livescience--2020-11-17--Cretaceous cold case of 'dueling' T. rex and Triceratops may finally be solved

The `` Dueling Dinosaurs '' fossils — the 67 million-year-old remains of what may be the most complete and on record , beasts that were possibly locked in combat when they died — are finally spilling their secrets .
The iconic fossils are heading to the North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences ( NCMNS ) , where a cutting-edge interactive exhibit will be built around them , the museum announced today ( Nov. 17 ) .
The fossils are steeped in controversy .
They 're remarkable specimens , thought to include 100 % of both creatures ' bones , as @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and possibly even the remains of soft tissues and stomach contents .
But after their discovery by commercial collectors in eastern Montana in 2006 , the dinosaurs failed to sell at auction and were later involved in a lawsuit that attempted to redefine as minerals .
And the scientific community was torn about the fossils ; many were excited to learn about the dinosaurs , but some said they were scientifically useless and others disliked that they were being sold by for-profit collectors .
Now , after a tremendous fundraising project , the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ chunks holding the Dueling Dinosaurs have arrived in North Carolina , where scientists plan to study them before the public 's eyes .
And the duelers definitely are n't `` scientifically useless , '' said Lindsay Zanno , head of paleontology at NCMNS and associate research professor at North Carolina State University , who spearheaded the project to bring the fossils to the museum .
`` What is remarkable about these specimens is they still preserve all their context '' about the surroundings , Zanno told Live Science .
`` So we can @ @ @ @ @ @ @ integrity in the scientific data that will come from these specimens . ''
The Dueling Dinosaurs were discovered by Clayton Phipps , his cousin Chad O ’ Connor and his friend Mark Eatman .
Clayton , as seen on the Discovery Channel show `` Dino Hunters , '' is a cowboy , but `` I prospect for dinosaurs on my horse now more than I ever look for cows , '' he joked .
In June 2006 , the three went prospecting for dinosaurs and found an herbivore 's pelvis weathering out of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ n't too excited , but O ’ Connor was fascinated , so they agreed to follow up .
Phipps got permission from the landowners to dig there and returned with a crew about a month later .
That 's when he realized the site held far more than a pelvis ; it held an entire tri-horned ceratopsian dinosaur and tyrannosaurus , side-by-side .
`` Here we have this world-class ceratopsian skeleton .
It appears to be 100 % complete from what we have exposed at that point .
And now we have a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ friends , '' Phipps told Live Science .
`` What the heck 's going on ?
I had to sit down and take it all in for a second . ''
Were these paleo-beasts fighting when catastrophe struck , entombing them together ?
Were they strangers with randomly neighboring burials ?
Only a full excavation of the skeletons may solve this mystery , for instance by finding whether the T. rex 's teeth are embedded in the Triceratops ' body .
The horned dinosaur is likely a Triceratops horridus , although that still @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
The tyrannosaur , however , has potential to be a Nanotyrannus , a controversial species that may or may not exist .
suggest that Nanotyrannus is a juvenile T. rex , not a separate species .
But `` assuming that the science is correct at the moment and this specimen does in fact belong to a juvenile T. rex , then we are going to be the only museum in the world that has a 100 % complete specimen of the tyrant king , '' Zanno said .
, the paleontologist who @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Jurassic Park '' movies and who originally called the Dueling Dinosaurs `` scientifically useless '' in an , has since changed his mind upon learning that Zanno had access to the Montana excavation site , which provides critical context .
`` Now it is scientifically worth something , '' Horner told Live Science .
Once the fossils were out of the ground , Phipps could n't find an institution interested in paying for them .
So , when Bonhams auction house contacted him , Phipps reluctantly agreed .
He wanted the fossils to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ needed money to pay the landowners and for the team ’ s labor , he said .
The 2013 : The fossils were sent to New York and appraised for between $ 7 million and $ 9 million .
But bidding reached only $ 5.5 million , so the specimens failed to sell .
Meanwhile , the landowners , Mary Anne and Lige Murray , were sued by the two brothers who had sold them the land .
The brothers , Jerry and Robert Severson , retained mineral rights to land , and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ therefore belonged to them , .
After several trials and appeals , the brothers lost that case .
Welcome to the museum Most museums do n't have millions of dollars to spend on fossils .
In this case , the nonprofit organization Friends of the North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences raised private funds to buy the $ 6 million Dueling Dinosaurs from the three discoverers , landowners and excavators , and then the nonprofit donated the specimens to the museum .
The exhibit will be one-of a kind ; museum visitors will @ @ @ @ @ @ @ laboratory known as DinoLab , where they can talk with researchers and see the fossils and tools up close .
Live streams will show the research , Zanno said .
In a public lab next door , visitors can try their hand at paleontology tools , techniques and technologies similar to those being done just a few feet away .
A $ 1 million donation from the Bank of America Foundation is enabling `` Cretaceous Creatures , '' a project in which high-school students around the country and ultimately the world can dig @ @ @ @ @ @ @ site at the Hell Creek formation , so researchers can learn more about the microfossils there .
Zanno 's team plans to have the specimens , so they can create digital 3D images of the dinosaurs ' remains .
They 'll look for preservation of any soft tissues or proteins and analyze the fossils for evidence of diseases and wounds .
The specimens have the only known preserved skin impressions from a Triceratops ' frill and a possible T. rex 's feet .
Regarding the frill , `` that 's going to be @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the covering was like on the face , '' Andrew Farke , curator and director of research and collections at the Raymond M. Alf Museum of Paleontology at The Webb Schools in California , who is not involved with the dueling dinosaurs , told Live Science .
`` There 's been speculation that it was maybe entirely covered with keratin , so think of Triceratops as like a giant fingernail .
Or maybe it was more a scaly kind of thing .
I think [ the dueling dinosaur is ] going to be @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Construction for the DinoLab is set to open in 2021 .
Once it 's open , visitors will be able to go into the lab as scientists conserve the dinosaurs , which will take about five years , and study their remains , Zanno said .

This illustration shows what may have happened to the ceratopsian and tyrannosaur just before they died and were fossilized about 67 million years ago.
The "Dueling Dinosaurs" fossils — the 67 million-year-old remains of what may be the most complete Tyrannosaurus rex and Triceratops on record, beasts that were possibly locked in combat when they died — are finally spilling their secrets. The iconic fossils are heading to the North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences (NCMNS), where a cutting-edge interactive exhibit will be built around them, the museum announced today (Nov. 17).
The fossils are steeped in controversy. They're remarkable specimens, thought to include 100% of both creatures' bones, as well as body outlines, skin impressions and possibly even the remains of soft tissues and stomach contents. But after their discovery by commercial collectors in eastern Montana in 2006, the dinosaurs failed to sell at auction and were later involved in a lawsuit that attempted to redefine fossils as minerals. And the scientific community was torn about the fossils; many were excited to learn about the dinosaurs, but some said they were scientifically useless and others disliked that they were being sold by for-profit collectors.
Now, after a tremendous fundraising project, the 30,000-lbs. (13,600 kilograms) fossilized chunks holding the Dueling Dinosaurs have arrived in North Carolina, where scientists plan to study them before the public's eyes. And the duelers definitely aren't "scientifically useless," said Lindsay Zanno, head of paleontology at NCMNS and associate research professor at North Carolina State University, who spearheaded the project to bring the fossils to the museum.
Related: In photos: Montana's Dueling Dinosaur fossils
"What is remarkable about these specimens is they still preserve all their context" about the late Cretaceous period surroundings, Zanno told Live Science. "So we can really dive in and know there is integrity in the scientific data that will come from these specimens."
The sediment around the bones had the color of light-colored sand. "The bones were almost dark chocolate black. They're just beautiful," Phipps told Live Science. "These dinosaurs are like art." Here, you can see part of the tyrannosaur's skull and jaw. (Image credit: Matt Zeher)
Dueling Dinosaur discovery
The Dueling Dinosaurs were discovered by Clayton Phipps, his cousin Chad O’Connor and his friend Mark Eatman. Clayton, as seen on the Discovery Channel show "Dino Hunters," is a cowboy, but "I prospect for dinosaurs on my horse now more than I ever look for cows," he joked.
In June 2006, the three went prospecting for dinosaurs and found an herbivore's pelvis weathering out of a hill. Phipps and Eatman weren't too excited, but O’Connor was fascinated, so they agreed to follow up. Phipps got permission from the landowners to dig there and returned with a crew about a month later. That's when he realized the site held far more than a pelvis; it held an entire tri-horned ceratopsian dinosaur and tyrannosaurus, side-by-side.
"Here we have this world-class ceratopsian skeleton. It appears to be 100% complete from what we have exposed at that point. And now we have a meat-eating dinosaur — obviously they weren't friends," Phipps told Live Science. "What the heck's going on? I had to sit down and take it all in for a second."
Dinosaur Cowboy Clayton Phipps works on the horned dinosaur's rear leg jacket in 2006. (Image credit: Clayton Phipps)
Were these paleo-beasts fighting when catastrophe struck, entombing them together? Were they strangers with randomly neighboring burials? Only a full excavation of the skeletons may solve this mystery, for instance by finding whether the T. rex's teeth are embedded in the Triceratops' body.
The horned dinosaur is likely a Triceratops horridus, although that still needs to be confirmed, Zanno said. The tyrannosaur, however, has potential to be a Nanotyrannus, a controversial species that may or may not exist. Several studies suggest that Nanotyrannus is a juvenile T. rex, not a separate species. But "assuming that the science is correct at the moment and this specimen does in fact belong to a juvenile T. rex, then we are going to be the only museum in the world that has a 100% complete specimen of the tyrant king," Zanno said.
Related: Photos: Newfound tyrannosaur had nearly 3-inch-long teeth
After covering the dinosaur fossils in plaster jackets, the Montana crew gets the fossils ready for removal in 2006. (Image credit: Clayton Phipps)
Jack Horner , the paleontologist who served as technical advisor to the "Jurassic Park" movies and who originally called the Dueling Dinosaurs "scientifically useless" in an interview with Smithsonian Magazine , has since changed his mind upon learning that Zanno had access to the Montana excavation site, which provides critical context. "Now it is scientifically worth something," Horner told Live Science.
The tyrannosaur's claws (Image credit: Matt Zeher)
Failed auction, lost lawsuit
Once the fossils were out of the ground, Phipps couldn't find an institution interested in paying for them. So, when Bonhams auction house contacted him, Phipps reluctantly agreed. He wanted the fossils to go to science, but he also needed money to pay the landowners and for the team’s labor, he said. The 2013 auction was an enormous undertaking : The fossils were sent to New York and appraised for between $7 million and $9 million. But bidding reached only $5.5 million, so the specimens failed to sell.
Meanwhile, the landowners, Mary Anne and Lige Murray, were sued by the two brothers who had sold them the land. The brothers, Jerry and Robert Severson, retained mineral rights to land, and argued that the fossils were minerals and therefore belonged to them, according to Science magazine . After several trials and appeals, the brothers lost that case.
Some of the tyrannosaur's fossils are exposed in this rocky chunk. (Image credit: Matt Zeher)
Welcome to the museum
Most museums don't have millions of dollars to spend on fossils. In this case, the nonprofit organization Friends of the North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences raised private funds to buy the $6 million Dueling Dinosaurs from the three discoverers, landowners and excavators, and then the nonprofit donated the specimens to the museum.
The exhibit will be one-of a kind; museum visitors will be able to wander into a new laboratory known as DinoLab, where they can talk with researchers and see the fossils and tools up close. Live streams will show the research, Zanno said. In a public lab next door, visitors can try their hand at paleontology tools, techniques and technologies similar to those being done just a few feet away.
A $1 million donation from the Bank of America Foundation is enabling "Cretaceous Creatures," a project in which high-school students around the country and ultimately the world can dig through sediment collected from the Dueling Dinosaur site at the Hell Creek formation, so researchers can learn more about the microfossils there.
Related: Photos: Oldest known horned dinosaur in North America
The ribs of the tyrannosaur that died around 67 million years ago in what is now Montana. (Image credit: Matt Zeher)
Zanno's team plans to have the specimens CT scanned , so they can create digital 3D images of the dinosaurs' remains. They'll look for preservation of any soft tissues or proteins and analyze the fossils for evidence of diseases and wounds. The specimens have the only known preserved skin impressions from a Triceratops' frill and a possible T. rex's feet.
Regarding the frill, "that's going to be cool to answer some questions about what the covering was like on the face," Andrew Farke, curator and director of research and collections at the Raymond M. Alf Museum of Paleontology at The Webb Schools in California, who is not involved with the dueling dinosaurs, told Live Science. "There's been speculation that it was maybe entirely covered with keratin, so think of Triceratops as like a giant fingernail. Or maybe it was more a scaly kind of thing. I think [the dueling dinosaur is] going to be big for answering that question."
Construction for the DinoLab is set to open in 2021. Once it's open, visitors will be able to go into the lab as scientists conserve the dinosaurs, which will take about five years, and study their remains, Zanno said.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-11-17--Physicists discover the 'Kings and Queens of Quantumness'

