livescience--2020-11-08--How long do most species last before going extinct?

The majestic blue whale has plied the seas for about , while the winked out of existence in a few hundred thousand years .
But are those creatures representative of species overall ?
How long do species usually last before they go extinct ?
It turns out the answer we find now could be very different than it usually is .
Because of habitat destruction , , and a range of other factors , plants and animals are disappearing from the planet faster than all but maybe five other points in history .
Some experts say we 're in the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of Earth 's history , the answer has varied depending on the type of species you 're looking at .
For mammals , the average species exists for 1 million to 2 million years , according to an article in the journal .
However , this average does n't hold during all geologic periods and for all mammals .
The average for the ( 65 million years ago to present ) mammals is 3.21 million years , with larger mammals lasting longer than smaller mammals , according to a 2013 study in the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ duration is even more impressive ; they last between 5 million to 10 million years , on average .
Related : What 's the first species humans drove to extinction ?
These numbers , however , are contentious .
Experts do n't agree on the average amount of time that species in any category last before going extinct .
The fossil record documents when a species shows up and when it disappears , but it leaves a wide margin of error because conditions must be perfect for , and those conditions are n't @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and blinks out .
And these longevity stats are n't that useful anyway .
Stuart Pimm , a leading extinction expert and a conservation ecologist at Duke University 's Nicholas School of the Environment , said he prefers to think about extinction in terms of how many species die out every day , or month , or year .
`` It 's easier to think of in terms of… death rates , largely because there are some species that live a really long time , '' Pimm said .
`` And then there @ @ @ @ @ @ @ And the average does n't really help you as much as you might think . ''
This species death rate , called the background extinction rate , is also contentious .
Pimm placed the historic number — a figure that covers all time , excluding mass extinctions — at around one species extinction per 1 million species per year .
That means that if there were a million species on the planet , one would have gone extinct each year .
( For comparison , there are about 8.7 million species on the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in the journal . )
However , other experts estimate species typically die off at a rate of 0.1 species per million per year and still others at two species per million per year , according to a research article in the journal .
The current extinction rate is much higher than any of these predictions about the past — about 1,000 times more than Pimm 's background extinction rate estimate , he said .
However , not everyone agrees on how accelerated species extinction is now , said Tierra Curry , a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Diversity in Oregon .
Some experts estimate that the current extinction rate is only 100 times faster or , at the other extreme , 10,000 times faster .
There are several reasons why estimates of the current extinction rate vary .
`` The extinction rate is based on how many species are on Earth and how rapidly they 're going extinct , '' Curry said .
`` And no one actually knows the answer to either one of those questions . ''
About 90 % of living species — largely insects — are @ @ @ @ @ @ @ if researchers do n't know that a species existed , they wo n't know it went extinct .
Another complication is that it can be difficult to tell when species are dead .
Just because researchers haven ’ t seen them for several years does n't mean they 're gone for good .
Calculations can get more difficult when species are extinct in the wild but live on in zoos .
One thing the experts do agree on is that the modern extinction rate is far too high .
`` Species are adapting @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Pimm said .
`` But eventually the luck runs out and they do n't adapt fast enough .
And they go . ''

The majestic blue whale has plied the seas for about 4.5 million years , while the Neanderthals winked out of existence in a few hundred thousand years. But are those creatures representative of species overall? How long do species usually last before they go extinct?
It turns out the answer we find now could be very different than it usually is. Because of habitat destruction, climate change , and a range of other factors, plants and animals are disappearing from the planet faster than all but maybe five other points in history. Some experts say we're in the sixth mass extinction event. But even in calmer periods of Earth's history, the answer has varied depending on the type of species you're looking at. For mammals, the average species exists for 1 million to 2 million years, according to an article in the journal People & the planet .
However, this average doesn't hold during all geologic periods and for all mammals. The average for the Cenozoic era (65 million years ago to present) mammals is 3.21 million years, with larger mammals lasting longer than smaller mammals, according to a 2013 study in the journal Integrative Zoology . For invertebrate species, the duration is even more impressive; they last between 5 million to 10 million years, on average.
Related: What's the first species humans drove to extinction?
These numbers, however, are contentious. Experts don't agree on the average amount of time that species in any category last before going extinct. The fossil record documents when a species shows up and when it disappears, but it leaves a wide margin of error because conditions must be perfect for fossils to form , and those conditions aren't always present when a species shows up and blinks out. And these longevity stats aren't that useful anyway. Stuart Pimm, a leading extinction expert and a conservation ecologist at Duke University's Nicholas School of the Environment, said he prefers to think about extinction in terms of how many species die out every day, or month, or year.
"It's easier to think of in terms of… death rates, largely because there are some species that live a really long time," Pimm said. "And then there are other species that are short-lived. And the average doesn't really help you as much as you might think."
This species death rate, called the background extinction rate, is also contentious. Pimm placed the historic number — a figure that covers all time, excluding mass extinctions — at around one species extinction per 1 million species per year. That means that if there were a million species on the planet, one would have gone extinct each year. (For comparison, there are about 8.7 million species on the planet today, according to a study in the journal PLOS Biology .) However, other experts estimate species typically die off at a rate of 0.1 species per million per year and still others at two species per million per year, according to a research article in the journal Science Advances .
The current extinction rate is much higher than any of these predictions about the past — about 1,000 times more than Pimm's background extinction rate estimate, he said. However, not everyone agrees on how accelerated species extinction is now, said Tierra Curry, a senior scientist at the Center for Biological Diversity in Oregon. Some experts estimate that the current extinction rate is only 100 times faster or, at the other extreme, 10,000 times faster.
There are several reasons why estimates of the current extinction rate vary. "The extinction rate is based on how many species are on Earth and how rapidly they're going extinct," Curry said. "And no one actually knows the answer to either one of those questions." About 90% of living species — largely insects — are probably unnamed, Pimm added. And if researchers don't know that a species existed, they won't know it went extinct. Another complication is that it can be difficult to tell when species are dead. Just because researchers haven’t seen them for several years doesn't mean they're gone for good. Calculations can get more difficult when species are extinct in the wild but live on in zoos.
One thing the experts do agree on is that the modern extinction rate is far too high. "Species are adapting as fast as they can," Pimm said. "But eventually the luck runs out and they don't adapt fast enough. And they go."
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-11-09--This bacterium survived on the outside of the Space Station for an entire year

A year in space is no walk in the park .
Just ask Scott Kelly , the American astronaut who spent a year on the International Space Station ( ISS ) in 2015 .
His long-term stay in space changed his DNA , telomeres , and gut microbiome , he lost bone density , and he still had sore feet three months later .
But it 's a whole other thing to survive in the naked space outside the protection of the ISS , where UV radiation , vacuum , huge temperature fluctuations , and microgravity are all imminent threats @ @ @ @ @ @ @ feat that a species of bacterium first found in a can of meat , Deinococcus radiodurans , was still alive and kicking after a year spent living on a specially designed platform outside the pressurized module of the ISS .
Researchers have been investigating these mighty microbes for a while ; back in 2015 , an international team set up the Tanpopo mission on the outside of the Japanese Experimental Module Kibo , to put hardy bacterial species to the test .
Now , D. radiodurans has passed with flying colors .
The @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the ISS , and placed in the Exposed Facility , a platform continuously exposed to the space environment ; in this case , the cells were behind a glass window that blocked out UV light at wavelengths lower than 190 nanometers .
`` Results presented in this study may increase awareness regarding planetary protection concerns on , for instance , the Martian atmosphere which absorbs UV radiation below 190-200 nm , '' the team from Austria , Japan , and Germany wrote in their new paper .
`` To mimic this condition , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a silicon dioxide glass window . ''
This is n't the longest time D. radiodurans has been kept in these conditions – back in August we wrote about a sample of the bacterium being left up there for three whole years .
But the team were n't trying for a world record , instead they were trying to uncover what makes D. radiodurans just so good at surviving in these extreme conditions .
So , after a year of radiation , freezing and boiling temperatures , and no gravity , the researchers got @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , rehydrated both a control that had spent the year on Earth and the Low Earth Orbit ( LEO ) sample , and compared their results .
The survival rate was a lot lower for the LEO bacteria compared to the control version , but the bacteria that did survive seemed to be doing okay , even if they had turned a little different to their Earth-bound brethren .
The team found that the LEO bacteria were covered with small bumps or vesicles on the surface , a number of repair mechanisms had @ @ @ @ @ @ @ mRNAs had become more abundant .
The team is n't exactly sure why the vesicles ( which you can see in the picture above ) formed , but they do have a couple of ideas .
`` Intensified vesiculation after recovery from LEO exposure can serve as a quick stress response , which augments cell survival by withdrawing stress products , '' the team wrote .
`` Additionally , outer membrane vesicles may contain proteins important for nutrient acquisition , DNA transfer , transport of toxins and quorum sensing molecules , eliciting the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . ''
This kind of study helps us understand whether bacteria could survive other worlds , and maybe even the journey between them , which will become more and more important as we humans and the germs we bring with us begin to travel farther than our Moon into the Solar System , and one day maybe even beyond .
`` These investigations help us to understand the mechanisms and processes through which life can exist beyond Earth , expanding our knowledge on how to survive and adapt in the hostile environment of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Vienna biochemist Tetyana Milojevic .
`` The results suggest that survival of D. radiodurans in LEO for a longer period is possible due to its efficient molecular response system and indicate that even longer , farther journeys are achievable for organisms with such capabilities . ''
The research has been published in Microbiome .
This article was originally published by ScienceAlert .
Read the original article here .

