommendation from doctors for children for at least a decade. The research on adults and honey is a bit murkier: Only five out of the 14 studies in the new research review, which was published Aug. 18 in the journal BMJ Evidence-Based Medicine , included adult patients, and several of those studies included combination treatments like honey in coffee, or honey-and-herbal syrups. (Some of the underlying research was also funded by a honey company.)
Related: Myth or truth? 7 ancient health ideas explained
Researchers aren't sure why honey might help treat cold symptoms, but it could have to do with its antioxidants or the fact that it's viscous and thus coats an irritated throat. Nevertheless, treating respiratory symptoms with honey is a low-risk endeavor. Honey is also cheap and readily available, said study author Hibatullah Abuelgasim, a fifth-year medical student at the University of Oxford in England.
"First, do no harm," said Ian Paul, a professor of pediatrics at the Penn State College of Medicine, who was not involved in the review but has done research on honey and coughing in children. Cough and cold medications have side effects, Paul told Live Science, and they don't work well.
The bottom line? Don't expect honey to work miracles, but don't dismiss it, either. It may make the experience of getting over a nasty cold just a little less miserable.
Honey's history
Honey has long been a home remedy for soothing sore throats and calming coughs — both of which can be grouped as infections of the upper respiratory tract . It's particularly well-known as a respiratory infection treatment in Ayurveda, the healing tradition of India's ancient Vedic culture. And honey mixed with hot water and lemon is up there with chicken soup in the pantheon of cold cures that grandma would make.
In 2004, Paul and his colleagues published a study in the journal Pediatrics finding that the two commonly used over-the-counter cough medicines used in children, dextromethorphan and diphenhydramine, did not work better than a placebo at helping kids with coughs to feel better and sleep at night. And the two drugs had side effects, including drowsiness for some kids and difficulty sleeping for others.
"Parents at that time asked me, 'Well, where can I get that placebo?'" Paul said. "They wanted to give something."
Related: 11 surprising facts about your respiratory system
So in 2007, Paul and his team followed up with another study, also published in Pediatrics , comparing dextromethorphan, honey and no treatment in nighttime cough in 130 kids. They found that honey consistently scored best for reducing cough frequency and severity and improving nighttime sleep over both dextromethorphan and no treatment, according to parents' ratings.
That study was partially supported by the industry-funded National Honey Board, but the grant was unrestricted, meaning the money was given by the board with no input as to what kind of research it would be used on.
Other research in kids has shown similar results, including a double-blind, placebo-controlled and randomized study published in Pediatrics in 2012. Double-blind means that neither the children, their parents nor the researchers knew if the kids were getting honey or a flavored placebo, in this case silan date extract. On night one, the children got no treatment, and on night two they got either one of three honey products or a placebo. All the groups, including the placebo group, felt better on night 2, the researchers reported, but those who got a honey-containing product reported the most improvement. (This study was also partially funded by a honey industry group, which again did not have any say in the design or process of the research.)
In April 2018, the charitable organization Cochrane released a review on all research on honey and cough in children and concluded that honey probably helps reduce cough symptoms and improves night sleep more than a placebo in kids. (However, honey should never be given to children under the age of 1 because of the risk of infant botulism.)
Honey for adults?
The new review, led by Abuelgasim, comes to the same conclusions for all ages. Honey is an especially good alternative to prescribing antibiotics, they wrote; most upper respiratory tract infections are the result of viruses , and antibiotics do nothing against viral infections. In addition, overuse of these drugs leads to antibiotic resistance in microbes. Previous research also finds that there's no great evidence for over-the-counter cough medicines working in adults, according to a 2014 Cochrane review .
Related: The 12 deadliest viruses on Earth
The new review drew on several studies on honey in adults. One was a double-blind, randomized control trial in Iran that compared honey plus coffee to a steroid or to the expectorant guaifenesin (sometimes sold under the brand name Mucinex) for adults with a persistent cough lasting more than three weeks after a respiratory infection had cleared up. The honey and coffee treatment proved to reduce the frequency of coughing the most, the researchers reported in Nature Primary Care Respiratory Journal . Another study, published in the National Journal of Physiology, Pharmacy and Pharmacology , found that patients with a sore throat felt better faster when given honey, anti-inflammatory drugs, antibiotics and antiseptic gargles than when given all of those treatments without honey. In another study, published in the journal Ayu , a honey-containing Ayurvedic cough syrup performed as well as a typical over-the-counter cough syrup in adults.
"A strength was that the majority of studies we included were randomized," Abuelgasim said, referring to the practice of assigning patients to different treatment groups at random. "Weaknesses were that some studies had relatively small sample sizes, and some were not blinded," so participants and/or the researchers knew what treatment each person received.
Not blinding a study by hiding what treatment patients are getting is a possible source of bias. The researchers found other potential sources of bias in the studies they reviewed, including incomplete data due to participants dropping out of the study, and selection bias, which occurs when the individuals studied aren't representative of the larger population.
One unanswered question is why honey would help soothe cold symptoms more than over-the-counter medicines. A possibility is that the antimicrobial ingredients in honey directly fight the pathogen causing the cold, Paul said. Another is that honey is viscous and coats and soothes an irritated throat. Honey — like most cough syrups — is also sweet, and the part of the brain that processes sweetness is near the part of the brain that controls cough, so there may be some interaction of nerves or neurotransmitters that calms cough in response to sugary flavors, Paul said. Sweetness also causes salivation, which might thin mucus.
