livescience--2020-11-21--Amazing images: The best science photos of the week

Each week at Live Science we find the most interesting and informative articles we can .
Along the way , we uncover some amazing and cool images .
Here you 'll discover the most incredible photos we found this week , and the remarkable stories behind them .
is famous for his elaborate , nuanced artworks and advanced technological ideas .
But new research has revealed another level of complexity to his drawings : a hidden world of tiny life-forms on his artwork .
The findings , the researchers said , could help build a microbiome `` catalogue '' for @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a unique enough collection of microbes that researchers could have identified it again later purely from a study of its microscopic biology .
And the drawings ' microbiomes had enough key elements in common to help researchers spot counterfeits based on differences in their microbiomes , or even authentic drawings that had been stored in different conditions over the centuries .
The researchers also showed that da Vinci 's drawings had a significantly different microbiome than expected , with lots of bacteria and human DNA — likely a consequence of centuries of handling @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Microbes known to make paper degrade over time were also present , showing why those restorers ' efforts had been necessary Read more : Hidden world of bacteria and fungi discovered on Leonardo da Vinci 's drawings The mysterious , aurora-like phenomenon called just got a little weirder .
In a study published Oct. 1 in the journal , NASA researchers reviewed hundreds of hours of STEVE footage recorded by citizen scientists to look for a strange new structure they 've named `` the streaks . ''
These tiny smears of green light @ @ @ @ @ @ @ bottom of STEVE 's green `` picked fence '' structures , curving backward for about 20 to 30 seconds before vanishing from view .
What are the streaks , exactly ?
As with all things STEVE , nobody really knows .
But it 's likely that the turbulent particles within STEVE are colliding with and rapidly heating up ambient oxygen , creating tiny green fires in the sky that trail below the picket fence as they slowly fizzle out , the study authors wrote .
Read more : STEVE is smearing green 'streaks @ @ @ @ @ @ @ knows why This season 's new Christmas hero — a tiny owl stowaway that survived the long drive from upstate New York to Rockefeller Center in Manhattan on a Norway spruce — wo n't be taken back to his former home to be released back into the wild .
So , will he be OK ?
`` There 's been a lot of controversy over the release site , '' said Ellen Kalish , director and founder of Ravensbeard Wildlife Center , a nonprofit in Saugerties , New York , where the owl @ @ @ @ @ @ @ where he was found , is recovering .
`` [ But ] saw-whet owls by nature are nomadic .
They basically do n't have a home base unless they 're raising a family , in which case they both help to feed the babies and then they 're off to their solo life . ''
This nomadic lifestyle works in Rockefeller 's favor .
Rather than `` stress him out '' on a two-hour journey to his old home in Oneonta , New York , Kalish is planning to release him from the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Saturday ( Nov. 21 ) .
Read more : Tiny owl found hiding in the Rockefeller Christmas tree is n't going home .
Here 's why .
Scientists have figured out a way to perfectly beam energy across any room , thanks to a sci-fi like device they call an `` anti-laser . ''
The idea is simple : Just like a laser emits light particles , or photons , one after another in a neat and orderly row , an anti-laser sucks up photons one after another in reverse order .
Researchers @ @ @ @ @ @ @ this might make wires and charging cables a thing of the past , allowing people to beam energy invisibly across a room to a laptop or phone and power it without plugging it in .
But though basic anti-lasers have been tested before , the real world is n't as neat and orderly as a laser pointed at a fixed receiver in a laboratory .
Electronics move around , objects get in the way , walls reflect energy in unexpected ways .
The new anti-laser demonstrated in this experiment ( published Nov. 17 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ that , and it receives scattered energy beamed around a space in an unpredictable pattern — still receiving 99.996 % of the sent power .
Read more : Physicists built an 'anti-laser ' to charge your phone from across a room The restoration of a soot-filled temple has revealed the previously unknown names of ancient Egyptian constellations , according to experts in Germany and Egypt .