Space traveler Deinococcus radiodurans recovered after a year of exposure to low Earth orbit (LEO) outside the International Space Station during the Tanpopo space Mission.
A year in space is no walk in the park. Just ask Scott Kelly, the American astronaut who spent a year on the International Space Station (ISS) in 2015.
His long-term stay in space changed his DNA, telomeres, and gut microbiome, he lost bone density, and he still had sore feet three months later.
But it's a whole other thing to survive in the naked space outside the protection of the ISS, where UV radiation, vacuum, huge temperature fluctuations, and microgravity are all imminent threats.
So, it's quite a feat that a species of bacterium first found in a can of meat, Deinococcus radiodurans, was still alive and kicking after a year spent living on a specially designed platform outside the pressurized module of the ISS.
Researchers have been investigating these mighty microbes for a while; back in 2015, an international team set up the Tanpopo mission on the outside of the Japanese Experimental Module Kibo, to put hardy bacterial species to the test.
Now, D. radiodurans has passed with flying colors.
The bacterial cells were dehydrated, shipped to the ISS, and placed in the Exposed Facility, a platform continuously exposed to the space environment; in this case, the cells were behind a glass window that blocked out UV light at wavelengths lower than 190 nanometers.
"Results presented in this study may increase awareness regarding planetary protection concerns on, for instance, the Martian atmosphere which absorbs UV radiation below 190-200 nm," the team from Austria, Japan, and Germany wrote in their new paper.
"To mimic this condition, our experimental setup on the ISS included a silicon dioxide glass window."
This isn't the longest time D. radiodurans has been kept in these conditions – back in August we wrote about a sample of the bacterium being left up there for three whole years.
But the team weren't trying for a world record, instead they were trying to uncover what makes D. radiodurans just so good at surviving in these extreme conditions.
So, after a year of radiation, freezing and boiling temperatures, and no gravity, the researchers got the spacefaring bacteria back down to Earth, rehydrated both a control that had spent the year on Earth and the Low Earth Orbit (LEO) sample, and compared their results.
The survival rate was a lot lower for the LEO bacteria compared to the control version, but the bacteria that did survive seemed to be doing okay, even if they had turned a little different to their Earth-bound brethren.
The team found that the LEO bacteria were covered with small bumps or vesicles on the surface, a number of repair mechanisms had been triggered, and some proteins and mRNAs had become more abundant.
The team isn't exactly sure why the vesicles (which you can see in the picture above) formed, but they do have a couple of ideas.
"Intensified vesiculation after recovery from LEO exposure can serve as a quick stress response, which augments cell survival by withdrawing stress products," the team wrote.
"Additionally, outer membrane vesicles may contain proteins important for nutrient acquisition, DNA transfer, transport of toxins and quorum sensing molecules, eliciting the activation of resistance mechanisms after space exposure."
This kind of study helps us understand whether bacteria could survive other worlds, and maybe even the journey between them, which will become more and more important as we humans and the germs we bring with us begin to travel farther than our Moon into the Solar System, and one day maybe even beyond.
"These investigations help us to understand the mechanisms and processes through which life can exist beyond Earth, expanding our knowledge on how to survive and adapt in the hostile environment of outer space," said University of Vienna biochemist Tetyana Milojevic.
"The results suggest that survival of D. radiodurans in LEO for a longer period is possible due to its efficient molecular response system and indicate that even longer, farther journeys are achievable for organisms with such capabilities."
The research has been published in Microbiome.
This article was originally published by ScienceAlert. Read the original article here.


livescience--2020-11-09--Weird 'gravitational molecules' could orbit black holes like electrons swirling around atoms

Black holes are notable for many things , especially their simplicity .
They 're just … holes .
That are `` black . ''
This simplicity allows us to draw surprising parallels between black holes and other branches of physics .
For example , a team of researchers has shown that a special kind of particle can exist around a pair of black holes in a similar way as an electron can exist around a pair of — the first example of a `` gravitational molecule . ''
This strange object may give us hints to the identity of and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ how the new research , which was published in September to the preprint database , explains the existence of a gravitational molecule , we first need to explore one of the most fundamental –- and yet sadly almost never talked about –- aspects of modern physics : the field .
Related : The 12 strangest objects in the universe A field is a mathematical tool that tells you what you might expect to find as you travel from place to place in the universe .
For example , if you 've ever seen @ @ @ @ @ @ @ your local area , you 're looking at a viewer-friendly representation of a field : As you travel around your town or state , you 'll know what kind of temperatures you 're likely to find , and where ( and whether you need to bring a jacket ) .
This kind of field is known as a `` scalar '' field , because `` scalar '' is the fancy mathematical way of saying `` just a single number . ''
There are other kinds of fields out there in physics-land , like @ @ @ @ @ @ @ '' fields , which provide more than one number for every location in space-time .
( For example , if you see a map of wind speed and direction splashed on your screen , you 're looking at a vector field . )
But for the purposes of this research paper , we only need to know about the scalar kind .
In the heydays of the mid-20th century , physicists took the concept of the field — which had been around for centuries at that point , and was absolutely old-hat to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ with it .
They realized that fields are n't just handy mathematical gimmicks — they actually describe something super-fundamental about the inner workings of reality .
They discovered , basically , that everything in the universe is really a field .
Take the humble electron .
We know from quantum mechanics that it 's pretty tough to pin down exactly where an electron is at any given moment .
When quantum mechanics first emerged , this was a pretty nasty mess to understand and untangle , until the field came along .
In @ @ @ @ @ @ @ as a field — a mathematical object that tells us where we 're likely to spot the electron the next time we look .
This field reacts to the world around it — say , because of the electric influence of a nearby atomic nucleus — and modifies itself to change where we ought to see the electron .
The end result is that electrons can appear only in certain regions around an atomic nucleus , giving rise to the entire field of chemistry ( I 'm simplifying a bit , but you @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the black hole part .
In atomic physics , you can completely describe an ( like an electron ) in terms of three numbers : its mass , its spin and its electric charge .
And in gravitational physics , you can completely describe a black hole in terms of three numbers : its mass , its spin and its electron charge .
Coincidence ?
The jury 's out on that one , but for the time being we can exploit that similarity to better understand black holes .
In the jargon-filled language @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , you can describe an as a tiny nucleus surrounded by the electron field .
That electron field responds to the presence of the nucleus , and allows the electron to appear only in certain regions .
The same is true for electrons around two nuclei , for example in a diatomic molecule like hydrogen ( H2 . )
You can describe the environment of a black hole similarly .
Imagine the tiny singularity at a black heart somewhat akin to the nucleus of an atom , while the surrounding environment — a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the one that describes a .
That scalar field responds to the presence of the black hole , and allows its corresponding particle to appear only in certain regions .
And just as in diatomic molecules , you can also describe scalar fields around two black holes , like in a binary black hole system .
The authors of the study found that scalar fields can indeed exist around binary black holes .
What 's more , they can form themselves into certain patterns that resemble how electron fields arrange themselves in molecules @ @ @ @ @ @ @ fields in that scenario mimics how electrons behave in diatomic molecules , hence the moniker `` gravitational molecules . ''
Why the interest in scalar fields ?
Well for one , we do n't understand the nature of dark matter or dark energy , and it 's possible both and dark matter could be made up of one or more scalar fields ) , just like electrons are made up of the electron field .
If dark matter is indeed composed of some sort of scalar field , then this result means that @ @ @ @ @ @ @ strange state around binary black holes — the mysterious dark particles would have to exist in very specific orbits , just like electrons do in atoms .
But binary black holes do n't last forever ; they emit gravitational radiation and eventually collide and coalesce into a single black hole .
These dark matter scalar fields would affect any gravitational waves emitted during such collisions , because they would filter , deflect and reshape any waves passing through regions of increased dark matter density .
This means we might be able to detect @ @ @ @ @ @ @ sensitivity in existing gravitational wave detectors .
In short : We soon might be able to confirm the existence of gravitational molecules , and through that open a window into the hidden dark sector of our cosmos .

