livescience--2020-12-21--Exquisitely-preserved wolf pup mummy discovered in Yukon permafrost

A female wolf pup mummy , perfectly preserved as it remained locked in permafrost for 57,000 years , is finally giving up some of its secrets , including how the grey wolf died and ended up alone in the ice so long ago .
The mummified grey wolf ( Canis lupus ) was discovered by a gold miner excavating permafrost in Yukon , Canada , in July 2016 , in the Klondike gold fields near Dawson City .
`` She is the most complete wolf specimen ever found from the ice age , '' said lead author Julie Meachen , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Moines University in Iowa .
`` All her soft tissue , her hair , her skin , even her little nose is still there .
She 's just complete .
And that is really rare . ''
Several types of analysis — including radiocarbon dating , DNA sampling and measurements of levels of different versions , or isotopes , of oxygen — confirmed when the pup died .
X-rays of the skeleton and teeth also revealed that Zhùr ( meaning `` wolf '' in the Hän language of the local Tr'ondëk Hwëch'in people @ @ @ @ @ @ @ she met her untimely end .
Aside from being the most complete ice age wolf ever discovered , Zhùr 's mummy was also particularly important to researchers because it was uncovered in North America .
`` These types of specimens can be fairly common in Siberia , but they are much harder to get to , '' than remains found in the Yukon , Meachen told Live Science .
As such , the remains were much easier to access and study , and they also provided a rare opportunity to see where North @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Meachen and colleagues reconstructed Zhùr 's mitochondrial genome — the genome found in the cells ' energy-making structures called mitochondria that gets passed along the maternal line — finding similarities with both Beringian wolves , an extinct group that lived in ancient Yukon and Alaska , and Russian grey wolves .
The pup 's relation to individuals from both North America and Eurasia is proof of ancient continental mixing across the Bering Land Bridge , an ancient land bridge that once connected Alaska and Russia , the researchers said .
Having such an @ @ @ @ @ @ @ researchers an opportunity to look at what ice age wolves were eating .
`` When I looked at the X-rays and could see her intestines , that gave me a little thrill , '' Meachen said .
`` I 'd never seen 57,000-year-old intestines before . ''
Although in the end , bone analysis , not her stomach contents , allowed the team to reconstruct Zhùr 's diet .
During her short life , Zhùr fed on mostly aquatic food , such as Chinook salmon that currently spawn in the Klondike River , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in modern wolves , which have been shown to seasonally switch to aquatic diets in Alaska .
However , scientists had assumed that Yukon wolves would have mainly eaten bison or musk oxen during the ice age .
One of the biggest remaining mysteries surrounding Zhùr is how she was mummified and why she ended up alone .
The researchers ' hypothesize that she was killed when her den collapsed on top of her .
This would explain why the remains are so perfectly preserved , because they would have been instantaneously entombed @ @ @ @ @ @ @ environment .
But if she did die in this way it begs the question — where was the rest of her family ?
Given her age , it seems unlikely that she would ever have been in the den without her mother or siblings .
`` Maybe the mum and siblings were outside the den when it collapsed and that is why Zhùr was left on her own inside the den , '' Meachen said .
`` It is possible she was an only pup , but that would be rare , usually @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , '' she explained , but ultimately she admits that , `` It is impossible to tell for sure . ''
Findings like this one could become more common , as the globe warms and once solid permafrost begins to thaw and divulge buried secrets .
`` We 're always excited when we make discoveries like these , '' Meachen said , `` but it is an indication that the world is warming and that 's not good for our environment .
The planet is hurting . ''
The new study was published @ @ @ @ @ @

A female wolf pup mummy, perfectly preserved as it remained locked in permafrost for 57,000 years, is finally giving up some of its secrets, including how the grey wolf died and ended up alone in the ice so long ago.
The mummified grey wolf (Canis lupus) was discovered by a gold miner excavating permafrost in Yukon, Canada, in July 2016, in the Klondike gold fields near Dawson City.
"She is the most complete wolf specimen ever found from the ice age," said lead author Julie Meachen, an associate professor of Anatomy at Des Moines University in Iowa. "All her soft tissue, her hair, her skin, even her little nose is still there. She's just complete. And that is really rare."
Related: Photos: Perfectly preserved baby horse unearthed in Siberian permafrost
Several types of analysis — including radiocarbon dating, DNA sampling and measurements of levels of different versions, or isotopes, of oxygen — confirmed when the pup died. X-rays of the skeleton and teeth also revealed that Zhùr (meaning "wolf" in the Hän language of the local Tr'ondëk Hwëch'in people) was only 7 weeks old when she met her untimely end.
X-ray images of the ancient wolf pup and her teeth revealed she was only 7 weeks old when she died. (Image credit: Government of Yukon)
Ancient past
Aside from being the most complete ice age wolf ever discovered, Zhùr's mummy was also particularly important to researchers because it was uncovered in North America.
"These types of specimens can be fairly common in Siberia, but they are much harder to get to," than remains found in the Yukon, Meachen told Live Science. As such, the remains were much easier to access and study, and they also provided a rare opportunity to see where North American wolves originated, she said.
Meachen and colleagues reconstructed Zhùr's mitochondrial genome — the genome found in the cells' energy-making structures called mitochondria that gets passed along the maternal line — finding similarities with both Beringian wolves, an extinct group that lived in ancient Yukon and Alaska, and Russian grey wolves. The pup's relation to individuals from both North America and Eurasia is proof of ancient continental mixing across the Bering Land Bridge, an ancient land bridge that once connected Alaska and Russia, the researchers said.
Having such an intact specimen to study also gave the researchers an opportunity to look at what ice age wolves were eating.
"When I looked at the X-rays and could see her intestines, that gave me a little thrill," Meachen said. "I'd never seen 57,000-year-old intestines before." Although in the end, bone analysis, not her stomach contents, allowed the team to reconstruct Zhùr's diet.
During her short life, Zhùr fed on mostly aquatic food, such as Chinook salmon that currently spawn in the Klondike River, they found. This isn't uncommon in modern wolves, which have been shown to seasonally switch to aquatic diets in Alaska. However, scientists had assumed that Yukon wolves would have mainly eaten bison or musk oxen during the ice age.
A closeup of the wolf pup's head reveals her teeth. (Image credit: Government of Yukon)
Lone wolf
One of the biggest remaining mysteries surrounding Zhùr is how she was mummified and why she ended up alone. The researchers' hypothesize that she was killed when her den collapsed on top of her. This would explain why the remains are so perfectly preserved, because they would have been instantaneously entombed in a cold, dry and airtight environment.
But if she did die in this way it begs the question — where was the rest of her family? Given her age, it seems unlikely that she would ever have been in the den without her mother or siblings.
"Maybe the mum and siblings were outside the den when it collapsed and that is why Zhùr was left on her own inside the den," Meachen said. "It is possible she was an only pup, but that would be rare, usually wolves have several pups at a time," she explained, but ultimately she admits that, "It is impossible to tell for sure."
Findings like this one could become more common, as the globe warms and once solid permafrost begins to thaw and divulge buried secrets.
"We're always excited when we make discoveries like these," Meachen said, "but it is an indication that the world is warming and that's not good for our environment. The planet is hurting."
The new study was published Dec. 21 in the journal Current Biology .
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-12-21--3,800-year-old baby in a jar unearthed in Israel

Archaeologists in Israel have unearthed a 3,800-year-old jar that contains something surprising — the skeleton of a baby .
Though such infant burials are not so uncommon , it 's a mystery why the infants were buried in this way , said Yoav Arbel , an Israel Antiquities Authority archaeologist who was part of the team that found the jar .
`` You might go to the practical thing and say that the bodies were so fragile , [ maybe ] they felt the need to protect it from the environment , even though it is dead , '' Arbel @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 's always the interpretation that the jar is almost like a womb , so basically the idea is to return [ the ] baby back into Mother Earth , or into the symbolic protection of his mother . ''
The 4,000-year-old city of Jaffa , where the jar was found , is the older part of Tel Aviv , the second most populated city in Israel after Jerusalem .
It was one of the earliest port cities in the world , and has been almost continuously occupied since about 900 B.C.
, Arbel @ @ @ @ @ @ @ city that was ruled by a lot of different people , '' Arbel said .
`` Let 's say that a lot of flags flew from its mast before Israel 's flag of today . ''
Despite how strange the baby burial seems to modern eyes , it 's not an unusual find for the region .
`` There are different periods when people buried infants in jars in Israel , '' Arbel said .
`` The Bronze Age all the way to less than 100 years ago . ''
The finds were @ @ @ @ @ @ @ journal , which includes more than 50 other studies on archaeology from Jaffa .
Because Jaffa has been almost continuously used for four millennia , the other finds described in the journal span the Hellenistic , Crusader and Ottoman periods .
For instance , at another site , Arbel and his team found a big rubbish pit brimming with pieces of imported amphorae ( ceramic vessels ) dating to the Hellenistic period , from the fourth to the first centuries B.C .
These roughly 2,300-year-old amphorae , which were used to hold wine @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Islands such as Rhodes and Kos , Arbel said .
This one pit provides more evidence that trade routes between Jaffa and Greece were robust , Arbel said .
Archaeologists also found : 30 coins dating to the Hellenistic , Crusader ( 12th–13th centuries ) , late Ottoman ( late 18th–early 20th centuries ) and British Mandate ( 1942 ) periods ; the remains of at least two horses and pottery dating to the Ottoman Empire ; 95 glass vessel fragments from Roman and Crusader times ; and 232 seashells , including those @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and three mother-of-pearl buttons .
There 's also the witty , ancient Greek mosaic discovered near a A.D. fourth- or fifth-century necropolis , saying `` Be of good courage , all who are buried here .
This is it ! ''
In essence , it means `` this is life ! ''
and that death is everyone 's shared destiny , said Zvi Greenhut , head of the publication department at the IAA , told Live Science .