Is that light particle more like a ball careening through space , or more of a smeary mess that is everywhere at once ?
The answer depends on whether the absurd laws of or the deterministic equations that govern larger objects hold more sway .
Now , for the first time , physicists have found a way to mathematically define the degree of quantumness that anything — be it particle , , molecule or even a planet — exhibits .
The result suggests a way to quantify quantumness and identify `` the most quantum states '' of a system , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and Queens of Quantumness . ''
In addition to furthering our understanding of the universe , the work could find applications in quantum technologies such as gravitational wave detectors and ultra-precise measurement devices .
Related : From Big Bang to present : snapshots of our universe through time At the subatomic heart of reality , the bizarre world of quantum mechanics reigns .
Under these mind-bending rules , tiny subatomic particles such as electrons can be paired in strange superpositions of states — meaning that an electron can exist in multiple states at @ @ @ @ @ @ @ atom and even their momentums are n't fixed until they 're observed .
These teensy particles even have the ability to tunnel through seemingly insurmountable barriers .
Classical objects , on the other hand , follow the normal everyday rules of our experience .
Billiard balls strike off one another ; cannonballs fly along parabolic arcs ; and planets spin around their orbits according to well-known physical equations .
Researchers have long pondered this odd state of affairs , where some entities in the cosmos can be defined classically , while others are @ @ @ @ @ @ @ you can measure only probable outcomes .
But `` according to quantum mechanics , everything is quantum mechanical , '' Aaron Goldberg , a physicist at the University of Toronto in Canada and lead author of the new paper , told Live Science .
`` Just because you do n't see these strange things every day does n't mean they are n't there . ''
What Goldberg means is that classical objects like billiard balls are secretly quantum systems , so there exists some infinitesimally small probability that they will , say , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ table .
This suggests that there is a continuum , with `` classicalness '' on one end and `` quantumness '' on the other .
A little while back , one of Goldberg 's co-authors , Luis Sanchez-Soto of the Complutense University of Madrid in Spain , was giving a lecture when a participant asked him what would be the most quantum state a system could be in .
`` That triggered everything , '' Sanchez-Soto told Live Science .
Previous attempts at quantifying quantumness always looked at specific quantum systems , like @ @ @ @ @ @ @ so the outcomes could n't necessarily be applied to other systems that included different particles like atoms .
Goldberg , Sanchez-Soto and their team searched instead for a generalized way of defining extremes in quantum states .
`` We can apply this to any quantum system — atoms , molecules , light or even combinations of those things — by using the same guiding principles , '' Goldberg said .
The team found that these quantum extremes could come in at least two different types , naming some Kings and others Queens for @ @ @ @ @ @ @ findings Nov. 17 in the journal .
So what exactly does it mean for something to be `` the most quantum ? ''
Here is where the work gets tricky , since it is highly mathematical and difficult to easily visualize .
But Pieter Kok , a physicist at the University of Sheffield in England , who was not involved in writing the new paper , suggested a way to get some grasp on it .
One of the most basic physical systems is a simple harmonic oscillator — that is , a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ moving back and forth , Kok told Live Science .
A quantum particle would be on the classical extreme if it behaved like this ball and spring system , found at specific points in time based on the initial kick it received .
But if the particle were to be quantum mechanically smeared out so that it had no well-defined position and was found throughout the pathway of the spring and ball , it would be in one of these quantum extreme states .
Despite their peculiarity , Kok considers the results quite @ @ @ @ @ @ @ application .
Knowing that there is a fundamental limit where a system is acting the most quantum it can is like knowing that the speed of light exists , he said .
`` It puts constraints on things that are complicated to analyze , '' he added .
Goldberg said that the most readily apparent applications should come from quantum metrology , where engineers attempt to measure physical constants and other properties with extreme precision .
Gravitational wave detectors , for example , need to be able to measure the distance between two @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of an atomic nucleus .
Using the team 's principles , physicists might be able to improve on this impressive feat .
But the findings could also help researchers in fields such as fiber optical communications , information processing and quantum computing .
`` There are probably many applications that we have n't even thought about , '' Goldberg said , excitedly .

Is that light particle more like a ball careening through space, or more of a smeary mess that is everywhere at once?
The answer depends on whether the absurd laws of subatomic particles or the deterministic equations that govern larger objects hold more sway. Now, for the first time, physicists have found a way to mathematically define the degree of quantumness that anything — be it particle, atom , molecule or even a planet — exhibits. The result suggests a way to quantify quantumness and identify "the most quantum states" of a system, which the team calls the "Kings and Queens of Quantumness."
In addition to furthering our understanding of the universe, the work could find applications in quantum technologies such as gravitational wave detectors and ultra-precise measurement devices.
Related: From Big Bang to present: snapshots of our universe through time
Heart of reality
At the subatomic heart of reality, the bizarre world of quantum mechanics reigns. Under these mind-bending rules, tiny subatomic particles such as electrons can be paired in strange superpositions of states — meaning that an electron can exist in multiple states at once — and their positions around an atom and even their momentums aren't fixed until they're observed. These teensy particles even have the ability to tunnel through seemingly insurmountable barriers.
Classical objects, on the other hand, follow the normal everyday rules of our experience. Billiard balls strike off one another; cannonballs fly along parabolic arcs; and planets spin around their orbits according to well-known physical equations.
Researchers have long pondered this odd state of affairs, where some entities in the cosmos can be defined classically, while others are subject to probabilistic quantum laws — meaning you can measure only probable outcomes.
But "according to quantum mechanics, everything is quantum mechanical," Aaron Goldberg, a physicist at the University of Toronto in Canada and lead author of the new paper, told Live Science. "Just because you don't see these strange things every day doesn't mean they aren't there."
What Goldberg means is that classical objects like billiard balls are secretly quantum systems, so there exists some infinitesimally small probability that they will, say, tunnel through the side of a pool table. This suggests that there is a continuum, with "classicalness" on one end and "quantumness" on the other.
A little while back, one of Goldberg's co-authors, Luis Sanchez-Soto of the Complutense University of Madrid in Spain, was giving a lecture when a participant asked him what would be the most quantum state a system could be in. "That triggered everything," Sanchez-Soto told Live Science.
Previous attempts at quantifying quantumness always looked at specific quantum systems, like those containing particles of light, and so the outcomes couldn't necessarily be applied to other systems that included different particles like atoms. Goldberg, Sanchez-Soto and their team searched instead for a generalized way of defining extremes in quantum states.
"We can apply this to any quantum system — atoms, molecules, light or even combinations of those things — by using the same guiding principles," Goldberg said. The team found that these quantum extremes could come in at least two different types, naming some Kings and others Queens for their superlative nature.
They reported their findings Nov. 17 in the journal AVS Quantum Science .
So what exactly does it mean for something to be "the most quantum?" Here is where the work gets tricky, since it is highly mathematical and difficult to easily visualize.
But Pieter Kok, a physicist at the University of Sheffield in England, who was not involved in writing the new paper, suggested a way to get some grasp on it. One of the most basic physical systems is a simple harmonic oscillator — that is, a ball on the end of a spring moving back and forth, Kok told Live Science.
A quantum particle would be on the classical extreme if it behaved like this ball and spring system, found at specific points in time based on the initial kick it received. But if the particle were to be quantum mechanically smeared out so that it had no well-defined position and was found throughout the pathway of the spring and ball, it would be in one of these quantum extreme states.
Despite their peculiarity, Kok considers the results quite useful and hopes they will find widespread application. Knowing that there is a fundamental limit where a system is acting the most quantum it can is like knowing that the speed of light exists, he said.
"It puts constraints on things that are complicated to analyze," he added.
Goldberg said that the most readily apparent applications should come from quantum metrology, where engineers attempt to measure physical constants and other properties with extreme precision. Gravitational wave detectors, for example, need to be able to measure the distance between two mirrors to better than 1/10,000th the size of an atomic nucleus. Using the team's principles, physicists might be able to improve on this impressive feat.
But the findings could also help researchers in fields such as fiber optical communications, information processing and quantum computing. "There are probably many applications that we haven't even thought about," Goldberg said, excitedly.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-11-17--Newfound 'Kraken merger' may have been the biggest collision in Milky Way's history