Black holes are notable for many things, especially their simplicity. They're just … holes. That are "black." This simplicity allows us to draw surprising parallels between black holes and other branches of physics. For example, a team of researchers has shown that a special kind of particle can exist around a pair of black holes in a similar way as an electron can exist around a pair of hydrogen atoms — the first example of a "gravitational molecule." This strange object may give us hints to the identity of dark matter and the ultimate nature of space-time .
Ploughing the field
To understand how the new research, which was published in September to the preprint database arXiv , explains the existence of a gravitational molecule, we first need to explore one of the most fundamental –- and yet sadly almost never talked about –- aspects of modern physics: the field.
Related: The 12 strangest objects in the universe
A field is a mathematical tool that tells you what you might expect to find as you travel from place to place in the universe. For example, if you've ever seen a TV weather report of temperatures in your local area, you're looking at a viewer-friendly representation of a field: As you travel around your town or state, you'll know what kind of temperatures you're likely to find, and where (and whether you need to bring a jacket).
This kind of field is known as a "scalar" field, because "scalar" is the fancy mathematical way of saying "just a single number." There are other kinds of fields out there in physics-land, like "vector" fields and "tensor" fields, which provide more than one number for every location in space-time. (For example, if you see a map of wind speed and direction splashed on your screen, you're looking at a vector field.) But for the purposes of this research paper, we only need to know about the scalar kind.
The atomic power couple
In the heydays of the mid-20th century, physicists took the concept of the field — which had been around for centuries at that point, and was absolutely old-hat to the mathematicians — and went to town with it.
They realized that fields aren't just handy mathematical gimmicks — they actually describe something super-fundamental about the inner workings of reality. They discovered, basically, that everything in the universe is really a field.
Related: The 11 most beautiful mathematical equations
Take the humble electron. We know from quantum mechanics that it's pretty tough to pin down exactly where an electron is at any given moment . When quantum mechanics first emerged, this was a pretty nasty mess to understand and untangle, until the field came along.
In modern physics, we represent the electron as a field — a mathematical object that tells us where we're likely to spot the electron the next time we look. This field reacts to the world around it — say, because of the electric influence of a nearby atomic nucleus — and modifies itself to change where we ought to see the electron.
The end result is that electrons can appear only in certain regions around an atomic nucleus, giving rise to the entire field of chemistry (I'm simplifying a bit, but you get my point).
Black hole buddies
And now the black hole part. In atomic physics, you can completely describe an elementary particle (like an electron) in terms of three numbers: its mass, its spin and its electric charge. And in gravitational physics, you can completely describe a black hole in terms of three numbers: its mass, its spin and its electron charge.
Coincidence? The jury's out on that one, but for the time being we can exploit that similarity to better understand black holes.
In the jargon-filled language of particle physics that we just explored, you can describe an atom as a tiny nucleus surrounded by the electron field. That electron field responds to the presence of the nucleus, and allows the electron to appear only in certain regions. The same is true for electrons around two nuclei, for example in a diatomic molecule like hydrogen (H2.)
You can describe the environment of a black hole similarly. Imagine the tiny singularity at a black heart somewhat akin to the nucleus of an atom, while the surrounding environment — a generic scalar field — is similar to the one that describes a subatomic particle . That scalar field responds to the presence of the black hole, and allows its corresponding particle to appear only in certain regions. And just as in diatomic molecules, you can also describe scalar fields around two black holes, like in a binary black hole system.
The authors of the study found that scalar fields can indeed exist around binary black holes. What's more, they can form themselves into certain patterns that resemble how electron fields arrange themselves in molecules. So, the behavior of scalar fields in that scenario mimics how electrons behave in diatomic molecules, hence the moniker "gravitational molecules."
Why the interest in scalar fields? Well for one, we don't understand the nature of dark matter or dark energy, and it's possible both dark energy and dark matter could be made up of one or more scalar fields), just like electrons are made up of the electron field.
If dark matter is indeed composed of some sort of scalar field, then this result means that dark matter would exist in a very strange state around binary black holes — the mysterious dark particles would have to exist in very specific orbits, just like electrons do in atoms. But binary black holes don't last forever; they emit gravitational radiation and eventually collide and coalesce into a single black hole. These dark matter scalar fields would affect any gravitational waves emitted during such collisions, because they would filter, deflect and reshape any waves passing through regions of increased dark matter density. This means we might be able to detect this kind of dark matter with enough sensitivity in existing gravitational wave detectors.
In short: We soon might be able to confirm the existence of gravitational molecules, and through that open a window into the hidden dark sector of our cosmos.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-11-09--What if Earth shared its orbit with another planet?

The series `` Imaginary Earths '' speculates what the world might be like if one key aspect of life changed , be it related to the planet or with humanity itself .
Earth is the only planet traveling within its nearly circular orbit around the sun .
But what if shared its orbit with another planet ?
One of the most unusual ways in which two planets might `` co-orbit , '' or share the same zone around their star , are so-called horseshoe orbits .
Instead of both worlds moving in a circle around a star , each would @ @ @ @ @ @ @ somewhat horseshoe-shaped track , with these crescents facing each other like two halves of a broken ring .
Related : 10 interesting places in the solar system we 'd like to visit '' I think horseshoe orbits are among the most exciting configurations for other Earths , '' astrophysicist Sean Raymond at the Laboratoire d'Astrophysique de Bordeaux in France , told Live Science .
`` Since the two planets formed in the same disk around the same star , and likely from similar stuff , studying their evolution is akin to studying the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ '' Horseshoe orbits might sound extraordinarily unlikely .
However , Saturn 's moons Janus and Epimetheus travel in horseshoe orbits about 93,000 miles ( 150,000 kilometers ) from the planet , just beyond , Raymond noted .
The closest they get is about 9,300 miles ( 15,000 km ) from one another .
Let 's imagine what horseshoe orbits might look like with a pair of Earth-size worlds in the sun 's habitable zone — the area surrounding a star temperate enough for liquid water to survive on a planet 's surface .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ Tellus , both Latin words for `` Earth . ''
At their closest possible approach to each other , Terra and Tellus would come within about 4 % to 5 % of an astronomical unit ( AU ) , the average distance between Earth and the sun ( which is about 93 million miles , or 150 million kilometers ) .
At such a distance , they would look as large to each other as one-quarter to one-fifth the diameter of the , Raymond said .
Afterwards , they would slowly recede away @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of sight of one another behind the sun .
`` It would be awesome to see the horseshoe companion grow in the sky to become a dominant source of light , '' Raymond said .
The length of these cycles of approaches and departures depends on the width of the horseshoe orbits .
For Terra and Tellus , the horseshoe orbits would extend from about 0.995 AU to about 1.005 AU , so it would take about 33 years between close encounters , Raymond said .
The tiny shifts in distance from the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Terra and Tellus would not change much as they switch between sides of their horseshoe orbits , he noted .
What might life be like on Terra and Tellus ?
Raymond could imagine rivalries and partnerships between the planets , including wars and star-crossed love stories .
One might also imagine that long before they launched missions to one another , these worlds might engage in long-distance pen pal relationships over radio .
Horseshoe Earths would likely evolve during the course of planetary formation as protoplanets , or embryonic worlds , both having @ @ @ @ @ @ @ another .
`` Some fraction of the time , a horseshoe configuration will pop up , '' Raymond said .
`` Exactly how frequently this happens has never been studied carefully to my knowledge . ''
Still , `` even if it 's a one-in-a-million occurrence , that still leaves plenty of potential horseshoe Earths among the hundreds of billions of stars in the galaxy , '' Raymond concluded .