Archaeologists found an infant jar burial about 10 feet (3 meters) under street level in Jaffa, which dated to the middle Bronze Age II.
Archaeologists in Israel have unearthed a 3,800-year-old jar that contains something surprising — the skeleton of a baby.
Though such infant burials are not so uncommon, it's a mystery why the infants were buried in this way, said Yoav Arbel, an Israel Antiquities Authority archaeologist who was part of the team that found the jar.
"You might go to the practical thing and say that the bodies were so fragile, [maybe] they felt the need to protect it from the environment, even though it is dead," Arbel told Live Science. "But there's always the interpretation that the jar is almost like a womb, so basically the idea is to return [the] baby back into Mother Earth, or into the symbolic protection of his mother."
Related: Photos: A walk through Israel's Old Jaffa
The 4,000-year-old city of Jaffa, where the jar was found, is the older part of Tel Aviv, the second most populated city in Israel after Jerusalem. It was one of the earliest port cities in the world, and has been almost continuously occupied since about 900 B.C., Arbel said
"We're talking about a city that was ruled by a lot of different people," Arbel said. "Let's say that a lot of flags flew from its mast before Israel's flag of today."
Despite how strange the baby burial seems to modern eyes, it's not an unusual find for the region.
"There are different periods when people buried infants in jars in Israel," Arbel said. "The Bronze Age all the way to less than 100 years ago."
The finds were detailed in the 100th issue of the journal Atiqot , which includes more than 50 other studies on archaeology from Jaffa.
Image 1 of 3 A roof tile with a bear stamp found in Jaffa. (Image credit: Clara Amit/Israel Antiquities Authority) A stone with a cross discovered in a Persian period cemetery located in Jaffa. (Image credit: Amir Gorzalczany/Israel Antiquities Authority) An early Byzantine period mosaic written in Greek from Jaffa saying, in essence, "That's life!" (Image credit: Nicky Davidov/Israel Antiquities Authority)
Because Jaffa has been almost continuously used for four millennia, the other finds described in the journal span the Hellenistic, Crusader and Ottoman periods. For instance, at another site, Arbel and his team found a big rubbish pit brimming with pieces of imported amphorae (ceramic vessels) dating to the Hellenistic period, from the fourth to the first centuries B.C. These roughly 2,300-year-old amphorae, which were used to hold wine, were crafted on various Greek Aegean Islands such as Rhodes and Kos, Arbel said. This one pit provides more evidence that trade routes between Jaffa and Greece were robust, Arbel said.
Archaeologists also found: 30 coins dating to the Hellenistic, Crusader (12th–13th centuries), late Ottoman (late 18th–early 20th centuries) and British Mandate (1942) periods; the remains of at least two horses and pottery dating to the Ottoman Empire; 95 glass vessel fragments from Roman and Crusader times; and 232 seashells, including those from the Mediterranean Sea, land snails and three mother-of-pearl buttons.
There's also the witty, ancient Greek mosaic discovered near a A.D. fourth- or fifth-century necropolis, saying "Be of good courage, all who are buried here. This is it!"
In essence, it means "this is life!" and that death is everyone's shared destiny, said Zvi Greenhut, head of the publication department at the IAA, told Live Science.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-12-21--Mummified baboons may identify lost land of Punt, ancient Egypt's trading partner

Mummified may reveal the location of the lost land of Punt , ancient Egypt 's mysterious and most-valued trading partner .
Ancient Egyptian texts make clear that Punt was somewhere to the south and east of Egypt , a place that could be reached by either land or sea .
Unfortunately , a large region meets that description , ranging from the Arabian Peninsula to northeast Somalia , southern Sudan and northern Ethiopia or Eritrea .
To this day , no one knows the location of Punt .
Nathaniel Dominy , a primatologist and professor of anthropology at Dartmouth College @ @ @ @ @ @ @ might be a way to narrow down Punt 's location : baboons .
These primates are n't native to Egypt , but ancient Egyptians imported and mummified them by the barrel load for centuries .
In some temples and necropolises , there are hundreds of baboon mummies .
Many seem to have lived long lives in captivity as pets or service animals ( they 're depicted in some tomb paintings as `` police dogs , '' helping the authorities chase down thieves ) .
Others may have been kept as part of the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ was sometimes depicted as having a baboon head .
`` The Egyptians described importing baboons from Punt , '' Dominy told Live Science in an email .
That meant that if the native land of the baboons could be determined , it would lead Dominy and his colleagues right to Punt .
To trace the baboons ' origins , Dominy and his colleagues looked at levels of particular variations of and in the animals ' tissues .
The molecular variations , called isotopes , are present in soil and water , and they @ @ @ @ @ @ @ became incorporated into the baboons ' bodies from the food they ate and the water they drank .
Different tissues hold a record of where the animals ate and drank at different times in their lives .
For example , tooth enamel forms in the first one to three years of a baboon 's life , so oxygen and strontium isotopes in enamel can reveal where a baboon was born .
Hair , on the other hand , holds a record of the last few months of an animal 's life .
The @ @ @ @ @ @ @ from 155 modern baboons in 77 different locations to create a molecular map of what these levels look like in different regions .
They then analyzed two baboon mummies from the New Kingdom period ( 1520 B.C .
to 1075 B.C . )
and five from the Ptolemaic period ( after 332 B.C. )
.
They found that the New Kingdom baboons were born outside of Egypt , in the region that is modern-day Eritrea , Ethiopia and Somalia , none of which share a border with Egypt .
This suggests that Egpytian @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to traverse the length of the Red Sea , Dominy said .
`` Punt existed in the southern Red Sea region , very likely on the coasts of Eritrea and Somaliland , '' he wrote in his email to Live Science .
The mummies from the later Ptolemic period , on the other hand , did not seem to be imported .
They likely were captive-bred in Egypt , which fits with historical texts describing baboon-breeding in the Egpytian city of Memphis , Dominy said .
The findings should be considered provisional , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 15 in the journal , with more studies needed on more baboon mummies to paint a fuller picture of the ancient primate trade .
However , the results suggest that the sacred baboons were one of the driving forces behind the development of long-distance trade in the researchers conclude .

Mummified baboons may reveal the location of the lost land of Punt, ancient Egypt's mysterious and most-valued trading partner.
Ancient Egyptian texts make clear that Punt was somewhere to the south and east of Egypt, a place that could be reached by either land or sea. Unfortunately, a large region meets that description, ranging from the Arabian Peninsula to northeast Somalia, southern Sudan and northern Ethiopia or Eritrea. To this day, no one knows the location of Punt.
Nathaniel Dominy, a primatologist and professor of anthropology at Dartmouth College in New Hampshire, realized that there might be a way to narrow down Punt's location: baboons. These primates aren't native to Egypt, but ancient Egyptians imported and mummified them by the barrel load for centuries. In some temples and necropolises, there are hundreds of baboon mummies. Many seem to have lived long lives in captivity as pets or service animals (they're depicted in some tomb paintings as "police dogs," helping the authorities chase down thieves). Others may have been kept as part of the worship of the god Thoth, who was sometimes depicted as having a baboon head.
Related: Photos of ancient Egyptian cat mummies
"The Egyptians described importing baboons from Punt," Dominy told Live Science in an email. That meant that if the native land of the baboons could be determined, it would lead Dominy and his colleagues right to Punt.
A molecular map
To trace the baboons' origins, Dominy and his colleagues looked at levels of particular variations of strontium and oxygen in the animals' tissues. The molecular variations, called isotopes, are present in soil and water, and they vary from place to place. They became incorporated into the baboons' bodies from the food they ate and the water they drank. Different tissues hold a record of where the animals ate and drank at different times in their lives. For example, tooth enamel forms in the first one to three years of a baboon's life, so oxygen and strontium isotopes in enamel can reveal where a baboon was born. Hair, on the other hand, holds a record of the last few months of an animal's life.
Image 1 of 3 (Image credit: John Anderson and William de Winton) This New Kingdom Pan hamadryas baboon is part of the British Museum collection. (Image credit: The Trustees of the British Museum (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)) The isotopic analysis on the baboons suggests that Punt was in the Horn of Africa. (Image credit: Dominy et al. 2020; eLife, 9, e60860)
The researchers first analyzed strontium and oxygen levels from 155 modern baboons in 77 different locations to create a molecular map of what these levels look like in different regions. They then analyzed two baboon mummies from the New Kingdom period (1520 B.C. to 1075 B.C.) and five from the Ptolemaic period (after 332 B.C.).
They found that the New Kingdom baboons were born outside of Egypt, in the region that is modern-day Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia, none of which share a border with Egypt. This suggests that Egpytian sailors were quite capable seafarers, able to traverse the length of the Red Sea, Dominy said.
"Punt existed in the southern Red Sea region, very likely on the coasts of Eritrea and Somaliland," he wrote in his email to Live Science.
The mummies from the later Ptolemic period, on the other hand, did not seem to be imported. They likely were captive-bred in Egypt, which fits with historical texts describing baboon-breeding in the Egpytian city of Memphis, Dominy said.
The findings should be considered provisional, Dominy and his colleagues reported on Dec. 15 in the journal eLife , with more studies needed on more baboon mummies to paint a fuller picture of the ancient primate trade. However, the results suggest that the sacred baboons were one of the driving forces behind the development of long-distance trade in ancient Egypt, the researchers conclude.
Associate editor Laura Geggel contributed reporting to this article.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-12-21--Red Bull skydivers recreate mysterious Marfa lights for winter solstice 2020