The contains more than 100 billion stars , but it did n't come by them all honestly .
At least a dozen times over the last 12 billion years , the Milky Way collided with a neighboring galaxy and devoured it , swallowing up that neighbor 's stars and mixing them into an ever-growing stew of pilfered suns .
With each galactic merger , the shape , size and motion of our galaxy changed forever , ultimately becoming the iconic we recognize today .
Now , in a recent study published in the October 2020 issue of the journal , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
Using artificial intelligence ( AI ) to match distinct clusters of stars by their ages , motions and chemical compositions , the team found evidence of five large-scale galactic mergers ( each involving 100 million stars or more ) dating back more than 10 billion years — including one ancient collision that has never been described before .
Related : 11 Fascinating facts about our Milky Way galaxy This newfound crash with the so-called Kraken galaxy not only helps fill in the Milky Way 's mysterious family tree , but could also @ @ @ @ @ @ @ looked like in its earliest days , the study authors said .
`` The collision with Kraken must have been the most significant merger the Milky Way ever experienced , '' lead study author Diederik Kruijssen , an astronomer at the University of Heidelberg in Germany , .
`` The merger with Kraken took place 11 billion years ago , when the Milky Way was four times less massive [ than today ] .
As a result , the collision must have truly transformed what the Milky Way looked like at the time @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Kruijssen and his colleagues used computer simulations to analyze all the known — old , dense spheres of up to 1 million stars that all formed around the same time as each other — within the Milky Way .
Our galaxy hosts at least 150 of these clusters , which astronomers believe are `` fossils '' of the ancient galaxies that the Milky Way gobbled up over its long and hungry history .
The researchers trained an AI algorithm to identify globular clusters based on the shared properties of stars , at first @ @ @ @ @ @ @ galaxies .
Once the algorithm was able to accurately predict the formation , evolution and destruction of globular clusters in those imaginary galaxies , the team set their AI loose on the Milky Way .
Using data obtained by the Gaia space probe ( which has given us the most complete map of the Milky Way ) , the algorithm analyzed the ages , movements and chemical compositions of known globular clusters in our galaxy in order to recreate the cosmic mergers that landed them there .
The team 's analysis accurately predicted @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 's past — including the so-called merger , which added several billion stars to our galaxy 's bulge about 9 billion years ago — as well as the previously unknown Kraken merger .
And that merger was a beast .
According to the team 's results , the Kraken may have been the largest and oldest galactic collision in the Milky Way 's history .
The merger occurred when the Milky Way was only a fraction of its current size , and may have added to our galaxy 13 globular clusters that are @ @ @ @ @ @ @ sausage merger ultimately added more solar mass to the Milky Way ( more than 20 globular clusters ' worth ) than did the Kraken one , our galaxy was considerably bigger when the sausage merger happened and was likely less susceptible to major structural changes , the researchers wrote .
This newfound merger is only one small piece of the puzzle .
Because the road to galaxy formation is strewn with collisions like these , it 's likely that many more small-scale mergers also contributed to the Milky Way we know today .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ mergers may be lurking in our galaxy 's past that each involved 10 million stars or more , and their remnants are just waiting to be found in our galaxy 's globular guts .
`` The debris of more than five progenitor galaxies has now been identified , '' Kruijssen said .
`` With current and upcoming telescopes , it should be possible to find [ evidence of ] them all . ''
Astronomers have about 3 or 4 billion years to figure it out .
Following that , another galaxy-altering merger will @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 2.5 million light-years away ) and the Milky Way will inevitably collide .
Isn ’ t that always the way : Just when you think you know a galaxy , it goes and changes on you again .

A globular cluster (yellow) glows in the Large Magellanic Cloud, one of the Milky Way's smaller satellite galaxies. Astronomers studied clusters like these to recreate the ancient mergers that made the Milky Way what it is.
The Milky Way contains more than 100 billion stars, but it didn't come by them all honestly. At least a dozen times over the last 12 billion years, the Milky Way collided with a neighboring galaxy and devoured it, swallowing up that neighbor's stars and mixing them into an ever-growing stew of pilfered suns.
With each galactic merger, the shape, size and motion of our galaxy changed forever, ultimately becoming the iconic spiral we recognize today. Now, in a recent study published in the October 2020 issue of the journal Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society , researchers have attempted to unwind that spiral. Using artificial intelligence (AI) to match distinct clusters of stars by their ages, motions and chemical compositions, the team found evidence of five large-scale galactic mergers (each involving 100 million stars or more) dating back more than 10 billion years — including one ancient collision that has never been described before.
Related: 11 Fascinating facts about our Milky Way galaxy
This newfound crash with the so-called Kraken galaxy not only helps fill in the Milky Way's mysterious family tree, but could also help astronomers piece together what our galaxy looked like in its earliest days, the study authors said.
"The collision with Kraken must have been the most significant merger the Milky Way ever experienced," lead study author Diederik Kruijssen, an astronomer at the University of Heidelberg in Germany, said in a statement . "The merger with Kraken took place 11 billion years ago, when the Milky Way was four times less massive [than today]. As a result, the collision must have truly transformed what the Milky Way looked like at the time."
In their new study, Kruijssen and his colleagues used computer simulations to analyze all the known globular clusters — old, dense spheres of up to 1 million stars that all formed around the same time as each other — within the Milky Way. Our galaxy hosts at least 150 of these clusters, which astronomers believe are "fossils" of the ancient galaxies that the Milky Way gobbled up over its long and hungry history.
The researchers trained an AI algorithm to identify globular clusters based on the shared properties of stars, at first running the algorithm on thousands of simulated galaxies. Once the algorithm was able to accurately predict the formation, evolution and destruction of globular clusters in those imaginary galaxies, the team set their AI loose on the Milky Way.
An image from the new study shows the five major mergers that made the Milky Way what it is today. (Image credit: D. Kruijssen / Heidelberg University)
Using data obtained by the Gaia space probe (which has given us the most complete map of the Milky Way ), the algorithm analyzed the ages, movements and chemical compositions of known globular clusters in our galaxy in order to recreate the cosmic mergers that landed them there. The team's analysis accurately predicted four known mergers in the Milky Way's past — including the so-called Gaia sausage merger, which added several billion stars to our galaxy's bulge about 9 billion years ago — as well as the previously unknown Kraken merger.
And that merger was a beast. According to the team's results, the Kraken may have been the largest and oldest galactic collision in the Milky Way's history. The merger occurred when the Milky Way was only a fraction of its current size, and may have added to our galaxy 13 globular clusters that are still identifiable today. While the Gaia sausage merger ultimately added more solar mass to the Milky Way (more than 20 globular clusters' worth) than did the Kraken one, our galaxy was considerably bigger when the sausage merger happened and was likely less susceptible to major structural changes, the researchers wrote.
This newfound merger is only one small piece of the puzzle. Because the road to galaxy formation is strewn with collisions like these, it's likely that many more small-scale mergers also contributed to the Milky Way we know today. Astronomers suspect that at least 15 other mergers may be lurking in our galaxy's past that each involved 10 million stars or more, and their remnants are just waiting to be found in our galaxy's globular guts.
"The debris of more than five progenitor galaxies has now been identified," Kruijssen said. "With current and upcoming telescopes, it should be possible to find [evidence of] them all."
Astronomers have about 3 or 4 billion years to figure it out. Following that, another galaxy-altering merger will occur, when the neighboring Andromeda galaxy (currently 2.5 million light-years away) and the Milky Way will inevitably collide. Isn’t that always the way: Just when you think you know a galaxy, it goes and changes on you again.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-11-18--Coronavirus outbreak: Live updates