The series "Imaginary Earths" speculates what the world might be like if one key aspect of life changed, be it related to the planet or with humanity itself.
Earth is the only planet traveling within its nearly circular orbit around the sun. But what if Earth shared its orbit with another planet?
One of the most unusual ways in which two planets might "co-orbit," or share the same zone around their star, are so-called horseshoe orbits. Instead of both worlds moving in a circle around a star, each would move along the edge of their own somewhat horseshoe-shaped track, with these crescents facing each other like two halves of a broken ring.
Related: 10 interesting places in the solar system we'd like to visit
"I think horseshoe orbits are among the most exciting configurations for other Earths," astrophysicist Sean Raymond at the Laboratoire d'Astrophysique de Bordeaux in France, told Live Science. "Since the two planets formed in the same disk around the same star, and likely from similar stuff, studying their evolution is akin to studying the lives of twins separated at birth."
The horseshoe orbits of Saturn's moons Janus and Epimetheus. (Image credit: Sean Raymond)
Horseshoe orbits might sound extraordinarily unlikely. However, Saturn's moons Janus and Epimetheus travel in horseshoe orbits about 93,000 miles (150,000 kilometers) from the planet, just beyond Saturn's main rings , Raymond noted. The closest they get is about 9,300 miles (15,000 km) from one another.
Let's imagine what horseshoe orbits might look like with a pair of Earth-size worlds in the sun's habitable zone — the area surrounding a star temperate enough for liquid water to survive on a planet's surface. Let's name these worlds Terra and Tellus, both Latin words for "Earth."
At their closest possible approach to each other, Terra and Tellus would come within about 4% to 5% of an astronomical unit (AU), the average distance between Earth and the sun (which is about 93 million miles, or 150 million kilometers). At such a distance, they would look as large to each other as one-quarter to one-fifth the diameter of the full moon , Raymond said. Afterwards, they would slowly recede away from each other until they passed out of sight of one another behind the sun.
"It would be awesome to see the horseshoe companion grow in the sky to become a dominant source of light," Raymond said.
The length of these cycles of approaches and departures depends on the width of the horseshoe orbits. For Terra and Tellus, the horseshoe orbits would extend from about 0.995 AU to about 1.005 AU, so it would take about 33 years between close encounters, Raymond said. The tiny shifts in distance from the sun would likely mean the climates of Terra and Tellus would not change much as they switch between sides of their horseshoe orbits, he noted.
What might life be like on Terra and Tellus? Raymond could imagine rivalries and partnerships between the planets, including wars and star-crossed love stories. One might also imagine that long before they launched missions to one another, these worlds might engage in long-distance pen pal relationships over radio.
Horseshoe Earths would likely evolve during the course of planetary formation as protoplanets, or embryonic worlds, both having collided and migrated from one orbit to another.
"Some fraction of the time, a horseshoe configuration will pop up," Raymond said. "Exactly how frequently this happens has never been studied carefully to my knowledge."
Still, "even if it's a one-in-a-million occurrence, that still leaves plenty of potential horseshoe Earths among the hundreds of billions of stars in the galaxy," Raymond concluded.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-11-09--Coronavirus outbreak: Live updates