The winter solstice is here , bringing with it the longest night of the year , making it a great time to look up and gaze at the wonder of the universe .
Red Bull 's skydiving team celebrated the night sky , and , in an epic recent nighttime skydive by the Red Bull Air Force 's Amy Chmelecki and teammates to highlight — literally ( they used pyrotechnics ) — the importance of astronomy and dark skies in a rural region of Texas .
You can watch the video here on Red Bull 's YouTube , which features @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Chmelecki jumped at an altitude of 15,000 feet ( 4.5 km ) for a four-minute fall with other skydivers , lighting the sky with pyrotechnics carefully strapped to their boots .
The skies in Marfa — a town 5,000 feet ( 1,500 meters ) in altitude roughly 2.5 hours southeast of El Paso — were so dark that it presented an additional challenge for the highly experienced skydiver .
Only a single car with headlights illuminated the ground so as not to ruin the high-definition video and pictures that Red Bull created for @ @ @ @ @ @ @ told Space.com .
Red Bull Air Force Captain Jon DeVore led Chmelecki 's team in the challenging nighttime jumps ; each team member has more than 20,000 jumps of experience , Chmelecki said .
`` It was easier than I thought , '' added Chmelecki , who has been skydiving herself for 26 years .
`` But it really is scary , and there is not much room for error .
You and the team have to be highly experienced . ''
The footage was released publicly in time for the winter solstice @ @ @ @ @ @ @ when Jupiter and Saturn will be closer to each other in the sky than they have been for 400 years .
Red Bull Air Force is known for taking challenging jumps for astronomy , such as the March 2019 jump to showcase the supermoon in the sky .
The November jump in Marfa highlighted the region 's efforts to become an International Dark-Sky Association preserve ( IDA ) , following commitments from the community to limit lighting and from nearby oil and gas industry to reduce overnight lights .
Dark sky preserves are @ @ @ @ @ @ @ depends on a minimum of artificial lighting for observations ; in this case , Marfa is only 20 minutes away from the McDonald Observatory in Fort Davis , Texas .
The observatory is affiliated with professional astronomy research from the University of Texas at Austin , and hosts a visitors ' center for outreach .
`` I think it 's a great way to reach an audience we do n't normally reach , '' IDA director of engagement Bettymaya Foott told Space.com of the Red Bull jump , which Foott said would likely @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
`` One of the biggest problems is night sky awareness and advocacy is people do n't know what a dark sky is . ''
IDA will weigh the reaction to the Red Bull campaign before making further plans to attract youth to , Foott said , but she said there is already a more general uptick in interest across all age groups due to the pandemic .
Small astronomy tours still allow for safe social distancing outdoors while looking at the sky , she said , and astrotourists are a benefit to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ people do need to stay overnight — adding lucrative dinnertime spending and hotel rooms to a typical visit .
Red Bull Air Force used the vast valley to its advantage to capture stunning video and photo footage .
Photographer Dustin Snipes from Red Bull was on the other side of the valley working to fire several cameras at once , capturing the streams of skydiving light across the sky .
`` We had two cameras set up to a computer that were showing live views so we could see a better outcome of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ look like right away , '' Snipes said in a Red Bull interview provided to media ( Snipes was unavailable for a Space.com interview before deadline . )
`` Then we had six more [ cameras ] … shooting a really wide angle , something that we could show more stars and resolution , '' Snipes added .
`` Those were also wired together so they 'd trigger at the same time from one button .
While I was doing that , I was looking through another camera and triggering every 25 seconds @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , while I was shooting , we set up a script to shoot two cameras off to the left with a slightly different angle and focus . ''
While synchronizing with the other jumpers to create the light show , Chmelecki said it was an odd experience to only see lights from the other skydivers .
Usually there are city lights below to help the Red Bull jumpers aim for a safe landing , she said .
`` Jumping into dark is a really surreal feeling ; one of your senses is almost @ @ @ @ @ @ @ `` You 're operating in a different realm .
It 's a different feeling . ''
Much like an astronaut or test pilot , the Red Bull jumpers have extensive training and many discussions about safety before going on a flight .
An additional layer of protection was added for the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic , with each jumper wearing a mask over their mouths until just before leaving the plane ; per new skydiving procedures established by industry , each jumper tucked the mask in their helmet so it would n't whip away @ @ @ @ @ @ @ looking to follow in her footsteps to do what they could to gain experience , through accumulating jumps and certifications .
Skydiving is an expensive sport and at times , Chmelecki worked three jobs to support her hobby before joining Red Bull full-time eight years ago .
A typical great starting job for a young skydiver these days is a wind tunnel , an option not available to Chmelecki in the 1990s — but a job she said she would take if she were to start all over again .
`` What we @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Chmelecki said of the path to becoming a professional skydiver .
`` I started slowly .
I spent all my money on skydives , and then picked up sponsors when I was getting good .
Also , people would ask me to coach them .
Eventually it just kept growing from there . ''
Follow Elizabeth Howell on Twitter @ howellspace .
Follow us on Twitter @ Spacedotcom and on Facebook .

The winter solstice is here , bringing with it the longest night of the year, making it a great time to look up and gaze at the wonder of the universe.
Red Bull's skydiving team celebrated the night sky, and the mysterious Marfa lights of a Texas town , in an epic recent nighttime skydive by the Red Bull Air Force's Amy Chmelecki and teammates to highlight — literally (they used pyrotechnics) — the importance of astronomy and dark skies in a rural region of Texas. You can watch the video here on Red Bull's YouTube , which features photography by Dustin Snipes.
The 44-year-old Chmelecki jumped at an altitude of 15,000 feet (4.5 km) for a four-minute fall with other skydivers, lighting the sky with pyrotechnics carefully strapped to their boots.
The skies in Marfa — a town 5,000 feet (1,500 meters) in altitude roughly 2.5 hours southeast of El Paso — were so dark that it presented an additional challenge for the highly experienced skydiver. Only a single car with headlights illuminated the ground so as not to ruin the high-definition video and pictures that Red Bull created for the multi-jump event in November, Chmelecki told Space.com.
Red Bull Air Force Captain Jon DeVore led Chmelecki's team in the challenging nighttime jumps; each team member has more than 20,000 jumps of experience, Chmelecki said. "It was easier than I thought," added Chmelecki, who has been skydiving herself for 26 years. "But it really is scary, and there is not much room for error. You and the team have to be highly experienced."
The footage was released publicly in time for the winter solstice on Monday (Dec. 21), when Jupiter and Saturn will be closer to each other in the sky than they have been for 400 years .
The Red Bull Air Force skydiving team paint the night sky in dazzling "Marfa lights" near Marfa, Texas in these amazing images by photographer Dustin Snipes to celebrate the night sky for the winter solstice 2020. The jump took place in November 2020. (Image credit: Dustin Snipes/Red Bull Content Pool)
Red Bull Air Force is known for taking challenging jumps for astronomy, such as the March 2019 jump to showcase the supermoon in the sky . The November jump in Marfa highlighted the region's efforts to become an International Dark-Sky Association preserve (IDA), following commitments from the community to limit lighting and from nearby oil and gas industry to reduce overnight lights.
Dark sky preserves are a boon for astronomical research, which depends on a minimum of artificial lighting for observations; in this case, Marfa is only 20 minutes away from the McDonald Observatory in Fort Davis, Texas. The observatory is affiliated with professional astronomy research from the University of Texas at Austin, and hosts a visitors' center for outreach.
"I think it's a great way to reach an audience we don't normally reach," IDA director of engagement Bettymaya Foott told Space.com of the Red Bull jump, which Foott said would likely attract a younger and perhaps teenaged audience. "One of the biggest problems is night sky awareness and advocacy is people don't know what a dark sky is."
IDA will weigh the reaction to the Red Bull campaign before making further plans to attract youth to dark sky preservation , Foott said, but she said there is already a more general uptick in interest across all age groups due to the pandemic.
Small astronomy tours still allow for safe social distancing outdoors while looking at the sky, she said, and astrotourists are a benefit to small towns such as Marfa because these people do need to stay overnight — adding lucrative dinnertime spending and hotel rooms to a typical visit.
Red Bull Air Force used the vast valley to its advantage to capture stunning video and photo footage. Photographer Dustin Snipes from Red Bull was on the other side of the valley working to fire several cameras at once, capturing the streams of skydiving light across the sky.
"We had two cameras set up to a computer that were showing live views so we could see a better outcome of what it [the shot] would look like right away," Snipes said in a Red Bull interview provided to media (Snipes was unavailable for a Space.com interview before deadline.)
(Image credit: Dustin Snipes/Red Bull Content Pool)
"Then we had six more [cameras] … shooting a really wide angle, something that we could show more stars and resolution," Snipes added. "Those were also wired together so they'd trigger at the same time from one button. While I was doing that, I was looking through another camera and triggering every 25 seconds for the actual array shot. Then, while I was shooting, we set up a script to shoot two cameras off to the left with a slightly different angle and focus."
While synchronizing with the other jumpers to create the light show, Chmelecki said it was an odd experience to only see lights from the other skydivers. Usually there are city lights below to help the Red Bull jumpers aim for a safe landing, she said.
"Jumping into dark is a really surreal feeling; one of your senses is almost taken away," she added. "You're operating in a different realm. It's a different feeling."
Image 1 of 4 (Image credit: Dustin Snipes/Red Bull Content Pool) (Image credit: Dustin Snipes/Red Bull Content Pool) (Image credit: Dustin Snipes/Red Bull Content Pool) (Image credit: Dustin Snipes/Red Bull Content Pool)
Much like an astronaut or test pilot, the Red Bull jumpers have extensive training and many discussions about safety before going on a flight. An additional layer of protection was added for the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, with each jumper wearing a mask over their mouths until just before leaving the plane; per new skydiving procedures established by industry, each jumper tucked the mask in their helmet so it wouldn't whip away in mid-air.
Chmelecki urged young skydivers looking to follow in her footsteps to do what they could to gain experience, through accumulating jumps and certifications. Skydiving is an expensive sport and at times, Chmelecki worked three jobs to support her hobby before joining Red Bull full-time eight years ago. A typical great starting job for a young skydiver these days is a wind tunnel, an option not available to Chmelecki in the 1990s — but a job she said she would take if she were to start all over again.
"What we're doing is accumulating experience," Chmelecki said of the path to becoming a professional skydiver. "I started slowly. I spent all my money on skydives, and then picked up sponsors when I was getting good. Also, people would ask me to coach them. Eventually it just kept growing from there."
Follow Elizabeth Howell on Twitter @howellspace. Follow us on Twitter @Spacedotcom and on Facebook.


livescience--2020-12-21--Hawaii's Kilauea volcano erupts with dramatic lava fountains