Coronavirus outbreak: Live updates

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90-year-old woman in the UK receives first dose of Pfizer vaccine, FDA review confirms vaccine is safe and effective A 90-year-old woman (who will turn 91 next week) became the first in the world to be given Pfizer's coronavirus vaccine outside of clinical trials, according to the BBC. Margaret Keenan, who is originally from Northern Ireland, was given the vaccine at the University Hospital in Coventry, England. She received the first of 800,000 doses expected to be administered in the U.K. in the coming weeks, according to the BBC. "I feel so privileged to be the first person vaccinated against Covid-19," Keenan said, according to the BBC."It's the best early birthday present I could wish for because it means I can finally look forward to spending time with my family and friends in the new year after being on my own for most of the year." "My advice to anyone offered the vaccine is to take it. If I can have it at 90, then you can have it too," she added. Up to four million doses of Pfizer's vaccine is expected to be given to people in the U.K. by the end of the month. Meanwhile, a 53-page Food and Drug Administration (FDA) review published Tuesday (Dec. 8) confirmed that Pfizer's vaccine is safe and effective, according to The Washington Post.
Pfizer's COVID-19 vaccine starts to work just 10 days after 1st dose Pfizer's new COVID-19 vaccine starts to protect people from the novel coronavirus just 10 days after the first dose, according to new documents from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The documents were released on Tuesday (Dec. 8), two days before a meeting of the FDA's vaccine advisory panel, which will vote on whether to recommend authorization of the vaccine in the U.S, Live Science reported . The FDA analyzed data from Pfizer's phase 3 clinical trial, which included some 44,000 people in the United States, Brazil, Argentina, Germany and Turkey, about half of whom received the vaccine while the other half received a placebo. Both groups received two shots, 21 days apart. About 10 days after the first dose, there was a noticeable drop-off in new COVID-19 cases in the vaccine group compared with the placebo group, indicating that even one dose provides some protection, the report said. However, scientists don't know how long the protection from a single dose will last, so it will still be important for people to receive two shots, according to The New York Times . Overall, the vaccine was 52% effective after the first dose and 95% effective after the second dose, the report said.
People with significant allergies should avoid Pfizer vaccine, UK warns The U.K.'s Regulatory Agency is advising people with a history of "significant" allergic reactions to avoid Pfizer's coronavirus vaccine, after two National Health Service members developed severe allergic reactions to it on Tuesday (Dec. 8), Live Science reported. "As is common with new vaccines the MHRA (Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency) have advised on a precautionary basis that people with a significant history of allergic reactions do not receive this vaccination after two people with a history of significant allergic reactions responded adversely yesterday," Stephen Powis, the national medical director for England's National Health Service said in a statement on Wednesday (Dec. 9). Both workers have a history of severe allergies and carry adrenaline auto injectors (such as EpiPens) around with them, according to The Guardian. Shortly after receiving the vaccine, both NHS workers developed anaphylaxis-like symptoms, or severe allergic reactions, but have recovered after receiving treatment. The MHRA will investigate further and Pfizer and BioNTech will support their investigation, according to Reuters. "Allergic reaction occurs with quite a number of vaccines, and perhaps even more frequently with drugs. So it is not unexpected," Stephen Evans, a professor of pharmacoepidemiology at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine said in remarks to journalists published by Britain's Science Media Center. “What would be wise, as the MHRA have already advised, would be for anyone who has known severe allergic reaction such that they need to carry an EpiPen, to delay having a vaccination until the reason for the allergic reaction has been clarified," he said. For the general population this does not mean that they would need to be anxious about receiving the vaccination, he added. "One has to remember that even things like marmite [a quintessential British food spread] can cause unexpected severe allergic reactions.”
Canada approves Pfizer's COVID-19 vaccine Canada has authorized Pfizer's new COVID-19 vaccine, with the first doses expected to be administered there as early as next week. Health Canada, the country's health regulatory agency, said in a statement on Wednesday (Dec. 9) that it had determined that the vaccine "meets the Department's stringent safety, efficacy and quality requirements for use in Canada," according to CTV News . "We expect vaccines to arrive maybe as early as Monday [Dec. 14]. It takes time to prepare the vaccine," said Maj.-Gen. Dany Fortin, the top military general leading the vaccine rollout for the Public Health Agency of Canada, according to CTV News. The first doses could be administered by the middle of next week, he said. Canada is the third country in the world to authorize the Pfizer vaccine, following the United Kingdom and Bahrain. The country should receive up to 249,000 doses of the vaccine by the end of December, and has purchased 20 million doses total, with the option to purchase more, CTV News reported.
Daily COVID-19 death toll in the U.S. reaches record-high, surpassed 9/11 On Wednesday (Dec. 9), the U.S. recorded 3,124 new COVID-19 deaths, the highest daily death toll to date, according to CNN . In comparison, 2,977 people were killed in the 9/11 attacks. The U.S. has now recorded 280,488 deaths related to the virus, according to The COVID Tracking Project . A forecast from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention predicts that the total death toll can increase to between 332,000 and 362,000 by January 2, according to CNN. There are currently 106,671 people hospitalized with the virus in the U.S.; 20,903 of them are currently in the ICU and 7,621 are currently on a ventilator, according to the COVID Tracking Project. On Thursday (Dec. 10), the Vaccines and Related Biological Products Advisory Committee is set to meet to discuss an emergency use authorization for the Pfizer-BioNTech coronavirus vaccine.
FDA panel recommends authorization of Pfizer's COVID-19 vaccine A panel of experts for the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has recommended that the agency authorize Pfizer's new COVID-19 vaccine in the United States. On Thursday (Dec. 10), the panel voted 17 to 4 to recommend that the vaccine receive emergency use authorization (EUA) for people ages 16 and older, according to The New York Times . The FDA typically follows the advice of its panels, and so today's vote is an important step towards the vaccine's authorization. It is anticipated that the agency will officially authorize the vaccine on Saturday (Dec. 12), the Times reported. Several countries have already authorized Pfizer's vaccine, including Canada, the United Kingdom and Bahrain.
Vaccine approval could come this weekend, as U.S. continues to record high daily death tolls On Thursday (Dec. 10), the U.S. recorded another 2,902 COVID-19 deaths, a day after the country set a record of 3,253 deaths, according to Reuters . “Probably for the next 60 to 90 days, we’re going to have more deaths per day than we had on 9/11 or we had at Pearl Harbor,” Dr. Robert Redfield, the director of the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, told the Council on Foreign Relations on Thursday, according to Reuters. "The reality is the vaccine approval this week is not going to really impact that, I think, to any degree for the next 60 days." On Thursday, the Vaccines and Related Biological Products Advisory Committee discussed, voted and recommended that the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) should grant an emergency use authorization for Pfizer's coronavirus vaccine. The Pfizer vaccine has already been approved in the U.K. and in Canada, and FDA approval for use in the U.S. could come this weekend.
Australia abandons local COVID-19 vaccine after it caused false-positive HIV tests An Australian COVID-19 vaccine that had shown promising results in early trials is being abandoned after researchers found that the shot caused false-positive results on HIV tests. On Friday (Dec. 11), Australian officials said they had canceled an order for some 51 million doses of the vaccine, which was being developed by The University of Queensland and CSL Ltd., a local biotech company, according to The New York Times . In an early trial with 216 participants, the vaccine appeared to be safe and to produce a robust immune response against COVID-19, according to a statement from CSL . But some volunteers falsely tested positive for HIV, which officials feared would undermine trust in the vaccine, the Times reported. The vaccine contained small fragments of an HIV protein, which helped stabilize the vaccine. Some of the participants developed antibodies against these fragments, and these antibodies triggered false positive results on some HIV tests. It's important to note that there is no way for the vaccine to cause an HIV infection, because it contains harmless fragments of the virus.
ICU nurse in New York becomes first person in the US to receive a coronavirus vaccine outside of clinical trials New York, the worst-hit state at the start of the pandemic, just became the first to administer a coronavirus vaccine outside of clinical trials, kicking off a long, massive effort to vaccinate the American people, Live Science reported. Around 9 a.m. E.T. on Monday (Dec. 14), the very first dose of Pfizer and BioNTech's coronavirus vaccine was given to Sandra Lindsay, an intensive care nurse in Long Island Jewish Medical Center in Queens, New York, according to The New York Times. This comes as the U.S. continues to battle a massive wave of the virus that has more than 109,000 people currently hospitalized, according to The COVID Tracking Project. Since the start of the pandemic, New York has recorded more than 780,000 cases of COVID-19 and more than 35,100 deaths, according to The Times. "This vaccine is exciting because I believe this is the weapon that will end the war," Gov. Andrew Cuomo said during a live broadcast of the first vaccination. "It's the beginning of the last chapter of the book, but now we just have to do it."
FDA analysis confirms Moderna's vaccine is safe and effective, emergency authorization is likely to come Friday A new briefing document from the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) released on Tuesday (Dec. 15) confirmed that Moderna's COVID-19 vaccine is safe and effective, according to NPR . Moderna's COVID-19 vaccine is 94% effective and has "a favorable safety profile," according to the document. A panel of experts is set to meet on Thursday (Dec. 17) to discuss the effectiveness and safety of the vaccine and vote on whether or not the FDA should grant emergency approval to the vaccine. Last week, the same panel voted that the FDA should grant emergency approval to Pfizer's coronavirus vaccine; the authorization came a day late and the first doses were given on Monday (Dec. 15). The FDA will likely approve Moderna's vaccine for emergency use on Friday (Dec. 18), according to The New York Times .
FDA authorizes first over-the-counter COVID-19 test The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has authorized the first over-the-counter COVID-19 test, which can be done at home and does not need a prescription. The test, made by the Australia-based company Ellume, provides results in as little as 20 minutes, according to a statement from the FDA . It is a "lateral flow antigen test," meaning it works in a similar way to a home pregnancy test, by running a "liquid sample along a surface with reactive molecules," the FDA said. The test works in conjunction with a smartphone app. Users take a nasal swab and place their sample in an analyzer, which communicates to the smartphone app via Bluetooth. The results are delivered through the app, and also reported to public health authorities (based on a user's zip code) through a secure cloud connection, the company said . Ellume is ramping up production of its test, and expects to produce three million tests in January 2021, and 20 million within the first half of 2021.
A wild mink tested positive for the coronavirus, it may be the first wild animal to have a confirmed case A wild mink in Utah may be the first "free-ranging, native wild animal" confirmed to be infected with SARS-CoV-2, according to the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), Live Science reported. The mink was found near a mink farm and likely picked up the infection from the farmed mink. There's no evidence that the virus spread to other minks or wild animals; but if the virus does begin circulating in wild animals, it could pick up mutations that COVID-19 vaccines may not protect well against if it spreads back to humans, according to the report. "If it does [establish a reservoir], then we've got a long-term issue here, where this virus has the potential to be with us for millennia," Sarah Olson, associate director of the health program at the Wildlife Conservation Society, told Vox. The U.S. Department of Agriculture's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service has screened other animal species for the virus near mink farms in Utah, Michigan and Wisconsin, but all of them have tested negative so far, according to a statement.
An FDA advisory panel will meet today to vote on whether to recommend Moderna's coronavirus vaccine for emergency approval On Thursday (Dec. 17), a Food and Drug Administration (FDA) advisory committee will meet to determine whether to recommend that Moderna’s coronavirus vaccine for emergency approval, according to The New York Times . This panel, composed of independent experts, will vote on whether to recommend the vaccine after hearing from the company, FDA scientists and the public, according to The Times. Last week, the same panel of experts met to discuss Pfizer’s coronavirus vaccine and voted to recommend emergency authorization; the authorization came the next day. There have now been more than 16.9 million cases of COVID-19 in the U.S. and more than 307,000 deaths, according to the Johns Hopkins dashboard . There are currently 113,090 people hospitalized across the country with more than 21,900 of them in the ICU and 7,778 on a ventilator, according to The COVID Tracking Project .
California becomes new epicenter of COVID-19 in U.S. California, once praised for its early pandemic response, is now the new U.S. hotspot for COVID-19 infections. The state has reported an alarming surge in cases, breaking previous records for daily cases. On Thursday (Dec. 17), the state reported some 50,000 COVID-19 infections in 24 hours, and nearly 100,000 in 48 hours, according to The Washington Post . That's more than the daily cases reported in many countries, including India, Germany and Britain, the Post reported. The state also set a record for daily deaths on Thursday, with 379 fatalities reported, up from the previous high of 293. Capacity in intensive care units has also dropped dramatically, with hospitals in Southern California reporting zero percent capacity on Thursday. "I want to be very clear: Our hospitals are under siege, and our model shows no end in sight," said Christina Ghaly, director of Los Angeles County's Department of Health Services, the Post reported.
FDA expected to authorize Moderna's vaccine on Friday The U.S. Food and Drug Administration is expected to authorize Moderna's COVID-19 vaccine on Friday (Dec. 18). Once authorized, it will be the second coronavirus vaccine to get the green light from the agency in just a week, with Pfizer's vaccine gaining authorization on Dec. 11. Moderna is expected to begin shipping 5.9 million doses of its vaccine on Sunday (Dec. 20), with the first deliveries arriving Monday (Dec. 21), according to The New York Times . Unlike the Pfizer vaccine, Moderna's vaccine does not require storage in extremely cold temperatures, and states are hoping to distribute the vaccine to rural hospitals and community health centers, the Times reported.
COVID-19 cases continue to surge across the U.S. There have now been more than 17 million cases of COVID-19 in the U.S. and more than 300,000 deaths, according to The COVID Tracking Project . There are currently 114,237 people hospitalized across the country and 21,900 people in the ICU. California is facing a massive surge in cases; the state reported 41,012 new COVID-19 cases and 300 new deaths on Thursday (Dec. 17), according to the state's COVID-19 dashboard . By comparison, at the start of November, California was reporting a seven-day average of 4,183 cases, compared to an average of 38,774 on Thursday, according to CNN . "We're experiencing an explosive and very deadly surge," Dr. Barbara Ferrer, Los Angeles County Public Health Director said, according to CNN. Intensive care unit beds are rapidly filling up across the state; there are only 1,234 ICU beds left available in California, according to the dashboard. Current closures across California are impacting around 98% of the state's population, according to CNN.
London and southeast England are under an emergency lockdown Following concerns of a new version of the coronavirus that might be more transmissible, London and most of southeast England are now under an emergency lockdown, according to The New York Times . Prime Minister Boris Johnson announced the lockdown on Saturday (Dec. 19) citing concerns that the mutated virus — which was detected a couple of weeks ago in southeast England — may be as much as 70% more transmissible than previous versions, according to the Times. The new version of the coronavirus is detected in more than 60% of new infections in London and have also been detected in several other countries, according to the Times. But it's not yet clear if this coronavirus version is any more infectious than the last and thorough analyses will need to be conducted before conclusions are made, scientists cautioned. In South Africa, a similar version of the virus has been found in up to 90% of new cases detected since mid-November, according to The Times . It's common for viruses to mutate, and this particular coronavirus has mutated many times since the start of the pandemic. But experts told The Times that it would take years for the virus to mutate enough such that it would make the current vaccines developed to fight COVID-19 ineffective.
Biden gets Pfizer's COVID-19 vaccine President-elect Joe Biden received a dose of Pfizer's new COVID-19 vaccine on Monday (Dec. 21), according to The New York Times . He received the shot on camera at the Christiana Hospital in Newark, Delaware. "I'm doing this to demonstrate that people should be prepared when it's available to take the vaccine. There's nothing to worry about," Biden said.
Antarctica has its 1st COVID-19 outbreak The first COVID-19 cases have been reported in Antarctica , meaning the disease has now spread to every continent in the world. On Tuesday (Dec. 22), Chilean officials reported an outbreak of 36 COVID-19 cases at the Chilean research base General Bernardo O'Higgins Riquelme on the Antarctic Peninsula, according to the BBC . Of these, 26 cases were military personnel and 10 were maintenance workers, the BBC reported. All of these cases have been evacuated from Antarctica to Punta Arenas, Chile, according to The Guardian . Antarctica had been COVID-19 free up until the current outbreak. The continent has no permanent residents, but about 1,000 people, including scientists and other workers, stayed there this past winter, The Guardian reported.
Live updates will continue in 2021!