Coronavirus outbreak: Live updates

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90-year-old woman in the UK receives first dose of Pfizer vaccine, FDA review confirms vaccine is safe and effective A 90-year-old woman (who will turn 91 next week) became the first in the world to be given Pfizer's coronavirus vaccine outside of clinical trials, according to the BBC. Margaret Keenan, who is originally from Northern Ireland, was given the vaccine at the University Hospital in Coventry, England. She received the first of 800,000 doses expected to be administered in the U.K. in the coming weeks, according to the BBC. "I feel so privileged to be the first person vaccinated against Covid-19," Keenan said, according to the BBC."It's the best early birthday present I could wish for because it means I can finally look forward to spending time with my family and friends in the new year after being on my own for most of the year." "My advice to anyone offered the vaccine is to take it. If I can have it at 90, then you can have it too," she added. Up to four million doses of Pfizer's vaccine is expected to be given to people in the U.K. by the end of the month. Meanwhile, a 53-page Food and Drug Administration (FDA) review published Tuesday (Dec. 8) confirmed that Pfizer's vaccine is safe and effective, according to The Washington Post.
Pfizer's COVID-19 vaccine starts to work just 10 days after 1st dose Pfizer's new COVID-19 vaccine starts to protect people from the novel coronavirus just 10 days after the first dose, according to new documents from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The documents were released on Tuesday (Dec. 8), two days before a meeting of the FDA's vaccine advisory panel, which will vote on whether to recommend authorization of the vaccine in the U.S, Live Science reported . The FDA analyzed data from Pfizer's phase 3 clinical trial, which included some 44,000 people in the United States, Brazil, Argentina, Germany and Turkey, about half of whom received the vaccine while the other half received a placebo. Both groups received two shots, 21 days apart. About 10 days after the first dose, there was a noticeable drop-off in new COVID-19 cases in the vaccine group compared with the placebo group, indicating that even one dose provides some protection, the report said. However, scientists don't know how long the protection from a single dose will last, so it will still be important for people to receive two shots, according to The New York Times . Overall, the vaccine was 52% effective after the first dose and 95% effective after the second dose, the report said.
People with significant allergies should avoid Pfizer vaccine, UK warns The U.K.'s Regulatory Agency is advising people with a history of "significant" allergic reactions to avoid Pfizer's coronavirus vaccine, after two National Health Service members developed severe allergic reactions to it on Tuesday (Dec. 8), Live Science reported. "As is common with new vaccines the MHRA (Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency) have advised on a precautionary basis that people with a significant history of allergic reactions do not receive this vaccination after two people with a history of significant allergic reactions responded adversely yesterday," Stephen Powis, the national medical director for England's National Health Service said in a statement on Wednesday (Dec. 9). Both workers have a history of severe allergies and carry adrenaline auto injectors (such as EpiPens) around with them, according to The Guardian. Shortly after receiving the vaccine, both NHS workers developed anaphylaxis-like symptoms, or severe allergic reactions, but have recovered after receiving treatment. The MHRA will investigate further and Pfizer and BioNTech will support their investigation, according to Reuters. "Allergic reaction occurs with quite a number of vaccines, and perhaps even more frequently with drugs. So it is not unexpected," Stephen Evans, a professor of pharmacoepidemiology at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine said in remarks to journalists published by Britain's Science Media Center. “What would be wise, as the MHRA have already advised, would be for anyone who has known severe allergic reaction such that they need to carry an EpiPen, to delay having a vaccination until the reason for the allergic reaction has been clarified," he said. For the general population this does not mean that they would need to be anxious about receiving the vaccination, he added. "One has to remember that even things like marmite [a quintessential British food spread] can cause unexpected severe allergic reactions.”
Canada approves Pfizer's COVID-19 vaccine Canada has authorized Pfizer's new COVID-19 vaccine, with the first doses expected to be administered there as early as next week. Health Canada, the country's health regulatory agency, said in a statement on Wednesday (Dec. 9) that it had determined that the vaccine "meets the Department's stringent safety, efficacy and quality requirements for use in Canada," according to CTV News . "We expect vaccines to arrive maybe as early as Monday [Dec. 14]. It takes time to prepare the vaccine," said Maj.-Gen. Dany Fortin, the top military general leading the vaccine rollout for the Public Health Agency of Canada, according to CTV News. The first doses could be administered by the middle of next week, he said. Canada is the third country in the world to authorize the Pfizer vaccine, following the United Kingdom and Bahrain. The country should receive up to 249,000 doses of the vaccine by the end of December, and has purchased 20 million doses total, with the option to purchase more, CTV News reported.
Daily COVID-19 death toll in the U.S. reaches record-high, surpassed 9/11 On Wednesday (Dec. 9), the U.S. recorded 3,124 new COVID-19 deaths, the highest daily death toll to date, according to CNN . In comparison, 2,977 people were killed in the 9/11 attacks. The U.S. has now recorded 280,488 deaths related to the virus, according to The COVID Tracking Project . A forecast from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention predicts that the total death toll can increase to between 332,000 and 362,000 by January 2, according to CNN. There are currently 106,671 people hospitalized with the virus in the U.S.; 20,903 of them are currently in the ICU and 7,621 are currently on a ventilator, according to the COVID Tracking Project. On Thursday (Dec. 10), the Vaccines and Related Biological Products Advisory Committee is set to meet to discuss an emergency use authorization for the Pfizer-BioNTech coronavirus vaccine.
FDA panel recommends authorization of Pfizer's COVID-19 vaccine A panel of experts for the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has recommended that the agency authorize Pfizer's new COVID-19 vaccine in the United States. On Thursday (Dec. 10), the panel voted 17 to 4 to recommend that the vaccine receive emergency use authorization (EUA) for people ages 16 and older, according to The New York Times . The FDA typically follows the advice of its panels, and so today's vote is an important step towards the vaccine's authorization. It is anticipated that the agency will officially authorize the vaccine on Saturday (Dec. 12), the Times reported. Several countries have already authorized Pfizer's vaccine, including Canada, the United Kingdom and Bahrain.
Vaccine approval could come this weekend, as U.S. continues to record high daily death tolls On Thursday (Dec. 10), the U.S. recorded another 2,902 COVID-19 deaths, a day after the country set a record of 3,253 deaths, according to Reuters . “Probably for the next 60 to 90 days, we’re going to have more deaths per day than we had on 9/11 or we had at Pearl Harbor,” Dr. Robert Redfield, the director of the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, told the Council on Foreign Relations on Thursday, according to Reuters. "The reality is the vaccine approval this week is not going to really impact that, I think, to any degree for the next 60 days." On Thursday, the Vaccines and Related Biological Products Advisory Committee discussed, voted and recommended that the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) should grant an emergency use authorization for Pfizer's coronavirus vaccine. The Pfizer vaccine has already been approved in the U.K. and in Canada, and FDA approval for use in the U.S. could come this weekend.
Australia abandons local COVID-19 vaccine after it caused false-positive HIV tests An Australian COVID-19 vaccine that had shown promising results in early trials is being abandoned after researchers found that the shot caused false-positive results on HIV tests. On Friday (Dec. 11), Australian officials said they had canceled an order for some 51 million doses of the vaccine, which was being developed by The University of Queensland and CSL Ltd., a local biotech company, according to The New York Times . In an early trial with 216 participants, the vaccine appeared to be safe and to produce a robust immune response against COVID-19, according to a statement from CSL . But some volunteers falsely tested positive for HIV, which officials feared would undermine trust in the vaccine, the Times reported. The vaccine contained small fragments of an HIV protein, which helped stabilize the vaccine. Some of the participants developed antibodies against these fragments, and these antibodies triggered false positive results on some HIV tests. It's important to note that there is no way for the vaccine to cause an HIV infection, because it contains harmless fragments of the virus.
ICU nurse in New York becomes first person in the US to receive a coronavirus vaccine outside of clinical trials New York, the worst-hit state at the start of the pandemic, just became the first to administer a coronavirus vaccine outside of clinical trials, kicking off a long, massive effort to vaccinate the American people, Live Science reported. Around 9 a.m. E.T. on Monday (Dec. 14), the very first dose of Pfizer and BioNTech's coronavirus vaccine was given to Sandra Lindsay, an intensive care nurse in Long Island Jewish Medical Center in Queens, New York, according to The New York Times. This comes as the U.S. continues to battle a massive wave of the virus that has more than 109,000 people currently hospitalized, according to The COVID Tracking Project. Since the start of the pandemic, New York has recorded more than 780,000 cases of COVID-19 and more than 35,100 deaths, according to The Times. "This vaccine is exciting because I believe this is the weapon that will end the war," Gov. Andrew Cuomo said during a live broadcast of the first vaccination. "It's the beginning of the last chapter of the book, but now we just have to do it."
FDA analysis confirms Moderna's vaccine is safe and effective, emergency authorization is likely to come Friday A new briefing document from the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) released on Tuesday (Dec. 15) confirmed that Moderna's COVID-19 vaccine is safe and effective, according to NPR . Moderna's COVID-19 vaccine is 94% effective and has "a favorable safety profile," according to the document. A panel of experts is set to meet on Thursday (Dec. 17) to discuss the effectiveness and safety of the vaccine and vote on whether or not the FDA should grant emergency approval to the vaccine. Last week, the same panel voted that the FDA should grant emergency approval to Pfizer's coronavirus vaccine; the authorization came a day late and the first doses were given on Monday (Dec. 15). The FDA will likely approve Moderna's vaccine for emergency use on Friday (Dec. 18), according to The New York Times .
FDA authorizes first over-the-counter COVID-19 test The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has authorized the first over-the-counter COVID-19 test, which can be done at home and does not need a prescription. The test, made by the Australia-based company Ellume, provides results in as little as 20 minutes, according to a statement from the FDA . It is a "lateral flow antigen test," meaning it works in a similar way to a home pregnancy test, by running a "liquid sample along a surface with reactive molecules," the FDA said. The test works in conjunction with a smartphone app. Users take a nasal swab and place their sample in an analyzer, which communicates to the smartphone app via Bluetooth. The results are delivered through the app, and also reported to public health authorities (based on a user's zip code) through a secure cloud connection, the company said . Ellume is ramping up production of its test, and expects to produce three million tests in January 2021, and 20 million within the first half of 2021.
A wild mink tested positive for the coronavirus, it may be the first wild animal to have a confirmed case A wild mink in Utah may be the first "free-ranging, native wild animal" confirmed to be infected with SARS-CoV-2, according to the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), Live Science reported. The mink was found near a mink farm and likely picked up the infection from the farmed mink. There's no evidence that the virus spread to other minks or wild animals; but if the virus does begin circulating in wild animals, it could pick up mutations that COVID-19 vaccines may not protect well against if it spreads back to humans, according to the report. "If it does [establish a reservoir], then we've got a long-term issue here, where this virus has the potential to be with us for millennia," Sarah Olson, associate director of the health program at the Wildlife Conservation Society, told Vox. The U.S. Department of Agriculture's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service has screened other animal species for the virus near mink farms in Utah, Michigan and Wisconsin, but all of them have tested negative so far, according to a statement.
An FDA advisory panel will meet today to vote on whether to recommend Moderna's coronavirus vaccine for emergency approval On Thursday (Dec. 17), a Food and Drug Administration (FDA) advisory committee will meet to determine whether to recommend that Moderna’s coronavirus vaccine for emergency approval, according to The New York Times . This panel, composed of independent experts, will vote on whether to recommend the vaccine after hearing from the company, FDA scientists and the public, according to The Times. Last week, the same panel of experts met to discuss Pfizer’s coronavirus vaccine and voted to recommend emergency authorization; the authorization came the next day. There have now been more than 16.9 million cases of COVID-19 in the U.S. and more than 307,000 deaths, according to the Johns Hopkins dashboard . There are currently 113,090 people hospitalized across the country with more than 21,900 of them in the ICU and 7,778 on a ventilator, according to The COVID Tracking Project .
California becomes new epicenter of COVID-19 in U.S. California, once praised for its early pandemic response, is now the new U.S. hotspot for COVID-19 infections. The state has reported an alarming surge in cases, breaking previous records for daily cases. On Thursday (Dec. 17), the state reported some 50,000 COVID-19 infections in 24 hours, and nearly 100,000 in 48 hours, according to The Washington Post . That's more than the daily cases reported in many countries, including India, Germany and Britain, the Post reported. The state also set a record for daily deaths on Thursday, with 379 fatalities reported, up from the previous high of 293. Capacity in intensive care units has also dropped dramatically, with hospitals in Southern California reporting zero percent capacity on Thursday. "I want to be very clear: Our hospitals are under siege, and our model shows no end in sight," said Christina Ghaly, director of Los Angeles County's Department of Health Services, the Post reported.
FDA expected to authorize Moderna's vaccine on Friday The U.S. Food and Drug Administration is expected to authorize Moderna's COVID-19 vaccine on Friday (Dec. 18). Once authorized, it will be the second coronavirus vaccine to get the green light from the agency in just a week, with Pfizer's vaccine gaining authorization on Dec. 11. Moderna is expected to begin shipping 5.9 million doses of its vaccine on Sunday (Dec. 20), with the first deliveries arriving Monday (Dec. 21), according to The New York Times . Unlike the Pfizer vaccine, Moderna's vaccine does not require storage in extremely cold temperatures, and states are hoping to distribute the vaccine to rural hospitals and community health centers, the Times reported.
COVID-19 cases continue to surge across the U.S. There have now been more than 17 million cases of COVID-19 in the U.S. and more than 300,000 deaths, according to The COVID Tracking Project . There are currently 114,237 people hospitalized across the country and 21,900 people in the ICU. California is facing a massive surge in cases; the state reported 41,012 new COVID-19 cases and 300 new deaths on Thursday (Dec. 17), according to the state's COVID-19 dashboard . By comparison, at the start of November, California was reporting a seven-day average of 4,183 cases, compared to an average of 38,774 on Thursday, according to CNN . "We're experiencing an explosive and very deadly surge," Dr. Barbara Ferrer, Los Angeles County Public Health Director said, according to CNN. Intensive care unit beds are rapidly filling up across the state; there are only 1,234 ICU beds left available in California, according to the dashboard. Current closures across California are impacting around 98% of the state's population, according to CNN.
London and southeast England are under an emergency lockdown Following concerns of a new version of the coronavirus that might be more transmissible, London and most of southeast England are now under an emergency lockdown, according to The New York Times . Prime Minister Boris Johnson announced the lockdown on Saturday (Dec. 19) citing concerns that the mutated virus — which was detected a couple of weeks ago in southeast England — may be as much as 70% more transmissible than previous versions, according to the Times. The new version of the coronavirus is detected in more than 60% of new infections in London and have also been detected in several other countries, according to the Times. But it's not yet clear if this coronavirus version is any more infectious than the last and thorough analyses will need to be conducted before conclusions are made, scientists cautioned. In South Africa, a similar version of the virus has been found in up to 90% of new cases detected since mid-November, according to The Times . It's common for viruses to mutate, and this particular coronavirus has mutated many times since the start of the pandemic. But experts told The Times that it would take years for the virus to mutate enough such that it would make the current vaccines developed to fight COVID-19 ineffective.
Biden gets Pfizer's COVID-19 vaccine President-elect Joe Biden received a dose of Pfizer's new COVID-19 vaccine on Monday (Dec. 21), according to The New York Times . He received the shot on camera at the Christiana Hospital in Newark, Delaware. "I'm doing this to demonstrate that people should be prepared when it's available to take the vaccine. There's nothing to worry about," Biden said.
Antarctica has its 1st COVID-19 outbreak The first COVID-19 cases have been reported in Antarctica , meaning the disease has now spread to every continent in the world. On Tuesday (Dec. 22), Chilean officials reported an outbreak of 36 COVID-19 cases at the Chilean research base General Bernardo O'Higgins Riquelme on the Antarctic Peninsula, according to the BBC . Of these, 26 cases were military personnel and 10 were maintenance workers, the BBC reported. All of these cases have been evacuated from Antarctica to Punta Arenas, Chile, according to The Guardian . Antarctica had been COVID-19 free up until the current outbreak. The continent has no permanent residents, but about 1,000 people, including scientists and other workers, stayed there this past winter, The Guardian reported.
Live updates will continue in 2021!