Hawaii 's erupted beginning Sunday ( Dec. 20 ) night local time , with dramatic lava fountains and huge puffs of gas and steam being launched from the summit crater called Halemaʻumaʻu , the Hawaii Volcano Observatory ( HVO ) , part of the U.S. Geological Survey ( USGS ) , reported .
Though the shield volcano is one of Earth 's most active , constantly spewing lava from its fissures , the recent eruption is much more dramatic than the `` background '' streams of lava that consistently flow from volcanic cracks .
`` For the past several weeks @ @ @ @ @ @ @ recorded ground deformation and earthquake rates at Kilauea Volcano 's summit and upper East Rift Zone that have exceeded background levels , '' since a 2018 eruption , the observatory said in a statement Sunday .
Just after 9:30 p.m. HST ( 2:30 a.m. EST , 7:30 a.m. UTC ) , the volcano observatory picked up a glow in the crater at Kilauea 's summit , just before the eruption began .
Several fissures opened up in the walls of the crater , which was filled with water ; sizzling lava poured through @ @ @ @ @ @ @ causing the water to boil away as it was replaced with the molten rock .
The crater 's northern fissure sent out a huge lava fountain , extending some 165 feet ( 50 meters ) high , the HVO reported .
About an hour later , at 10:36 p.m. HST ( 3:36 a.m. EST , 8:36 a.m. UTC ) , a 4.4-magnitude earthquake shook the ground beneath the volcano 's south flank .
The center of the earthquake was about 4 miles ( 6 kilometers ) deep and about 8.7 miles ( 14 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ inside Hawaii Volcanoes National Park .
More than 30 of magnitude-4 or greater have shook Kilauea 's south flank in the past 20 years , according to HVO , with most of them caused by the abrupt movement of the south flank as it moves southeast over the oceanic crust .
`` HVO continues to monitor Kīlauea as the situation is rapidly evolving with this evening 's eruption at the summit of Kīlauea , '' David Phillips , HVO 's acting scientist-in-charge , said in the statement .
The last dramatic eruption occurred @ @ @ @ @ @ @ floor of the Pu ' u ' Ō ' ō 's crater , on the eastern side of the volcano 's rift zone , collapsed on April 30 , pushing magma underground southeast , at the time .
On May 3 , a magnitude-5.0 earthquake struck the Big Island near the Pu ' u ' Ō ' ō crater .
That shaking sent lava racing into residential subdivisions in the Puna district of the Big Island .
Mandatory evacuations of the Leilani Estates and Lanipuna Gardens subdivisions followed .

An eruption started at the Kilauea summit on Dec. 20, 2020, at approximately 9:30 p.m. HST with multiple fissures opening on the walls of Halemaʻumaʻu crater.
Hawaii's Kilauea volcano erupted beginning Sunday (Dec. 20) night local time, with dramatic lava fountains and huge puffs of gas and steam being launched from the summit crater called Halemaʻumaʻu, the Hawaii Volcano Observatory (HVO), part of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), reported.
Though the shield volcano is one of Earth's most active volcanoes , constantly spewing lava from its fissures, the recent eruption is much more dramatic than the "background" streams of lava that consistently flow from volcanic cracks.
"For the past several weeks, the USGS Hawaiian Volcano Observatory has recorded ground deformation and earthquake rates at Kilauea Volcano's summit and upper East Rift Zone that have exceeded background levels," since a 2018 eruption, the observatory said in a statement Sunday.
Related: Photos: Fiery Lava from Kilauea Volcano Erupts on Hawaii's Big Island
Just after 9:30 p.m. HST (2:30 a.m. EST, 7:30 a.m. UTC), the volcano observatory picked up a glow in the crater at Kilauea's summit, just before the eruption began. Several fissures opened up in the walls of the crater, which was filled with water; sizzling lava poured through the cracks and into the lake, causing the water to boil away as it was replaced with the molten rock. The crater's northern fissure sent out a huge lava fountain, extending some 165 feet (50 meters) high, the HVO reported.
Shortly after 9:30 p.m. HST, an eruption began at the summit of Kilauea Volcano. Red spots are the approximate locations of fissure vents feeding lava flowing into the bottom of Halema‘uma‘u crater. The water lake at the base of Halema‘uma‘u crater has been replaced with a growing lava lake. (Image credit: USGS/Hawaii Volcano Observatory)
About an hour later, at 10:36 p.m. HST (3:36 a.m. EST, 8:36 a.m. UTC), a 4.4-magnitude earthquake shook the ground beneath the volcano's south flank. The center of the earthquake was about 4 miles (6 kilometers) deep and about 8.7 miles (14 km) south of Fern Forest, inside Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. More than 30 earthquakes of magnitude-4 or greater have shook Kilauea's south flank in the past 20 years, according to HVO, with most of them caused by the abrupt movement of the south flank as it moves southeast over the oceanic crust.
"HVO continues to monitor Kīlauea as the situation is rapidly evolving with this evening's eruption at the summit of Kīlauea," David Phillips, HVO's acting scientist-in-charge, said in the statement.
The last dramatic eruption occurred in the spring of 2018 when the floor of the Pu'u 'Ō'ō's crater, on the eastern side of the volcano's rift zone, collapsed on April 30, pushing magma underground southeast, Live Science reported at the time. On May 3, a magnitude-5.0 earthquake struck the Big Island near the Pu'u 'Ō'ō crater. That shaking sent lava racing into residential subdivisions in the Puna district of the Big Island. Mandatory evacuations of the Leilani Estates and Lanipuna Gardens subdivisions followed.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-12-22--What's causing rare allergic reactions to Pfizer's vaccine?

Public health officials are investigating the cause of several severe allergic reactions that were reported among hundreds of thousands of people vaccinated with the Pfizer-BioNTech coronavirus vaccine last week .
As of Friday ( Dec. 18 ) , six people who received the jab in the U.S. developed anaphylaxis , or a severe allergic reaction that can be life-threatening if left untreated , according to The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ( CDC ) .
One of those patients had previously developed anaphylaxis after receiving a rabies vaccination , but it 's not clear if the other participants also @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
The previous week , two people in the U.K. , both with a history of severe allergies , developed anaphylaxis-like symptoms after receiving the Pfizer vaccine , prompting the country 's regulatory agency to advise people who have previously had `` significant '' allergic reactions to vaccines , medicines or food to avoid the vaccine , .
In the U.S. , the Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) is recommending that only people who have previously had a severe allergic reaction to other vaccines or to any of the ingredients listed @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
But are these events truly allergic reactions to the vaccine and if so , what is causing them ?
One possibility is a chemical commonly used in laxatives that is in both the Pfizer and Moderna vaccines .
But it 's also possible that some of the cases are not true allergic reactions at all , one expert told Live Science .
And in either case , the reactions are very rare .
Though there 's no way to know for sure , one ingredient in the Pfizer vaccine is coming under @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( PEG ) , `` could be the culprit , '' Dr. Peter Marks , the director of the Food and Drug Administration 's ( FDA ) Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research , told reporters on Friday ( Dec. 19 ) .
This compound is also present in Moderna 's vaccine , which has a similar makeup to Pfizer 's , and was given emergency approval in the U.S. on Dec. 18 .
It 's the leading culprit because the rest of the ingredients in Pfizer 's vaccine are `` lipids and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ unlikely allergens , '' said Dr. Purvi Parikh , allergist and immunologist at NYU Langone Health , who was not involved in the vaccine 's development .
PEG is found in many medications , such as those that treat constipation , but allergy to it is rare , Parikh said .
Rare , but not unheard of : Some drugs that contain PEG have occasionally caused anaphylaxis , .
And prior exposure to the compound may have led some people to develop high levels of antibodies against it , putting them at risk @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the important thing to note is we do n't know for sure if these were all truly allergic reactions , '' Parikh told Live Science .
Some other conditions can mimic allergic reactions , and they 're much more benign , she said .
One such condition is “ vasovagal syncope , ” which happens when people get very anxious ( say because of a needle ) and their heart rate and blood pressure drops and they faint , she said .
`` True allergic reactions to vaccines are very rare , '' @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 're more likely to be hit by lightning than have a true anaphylactic reaction to a vaccine . ''
On average , the chance of developing anaphylaxis after receiving a vaccine is about 1.31 in one million , according to a 2015 study published in the Journal of Allergy Clinical Immunology .
Still , it 's `` really important to get a full history and have these incidents evaluated so we have a better idea of what 's going on , '' Parikh said .
Even if it turns out that these are @ @ @ @ @ @ @ occurred in only a small fraction of the hundreds of thousands of people in just the U.S. alone who have already received the Pfizer vaccine .
These cases may be `` making the news but many people are tolerating the vaccine without any issue , '' Parikh said .
As of Dec. 19 , about 272,000 doses of Pfizer 's coronavirus vaccine had been given to health care workers across the U.S. ; and as of Dec. 20 , that number increased to 556,300 doses , according to the CDC .
( Still @ @ @ @ @ @ @ out , it would mean the Pfizer vaccine could be more likely than other vaccines to trigger allergic reactions . )
Neither Moderna 's nor Pfizer 's clinical trials found that the vaccine caused severe adverse events such as anaphylaxis .
While people who are allergic to any of the ingredients in the vaccines were excluded from the trials , people with severe food or drug allergies were not .
In Pfizer 's trials , anyone who had a severe reaction from any vaccine in the past was excluded , according to Science @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( NIH ) is starting a study to investigate what 's causing these allergic reactions to Pfizer 's coronavirus vaccine , and is expected to recruit volunteers who have had a history of severe allergic reactions , according to The Washington Post .
But in the meantime , the that everyone who receives the Pfizer vaccine should be observed for 15 minutes after the jab ( this is common practice for all vaccines , according to The Conversation ) .
And anyone who has had a history of severe allergic reactions should stay @ @ @ @ @ @ @ for half an hour .
All six patients who had severe reactions had them within this `` recommended observation window , '' and were promptly treated , according to the CDC .