livescience--2020-11-18--Pfizer vaccine is 95% effective, company to seek FDA approval within days

The coronavirus vaccine developed by Pfizer and BioNTech is 95 % effective at preventing COVID-19 , the companies announced Wednesday ( Nov. 18 ) .
They plan on seeking regulatory approval `` within days . ''
Last week , Pfizer announced that an early analysis revealed its vaccine to be more than 90 % effective at preventing an infection , greatly exceeding public health experts ' expectations , Live Science reported .
Since then , enough participants in the trial have become infected with the virus for a final analysis .
This final analysis was based on 170 participants who @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 162 of them were given a placebo — a saline solution that had no impact on preventing infection — and eight were given the vaccine .
The results were consistent across different age groups , genders , races and ethnicities , according to the statement .
For example , in people over the age of 65 , who are at high risk of getting severe COVID-19 , efficacy was over 94 % .
The analysis also found that 10 of the COVID-19 cases were severe ; nine of the severe cases were among @ @ @ @ @ @ @ was in a person who received the vaccine .
An external independent data monitoring committee did not report any serious safety concerns in participants who received the vaccine .
It was generally `` well tolerated '' and most side effects such as fatigue and headache resolved quickly , according to the statement .
Now , the companies have gathered enough safety data to submit for an Emergency Use Authorization ( EUA ) from the FDA and plan to do so `` within days , '' according to the statement .
They also plan @ @ @ @ @ @ @ agencies globally and to submit data to a peer-reviewed journal .
These results are on par with Moderna 's candidate vaccine , which demonstrated a 94.5 % efficacy in an early analysis of its phase 3 data ( they have n't yet conducted a final analysis ) , Live Science reported earlier on this week .
Both vaccines were developed using the same technology , one that has n't yet been used in any approved vaccines to date .
The vaccine uses a genetic messenger called mRNA that prompts the body to create @ @ @ @ @ @ @ '' The immune system then learns to recognize the spike protein and builds an arsenal of cells to fight the virus if the person is ever naturally exposed to it .
Pfizer and BioNTech plan to produce up to 50 million doses of its vaccine globally in 2020 and up to 1.3 billion doses of its vaccine by the end of 2021 , according to the statement .
The candidate coronavirus vaccine is being tested in a large phase 3 clinical trial that began in late July .
The trial will continue for @ @ @ @ @ @ @ data will continue to be collected , the companies said .
`` These achievements highlight the potential of mRNA as a new drug class , '' Dr. Uğur Şahin , the CEO and Co-founder of BioNTech , said in the statement .