The restoration has also uncovered the gorgeous original colors the ancient Egyptians painted the 2,000-year-old temple .
During the restoration , researchers cleaned ancient carved scenes depicting @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( known as Mesekhtiu ) and Orion ( known as Sah ) .
They also found inscriptions about previously unknown constellations , including one called `` Apedu n Ra , '' or `` the geese of Ra , '' who is the ancient Egyptian sun deity , researchers said .
The first modern description of the Greco-Roman temple , known as the Temple of Esna , dates to 1589 , when a Venetian trader visited Egypt and described it , according to the .
The town of Esna was located about 40 miles @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ancient capital of Luxor .
The contains more than 100 billion stars , but it did n't come by them all honestly .
At least a dozen times over the last 12 billion years , the Milky Way collided with a neighboring galaxy and devoured it , swallowing up that neighbor 's stars and mixing them into an ever-growing stew of pilfered suns .
With each galactic merger , the shape , size and motion of our galaxy changed forever , ultimately becoming the iconic we recognize today .
Now , in a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ issue of the journal , researchers have attempted to unwind that spiral .
Using artificial intelligence ( AI ) to match distinct clusters of stars by their ages , motions and chemical compositions , the team found evidence of five large-scale galactic mergers ( each involving 100 million stars or more ) dating back more than 10 billion years — including one ancient collision that has never been described before .
This newfound crash with the so-called Kraken galaxy not only helps fill in the Milky Way 's mysterious family tree , but @ @ @ @ @ @ @ our galaxy looked like in its earliest days , the study authors said Read more : Newfound 'Kraken merger ' may have been the biggest collision in Milky Way 's history If you had a face as puckered as a wrinkle-faced bat 's , you too might hide behind a mask to seduce a mate .
When breeding time rolls around for male wrinkle-faced ( Centurio senex ) , they gather together in groups and cover the lower half of their remarkably wrinkly faces with white-furred flaps of skin that resemble face masks @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the masks while twiddling their wings .
Scientists long suspected that the skin flap under the chins of these elusive bats had something to do with courtship , and researchers recently observed and documented this astonishing sight for the first time .
Dozens of male bats masked up ( only the males have masks ) but did n't .
Instead , these `` masked seducers '' perched together and sang in a group courtship display unlike any seen before in bats , researchers wrote in a new study .
Read more : World @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ' made of skin to woo the ladies An explosion on the slopes of Stromboli sent an avalanche of pyroclastic flow rushing down the side of the Italian volcano on Monday ( Nov. 16 ) .
The stronger-than-usual explosion was captured on cameras operated by the Istituto Nazionale Geofisica e Vulcanologia ( INGV ) .
Imagery shared by shows the eruption in real-time ; video captured by infrared cameras that shows the ultra-hot initial eruption and the slightly cooler cloud of ash and gases careening downslope .
This avalanche of hot ash and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Stromboli is a volcanic island 3 miles ( 2 kilometers ) in diameter and 3,038 feet ( 926 meters ) tall .
It 's regularly active , belching little bombs of lava and ash from its summit craters on nearly an hourly basis .
Monday 's eruption , which occurred at 10:17 a.m. local time , , was larger than the volcano 's usual fare .
It sent a cloud of ash towering several hundred feet into the air .
Read more : Huge eruption of Italian volcano sends ash hundreds of feet @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to the emergency department with abdominal pain soon learned the source of her discomfort : Her spleen had shifted about a foot out of place , according to a new report of the case .
This rare condition , known as `` wandering spleen , '' occurs when ligaments that normally hold the spleen in place become loose and stretched out .
The , which filters in the body and produces cells , typically sits above the stomach in the left upper quadrant of the abdomen .
But when the 36-year-old woman showed @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , her doctors found her spleen in the right lower quadrant of the abdomen , instead .
`` It traveled approximately 1 foot [ 0.3 meters ] , '' Dr. Alexander Wester , a resident physician in internal medicine at Michigan Medicine , told Live Science in an email .