Public health officials are investigating the cause of several severe allergic reactions that were reported among hundreds of thousands of people vaccinated with the Pfizer-BioNTech coronavirus vaccine last week.
As of Friday (Dec. 18), six people who received the jab in the U.S. developed anaphylaxis, or a severe allergic reaction that can be life-threatening if left untreated, according to The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). One of those patients had previously developed anaphylaxis after receiving a rabies vaccination, but it's not clear if the other participants also had a prior history of severe allergies.
The previous week, two people in the U.K., both with a history of severe allergies, developed anaphylaxis-like symptoms after receiving the Pfizer vaccine, prompting the country's regulatory agency to advise people who have previously had "significant" allergic reactions to vaccines, medicines or food to avoid the vaccine, Live Science previously reported . In the U.S., the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is recommending that only people who have previously had a severe allergic reaction to other vaccines or to any of the ingredients listed in Pfizer's vaccine avoid the shot.
Related: Coronavirus live updates
But are these events truly allergic reactions to the vaccine and if so, what is causing them? One possibility is a chemical commonly used in laxatives that is in both the Pfizer and Moderna vaccines. But it's also possible that some of the cases are not true allergic reactions at all, one expert told Live Science. And in either case, the reactions are very rare.
Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine ingredients: — mRNA — Lipids (4-hydroxybutyl)azanediyl)bis(hexane-6,1-diyl)bis(2-hexyldecanoate) & 2[(polyethylene glycol)-2000]- N,N-ditetradecylacetamide &1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine & cholesterol — potassium chloride — monobasic potassium phosphate — sodium chloride — dibasic sodium phosphate dihydrate — sucrose
Though there's no way to know for sure, one ingredient in the Pfizer vaccine is coming under suspicion. A compound called polyethylene glycol (PEG), "could be the culprit," Dr. Peter Marks, the director of the Food and Drug Administration's (FDA) Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, told reporters on Friday (Dec. 19). This compound is also present in Moderna's vaccine, which has a similar makeup to Pfizer's, and was given emergency approval in the U.S. on Dec. 18.
It's the leading culprit because the rest of the ingredients in Pfizer's vaccine are "lipids and salts and sugar and things that are unlikely allergens," said Dr. Purvi Parikh, allergist and immunologist at NYU Langone Health, who was not involved in the vaccine's development. PEG is found in many medications, such as those that treat constipation, but allergy to it is rare, Parikh said.
Rare, but not unheard of: Some drugs that contain PEG have occasionally caused anaphylaxis, according to Science Magazine . And prior exposure to the compound may have led some people to develop high levels of antibodies against it, putting them at risk of anaphylaxis.
Moderna vaccine ingredients: — mRNA — Lipids (SM-102, polyethylene glycol [PEG] 2000 dimyristoyl glycerol [DMG],) & Cholesterol & 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine [DSPC]) — tromethamine — tromethamine hydrochloride — acetic acid — sodium acetate — sucrose
While concerning, "the important thing to note is we don't know for sure if these were all truly allergic reactions," Parikh told Live Science. Some other conditions can mimic allergic reactions, and they're much more benign, she said. One such condition is “vasovagal syncope,” which happens when people get very anxious (say because of a needle) and their heart rate and blood pressure drops and they faint, she said.
"True allergic reactions to vaccines are very rare," she said. "Statistically, you're more likely to be hit by lightning than have a true anaphylactic reaction to a vaccine." On average, the chance of developing anaphylaxis after receiving a vaccine is about 1.31 in one million, according to a 2015 study published in the Journal of Allergy Clinical Immunology .
Still, it's "really important to get a full history and have these incidents evaluated so we have a better idea of what's going on," Parikh said.
Even if it turns out that these are all true allergic reactions, they have occurred in only a small fraction of the hundreds of thousands of people in just the U.S. alone who have already received the Pfizer vaccine. These cases may be "making the news but many people are tolerating the vaccine without any issue," Parikh said. As of Dec. 19, about 272,000 doses of Pfizer's coronavirus vaccine had been given to health care workers across the U.S.; and as of Dec. 20, that number increased to 556,300 doses, according to the CDC . (Still, if all those cases are borne out, it would mean the Pfizer vaccine could be more likely than other vaccines to trigger allergic reactions.)
Neither Moderna's nor Pfizer's clinical trials found that the vaccine caused severe adverse events such as anaphylaxis. While people who are allergic to any of the ingredients in the vaccines were excluded from the trials, people with severe food or drug allergies were not. In Pfizer's trials, anyone who had a severe reaction from any vaccine in the past was excluded, according to Science Magazine.
The National Institutes of Health (NIH) is starting a study to investigate what's causing these allergic reactions to Pfizer's coronavirus vaccine, and is expected to recruit volunteers who have had a history of severe allergic reactions, according to The Washington Post .
But in the meantime, the CDC recommends that everyone who receives the Pfizer vaccine should be observed for 15 minutes after the jab (this is common practice for all vaccines, according to The Conversation). And anyone who has had a history of severe allergic reactions should stay in the doctor's office or clinic for half an hour. All six patients who had severe reactions had them within this "recommended observation window," and were promptly treated, according to the CDC.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-12-22--2 people die in shark attacks. How unusual is this?

Two people were recently killed in separate shark attacks , but how common is this ?
The first attack occurred when a surfer , a 56-year-old Hawaiian man was paddling in Honolua Bay on Dec. 8 , according to the .
In the second attack on Dec. 10 , a 38-year-old woman died after a shark tore off her leg 500 feet ( 150 meters ) from the shore at a popular beach in St. Martin in the eastern Caribbean , according to The Associated Press .
But while it may seem ominous that two deadly attacks happened in such @ @ @ @ @ @ @ are quite rare , statistics show .
Gavin Naylor , program director of the University of Florida ’ s International Shark Attack File ( ISAF ) , told the Associated Press that he was surprised about the attack in St. Martin .
`` It 's pretty unusual in that part of the world , '' Naylor said .
How unusual is this ?
There have been 78 shark attacks in 2020 so far and a total of 12 related fatalities , , a website that hosts information on shark attacks around the world @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of them fatal — were reported in the United States , more than in any other country .
Florida has the most recorded shark attacks this year with 23 .
These numbers may look high at a glance but it is important to put them in perspective .
`` The total number of unprovoked shark attacks worldwide is extremely low , given the number of people participating in aquatic recreation each year , '' according to the .
During an average person 's lifetime , their odds of being killed in a shark @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , compared with , say , dying from in a car accident , where the odds are 1 in 84 , according to the ISAF .
And this year , the number of shark attacks fell dramatically because of lockdowns , , with widespread quarantines and many beaches closed .
That makes sense , as the number of human-shark interactions is highly correlated with the time humans spend in the sea , according to the ISAF .
While 2020 may prove to be an exception , the trend in shark attacks has been @ @ @ @ @ @ @ population grows and more people engage in aquatic recreational activities , .
`` They 're just animals living in their environment — we 're the invaders , '' George H. Burgess , former director of the ISAF , .
The ISAF maintains the relative risk of being attacked by a shark is still `` very small , '' but they do on how you can limit your chances of being bitten in the water .
These include tips such as swim with another person , stay close to the shore and do n't @ @ @ @ @ @ @ apex predators , sharks play an important role in the ecosystem .
By preying on fish , they help keep populations healthy and at a size the habitat ’ s resources can support , .
And even the biggest sharks can become prey themselves .
Orcas , for example , have been known to and eat their livers ; and sea lions routinely hunt off the coast of California , Live Science previously reported .
Meanwhile , human activities are causing shark numbers to dwindle .
According to the ISAF , most populations @ @ @ @ @ @ @ reduced levels due to overfishing and habitat loss .

Two people were recently killed in separate shark attacks, but how common is this?
The first attack occurred when a surfer, a 56-year-old Hawaiian man was paddling in Honolua Bay on Dec. 8, according to the Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources . In the second attack on Dec. 10, a 38-year-old woman died after a shark tore off her leg 500 feet (150 meters) from the shore at a popular beach in St. Martin in the eastern Caribbean, according to The Associated Press .
But while it may seem ominous that two deadly attacks happened in such a short time span, shark attacks are quite rare, statistics show.
Gavin Naylor, program director of the University of Florida’s International Shark Attack File (ISAF), told the Associated Press that he was surprised about the attack in St. Martin. "It's pretty unusual in that part of the world," Naylor said.
Related: 7 unanswered questions about sharks
How unusual is this?
There have been 78 shark attacks in 2020 so far and a total of 12 related fatalities, according to Tracking Sharks , a website that hosts information on shark attacks around the world.
Thirty-six of the attacks — three of them fatal — were reported in the United States, more than in any other country. Florida has the most recorded shark attacks this year with 23.
These numbers may look high at a glance but it is important to put them in perspective. "The total number of unprovoked shark attacks worldwide is extremely low, given the number of people participating in aquatic recreation each year," according to the ISAF website .
During an average person's lifetime, their odds of being killed in a shark attack are about 1 in 3.75 million, compared with, say, dying from in a car accident, where the odds are 1 in 84, according to the ISAF. And this year, the number of shark attacks fell dramatically because of coronavirus lockdowns, according to ISAF , with widespread quarantines and many beaches closed. That makes sense, as the number of human-shark interactions is highly correlated with the time humans spend in the sea, according to the ISAF .
While 2020 may prove to be an exception, the trend in shark attacks has been rising in recent years as the human population grows and more people engage in aquatic recreational activities, according to ISAF .
"They're just animals living in their environment — we're the invaders," George H. Burgess, former director of the ISAF, previously told Live Science . The ISAF maintains the relative risk of being attacked by a shark is still "very small," but they do publish guidance on how you can limit your chances of being bitten in the water. These include tips such as swim with another person, stay close to the shore and don't swim at dawn or dusk.
As apex predators, sharks play an important role in the ecosystem. By preying on fish, they help keep populations healthy and at a size the habitat’s resources can support, Live Science previously reported .
And even the biggest sharks can become prey themselves. Orcas, for example, have been known to hunt great white sharks and eat their livers; and sea lions routinely hunt leopard sharks off the coast of California, Live Science previously reported.
Meanwhile, human activities are causing shark numbers to dwindle. According to the ISAF, most populations are either falling or exist at greatly reduced levels due to overfishing and habitat loss.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-12-22--Scientists think they've spotted the farthest galaxy in the universe