livescience--2020-11-09--US tops 10 million coronavirus cases

US tops 10 million coronavirus cases

The United States reached an astonishing milestone today ( Nov. 9 ) : 10 million total coronavirus cases have been diagnosed since the start of the pandemic , with case counts accelerating dramatically in recent weeks .
The country 's total now stands at just over 10 million , according to .
It took just 10 days for the country to go from 9 million to 10 million cases , according to .
That 's compared with the more than 3 months it took the country to reach its first million cases , the Post reported .
The news comes @ @ @ @ @ @ @ U.S. has reported more than 100,000 cases for five days in a row , according to the Post .
That has been a trend the past week , as the country 's seven-day average for new daily cases surpassed 100,000 for the first time during the pandemic .
More than half of U.S. states have recorded their highest seven-day averages yet , with North Dakota , South Dakota and Wisconsin reporting the highest counts relative to their population , .
Experts warned that the rise in cases would translate to more hospitalizations and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ increase across the country .
Indeed , on Saturday ( Nov 7 ) , the U.S. reported 55,000 hospitalizations and 1,133 new deaths , up from an average of 45,000 hospitalizations and 823 deaths the week before , the Post reported .
`` Things are moving rapidly in [ the ] wrong direction , '' Dr. Tom Inglesby , director of the Johns Hopkins Center for Health Security , .
`` With the election behind us , it 's time for the U.S. to summon its best , unified effort to contain COVID @ @ @ @ @ @ @ today , the U.S. has recorded at least 237,000 deaths from COVID-19 , the highest of any country in the world .

The United States reached an astonishing milestone today (Nov. 9): 10 million total coronavirus cases have been diagnosed since the start of the pandemic, with case counts accelerating dramatically in recent weeks.
The country's total now stands at just over 10 million, according to Johns Hopkins University . It took just 10 days for the country to go from 9 million to 10 million cases, according to The Washington Post . That's compared with the more than 3 months it took the country to reach its first million cases, the Post reported.
The news comes amid skyrocketing daily case counts — the U.S. has reported more than 100,000 cases for five days in a row, according to the Post. That has been a trend the past week, as the country's seven-day average for new daily cases surpassed 100,000 for the first time during the pandemic. More than half of U.S. states have recorded their highest seven-day averages yet, with North Dakota, South Dakota and Wisconsin reporting the highest counts relative to their population, The New York Times reported .
Experts warned that the rise in cases would translate to more hospitalizations and deaths, which are already starting to increase across the country. Indeed, on Saturday (Nov 7), the U.S. reported 55,000 hospitalizations and 1,133 new deaths, up from an average of 45,000 hospitalizations and 823 deaths the week before, the Post reported.
"Things are moving rapidly in [the] wrong direction," Dr. Tom Inglesby, director of the Johns Hopkins Center for Health Security, wrote on Twitter . "With the election behind us, it's time for the U.S. to summon its best, unified effort to contain COVID," he said.
As of today, the U.S. has recorded at least 237,000 deaths from COVID-19, the highest of any country in the world.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-11-09--Here's the Biden-Harris plan to beat COVID-19

President-elect Joe Biden and Vice President-elect Kamala Harris have released a seven-point plan to bring the COVID-19 pandemic under control .
Here 's a quick rundown of the policies they plan to implement once they take office : First and foremost , the administration plans to ramp up diagnostic testing across the U.S. , according to the Biden-Harris Transition website .
That means doubling the number of drive-through testing sites and establishing a Pandemic Testing Board , an organizing body that will direct the production and distribution of `` tens of millions of tests . ''
The administration also plans @ @ @ @ @ @ @ instant results or can be taken at home , to further increase testing coverage .
They also want to deploy a U.S. Public Health Jobs Corps , a team of 100,000 individuals who will work with local organizations to `` perform culturally competent approaches to contact tracing and protecting at-risk populations . ''
Related : 20 of the worst epidemics and pandemics in history In addition to expanding America 's testing capacity , the incoming administration will boost the national supply of personal protective equipment ( PPE ) by invoking the Defense Production @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 1950 , allows the executive branch to `` expedite and expand the supply of materials and services from the U.S. industrial base needed to promote the national defense , '' according to the Federal Emergency Management Agency ; in this case , the goal is to increase production of PPE at the federal level to relieve pressure on state and local stockpiles that have been severely depleted throughout the pandemic .
Long-term , the administration also plans to increase the nation 's ability to manufacture PPE in a pinch , `` to ensure @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in a crisis . ''
President-elect Biden will direct the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ( CDC ) to issue clear guidance on how schools , businesses and households should navigate the pandemic going forward .
For instance , the guidance should specify when schools and businesses should close as infection rates rise and fall in a given community , as well as when stay-at-home measures should be issued .
Members of a new COVID-19 task force will help shape these policies and ensure they protect and address racial disparities in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ also cover how public facilities , including schools , can be made as safe as possible ; to help implement these changes , the Biden administration will call on Congress to pass an emergency package that provides extra funding to schools .
An additional `` restart package '' will provide funds to business owners so they can implement the new safety measures ; and another fund will be established for state and local governments whose budgets have become depleted during the pandemic .
The state and local fund will be renewable .
The @ @ @ @ @ @ @ billion in the manufacture and distribution of .
The ultimate goal is to guarantee the `` gets to every American , cost-free . ''
Clinical data for any approved vaccine will be publicly released , according to the transition website , and U.S. Food and Drug Administration scientists will be allowed to present the data before Congress .
The administration also wants to prevent price gouging for approved COVID-19 treatments .
Furthermore , `` once we succeed in getting beyond this pandemic , we must ensure that the millions of Americans who suffer @ @ @ @ @ @ @ face higher premiums or denial of health insurance because of this new pre-existing condition , '' the website notes .
Related : 'We just had no answers ' : COVID-19 'long-haulers ' still learning why they 're sick A new COVID-19 Racial and Ethnic Disparities Task Force will address racial disparities in both public health and economic relief programs implemented during the pandemic .
Once the pandemic ends , this task force will be made permanent under the name `` Infectious Disease Racial Disparities Task Force . ''
Additionally , the Biden administration @ @ @ @ @ @ @ that tracks COVID-19 transmission in fine detail , so individuals can easily monitor infection rates within their zip codes .
The White House National Security Council Directorate for Global Health Security and Biodefense , an advisory unit on pandemic preparedness established in the Obama-era , will be fully reinstated .
Under the Trump administration , the unit was largely disbanded , but some team members were reassigned to other roles that included pandemic response , .
In another reversal of Trump-era policy , the U.S. will also rejoin the World Health Organization .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ pathogens that could spill over from animal hosts to humans , will also be reinstated and more CDC scientists will be deployed to other countries `` so we have eyes and ears on the ground . ''
Finally , the Biden-Harris administration wants a nationwide mask mandate and will call on state governors and local authorities to mandate mask-wearing .
Under these mandates , every U.S. resident would be required to wear a face mask when around people outside their household .
If most U.S. residents adhere to the mandate , scientists estimate @ @ @ @ @ @ @ be saved , .
That said , experts are n't sure how a federal mandate could be enforced , .
`` Depending on the scope of a direct federal mask mandate , there may not be an existing federal mechanism suitable to enforce it , '' the Congressional Research Service wrote in in August .
Under President Donald Trump , states were tasked with implementing their own pandemic responses without centralized guidance from the federal government , according to BuzzFeed .
The Biden-Harris administration aims to do just the opposite and support state-led @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in office , the administration must contend with steadily rising case counts and death tolls , while also earning back public trust and securing funding for its extensive plans .
`` I hope that trust will come back from the general public — it 's going to be a really steep hill to climb , '' said Angela Rasmussen , a virologist at Columbia University , told BuzzFeed .
`` This is definitely not going to happen overnight even if the CDC , on night one , issues clear and consistent guidelines .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ state and local officials will be eager for help from the federal government .
`` People everywhere are really tired of the pandemic , '' she said .