The coronavirus vaccine developed by Pfizer and BioNTech is 95% effective at preventing COVID-19, the companies announced Wednesday (Nov. 18). They plan on seeking regulatory approval "within days."
Last week, Pfizer announced that an early analysis revealed its vaccine to be more than 90% effective at preventing an infection, greatly exceeding public health experts' expectations, Live Science reported. Since then, enough participants in the trial have become infected with the virus for a final analysis.
This final analysis was based on 170 participants who developed COVID-19. Of those participants, 162 of them were given a placebo — a saline solution that had no impact on preventing infection — and eight were given the vaccine. The results were consistent across different age groups, genders, races and ethnicities, according to the statement. For example, in people over the age of 65, who are at high risk of getting severe COVID-19, efficacy was over 94%.
Related: Coronavirus live updates
The analysis also found that 10 of the COVID-19 cases were severe; nine of the severe cases were among those who received a placebo and one was in a person who received the vaccine.
An external independent data monitoring committee did not report any serious safety concerns in participants who received the vaccine. It was generally "well tolerated" and most side effects such as fatigue and headache resolved quickly, according to the statement. Now, the companies have gathered enough safety data to submit for an Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) from the FDA and plan to do so "within days," according to the statement. They also plan to submit their data to other regulatory agencies globally and to submit data to a peer-reviewed journal.
These results are on par with Moderna's candidate vaccine, which demonstrated a 94.5% efficacy in an early analysis of its phase 3 data (they haven't yet conducted a final analysis), Live Science reported earlier on this week.
Both vaccines were developed using the same technology, one that hasn't yet been used in any approved vaccines to date. The vaccine uses a genetic messenger called mRNA that prompts the body to create the coronavirus' "spike protein." The immune system then learns to recognize the spike protein and builds an arsenal of cells to fight the virus if the person is ever naturally exposed to it.
Pfizer and BioNTech plan to produce up to 50 million doses of its vaccine globally in 2020 and up to 1.3 billion doses of its vaccine by the end of 2021, according to the statement.
The candidate coronavirus vaccine is being tested in a large phase 3 clinical trial that began in late July. The trial will continue for another two years and safety and efficacy data will continue to be collected, the companies said. "These achievements highlight the potential of mRNA as a new drug class," Dr. Uğur Şahin, the CEO and Co-founder of BioNTech, said in the statement.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-11-18--Medieval soldier found with sword and knives at the bottom of a Lithuanian lake

More than 500 years ago , a soldier 's dead body settled at the bottom of a Lithuanian lake , and for centuries it lay hidden beneath the mud .
Now , those submerged remains have finally been found .
The skeleton was discovered during an underwater inspection of the old Dubingiai bridge in eastern Lithuania 's Lake Asveja .
Though the lay under a layer of sand and silt , the scene was not a burial , said archaeologist Elena Pranckėnaitė , a researcher with Klaipėda University in Klaipėda , Lithuania , according to the Baltic News Service ( @ @ @ @ @ @ @ likely deposited sediments that covered the remains over time .
Scientists with the Faculty of Medicine at Vilnius University in Vilnius , Lithuania , examined the body and reported that the person was male and that he died in the 16th century , though they do n't yet know why he died , according to BNS .
Weapons and other items recovered from the lake bottom near the body hinted at the dead man 's military status , Pranckėnaitė told Live Science in an email .
Human burials linked to warfare have previously @ @ @ @ @ @ @ this is the first time that a medieval soldier has been discovered underwater in Lithuania , Pranckėnaitė said .
Dubingiai Bridge , one of the longest wooden bridges still in use in Lithuania , was built in 1934 , and its deteriorating beams are currently being replaced with metal poles , representatives of TEC Infrastructure , the company supervising the repair project under the Lithuanian Ministry of Transport and Communications , .
Archaeologists collaborated with amateur divers to perform the survey , and divers located the remains at a depth of 30 feet @ @ @ @ @ @ @ wooden bridge 's support system , according to the statement .
A previous survey in 1998 had revealed that another bridge once stood in the same place , dating to the 16th or 17th century — around the time that the medieval soldier died , Pranckėnaitė added .
`` For now , we assume that those discovered human remains could be linked with the former bridge leading to Dubingiai castle , which was situated on the hilltop on the shore of Asveja Lake , '' she said .
Finding the soldier 's remains @ @ @ @ @ @ @ astonishing was the remarkable preservation of the skeleton and artifacts .
The divers recovered a pair of leather boots with spurs ; a leather belt with a buckle ; an iron sword ; `` and two knives with wooden handles , '' Pranckėnaitė wrote in the email .
A team of archaeologists , anthropologists and historians at the National Museum of Lithuania are now working to conserve and interpret the objects .
This discovery and data `` are really 'fresh ' and still need to be carefully analyzed , '' Pranckėnaitė said .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ ' of this soldier at least in a year . ''

More than 500 years ago, a medieval soldier's dead body settled at the bottom of a Lithuanian lake, and for centuries it lay hidden beneath the mud. Now, those submerged remains have finally been found.
The skeleton was discovered during an underwater inspection of the old Dubingiai bridge in eastern Lithuania's Lake Asveja. Though the skeleton lay under a layer of sand and silt, the scene was not a burial, said archaeologist Elena Pranckėnaitė, a researcher with Klaipėda University in Klaipėda, Lithuania, according to the Baltic News Service (BNS). Rather, water currents likely deposited sediments that covered the remains over time.
Scientists with the Faculty of Medicine at Vilnius University in Vilnius, Lithuania, examined the body and reported that the person was male and that he died in the 16th century, though they don't yet know why he died, according to BNS. Weapons and other items recovered from the lake bottom near the body hinted at the dead man's military status, Pranckėnaitė told Live Science in an email.
Related: Photos: Medieval skeletons unearthed near saint's tomb in England
Human burials linked to warfare have previously been excavated across the region, but this is the first time that a medieval soldier has been discovered underwater in Lithuania, Pranckėnaitė said.
Dubingiai Bridge, one of the longest wooden bridges still in use in Lithuania, was built in 1934, and its deteriorating beams are currently being replaced with metal poles, representatives of TEC Infrastructure, the company supervising the repair project under the Lithuanian Ministry of Transport and Communications, said in a statement . Archaeologists collaborated with amateur divers to perform the survey, and divers located the remains at a depth of 30 feet (9 meters) while inspecting the wooden bridge's support system, according to the statement.
Divers excavate the medieval remains and weapons from the bottom of Lake Asveja, near the Dubingiai Bridge. (Image credit: Photo by G. Krakauskas)
A previous survey in 1998 had revealed that another bridge once stood in the same place, dating to the 16th or 17th century — around the time that the medieval soldier died, Pranckėnaitė added.
"For now, we assume that those discovered human remains could be linked with the former bridge leading to Dubingiai castle, which was situated on the hilltop on the shore of Asveja Lake," she said.
Finding the soldier's remains was a big surprise, but equally astonishing was the remarkable preservation of the skeleton and artifacts. The divers recovered a pair of leather boots with spurs; a leather belt with a buckle; an iron sword; "and two knives with wooden handles," Pranckėnaitė wrote in the email. A team of archaeologists, anthropologists and historians at the National Museum of Lithuania are now working to conserve and interpret the objects.
This discovery and data "are really 'fresh' and still need to be carefully analyzed," Pranckėnaitė said. "We hope to 'tell the story' of this soldier at least in a year."
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-11-18--'Baby Yoda' revealed as astronauts' zero-g indicator on SpaceX Crew-1 mission

The astronauts who lifted off on SpaceX 's first operational crewed mission for NASA are proving `` this is the way . ''
A few hours after launching to the International Space Station on Sunday ( Nov. 15 ) , the Crew-1 astronauts showed off their fifth crew member — '' And as you can see live , they have now revealed to us the zero-g indicator and it looks like a little baby Yoda ! ''
said SpaceX engineer Jessica Anderson , describing the doll as she provided live mission commentary on NASA TV .
The toy , modeled @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Star Wars series `` The Mandalorian , '' is part of a long tradition of astronauts flying small dolls to signal when they enter orbit .
The toys , which are generally tethered to a wall or other anchor , begin to float about the cabin when the launch phase of the flight ends , indicating that the crew is in zero-g. Video : Watch Baby Yoda float in zero-g on SpaceX 's Crew-1 spacecraft Live updates : SpaceX 's Crew-1 astronaut launch for NASA The custom began on Russian spaceflights , dating @ @ @ @ @ @ @ human into space in 1961 .
Soviet-era cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin carried a small doll with him on his Vostok 1 mission to watch it float .
Since then , the zero-g indicators have varied from homemade dolls to off-the-shelf , commercial toys .
SpaceX adopted the practice with its first test flight of the Crew Dragon spacecraft , launching a plush doll of the planet Earth on its 2019 Demo-1 mission to the space station .
The was then joined by a which was chosen by the sons of Demo-2 crewmates Bob Behnken @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Earth '' and dinosaur toys returned home with the Demo-2 astronauts earlier this year .
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You can get a 7-day free trial here • Sign up for Disney Plus for $ 6.99/month It was not yet clear why the Crew-1 astronauts — commander Michael Hopkins , pilot Victor Glover and mission specialists Shannon Walker and Soichi Noguchi — selected `` The Child '' as their zero-g indicator , though it might have something to do with their backup , NASA astronaut Kjell Lindgren .
A self-professed @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Lindgren convinced his crewmates on an earlier space station mission to dress up like Jedi for a NASA promotional poster and he picked out an R2-D2 toy to serve as the zero-g indicator for his 2015 launch on a Russian Soyuz spacecraft .
Hopkins , Glover , Walker and Noguchi were just beginning a 27-hour rendezvous with the space station when they displayed The Child on board the `` Resilience , '' the name they gave their Crew Dragon spacecraft .
`` Baby Yoda says you guys can come back on board , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ controllers permission to turn on the cameras aboard the capsule .
They astronauts are expected to dock at the station on Monday ( Nov. 16 ) at about 11 p.m. EST ( 0400 GMT on Nov. 17 ) .
After arriving , they will join other astronauts and cosmonauts to form the Expeditions 64 and 65 crews during their planned six-month stay .
In the meantime , The Child will continue to float around .
`` As we get more views inside the cabin , we will have to keep an eye out @ @ @ @ @ @ @ again , '' NASA mission commentator Leah Cheshier said .
You can watch SpaceX 's Crew-1 flight for NASA live here , courtesy of NASA TV .
The Crew-1 Dragon capsule Resilience is scheduled to dock at the International Space Station Monday night at 11 p.m. EST ( 0400 GMT ) .
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Copyright 2020 collectSPACE.com .
All rights reserved .