Astronomers have peered out into the vast expanse and spotted what they think is the farthest ( and oldest ) galaxy ever observed .
The galaxy GN-z11 might not have a flashy name , but it appears to be the most distant and oldest galaxy ever detected , scientists have found .
Astronomers led by Nobunari Kashikawa , a professor in the department of astronomy at the University of Tokyo , embarked on a mission to find the universe 's most distant observable galaxy , to learn more about how it formed and when .
`` From previous studies , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ farthest detectable galaxy from us , at 13.4 billion light-years , or 134 nonillion kilometers ( that 's 134 followed by 30 zeros ) , '' Kashikawa .
`` But measuring and verifying such a distance is not an easy task . ''
To determine how far GN-z11 is from us here on planet Earth , Kashikawa 's team studied the galaxy 's redshift — how much its light has stretched out , or shifted toward the red end of the spectrum .
In general , the farther away a cosmic object is @ @ @ @ @ @ @ redshifted its light will be .
Additionally , the team looked at GN-z11 's emission lines — observable , chemical signatures in the light coming from cosmic objects .
By studying these signatures closely , the team was able to figure out how far the light coming from GN-z11 must have traveled to get to us , giving them the tools to estimate its overall distance from Earth .
`` We looked at ultraviolet light specifically , as that is the area of the electromagnetic spectrum we expected to find the redshifted chemical @ @ @ @ @ @ @ The Hubble Space Telescope detected the signature multiple times in the spectrum of GN-z11 . ''
`` However , '' he added , `` even the Hubble can not resolve ultraviolet emission lines to the degree we needed .
So we turned to a more up-to-date ground-based spectrograph , an instrument to measure emission lines , called MOSFIRE , which is mounted to the Keck I telescope in Hawaii . ''
Using MOSFIRE , the team was able to observe and study the emission lines coming from the galaxy in detail .
If @ @ @ @ @ @ @ GN-z11 would officially reign as the most distant galaxy ever seen .
The new study in the journal Nature Astronomy .
Email Chelsea Gohd at cgohd @ space.com or follow her on Twitter @ chelsea_gohd .
Follow us on Twitter @ Spacedotcom and on Facebook .

The galaxy GN-z11, which scientists think could be the farthest and oldest galaxy every observed, superimposed on an image from the COODS-North survey.
Astronomers have peered out into the vast expanse and spotted what they think is the farthest (and oldest) galaxy ever observed.
The galaxy GN-z11 might not have a flashy name, but it appears to be the most distant and oldest galaxy ever detected, scientists have found. Astronomers led by Nobunari Kashikawa, a professor in the department of astronomy at the University of Tokyo, embarked on a mission to find the universe's most distant observable galaxy, to learn more about how it formed and when.
"From previous studies, the galaxy GN-z11 seems to be the farthest detectable galaxy from us, at 13.4 billion light-years, or 134 nonillion kilometers (that's 134 followed by 30 zeros)," Kashikawa said in a statement . "But measuring and verifying such a distance is not an easy task."
Images: Peering Back to the Big Bang & Early Universe
To determine how far GN-z11 is from us here on planet Earth, Kashikawa's team studied the galaxy's redshift — how much its light has stretched out, or shifted toward the red end of the spectrum. In general, the farther away a cosmic object is from us on Earth, the more redshifted its light will be.
Additionally, the team looked at GN-z11's emission lines — observable, chemical signatures in the light coming from cosmic objects.
By studying these signatures closely, the team was able to figure out how far the light coming from GN-z11 must have traveled to get to us, giving them the tools to estimate its overall distance from Earth.
"We looked at ultraviolet light specifically, as that is the area of the electromagnetic spectrum we expected to find the redshifted chemical signatures," Kashikawa said. "The Hubble Space Telescope detected the signature multiple times in the spectrum of GN-z11."
"However," he added, "even the Hubble cannot resolve ultraviolet emission lines to the degree we needed. So we turned to a more up-to-date ground-based spectrograph, an instrument to measure emission lines, called MOSFIRE, which is mounted to the Keck I telescope in Hawaii."
Using MOSFIRE, the team was able to observe and study the emission lines coming from the galaxy in detail. If other observations confirm the new findings, GN-z11 would officially reign as the most distant galaxy ever seen.
The new study was published Dec. 14 in the journal Nature Astronomy.
Email Chelsea Gohd at cgohd@space.com or follow her on Twitter @chelsea_gohd. Follow us on Twitter @Spacedotcom and on Facebook.


livescience--2020-12-22--World’s ugliest orchid looks like a soul-sucking, eyeless worm

Orchids are usually prized for their grace and loveliness , but a newly described species from Madagascar probably wo n't be winning any beauty contests .
Its small flowers are a mottled brown , and it resembles a moldy paper bag ( or maybe an eyeless , wormlike head with a mouth gaping in a silent scream or to consume your soul ) .
It 's no wonder that the newfound species has been called `` the ugliest orchid in the world '' by the Royal Botanical Gardens , Kew ( RBG Kew ) in the United Kingdom , which @ @ @ @ @ @ @ top of a list highlighting species discovered in 2020 , representatives said .
The leafless orchid , named Gastrodia agnicellus , grows underground in decaying leaf litter for most of its life cycle , and is nourished by fungus .
In addition to the `` small , brown and rather ugly '' orchid , researchers and collaborators with RBG Kew described more than 150 plants and fungi this year , according to the statement .
In 2019 , British botanist Johan Hermans , an RBG Kew honorary research associate , found a number @ @ @ @ @ @ @ litter in a humid Madagascar forest .
Their lumpy , oblong shapes hinted that the flower belonged to a group known as potato orchids , and the blooms , which measure about 0.4 inches ( 1.1 centimeters ) in length , emit a `` noticeable musk rose-like scent '' that intensifies when air temperatures are warmer , Hermans wrote in a study published Nov. 5 in the journal .
Other newly described species on the list include a scaly , heat-resistant shrub that thrives in Namibian salt pans ( Tiganophyton karasense ) ; @ @ @ @ @ @ @ could be a new food crop ( Ipomoea noemana ) ; and a vibrant , colorful bromeliad — a family of tropical , flowering plants that includes the pineapple — from Brazil ( Acanthostachys calcicola ) that grows on limestone cliffs and may be pollinated by hummingbirds , according to the statement .
`` In a challenging and difficult year , it 's so thrilling to see botanical and mycological science continue , with a bumper list of incredible newly named species being documented with our collaborators across the world , '' said @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and senior scientist within the Identification and Naming department .
`` However , the bleak reality facing us can not be underplayed : With two in five plants threatened with extinction , it is a race against time to find , identify , name and conserve plants before they disappear , '' Cheek said .

Orchids are usually prized for their grace and loveliness, but a newly described species from Madagascar probably won't be winning any beauty contests. Its small flowers are a mottled brown, and it resembles a moldy paper bag (or maybe an eyeless, wormlike head with a mouth gaping in a silent scream or to consume your soul).
It's no wonder that the newfound species has been called "the ugliest orchid in the world" by the Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew (RBG Kew) in the United Kingdom, which recently placed the homely newcomer at the top of a list highlighting species discovered in 2020, representatives said in a statement .
The leafless orchid, named Gastrodia agnicellus, grows underground in decaying leaf litter for most of its life cycle, and is nourished by fungus. In addition to the "small, brown and rather ugly" orchid, researchers and collaborators with RBG Kew described more than 150 plants and fungi this year, according to the statement.
Related: 5 surprising facts about orchids
In 2019, British botanist Johan Hermans, an RBG Kew honorary research associate, found a number of G. agnicellus orchids hiding under leaf litter in a humid Madagascar forest. Their lumpy, oblong shapes hinted that the flower belonged to a group known as potato orchids, and the blooms, which measure about 0.4 inches (1.1 centimeters) in length, emit a "noticeable musk rose-like scent" that intensifies when air temperatures are warmer, Hermans wrote in a study published Nov. 5 in the journal Curtis's Botanical Magazine .
Other newly described species on the list include a scaly, heat-resistant shrub that thrives in Namibian salt pans (Tiganophyton karasense); a Peruvian plant with purple tubers that could be a new food crop (Ipomoea noemana); and a vibrant, colorful bromeliad — a family of tropical, flowering plants that includes the pineapple — from Brazil (Acanthostachys calcicola) that grows on limestone cliffs and may be pollinated by hummingbirds, according to the statement.
A flower found on a limestone cliff in Brazil was named Acanthostachys calcicola, which means "growing on limestone." (Image credit: Gabriel Mendes Marcusso)
"In a challenging and difficult year, it's so thrilling to see botanical and mycological science continue, with a bumper list of incredible newly named species being documented with our collaborators across the world," said Martin Cheek, an RBG Kew botanist and senior scientist within the Identification and Naming department.
"However, the bleak reality facing us cannot be underplayed: With two in five plants threatened with extinction, it is a race against time to find, identify, name and conserve plants before they disappear," Cheek said.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-12-22--Doctors heard music when checking a man's pulse. Here's why.

When doctor 's checked the man 's pulse , they could n't believe their ears — they heard music playing , loud and clear , as if someone had turned on a radio .
The 65-year-old man arrived at the hospital after he experienced a fall and dislocated his hip , according to a report of the case , published Saturday ( Dec. 19 ) in The New England Journal of Medicine .
Previously , the man had undergone hip-replacement surgery on both hips , the report said .
As the man lay in his hospital bed , doctors checked @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( ultrasound ) device .
But then something bizarre happened : In addition to the thump thump of the man 's heart , they heard music through the device 's speaker .
( In a video accompanying the report , an upbeat tune with someone singing , possibly in Spanish , can be heard filling the room .
The app Shazam identifies the song as `` Gracias Por Tu Amor '' by Banda El Recodo De Cruz Lizárraga . )
The music played only when the Doppler was placed on the man 's @ @ @ @ @ @ @ hospital staff used the device on themselves .
The authors suspect the Doppler may have picked up a radio signal that was being received by the patient 's prosthetic hips , the report said .
It 's also possible this signal was being received by other equipment in the room , such as the patient 's hospital bed .
The authors reported their findings to their hospital 's engineering department , and no faulty equipment was found .
Eight months later , the patient was doing well and had not experienced any more @ @ @ @ @ @ @ other phantom music , the report said .