President-elect Joe Biden and Vice President-elect Kamala Harris have released a seven-point plan to bring the COVID-19 pandemic under control.
Here's a quick rundown of the policies they plan to implement once they take office:
Diagnostic testing
First and foremost, the administration plans to ramp up COVID-19 diagnostic testing across the U.S., according to the Biden-Harris Transition website . That means doubling the number of drive-through testing sites and establishing a Pandemic Testing Board, an organizing body that will direct the production and distribution of "tens of millions of tests."
The administration also plans to invest in testing technologies that deliver instant results or can be taken at home, to further increase testing coverage. They also want to deploy a U.S. Public Health Jobs Corps, a team of 100,000 individuals who will work with local organizations to "perform culturally competent approaches to contact tracing and protecting at-risk populations."
Related: 20 of the worst epidemics and pandemics in history
Personal protective equipment
In addition to expanding America's testing capacity, the incoming administration will boost the national supply of personal protective equipment (PPE) by invoking the Defense Production Act. The act, passed in 1950, allows the executive branch to "expedite and expand the supply of materials and services from the U.S. industrial base needed to promote the national defense," according to the Federal Emergency Management Agency ; in this case, the goal is to increase production of PPE at the federal level to relieve pressure on state and local stockpiles that have been severely depleted throughout the pandemic.
Long-term, the administration also plans to increase the nation's ability to manufacture PPE in a pinch, "to ensure we are not dependent on other countries in a crisis."
Guidance for communities
President-elect Biden will direct the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) to issue clear guidance on how schools, businesses and households should navigate the pandemic going forward. For instance, the guidance should specify when schools and businesses should close as infection rates rise and fall in a given community, as well as when stay-at-home measures should be issued. Members of a new COVID-19 task force will help shape these policies and ensure they protect high-risk populations and address racial disparities in medical care, Stat News reported .
The guidance will also cover how public facilities, including schools, can be made as safe as possible; to help implement these changes, the Biden administration will call on Congress to pass an emergency package that provides extra funding to schools. An additional "restart package" will provide funds to business owners so they can implement the new safety measures; and another fund will be established for state and local governments whose budgets have become depleted during the pandemic. The state and local fund will be renewable.
Treatment and vaccine distribution
The Biden-Harris administration plans to invest $25 billion in the manufacture and distribution of COVID-19 vaccines . The ultimate goal is to guarantee the vaccine "gets to every American, cost-free." Clinical data for any approved vaccine will be publicly released, according to the transition website, and U.S. Food and Drug Administration scientists will be allowed to present the data before Congress.
The administration also wants to prevent price gouging for approved COVID-19 treatments. Furthermore, "once we succeed in getting beyond this pandemic, we must ensure that the millions of Americans who suffer long-term side effects from COVID don't face higher premiums or denial of health insurance because of this new pre-existing condition," the website notes.
Related: 'We just had no answers': COVID-19 'long-haulers' still learning why they're sick
Protect those at high risk
A new COVID-19 Racial and Ethnic Disparities Task Force will address racial disparities in both public health and economic relief programs implemented during the pandemic. Once the pandemic ends, this task force will be made permanent under the name "Infectious Disease Racial Disparities Task Force."
Additionally, the Biden administration plans to create a Nationwide Pandemic Dashboard that tracks COVID-19 transmission in fine detail, so individuals can easily monitor infection rates within their zip codes.
Prepare for future pandemics
The White House National Security Council Directorate for Global Health Security and Biodefense, an advisory unit on pandemic preparedness established in the Obama-era, will be fully reinstated. Under the Trump administration, the unit was largely disbanded, but some team members were reassigned to other roles that included pandemic response, according to Reuters . In another reversal of Trump-era policy, the U.S. will also rejoin the World Health Organization.
The Predict program, which monitors for pathogens that could spill over from animal hosts to humans, will also be reinstated and more CDC scientists will be deployed to other countries "so we have eyes and ears on the ground."
Finally, the Biden-Harris administration wants a nationwide mask mandate and will call on state governors and local authorities to mandate mask-wearing. Under these mandates, every U.S. resident would be required to wear a face mask when around people outside their household.
If most U.S. residents adhere to the mandate, scientists estimate that tens of thousands of lives could be saved, Live Science previously reported . That said, experts aren't sure how a federal mandate could be enforced, BuzzFeed News reported .
"Depending on the scope of a direct federal mask mandate, there may not be an existing federal mechanism suitable to enforce it," the Congressional Research Service wrote in a legal analysis in August.
Under President Donald Trump, states were tasked with implementing their own pandemic responses without centralized guidance from the federal government, according to BuzzFeed. The Biden-Harris administration aims to do just the opposite and support state-led efforts using a top-down approach.
Once in office, the administration must contend with steadily rising case counts and death tolls, while also earning back public trust and securing funding for its extensive plans.
"I hope that trust will come back from the general public — it's going to be a really steep hill to climb," said Angela Rasmussen, a virologist at Columbia University, told BuzzFeed. "This is definitely not going to happen overnight even if the CDC, on night one, issues clear and consistent guidelines."
But Rasmussen said she predicts that state and local officials will be eager for help from the federal government. "People everywhere are really tired of the pandemic," she said.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-11-09--Pfizer's coronavirus vaccine is more than 90% effective, early data suggests

Early data suggests that Pfizer 's coronavirus vaccine is more than 90 % effective in preventing an infection with the that causes COVID-19 , on Monday ( Nov. 9 ) .
The vaccine , developed by Pfizer and German drug company BioNTech , is currently being tested in a large phase 3 clinical trial — the last and most critical stage of testing in which vaccines must prove to be safe and effective in a large group of people — that began in late July .
An external independent Data Monitoring Committee conducted an interim analysis of the trial by @ @ @ @ @ @ @ receiving either the vaccine or the placebo — a control measure that has no impact on preventing the infection .
The early analysis revealed that among these 94 participants , fewer than 10 % of those who received two injections of the vaccine , 28 days apart , developed COVID-19 .
In other words , most of the cases , more than 90 % of them , were among those who received the placebo .
However , this 90 % efficacy was announced in a press release , and the companies have n't @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
The data has not been peer-reviewed or published in a medical journal .
As the phase 3 trial continues , this percentage may vary , the company said in the statement .
Though the results are n't yet conclusive , if the numbers hold up , they are much higher than expectations .
`` This is really a spectacular number , '' Akiko Iwasaki , an immunologist at Yale University .
`` I wasn ’ t expecting it to be this high .
I was preparing myself for something like 55 percent @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Drug Administration ( FDA ) has said that in order for a vaccine to be approved , it would have to be at least 50 % effective .
If the number holds up , `` that is huge , '' Dr. Ashish Jha , the dean of the School of Public Health at Brown University , .
`` That is much better than I was expecting , and it will make a huge difference . ''
However , he cautioned that researchers will need to see full results before making any conclusions .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ 43,538 participants to date across the U.S. , Argentina , Turkey , Brazil , Germany and South Africa .
Around 30 % of U.S. participants and 42 % of global participants have racially and ethnically diverse backgrounds , according to the statement .
Originally , the interim analysis was set to be conducted when 32 people had developed COVID-19 , but after discussions with the FDA , that number was bumped up to at least 62 people , according to the statement .
The trial will continue to enroll participants until the final @ @ @ @ @ @ @ COVID-19 , according to the statement .
The study will further evaluate whether the vaccine provides protection for those who have previously been infected with SARS-CoV-2 and if the vaccine reduces severity in vaccinated people who do develop COVID-19 , according to the statement .
`` Today is a great day for science and humanity , '' Dr. Albert Bourla , CEO and chairman of Pfizer , said in the statement .
`` We are reaching this critical milestone in our vaccine development program at a time when the world needs it most @ @ @ @ @ @ @ hospitals nearing over-capacity and economies struggling to reopen . ''
The companies will apply for an emergency use authorization ( EUA ) once they have gathered two months of safety data after participants received the second dose of vaccine — a milestone that could be reached in the third week of November , according to the statement .
The companies expect to produce up to 50 million vaccine doses globally in 2020 and up to 1.3 billion doses in 2021 , according to the statement .
Pfizer 's candidate vaccine uses the same @ @ @ @ @ @ @ that 's in late-stage testing : It uses a genetic messenger called mRNA to prompt the to recognize the virus , .
No vaccine that uses this technology has yet been approved for any virus .
Even so , this type of vaccine may have several advantages over traditional vaccines , such as being quicker and easier to manufacture .
However , the Pfizer vaccine requires at minus 94 degrees Fahrenheit ( minus 70 degrees Celsius ) , which could make distributing and administering the vaccine more challenging .
( Moderna 's vaccine @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ) Pfizer and BioNTech 's vaccine is just one of a handful of candidate coronavirus vaccines that are currently in late-stage clinical trials .
These interim results , the first to be announced from any late-stage clinical trial for coronavirus vaccines , come as the U.S. , Europe and other parts of the world are inundated with another massive wave of coronavirus infections .