Wester and Dr. Ivan Co , an emergency medicine doctor and assistant professor at Michigan Medicine , described the case in a paper published Nov. 18 in The New England Journal of Medicine .
Read more : Woman 's stomach pain turns out @ @ @ @ @ @ @ The National Science Foundation ( NSF ) will decommission 's massive radio dish after damage has made the facility too dangerous to repair , the agency announced today ( Nov. 19 ) .
The announcement came as scientists awaited a verdict about the fate of the iconic observatory after damage to the complex cabling supporting a 900-ton science platform suspended over the dish .
In August , a cable slipped out of its socket , but engineers evaluating the situation deemed it stable ; earlier this month , a , leaving Arecibo 's @ @ @ @ @ @ @ three separate engineering reports , the NSF , which owns the property , has decided the facility is unstable enough that there is no way to repair the damage that does not put personnel at undue risk .
`` Our goal has been to find a way to without placing anyone 's safety at risk , '' Sean Jones , assistant director for the Mathematical and Physical Sciences Directorate at the NSF , said in a news conference .
`` However , after receiving and reviewing the engineering assessments , we have found @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to do so safely.
`` Read more : Arecibo radio telescope , an icon of astronomy , is lost • Earth from Above : 101 Stunning Images from Orbit • From Big Bang to Present : Snapshots of Our Universe Through Time

Each week at Live Science we find the most interesting and informative articles we can. Along the way, we uncover some amazing and cool images. Here you'll discover the most incredible photos we found this week, and the remarkable stories behind them.
Gargantuan "growlers"
(Image credit: RAF)
In July 2017, a gargantuan iceberg spanning five times the area of New York's five boroughs snapped off the coast of Antarctica and began to drift northward.
Though its edges have crumbled considerably since then, the iceberg — named A-68a — is still the largest on Earth , and it's currently barreling toward an island wildlife refuge in the South Atlantic Ocean. New aerial footage taken by the United Kingdom's Royal Air Force (RAF) reveals just what that island might be up against.
For starters, the RAF footage really drives home how massive this ice giant is. (As of early April, A-68a measured about 2,000 square miles, or 5,100 square kilometers, in area, Live Science previously reported ). The berg's steep walls tower 100 feet (30 meters) above the sea, according to RAF News , and are gouged with tunnels, fissures and caves. Huge chunks of ice, or "growlers," are rapidly cracking off on all sides, leaving behind a trail of debris that could impede boat traffic in the future.
[Read more: World's largest iceberg still barreling toward penguin habitat, new footage confirms ]
Clear head, nine arms, can't lose
(Image credit: Kyodo News via Getty Images)
A nine-armed octopus caught off Japan's coast nearly ended up being dinner, until the family preparing it noticed its extra limb and sent it to a museum instead, according to news sources. While unusual, this extra appendage — which wasn't fully formed, but a small offshoot on a regular arm — isn't unheard of in octopuses, said Michael Vecchione, an invertebrate zoologist at the Smithsonian's National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C., who was not involved with this octopus's discovery.
Octopuses are capable of regenerating their arms, but "sometimes regeneration doesn't work quite right," Vecchione told Live Science. "If an arm gets damaged, it might regenerate wrong; it could wind up with extra tissue growing out, and that extra tissue could turn into an arm."
The nine-armed oddity was caught in a trap with three other octopuses on Nov. 13 in Shizugawa Bay, in the northeastern town of Minamisanriku, Japan, according to The Mainichi , a Japanese newspaper.
[Read more: Rare 9-armed octopus found off Japan coast ]
The sound of a supernova
(Image credit: NASA)
In space, nobody can hear you scream — or explode, or collapse, or slowly collide with a neighboring galaxy. But now, thanks to a new " data sonification " program at NASA, you can at least get a sense of what some of the most extreme phenomena in the universe might sound like when converted to sound played by Earthly instruments.