The astronauts who lifted off on SpaceX's first operational crewed mission for NASA are proving "this is the way."
A few hours after launching to the International Space Station on Sunday (Nov. 15), the Crew-1 astronauts showed off their fifth crew member — a small plush doll of "The Child."
"And as you can see live, they have now revealed to us the zero-g indicator and it looks like a little baby Yoda!" said SpaceX engineer Jessica Anderson, describing the doll as she provided live mission commentary on NASA TV.
The toy, modeled after the character from the Disney Plus Star Wars series "The Mandalorian," is part of a long tradition of astronauts flying small dolls to signal when they enter orbit. The toys, which are generally tethered to a wall or other anchor, begin to float about the cabin when the launch phase of the flight ends, indicating that the crew is in zero-g.
Video: Watch Baby Yoda float in zero-g on SpaceX's Crew-1 spacecraft
Live updates: SpaceX's Crew-1 astronaut launch for NASA
Mattel Star Wars The Child Plush Toy | $12.99 from Target
A small plush toy of The Child from the Star Wars TV series The Mandalorian on Disney Plus.
The Crew-1 astronauts' zero-g indicator, "The Child" ("Baby Yoda") from the Disney Plus Star Wars series "The Mandalorian" floats into pilot Victor Glover's seat on the SpaceX Crew Dragon. (Image credit: NASA TV)
The custom began on Russian spaceflights, dating back to the first launch of a human into space in 1961. Soviet-era cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin carried a small doll with him on his Vostok 1 mission to watch it float. Since then, the zero-g indicators have varied from homemade dolls to off-the-shelf, commercial toys.
SpaceX adopted the practice with its first test flight of the Crew Dragon spacecraft, launching a plush doll of the planet Earth on its 2019 Demo-1 mission to the space station. The Celestial Buddies' Earth was then joined by a sequined apatosaur, "Tremor," which was chosen by the sons of Demo-2 crewmates Bob Behnken and Doug Hurley.
The "Little Earth" and dinosaur toys returned home with the Demo-2 astronauts earlier this year.
A small plush toy of "The Child" or "Baby Yoda" from the Disney Plus Star Wars series "The Mandalorian" is seen floating on board the SpaceX Crew Dragon "Resilience" as the zero-g indicator for the four Crew-1 astronauts on Sunday, Nov. 15, 2020. (Image credit: NASA TV)
It was not yet clear why the Crew-1 astronauts — commander Michael Hopkins, pilot Victor Glover and mission specialists Shannon Walker and Soichi Noguchi — selected "The Child" as their zero-g indicator, though it might have something to do with their backup, NASA astronaut Kjell Lindgren.
A self-professed "big Star Wars fan," Lindgren convinced his crewmates on an earlier space station mission to dress up like Jedi for a NASA promotional poster and he picked out an R2-D2 toy to serve as the zero-g indicator for his 2015 launch on a Russian Soyuz spacecraft.
Hopkins, Glover, Walker and Noguchi were just beginning a 27-hour rendezvous with the space station when they displayed The Child on board the "Resilience," the name they gave their Crew Dragon spacecraft. "Baby Yoda says you guys can come back on board," said Glover, giving the flight controllers permission to turn on the cameras aboard the capsule.
They astronauts are expected to dock at the station on Monday (Nov. 16) at about 11 p.m. EST (0400 GMT on Nov. 17). After arriving, they will join other astronauts and cosmonauts to form the Expeditions 64 and 65 crews during their planned six-month stay.
In the meantime, The Child will continue to float around.
"As we get more views inside the cabin, we will have to keep an eye out and see if we might spot him again," NASA mission commentator Leah Cheshier said.
You can watch SpaceX's Crew-1 flight for NASA live here, courtesy of NASA TV. The Crew-1 Dragon capsule Resilience is scheduled to dock at the International Space Station Monday night at 11 p.m. EST (0400 GMT).


livescience--2020-11-18--What are monoclonal antibodies? (And why do we need them?)

When President Trump was diagnosed with COVID-19 , one of the cutting-edge experimental therapies he received was a mixture of monoclonal antibodies .
But now a vaccine may soon be available .
So are other therapies necessary or valuable ?
And what exactly is a monoclonal antibody ?
Over the past few months , the public has learned about many treatments being used to combat COVID-19 .
An antiviral like remdesivir inhibits the virus from replicating in human cells .
Convalescent plasma from the blood of donors who have recovered from COVID-19 may contain antibodies that suppress the virus and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and reduce the dangerous inflammatory damage to the lungs , thereby slowing respiratory failure .
The FDA issued emergency use authorization for Eli Lilly ’ s monoclonal antibody , called bamlanivimab , and Regeneron is waiting for FDA ’ s green light for its antibody treatment .
Monoclonal antibodies are particularly promising in therapy because they can neutralize the SARS-CoV-2 virus , which causes COVID-19 , and block its ability to infect a cell .
This might be a lifesaving intervention in people who are unable to mount a strong natural immune response @ @ @ @ @ @ @ or with existing conditions that make them more vulnerable .
I ’ ve worked in public health and medical laboratories for decades , specializing in the study of viruses and other microbes .
Even when a vaccine for COVID-19 becomes available , I see a role for monoclonal antibody therapy in getting the pandemic under control .
Why should we care ?
Until a large percentage of a population has immunity to an infectious disease – either through a vaccine or the unchecked spread through a community – the world must rely on @ @ @ @ @ @ @ COVID-19 pandemic .
Along with the previously mentioned therapies , monoclonal antibodies can offer us another tool to neutralize the virus once it causes an infection .
These man-made antibodies offer the world the possibility of immunotherapy similar to the use of convalescent plasma but with a more targeted and accurate action .
While a vaccine will ultimately help protect the public , vaccination will not be an instantaneous event , delivering vaccine to 100 % of the population .
Nor do we know how effective it will be .
The impact of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
It takes several weeks to generate a powerful antibody response .
In the interim , monoclonal antibodies could help mop up virus that is multiplying in the body .
An antibody is a Y-shaped protein naturally produced by our body ’ s immune system to target something that is foreign , or not part of you .
These foreign bodies are called antigens and can be found on allergens , bacteria and viruses as well as other things like toxins or a transplanted organ .
A monoclonal antibody treatment mimics the body @ @ @ @ @ @ @ foreign agents , like a virus , that infect or harm people .
There are also monoclonal antibodies that pharmaceutical companies have designed that target cancer cells .
Monoclonal antibodies are one of most powerful types of medicine .
In 2019 seven of the top 10 best-selling drugs were monoclonal antibodies .
For President Trump , the experimental treatment made by the pharmaceutical company Regeneron included two antibodies .
Typically the spike protein on the coronavirus fits perfectly into the ACE2 receptor on human cells , a protein common in lung cells and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , the virus is able to infect cells and multiply inside them .
But monoclonal antibodies can slow or halt the infection by attaching to the viral spike protein before it reaches the ACE2 receptor .
If this happens , the virus becomes harmless because it can no longer enter our cells and reproduce .
Monoclonal antibodies that neutralize the coronavirus are complicated to manufacture and produce .
They must be made inside cells taken from a hamster ’ s ovary and grown in gigantic steel vats .
The antibodies that these cells @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
Unfortunately these monoclonal antibodies , which have been used for other illnesses for years , are often quite expensive .
Regeneron ’ s two antibodies are targeted to the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 – the protrusions on the surface of virus that give it a crown-like look and are critical for infecting human cells .
One of Regeneron ’ s two antibodies is a replica , or clone , of an antibody harvested from a person who recovered from COVID-19 .
The second antibody was identified in a mouse that was biologically @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
When this mouse was injected with the spike protein , its human immune system generated antibodies against it .
One of the most effective mouse antibodies was then harvested and used to form part of this therapy .
Eli Lilly ’ s monoclonal antibody therapy , bamlanivimab , was identified from a blood sample taken from one of the first U.S. patients who recovered from COVID-19 .
Both companies have in place large-scale manufacturing with robust , global supply chains in place to produce the monoclonal antibodies , with many global manufacturing @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Lilly has received FDA approval , and Regeneron is still awaiting approval .
Unfortunately , there will likely be a shortage of the antibodies in the early going of approvals .
Monoclonal antibodies will be able to complement vaccines by offering rapid protection against infection .
When they are given to an individual , monoclonal antibodies provide instantaneous protection for weeks to months .
Vaccines take longer to provide protection since they must challenge the immune system .
But the advantage of a vaccine is that they usually provide long-term protection .
[ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ for The Conversation ’ s newsletter . ]
Regeneron ’ s and Eli Lilly ’ s products are both delivered by intravenous injection , after which the patient must be monitored by health care professionals .
Since they offer immediate protection , the implications to treat or provide protection to high-risk populations is immense .
These medicines have the potential to treat infected patients or prevent infection of essential health care and public health professionals on the front line of this pandemic .
Monoclonal antibodies could also be useful for older people , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ vaccines either don ’ t work or can be dangerous .
This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license .
Read the original article .
Follow all of the Expert Voices issues and debates — and become part of the discussion — on Facebook and Twitter .
The views expressed are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the publisher .
This version of the article was originally published on Live Science .