When doctors checked the man's pulse, they couldn't believe their ears — they heard music playing, loud and clear, as if someone had turned on a radio.
The 65-year-old man arrived at the hospital after he experienced a fall and dislocated his hip, according to a report of the case, published Saturday (Dec. 19) in The New England Journal of Medicine . Previously, the man had undergone hip-replacement surgery on both hips, the report said.
As the man lay in his hospital bed, doctors checked the pulse in his feet using a Doppler (ultrasound) device.
But then something bizarre happened: In addition to the thump thump of the man's heart, they heard music through the device's speaker. (In a video accompanying the report, an upbeat tune with someone singing, possibly in Spanish, can be heard filling the room. The app Shazam identifies the song as "Gracias Por Tu Amor" by Banda El Recodo De Cruz Lizárraga.) The music played only when the Doppler was placed on the man's feet. It didn't happen when hospital staff used the device on themselves.
Related: 27 oddest medical cases
The authors suspect the Doppler may have picked up a radio signal that was being received by the patient's prosthetic hips, the report said. It's also possible this signal was being received by other equipment in the room, such as the patient's hospital bed.
The authors reported their findings to their hospital's engineering department, and no faulty equipment was found.
Eight months later, the patient was doing well and had not experienced any more falls, and had not transmitted any other phantom music, the report said.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-12-23--Air pressure makes Mount Everest 'shrink' by thousands of feet, new study finds

is the tallest mountain in the world — but sometimes , it feels like the second-tallest , according to a story reported in the American Geophysical Union 's .
That 's because the mountain 's fluctuates significantly throughout the year , a recent study found , causing the summit 's `` perceived elevation '' to occasionally dip below that of its less-lofty rival , K2 — the second-tallest mountain in the world .
`` Sometimes K2 is higher than Everest , '' lead study author Tom Matthews , a climate scientist at Loughborough University in the United Kingdom , told @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Mount Everest expeditions then and now In the new study , published Dec. 18 in the journal , Matthews and his colleagues looked at more than 40 years of air pressure data recorded by both weather stations near the summit of Mount Everest and the European Space Agency 's Copernicus satellite .
Air pressure is closely tied to availability on Everest ; when air pressure decreases , there are fewer oxygen molecules in the air , making the simple act of breathing much more strenuous , according to Eos .
For this reason @ @ @ @ @ @ @ rely on supplemental oxygen to stay on their feet as they scale to higher elevations where the air is thinner .
( Only 169 men and eight women have ever summited Everest without the use of supplemental oxygen , the study authors noted . )
But while air pressure reliably decreases with elevation , it also fluctuates with the weather , the study authors found .
From 1979 to 2019 , the air pressure near the peak of Everest ranged anywhere from 309 to 343 hectopascals — roughly one-third the pressure at sea @ @ @ @ @ @ @ `` Compared with the average air pressure measured on Everest in May , that span translates into a 737-meter [ 2,417 feet ] difference in how high the summit feels from an oxygen availability standpoint , '' science journalist Katherine Kornei wrote in the blog .
Put another way , sometimes the oxygen availability on Everest makes the mountain feel thousands of feet shorter than it really is .
Occasionally , the 29,000-foot-tall ( 8,800 m ) mountain feels shorter ( to our bodies ) than the world 's next tallest mountain , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 8,600 m ) tall .
The researchers also found that air pressure on Everest was consistently highest in the summertime , making that the best season to scale the mountain based purely on oxygen availability .
As Earth 's atmosphere continues to warm due to , there could even be a permanent decrease in the mountain 's perceived elevation , the researchers found .
`` Warming will shrink the mountain a little bit , '' Matthews told Eos .
Read the whole story on the Eos website .

Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in the world — but sometimes, it feels like the second-tallest, according to a story reported in the American Geophysical Union's news blog Eos.
That's because the mountain's air pressure fluctuates significantly throughout the year, a recent study found, causing the summit's "perceived elevation" to occasionally dip below that of its less-lofty rival, K2 — the second-tallest mountain in the world.
"Sometimes K2 is higher than Everest," lead study author Tom Matthews, a climate scientist at Loughborough University in the United Kingdom, told Eos.
Related: In photos: Mount Everest expeditions then and now
In the new study, published Dec. 18 in the journal iScience , Matthews and his colleagues looked at more than 40 years of air pressure data recorded by both weather stations near the summit of Mount Everest and the European Space Agency's Copernicus satellite.
Air pressure is closely tied to oxygen availability on Everest; when air pressure decreases, there are fewer oxygen molecules in the air, making the simple act of breathing much more strenuous, according to Eos. For this reason, many who choose to hike Everest rely on supplemental oxygen to stay on their feet as they scale to higher elevations where the air is thinner. (Only 169 men and eight women have ever summited Everest without the use of supplemental oxygen, the study authors noted.)
But while air pressure reliably decreases with elevation, it also fluctuates with the weather, the study authors found. From 1979 to 2019, the air pressure near the peak of Everest ranged anywhere from 309 to 343 hectopascals — roughly one-third the pressure at sea level — depending on the season.
"Compared with the average air pressure measured on Everest in May, that span translates into a 737-meter [2,417 feet] difference in how high the summit feels from an oxygen availability standpoint," science journalist Katherine Kornei wrote in the blog.
Put another way, sometimes the oxygen availability on Everest makes the mountain feel thousands of feet shorter than it really is. Occasionally, the 29,000-foot-tall (8,800 m) mountain feels shorter (to our bodies) than the world's next tallest mountain, K2, which measures 28,250 feet (8,600 m) tall.
The researchers also found that air pressure on Everest was consistently highest in the summertime, making that the best season to scale the mountain based purely on oxygen availability. As Earth's atmosphere continues to warm due to climate change , there could even be a permanent decrease in the mountain's perceived elevation, the researchers found.
"Warming will shrink the mountain a little bit," Matthews told Eos.
Read the whole story on the Eos website .
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-12-23--Man revives baby elephant using CPR: How does that work?

A viral video shows a rescue worker in Thailand successfully reviving a baby elephant using CPR after the animal was struck by a motorbike while crossing a road in the southeastern province of Chanthaburi .
After performing CPR , the rescuer , Mana Srivate , was able to get the elephant back on its feet , .
But how did he manage to give CPR to such a large animal — and have it actually work ?
Related : The 10 weirdest medical cases in the animal kingdom How do you give an elephant CPR ?
To perform CPR on @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Mana had to locate the elephant 's heart .
Based on the location of the and a video clip he saw online , Mana `` assumed '' where the animal 's heart was , according to the .
He then gave the calf chest compressions in much the same way you would for a human , except the elephant was lying on its side .
To perform CPR ( cardiopulmonary resuscitation ) on a human , you place the heel of your hand on the breastbone at the center of the person 's @ @ @ @ @ @ @ top and interlock your fingers .
Then , with your shoulders above your hands , you press straight down about 2 to 2.5 inches ( 5 to 6 centimeters ) , using your body weight .
After releasing the compression , you repeat this motion at a rate of 100 to 120 times per minute until an ambulance arrives or you become exhausted , according to the .
Instructions for elephant CPR are harder to come by .
However , in a chapter in the book `` `` ( John Wiley & Sons @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Boysen , a professor of veterinary clinical and diagnostic sciences at the University of Calgary in Alberta , Canada , gives recommendations on how to perform CPR on animals .
He advises placing mammals between about 22 and 220 pounds ( 10 to 100 kilograms ) in `` right lateral recumbency , '' which means on their right side , just like the elephant in the video .
A newborn Asian elephant weighs about 200 pounds ( 90 kg ) , according to , which is within the weight range Boysen specified .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ those you would perform on a human — and that 's also what Mana did .
( An elephant 's heart is about 0.5 % of its body weight , according to the International Elephant Foundation , meaning this calf 's heart would 've been about a pound , or 0.5 kg . )
But what if the elephant had been an adult ?
When fully grown , Asian ( Elephas maximus ) can weigh over 5.5 tons ( 5 metric tons ) , according to the , which could make things a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ technique for animal CPR varies depending on the animal 's size .
For animals over 550 pounds ( 250 kg ) , Boysen pointed to research conducted on , in which the researchers achieved compressions by dropping from a standing or crouching position and striking the horse 's chest with a knee , according to the study , published in 1993 in the .
The researchers found a compression rate of 80 strikes per minute resulted in the best improvement , although they also noted that this rate is quite physically demanding .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ 10 minutes before reviving it , according to the Reuters report .
One training method to help reach the recommended compression rate in humans is to sing a song with that rate in your head while performing the compressions , .
( In the U.S. , the Bee Gees ' `` Stayin ' Alive '' and Queen ’ s `` Another One Bites the Dust '' are popular picks . )
Ultimately , however , Mana was successful in reviving the baby elephant without using any musical aid .
`` It 's my @ @ @ @ @ @ @ was worried the whole time , because I can hear the mother and other elephants calling for the baby , '' Mana told Reuters .
The elephant was later reunited with its mother and suffered no serious injuries , according to the Reuters report .