To hear what that sounds like, we turn to NASA's Chandra X-ray center — which has been imaging distant galaxies with its Chandra X-ray observatory for 20 years now. In their new initiative, Chandra researchers have taken three iconic images from their archives and translated different frequencies of light into different pitches of sound.
The first video shows the crab nebula (a supernova remnant powered by a windy neutron star , shown above). In NASA's data sonification of the nebula, X-ray light (blue and white) is represented by brass instruments; optical light (purple) is played by string instruments; and infrared light (pink) is represented by woodwinds. The sounds converge near the center of the nebula, where a rapidly swirling pulsar is blasting gas and radiation in all directions. Listen to this cosmic symphony (and two others) at the link below.
[Read more: This is what a supernova sounds like, according to NASA ]
Pterosaur's missing cousin
(Image credit: Rodolfo Nogueira)
Nearly nothing is known about the family tree of pterosaurs — iconic reptiles that flew alongside the dinosaurs . These now-extinct beasts appear in the fossil record with already developed wings and senses adapted for flying, with researchers having nary a clue about their immediate evolutionary history.
But now, the pterosaur's family tree has a new branch; an enigmatic group of small reptiles, known as lagerpetids, might be the closest-known pterosaur relatives on record, the researchers of a new study say.
Unlike pterosaurs, however, lagerpetids did not fly. "Now, we have an idea of what a flightless pterosaur relative would look like," study co-researcher Sterling Nesbitt, an associate professor of geosciences at Virginia Tech, told Live Science.
[Read more: Missing link in pterosaur origins discovered ]
The changing face of ice
(Image credit: NOAA/Photo courtesy of Caitlin Bailey, GFOE, The Hidden Ocean 2016: Chukchi Borderlands)
From vanishing sea ice to blistering air temperatures to zombie fires , climate change is reshaping the Arctic. And that transformation may be permanent, researchers said on Tuesday (Dec. 8) at the annual meeting of the American Geophysical Union (AGU).
The Arctic has warmed and melted at an alarmingly accelerating pace over the last 15 years, and the impacts are accumulating so rapidly that "there's no reason to think that in 30 years anything will be as it is today," Rick Thoman, an Alaska climate specialist with the International Arctic Research Center (IARC) at the University of Alaska Fairbanks (UAF), said at the conference, held virtually due to the COVID-19 pandemic, on Tuesday.
This year's news was not good: June snow cover across the Eurasian Arctic was at its lowest in 54 years; coastal permafrost erosion is increasing; and glaciers and ice sheets in Greenland continued a trend "of significant ice loss," according to the report.
[Read more: Dramatic transformation of the Arctic landscape may be permanent ]
Starship down
(Image credit: SpaceX)
SpaceX's Starship spaceflight system just took a big step on its path to Mars. The latest Starship prototype, a shiny silver vehicle known as SN8, launched on an epic high-altitude test flight on Dec. 9, taking off at 5:45 p.m. EST from SpaceX's facility near the South Texas village of Boca Chica.
The goal was to soar about 7.8 miles (12.5 kilometers) into the sky, perform some complex aerial maneuvers — including a "belly flop" like the one the final Starship will perform when coming back to Earth on operational flights — and then land safely near the launch stand. The 165-foot-tall (50 meters) SN8 appeared to notch all of these big milestones, except for the final one: The vehicle hit its landing mark but came in too fast, exploding in a dramatic fireball 6 minutes and 42 seconds after liftoff.
SN8's rapid unplanned disassembly did nothing to dampen the spirits of SpaceX founder and CEO Elon Musk, who was thrilled by the results of today's flight.
[Read more: SpaceX's Starship SN8 prototype soars on epic test launch, with explosive landing ]
Amazonian universe
Billions of lasers shot from a helicopter flying over the Brazilian Amazon Rainforest have detected a vast network of long-abandoned circular and rectangular-shaped villages dating from 1300 to 1700, a new study finds.