Early data suggests that Pfizer's coronavirus vaccine is more than 90% effective in preventing an infection with the virus that causes COVID-19, the company announced on Monday (Nov. 9).
The vaccine, developed by Pfizer and German drug company BioNTech, is currently being tested in a large phase 3 clinical trial — the last and most critical stage of testing in which vaccines must prove to be safe and effective in a large group of people — that began in late July.
An external independent Data Monitoring Committee conducted an interim analysis of the trial by evaluating 94 participants who developed COVID-19 after receiving either the vaccine or the placebo — a control measure that has no impact on preventing the infection.
Related: The most promising coronavirus vaccine candidates
The early analysis revealed that among these 94 participants, fewer than 10% of those who received two injections of the vaccine, 28 days apart, developed COVID-19. In other words, most of the cases, more than 90% of them, were among those who received the placebo.
However, this 90% efficacy was announced in a press release, and the companies haven't yet released actual data on the trials. The data has not been peer-reviewed or published in a medical journal. As the phase 3 trial continues, this percentage may vary, the company said in the statement.
Though the results aren't yet conclusive, if the numbers hold up, they are much higher than expectations.
"This is really a spectacular number," Akiko Iwasaki, an immunologist at Yale University told The New York Times . "I wasn’t expecting it to be this high. I was preparing myself for something like 55 percent." Indeed, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has said that in order for a vaccine to be approved, it would have to be at least 50% effective.
If the number holds up, "that is huge," Dr. Ashish Jha, the dean of the School of Public Health at Brown University, told STAT News . "That is much better than I was expecting, and it will make a huge difference." However, he cautioned that researchers will need to see full results before making any conclusions.
The phase 3 clinical trial has enrolled 43,538 participants to date across the U.S., Argentina, Turkey, Brazil, Germany and South Africa. Around 30% of U.S. participants and 42% of global participants have racially and ethnically diverse backgrounds, according to the statement.
Originally, the interim analysis was set to be conducted when 32 people had developed COVID-19, but after discussions with the FDA, that number was bumped up to at least 62 people, according to the statement. The trial will continue to enroll participants until the final analysis when 164 participants test positive for COVID-19, according to the statement.
The study will further evaluate whether the vaccine provides protection for those who have previously been infected with SARS-CoV-2 and if the vaccine reduces severity in vaccinated people who do develop COVID-19, according to the statement.
"Today is a great day for science and humanity," Dr. Albert Bourla, CEO and chairman of Pfizer, said in the statement. "We are reaching this critical milestone in our vaccine development program at a time when the world needs it most with infection rates setting new records, hospitals nearing over-capacity and economies struggling to reopen."
The companies will apply for an emergency use authorization (EUA) once they have gathered two months of safety data after participants received the second dose of vaccine — a milestone that could be reached in the third week of November, according to the statement. The companies expect to produce up to 50 million vaccine doses globally in 2020 and up to 1.3 billion doses in 2021, according to the statement.
Pfizer's candidate coronavirus vaccine uses the same technology as Moderna's, another vaccine that's in late-stage testing: It uses a genetic messenger called mRNA to prompt the immune system to recognize the virus, Live Science reported . No vaccine that uses this technology has yet been approved for any virus. Even so, this type of vaccine may have several advantages over traditional vaccines, such as being quicker and easier to manufacture. However, the Pfizer vaccine requires ultra-cold storage at minus 94 degrees Fahrenheit (minus 70 degrees Celsius), which could make distributing and administering the vaccine more challenging. (Moderna's vaccine requires storage at ordinary freezer temperatures.)
Pfizer and BioNTech's vaccine is just one of a handful of candidate coronavirus vaccines that are currently in late-stage clinical trials. These interim results, the first to be announced from any late-stage clinical trial for coronavirus vaccines, come as the U.S., Europe and other parts of the world are inundated with another massive wave of coronavirus infections.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-11-10--Jim Bridenstine will step aside as NASA chief when President-elect Biden takes over: report

NASA will apparently be getting a new leader after president-elect Joe Biden is sworn in .
NASA Administrator wo n't remain in the agency 's lead role in the Biden administration even if asked , Aerospace Daily & Defense Report reported on Sunday ( Nov. 8 ) .
`` You need somebody who has a close relationship with the president of the U.S. ... somebody trusted by the administration … .
including OMB [ Office of Management and Budget ] , , National Security Council , '' Bridenstine told Irene Klotz , space editor for Aviation Week , Aerospace Daily @ @ @ @ @ @ @ `` I think I would not be the right person for that in a new administration . ''
is behind a paywall , but she posted on Twitter a series of quotes that aired Bridenstine 's reasoning — including the quote above , which you can find — and his thoughts about NASA 's future .
For example , Bridenstine seems optimistic about NASA and American space exploration more broadly going forward .
Related : Presidential visions for space exploration : From Ike to Trump '' There is a political agreement that America @ @ @ @ @ @ @ exploration , that we need to lead the world ...
There have been lessons learned from the past , and I think Congress is in a good position to make sure that we have sustainable programs going forward , '' he said in one of the tweeted snippets .
And in , he stressed that `` there are a lot of people that can do great work as the NASA administrator . ''
It 's far too early to speculate about Bridenstine 's successor ; the results of the Nov. 3 election still @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , and space policy is likely to be low on the list of President-elect Biden 's priorities as he gets his administration up and running .
( President Trump has yet to concede and is contesting the results , but his lawsuits and any recounts that are held are unlikely to change the outcome , . )
as NASA Administrator in April 2018 and has steered the agency through an eventful 2.5 years .
During this time , for example , NASA 's of crewed lunar exploration got up and running .
Artemis @ @ @ @ @ @ @ lunar south pole in 2024 and establish a sustainable human presence on and around the moon by 2028 , helping to pave the way for crewed Mars missions in the 2030s .
NASA launched the InSight Mars lander , Mars 2020 rover Perseverance and Parker Solar Probe missions on Bridenstine 's watch as well .
And the agency 's decade-long drive to nurture the development of private astronaut taxis is coming to fruition in what appear to be his final few months on the job .
SpaceX launched two NASA astronauts on a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ this past May and is gearing up for the Nov. 14 launch of , the company 's first operational , contracted crewed flight to the orbiting lab for NASA .
Mike Wall is the author of `` `` ( Grand Central Publishing , 2018 ; illustrated by Karl Tate ) , a book about the search for alien life .
Follow him on Twitter @ michaeldwall .
Follow us on Twitter @ Spacedotcom or Facebook .

NASA chief Jim Bridenstine's testimony during a heated Congressional hearing on Oct. 16, 2019, came the day after he unveiled two spacesuits the agency is designing for the Artemis moon landing program.
NASA will apparently be getting a new leader after president-elect Joe Biden is sworn in.
NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine won't remain in the agency's lead role in the Biden administration even if asked, Aerospace Daily & Defense Report reported on Sunday (Nov. 8).
"You need somebody who has a close relationship with the president of the U.S. ... somebody trusted by the administration …. including OMB [Office of Management and Budget], National Space Council , National Security Council," Bridenstine told Irene Klotz, space editor for Aviation Week, Aerospace Daily & Defense Report's parent publication. "I think I would not be the right person for that in a new administration."
Klotz's story is behind a paywall, but she posted on Twitter a series of quotes that aired Bridenstine's reasoning — including the quote above, which you can find here — and his thoughts about NASA's future. For example, Bridenstine seems optimistic about NASA and American space exploration more broadly going forward.
Related: Presidential visions for space exploration: From Ike to Trump
"You need somebody who has a close relationship with the president of the U.S. ... somebody trusted by the administration…. including OMB, National Space Council, National Security Council. I think I would not be the right person for that in a new administration --BridenstineNovember 8, 2020 See more
"There is a political agreement that America needs to do big things in space exploration, that we need to lead the world ... There have been lessons learned from the past, and I think Congress is in a good position to make sure that we have sustainable programs going forward," he said in one of the tweeted snippets . And in another one , he stressed that "there are a lot of people that can do great work as the NASA administrator."
It's far too early to speculate about Bridenstine's successor; the results of the Nov. 3 election still need to be certified, after all, and space policy is likely to be low on the list of President-elect Biden's priorities as he gets his administration up and running. (President Trump has yet to concede and is contesting the results, but his lawsuits and any recounts that are held are unlikely to change the outcome, experts say .)
“There is a political agreement that America needs to do big things in space exploration, that we need to lead the world ... There have been lessons learned from the past and I think Congress is in a good position to make sure that we have sustainable programs going forward. https://t.co/QoZzDQYBEUNovember 8, 2020 See more
Bridenstine was sworn in as NASA Administrator in April 2018 and has steered the agency through an eventful 2.5 years. During this time, for example, NASA's Artemis program of crewed lunar exploration got up and running. Artemis aims to land two astronauts near the lunar south pole in 2024 and establish a sustainable human presence on and around the moon by 2028, helping to pave the way for crewed Mars missions in the 2030s.
NASA launched the InSight Mars lander, Mars 2020 rover Perseverance and Parker Solar Probe missions on Bridenstine's watch as well. And the agency's decade-long drive to nurture the development of private astronaut taxis is coming to fruition in what appear to be his final few months on the job. SpaceX launched two NASA astronauts on a test flight to the International Space Station this past May and is gearing up for the Nov. 14 launch of Crew-1 , the company's first operational, contracted crewed flight to the orbiting lab for NASA.