A viral video shows a rescue worker in Thailand successfully reviving a baby elephant using CPR after the animal was struck by a motorbike while crossing a road in the southeastern province of Chanthaburi.
After performing CPR, the rescuer, Mana Srivate, was able to get the elephant back on its feet, Reuters reported . But how did he manage to give CPR to such a large animal — and have it actually work?
Related: The 10 weirdest medical cases in the animal kingdom
How do you give an elephant CPR?
To perform CPR on the elephant, of course, first Mana had to locate the elephant's heart. Based on the location of the human heart and a video clip he saw online, Mana "assumed" where the animal's heart was, according to the Reuters report . He then gave the calf chest compressions in much the same way you would for a human, except the elephant was lying on its side.
To perform CPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation) on a human, you place the heel of your hand on the breastbone at the center of the person's chest, put your other hand on top and interlock your fingers. Then, with your shoulders above your hands, you press straight down about 2 to 2.5 inches (5 to 6 centimeters), using your body weight. After releasing the compression, you repeat this motion at a rate of 100 to 120 times per minute until an ambulance arrives or you become exhausted, according to the U.K.'s National Health Service (NHS) .
Instructions for elephant CPR are harder to come by. However, in a chapter in the book " Zoo Animal and Wildlife Immobilization and Anesthesia " (John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2014), Søren Boysen, a professor of veterinary clinical and diagnostic sciences at the University of Calgary in Alberta, Canada, gives recommendations on how to perform CPR on animals.
He advises placing mammals between about 22 and 220 pounds (10 to 100 kilograms) in "right lateral recumbency," which means on their right side, just like the elephant in the video. A newborn Asian elephant weighs about 200 pounds (90 kg), according to SeaWorld , which is within the weight range Boysen specified. Boysen then recommends doing compressions similar to those you would perform on a human — and that's also what Mana did. (An elephant's heart is about 0.5% of its body weight, according to the International Elephant Foundation, meaning this calf's heart would've been about a pound, or 0.5 kg.)
But what if the elephant had been an adult? When fully grown, Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) can weigh over 5.5 tons (5 metric tons), according to the Smithsonian's National Zoo , which could make things a bit more difficult, as the exact technique for animal CPR varies depending on the animal's size. For animals over 550 pounds (250 kg), Boysen pointed to research conducted on horses , in which the researchers achieved compressions by dropping from a standing or crouching position and striking the horse's chest with a knee, according to the study, published in 1993 in the Equine Veterinary Journal .
The researchers found a compression rate of 80 strikes per minute resulted in the best improvement, although they also noted that this rate is quite physically demanding. Mana performed CPR on the elephant for 10 minutes before reviving it, according to the Reuters report.
One training method to help reach the recommended compression rate in humans is to sing a song with that rate in your head while performing the compressions, Live Science previously reported . (In the U.S., the Bee Gees' "Stayin' Alive" and Queen’s "Another One Bites the Dust" are popular picks.)
Ultimately, however, Mana was successful in reviving the baby elephant without using any musical aid.
"It's my instinct to save lives, but I was worried the whole time, because I can hear the mother and other elephants calling for the baby," Mana told Reuters.
The elephant was later reunited with its mother and suffered no serious injuries, according to the Reuters report.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-12-23--Ancient 'swamp king' monster croc once terrorized Australia

A monster croc spanning 16 feet ( 5 meters ) ruled the waterways of south-eastern Queensland in Australia millions of years ago .
Researchers from the University of Queensland identified the reptilian giant — now dubbed “ swamp king '' — after studying its fossilized 25-inch-long ( 65 centimeters ) skull , which was first uncovered in the 1980s .
In Latin , the genus name Paludirex translates to “ swamp king ” and the species name vincenti was chosen to honor the late Geoff Vincent , a resident of the town of Dalby in south-eastern Queensland who discovered the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in Queensland .
The largest modern-day is the Indo-Pacific saltwater crocodile ( Crocodylus porosus ) , which can grow to around the same size .
Their record size is actually even larger at over 20 feet ( 6 m ) , set by Lolong who died in captivity in the Philippines in 2013 , .
`` But Paludirex had a broader , more heavy-set skull , so it would 've resembled an Indo-Pacific crocodile on steroids , '' Jorgo Ristevski , a doctoral candidate at the University of Queensland ’ s School of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ researchers , this would have allowed the giant croc to hunt oversized prehistoric marsupials and made it one of the top predators in Australia .
The swamp king likely emerged around the same time as modern-day crocs — within the last 55 million years .
More research is now being carried out to determine how these massive crocs died out , while their slimmer relatives remained .
“ Whether Paludirex vincenti went extinct as a result of competition with species like Crocodylus porosus is hard to say , ” Steve Salisbury , a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and fellow author of the study , said in the statement .
`` The alternative is that it went extinct as the climate dried , and the river systems it once inhabited contracted , ” he explained , adding , “ we 're currently investigating both scenarios . ''
The findings were published Dec. 21 in the journal .

A monster croc spanning 16 feet (5 meters) ruled the waterways of south-eastern Queensland in Australia millions of years ago.
Researchers from the University of Queensland identified the reptilian giant — now dubbed “swamp king" — after studying its fossilized 25-inch-long (65 centimeters) skull, which was first uncovered in the 1980s.
In Latin, the genus name Paludirex translates to “swamp king” and the species name vincenti was chosen to honor the late Geoff Vincent, a resident of the town of Dalby in south-eastern Queensland who discovered the giant skull near the town of Chinchilla in Queensland.
Related: What's the world's largest crocodile?
The largest modern-day crocodile is the Indo-Pacific saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus), which can grow to around the same size. Their record size is actually even larger at over 20 feet (6 m), set by Lolong who died in captivity in the Philippines in 2013, according to CNN .
"But Paludirex had a broader, more heavy-set skull, so it would've resembled an Indo-Pacific crocodile on steroids," Jorgo Ristevski, a doctoral candidate at the University of Queensland’s School of Biological Sciences, said in a statement . According to the researchers, this would have allowed the giant croc to hunt oversized prehistoric marsupials and made it one of the top predators in Australia.
The swamp king likely emerged around the same time as modern-day crocs — within the last 55 million years. More research is now being carried out to determine how these massive crocs died out, while their slimmer relatives remained.
“Whether Paludirex vincenti went extinct as a result of competition with species like Crocodylus porosus is hard to say,” Steve Salisbury, a senior lecturer at the University of Queensland and fellow author of the study, said in the statement. "The alternative is that it went extinct as the climate dried, and the river systems it once inhabited contracted,” he explained, adding, “we're currently investigating both scenarios."
The findings were published Dec. 21 in the journal PeerJ .
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-12-22--Seals are making 'Star Wars' noises at each other underwater, and we have no idea why

Above water , they sound like bellowing .
Below the ice , they sound like chirping , chattering robots .
Either way , the Weddell of Antarctica should have no trouble finding work in an upcoming `` Star Wars '' project .
`` The Weddell seals ' calls create an almost unbelievable , otherworldly soundscape under the ice , '' Paul Cziko , a visiting professor at the University of Oregon and lead author of a new study describing the bizarre seal sounds , .
`` It really sounds like you 're in the middle of a space battle in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ all . ''
The catch : You 'd have to be an alien ( or droid ) to hear them ; all of those sci-fi sounds are totally inaudible to human ears .
Cziko and his colleagues were able to detect the otherworldly noises after two years of listening to Weddell seals ( Leptonychotes weddellii ) with a special hydrophone ( an underwater microphone ) installed in 's McMurdo Sound in 2017 .
Related : Beastly Feasts : Amazing Photos of Animals and Their Prey Before the researchers started recording , scientists knew @ @ @ @ @ @ @ human ears .
Now , the team 's research — published online Dec. 18 in The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America — adds nine new types of ultrasonic calls to the seals ' repertoire .
Those sounds include trills , whistles and alien-sounding chirps , sometimes composed of multiple harmonized tones .
Humans hear in the sonic range of 20 to 20,000 hertz ( or 20 kilohertz ) , the researchers noted .
Most of the newfound seal sounds exceeded 21 kHz , with some consistently rising to 30 kHz .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ kHz , the team wrote — and when seals harmonized multiple tones , the resulting noise could exceed 200 kHz .
( That 's well beyond the hearing range of cats , dogs and even some . )
What are all these high-frequency communications about ?
The researchers are n't sure ; until now , scientists had never detected ultrasonic vocalizations in seals ( nor in any other fin-footed mammals , like sea lions or walruses ) .
According to Cziko , the sounds could just be bonus conversational elements to `` stand @ @ @ @ @ @ @ like changing to a different channel for communicating . ''
It 's theoretically possible that the noises are involved in echolocation , the biological sonar that animals such as dolphins and bats employ to find their way around dark places .
But so far , there is no evidence that seals use echolocation , the researchers said .
Still , the behavior would n't be out of character for seals that can dive more than 1,900 feet ( 600 meters ) below water and hunt in the darkness of Antarctic winter , the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Wookie try to do that .

Above water, they sound like bellowing Wookies . Below the ice, they sound like chirping, chattering robots. Either way, the Weddell seals of Antarctica should have no trouble finding work in an upcoming "Star Wars" project.
"The Weddell seals' calls create an almost unbelievable, otherworldly soundscape under the ice," Paul Cziko, a visiting professor at the University of Oregon and lead author of a new study describing the bizarre seal sounds, said in a statement . "It really sounds like you're in the middle of a space battle in 'Star Wars,' laser beams and all."
The catch: You'd have to be an alien (or droid) to hear them; all of those sci-fi sounds are totally inaudible to human ears. Cziko and his colleagues were able to detect the otherworldly noises after two years of listening to Weddell seals (Leptonychotes weddellii) with a special hydrophone (an underwater microphone) installed in Antarctica 's McMurdo Sound in 2017.
Related: Beastly Feasts: Amazing Photos of Animals and Their Prey
Before the researchers started recording, scientists knew about the 34 seal calls audible to human ears. Now, the team's research — published online Dec. 18 in The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America — adds nine new types of ultrasonic calls to the seals' repertoire. Those sounds include trills, whistles and alien-sounding chirps, sometimes composed of multiple harmonized tones.
Humans hear in the sonic range of 20 to 20,000 hertz (or 20 kilohertz), the researchers noted. Most of the newfound seal sounds exceeded 21 kHz, with some consistently rising to 30 kHz. One high-pitched whistle reached a shrieking 49.8 kHz, the team wrote — and when seals harmonized multiple tones, the resulting noise could exceed 200 kHz. (That's well beyond the hearing range of cats, dogs and even some bats .)
What are all these high-frequency communications about? The researchers aren't sure; until now, scientists had never detected ultrasonic vocalizations in seals (nor in any other fin-footed mammals, like sea lions or walruses). According to Cziko, the sounds could just be bonus conversational elements to "stand out over all the lower-frequency noise, like changing to a different channel for communicating."
It's theoretically possible that the noises are involved in echolocation, the biological sonar that animals such as dolphins and bats employ to find their way around dark places. But so far, there is no evidence that seals use echolocation, the researchers said. Still, the behavior wouldn't be out of character for seals that can dive more than 1,900 feet (600 meters) below water and hunt in the darkness of Antarctic winter, the team added.
Let's see a Wookie try to do that.
Originally published on Live Science.