"Nobody really knows," Paul said.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-08-21--Rainbow meteorite discovered in Costa Rica may hold building blocks of life

A small , soft space rock smacked into Costa Rica on April 23 , 2019 .
And it may have carried building blocks for life .
The washing machine-sized clay fireball broke up before landing , .
Locals found shards scattered between two villages , La Palmera and Aguas Zarcas .
And while meteorites turn up all over , these shards were special ; the asteroid that spawned them was a soft remnant of the early solar system , made from the dust from the spinning nebula that would ultimately form our solar system , formed in even older stars @ @ @ @ @ @ @ from the event — collectively called Aguas Zarcas — belong to a rare class called carbonaceous chondrites , which form in the wee hours of the solar system 's emergence and are typically packed with carbon .
This particular space rock contains complex compounds , likely including ( which join to form and ) and perhaps other , even more complex building blocks of life .
Related : How did life arise on Earth ?
While other rocky chunks from the very early solar system became parts of planets , this one remained @ @ @ @ @ @ @ sunlight-driven chemical reactions that spurred the creation of more and more complex chemical compounds .
An earlier meteor that exploded over Murchison , Australia , in 1969 had similar features .
Amino acids discovered in its clay , Joshua Sokol reported in , helped spread the idea that life on Earth may have originated from chemicals delivered in meteorites .
And like the Murchison meteorite , this Aguas Zarcas fragment contains dust from the ancient , earlier Milky Way , before our sun formed .
Studies of this new meteorite are still incomplete @ @ @ @ @ @ @ excited that they can examine it using modern techniques , looking for complex organic compounds —— maybe even proteins —— that even if they did once exist inside the Murchison meteorite have long since disappeared , degrading in Earth 's atmosphere .
( The Murchison meteorite very closely resembled Aguas Zarcas , and if Aguas Zarcas contained proteins then Murchison probably did as well , though the opportunity to detect them has been lost . )
Already , there 's evidence of amino acids in this Aguas Zarcas fragment not found elsewhere on @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the most pristine samples yet of the early solar system and pre-solar dust cloud .
But landing as they did in the Costa Rican rainforest , Sokol reported , there 's still the possibility of contamination .
Down the road , even more pristine samples may become available .
The Japanese Hayabusa2 probe , launched in 2014 with the goal of sampling the asteroid Ryugu , is already on its way back with Ryugu dust onboard , a sample that may contain carbonaceous chondrite , Sokol noted .
And in 2023 , NASA @ @ @ @ @ @ @ similar asteroid , Bennu , which Sokol reported is likely related to Aguas Zarcas .
`` These asteroid scraps will be truly pristine , having never touched the atmosphere or sat atop rainforest soil , '' Sokol wrote .
But for now , Aguas Zarcas is the best source of spacefaring carbon compounds available .

A small, soft space rock smacked into Costa Rica on April 23, 2019. And it may have carried building blocks for life.
The washing machine-sized clay fireball broke up before landing, . Locals found shards scattered between two villages, La Palmera and Aguas Zarcas. And while meteorites turn up all over Earth , these shards were special; the asteroid that spawned them was a soft remnant of the early solar system, made from the dust from the spinning nebula that would ultimately form our solar system, formed in even older stars. And the meteorites that rained down from the event — collectively called Aguas Zarcas — belong to a rare class called carbonaceous chondrites, which form in the wee hours of the solar system's emergence and are typically packed with carbon. This particular space rock contains complex carbon compounds, likely including amino acids (which join to form proteins and DNA ) and perhaps other, even more complex building blocks of life.
Related: How did life arise on Earth?
While other rocky chunks from the very early solar system became parts of planets, this one remained intact and changed over time only through sunlight-driven chemical reactions that spurred the creation of more and more complex chemical compounds.
An earlier meteor that exploded over Murchison, Australia, in 1969 had similar features. Amino acids discovered in its clay, Joshua Sokol reported in Science , helped spread the idea that life on Earth may have originated from chemicals delivered in meteorites . And like the Murchison meteorite, this Aguas Zarcas fragment contains dust from the ancient, earlier Milky Way, before our sun formed.
Studies of this new meteorite are still incomplete, Sokol wrote. But researchers are excited that they can examine it using modern techniques, looking for complex organic compounds —— maybe even proteins —— that even if they did once exist inside the Murchison meteorite have long since disappeared, degrading in Earth's atmosphere. (The Murchison meteorite very closely resembled Aguas Zarcas, and if Aguas Zarcas contained proteins then Murchison probably did as well, though the opportunity to detect them has been lost.) Already, there's evidence of amino acids in this Aguas Zarcas fragment not found elsewhere on Earth.
Aguas Zarcas shards may offer the most pristine samples yet of the early solar system and pre-solar dust cloud. But landing as they did in the Costa Rican rainforest, Sokol reported, there's still the possibility of contamination.
Down the road, even more pristine samples may become available. The Japanese Hayabusa2 probe, launched in 2014 with the goal of sampling the asteroid Ryugu, is already on its way back with Ryugu dust onboard, a sample that may contain carbonaceous chondrite, Sokol noted. And in 2023, NASA will return its own samples from a similar asteroid, Bennu, which Sokol reported is likely related to Aguas Zarcas.
"These asteroid scraps will be truly pristine, having never touched the atmosphere or sat atop rainforest soil," Sokol wrote.
But for now, Aguas Zarcas is the best source of spacefaring carbon compounds available.
Originally published on Live Science.