When President Trump was diagnosed with COVID-19, one of the cutting-edge experimental therapies he received was a mixture of monoclonal antibodies. But now a vaccine may soon be available. So are other therapies necessary or valuable? And what exactly is a monoclonal antibody?
Over the past few months, the public has learned about many treatments being used to combat COVID-19. An antiviral like remdesivir inhibits the virus from replicating in human cells. Convalescent plasma from the blood of donors who have recovered from COVID-19 may contain antibodies that suppress the virus and inflammation. Steroids like dexamethasone may modify and reduce the dangerous inflammatory damage to the lungs, thereby slowing respiratory failure.
The FDA issued emergency use authorization for Eli Lilly’s monoclonal antibody, called bamlanivimab, and Regeneron is waiting for FDA’s green light for its antibody treatment. Monoclonal antibodies are particularly promising in therapy because they can neutralize the SARS-CoV-2 virus, which causes COVID-19, and block its ability to infect a cell. This might be a lifesaving intervention in people who are unable to mount a strong natural immune response to the virus – those over 65 or with existing conditions that make them more vulnerable.
I’ve worked in public health and medical laboratories for decades, specializing in the study of viruses and other microbes. Even when a vaccine for COVID-19 becomes available, I see a role for monoclonal antibody therapy in getting the pandemic under control.
Why should we care?
Until a large percentage of a population has immunity to an infectious disease – either through a vaccine or the unchecked spread through a community – the world must rely on other weapons in our war against the COVID-19 pandemic.
Along with the previously mentioned therapies, monoclonal antibodies can offer us another tool to neutralize the virus once it causes an infection.
These man-made antibodies offer the world the possibility of immunotherapy similar to the use of convalescent plasma but with a more targeted and accurate action. While a vaccine will ultimately help protect the public, vaccination will not be an instantaneous event, delivering vaccine to 100% of the population. Nor do we know how effective it will be.
The impact of a vaccine also isn’t instantaneous. It takes several weeks to generate a powerful antibody response. In the interim, monoclonal antibodies could help mop up virus that is multiplying in the body.
Antibody 101
An antibody is a Y-shaped protein naturally produced by our body’s immune system to target something that is foreign, or not part of you. These foreign bodies are called antigens and can be found on allergens, bacteria and viruses as well as other things like toxins or a transplanted organ.
A monoclonal antibody treatment mimics the body’s natural immune response and targets foreign agents, like a virus, that infect or harm people. There are also monoclonal antibodies that pharmaceutical companies have designed that target cancer cells. Monoclonal antibodies are one of most powerful types of medicine. In 2019 seven of the top 10 best-selling drugs were monoclonal antibodies.
For President Trump, the experimental treatment made by the pharmaceutical company Regeneron included two antibodies.
Typically the spike protein on the coronavirus fits perfectly into the ACE2 receptor on human cells, a protein common in lung cells and other organs. When this connection happens, the virus is able to infect cells and multiply inside them. But monoclonal antibodies can slow or halt the infection by attaching to the viral spike protein before it reaches the ACE2 receptor. If this happens, the virus becomes harmless because it can no longer enter our cells and reproduce.
How are monoclonal antibodies created?
Monoclonal antibodies that neutralize the coronavirus are complicated to manufacture and produce. They must be made inside cells taken from a hamster’s ovary and grown in gigantic steel vats. The antibodies that these cells manufacture must then be extracted and purified. Unfortunately these monoclonal antibodies, which have been used for other illnesses for years, are often quite expensive.
Regeneron’s two antibodies are targeted to the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 – the protrusions on the surface of virus that give it a crown-like look and are critical for infecting human cells.
One of Regeneron’s two antibodies is a replica, or clone, of an antibody harvested from a person who recovered from COVID-19. The second antibody was identified in a mouse that was biologically engineered to have a human immune system. When this mouse was injected with the spike protein, its human immune system generated antibodies against it. One of the most effective mouse antibodies was then harvested and used to form part of this therapy.
Eli Lilly’s monoclonal antibody therapy, bamlanivimab, was identified from a blood sample taken from one of the first U.S. patients who recovered from COVID-19.
Both companies have in place large-scale manufacturing with robust, global supply chains in place to produce the monoclonal antibodies, with many global manufacturing sites to ramp up supply. Eli Lilly has received FDA approval, and Regeneron is still awaiting approval. Unfortunately, there will likely be a shortage of the antibodies in the early going of approvals.
Monoclonal antibodies plus a vaccine
Monoclonal antibodies will be able to complement vaccines by offering rapid protection against infection. When they are given to an individual, monoclonal antibodies provide instantaneous protection for weeks to months. Vaccines take longer to provide protection since they must challenge the immune system. But the advantage of a vaccine is that they usually provide long-term protection.
[Deep knowledge, daily. Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter.]
Regeneron’s and Eli Lilly’s products are both delivered by intravenous injection, after which the patient must be monitored by health care professionals. Since they offer immediate protection, the implications to treat or provide protection to high-risk populations is immense.
These medicines have the potential to treat infected patients or prevent infection of essential health care and public health professionals on the front line of this pandemic. Monoclonal antibodies could also be useful for older people, young children and immunocompromised people for whom vaccines either don’t work or can be dangerous.
This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.
Follow all of the Expert Voices issues and debates — and become part of the discussion — on Facebook and Twitter. The views expressed are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the publisher. This version of the article was originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-11-18--Ancient fragment of the Pacific Ocean found buried 400 miles below China

Scientists have identified an old piece of the Pacific Ocean – the ancient remains of its long-ago seabed – extending hundreds of miles underneath China , as it is pulled downward into Earth 's mantle transition zone .
This rocky slab that used to line the bottom of the Pacific is a relic of the oceanic lithosphere , the outermost layer of Earth 's surface , composed of the crust and the solid outermost parts of the upper mantle .
The lithosphere is n't always destined to enjoy the views up top , however .
The upper surface layer is @ @ @ @ @ @ @ which slowly move and shift around at the surface , occasionally running into each other .
During these collisions , a geological process called subduction can occur , where one plate gets forced under the other at subduction zones , and ends up being driven ever deeper into the planet .
In a new study , scientists from China and the US have now witnessed this epic phenomenon taking place at greater depths than ever before observed .
Prior to this , scientists had recorded subducting slabs probing the boundaries at depths of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ) .
Now , thanks to giant network of over 300 seismic stations spread around northeastern China , researchers were able to see the event at a much lower point , imaging parts of the tectonic plate that used to lie under the Pacific Ocean being pushed into the mantle 's mid-level transition zone , at depths ranging between 410–660 kilometers ( 254–410 miles ) below Earth 's surface .
To interpret the sinking slab , the team identified two seismic velocity discontinuities , regions far underground where seismic waves encounter anomalies .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ encountered , which the team says related to both the top and bottom sides of the plunging plate .
`` Based on detail seismological analyses , the upper discontinuity was interpreted to be the Moho discontinuity of the subducted slab , '' says geophysicist Qi-Fu Chen from the Chinese Academy of Sciences .
`` The lower discontinuity is likely caused by partial melting of sub-slab asthenosphere under hydrous conditions in the seaward portion of the slab . ''
While the plate 's subduction can be seen in process below China , the subduction @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , with the slab being angled at a relatively shallow 25-degree angle downwards .
`` Japan is located about where the Pacific plate reaches around 100-kilometre depths , '' says seismologist Fenglin Niu from Rice University .
Thanks to the new imaging , scientists are getting a better idea of what happens to a subducted slab when it reaches this part of the transition zone , including how deformed it gets , and how much water content it loses from its oceanic crust .
`` A lot of studies suggest that the slab @ @ @ @ @ @ @ transition zone , that it becomes soft , so it 's easily deformed , '' Niu says .
`` We are still debating whether this water is totally released in that depth .
There is increasing evidence that a portion of the water stays inside the plate to go much , much deeper . ''
The findings are reported in Nature Geoscience .
This article was originally published by ScienceAlert .
Read the original article here .

Scientists have identified an old piece of the Pacific Ocean – the ancient remains of its long-ago seabed – extending hundreds of miles underneath China, as it is pulled downward into Earth's mantle transition zone.
This rocky slab that used to line the bottom of the Pacific is a relic of the oceanic lithosphere, the outermost layer of Earth's surface, composed of the crust and the solid outermost parts of the upper mantle.
The lithosphere isn't always destined to enjoy the views up top, however. The upper surface layer is composed of several fragmented tectonic plates, which slowly move and shift around at the surface, occasionally running into each other.
During these collisions, a geological process called subduction can occur, where one plate gets forced under the other at subduction zones, and ends up being driven ever deeper into the planet.
In a new study, scientists from China and the US have now witnessed this epic phenomenon taking place at greater depths than ever before observed.
The scientists discovered the ancient remains of a long-ago seabed – extending hundreds of miles underneath China in Earth's mantle transition zone. (Image credit: CHEN Qifu's group)
Prior to this, scientists had recorded subducting slabs probing the boundaries at depths of about 200 kilometers (roughly 125 miles).
Now, thanks to giant network of over 300 seismic stations spread around northeastern China, researchers were able to see the event at a much lower point, imaging parts of the tectonic plate that used to lie under the Pacific Ocean being pushed into the mantle's mid-level transition zone, at depths ranging between 410–660 kilometers (254–410 miles) below Earth's surface.
To interpret the sinking slab, the team identified two seismic velocity discontinuities, regions far underground where seismic waves encounter anomalies. In this case, two anomalies were encountered, which the team says related to both the top and bottom sides of the plunging plate.
"Based on detail seismological analyses, the upper discontinuity was interpreted to be the Moho discontinuity of the subducted slab," says geophysicist Qi-Fu Chen from the Chinese Academy of Sciences.
"The lower discontinuity is likely caused by partial melting of sub-slab asthenosphere under hydrous conditions in the seaward portion of the slab."
While the plate's subduction can be seen in process below China, the subduction zone itself lies far to the east, with the slab being angled at a relatively shallow 25-degree angle downwards.
"Japan is located about where the Pacific plate reaches around 100-kilometre depths," says seismologist Fenglin Niu from Rice University.
Thanks to the new imaging, scientists are getting a better idea of what happens to a subducted slab when it reaches this part of the transition zone, including how deformed it gets, and how much water content it loses from its oceanic crust.
"A lot of studies suggest that the slab actually deforms a lot in the mantle transition zone, that it becomes soft, so it's easily deformed," Niu says.
"We are still debating whether this water is totally released in that depth. There is increasing evidence that a portion of the water stays inside the plate to go much, much deeper."
The findings are reported in Nature Geoscience.
This article was originally published by ScienceAlert. Read the original article here.