The round villages all had remarkably similar layouts, with elongated mounds circling a central plaza, like marks on a clock. "These latter elongated mounds, when seen from above, look like the rays of the sun, which gives them the common name of 'Sóis,'" the Portuguese word for "suns," the researchers wrote in the study.
The discovery is part of a new archaeological focus on the pre-Columbian Amazon. Within the past 20 years, researchers have learned that the rainforest's southern rim was home to a great diversity of soil-sculpting cultures that engineered the landscape before the Europeans arrived. Within the past decade, scientists have uncovered the remnants of so-called "mound villages," which are shaped as circles or rectangles, and connected by road networks.
[Read more: Archaeologists find vast network of Amazon villages laid out like the cosmos ]
The sky is falling
(Image credit: ESA)
Have you ever seen 40,000 shooting stars blaze across the sky at the same time?
If you'd like to, the European Space Agency (ESA) is offering you two options: Either stare at the night sky for about half a million years as our solar system drifts steadily through the Milky Way (some patience required) — or, watch a new 60-second time-lapse simulation of the same thing, courtesy of the ESA's Gaia space observatory.
In the new simulation, 40,000 stars — all located within 325 light-years of Earth's sun — whiz through space, leaving long trails of light behind them. Each point of light represents one real object in the Milky Way, and each shining trail shows that object's projected movement through the galaxy over the next 400,000 years. Brighter, faster streaks are located closer to our solar system, while dimmer, slower ones live much farther away.
[Read more: Epic time-lapse shows what the Milky Way will look like 400,000 years from now ]
Gold in the garden
(Image credit: © The Trustees of the British Museum)
A family in England was weeding their garden when they unearthed a valuable treasure — a buried hoard of gold coins dating back to the 1400s, depicting English monarchs from Edward IV to Henry VIII.
The hoard — a stash of 63 gold coins and one silver coin — contains money minted over a period of nearly 100 years, from the late 15th to the 16th centuries. Four of the coins feature Henry VIII and, curiously, one of the initials of three of his wives: Catherine of Aragon, Anne Boleyn and Jane Seymour.
Upon finding the cache, the family, in the New Forest district of Hampshire, a county in southeastern England, notified the British Museum, which runs the Portable Antiquities Scheme (PAS). This program partners with local people who find historical artifacts in the United Kingdom, so the findings can be documented and studied, the British Museum said in a statement Thursday (Dec. 10).
[Read more: Gold coin stash from time of Henry VIII found in English garden ]
Enigma of the deep
(Image credit: Florian Huber/WWF)
Divers trying to remove old fishing nets from the Baltic sea have accidentally stumbled on a Nazi code-making machine. The Enigma machine, as it's called, looks a bit like a typewriter. In fact, the diver who found the device on the ocean floor initially thought that's what the artifact was, according to AFP . But the diving team, on assignment for the conservation group World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), quickly realized that they had something much stranger.
During World War II, Enigma machines were used to encode German military messages, in hopes of preventing Allied powers from learning about troop movements and other plans. The devices consisted of a keyboard and a series of rotors that did the encoding. The rotors substituted different letters for the ones typed in; different Enigma machines used between three and eight rotors, which moved independently after each keystroke so that the same initial letter typed into the machine would appear as multiple different letters in the final code.
The Enigma machine found by the WWF diving crew was at the bottom of the Bay of Gelting in northeast Germany. It had three rotors, making it the type used on warships, not U-boats. That suggests that the machine may have been tossed overboard in the final days of World War II, in an attempt to keep the technology out of enemy hands, historian Jann Witt of the German Naval Association told the DPA news agency.
[Read more: Nazi 'Enigma' machine found at the bottom of the Baltic Sea ]
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-11-21--Ultrasound captures worms squirming in a man's stomach

An ultrasound of a man 's stomach captured some unwelcome inhabitants — a tangle of squirming around , according to a new report .
The 20-year-old man , who lives in New Delhi , went to the emergency room after experiencing abdominal pain , diarrhea and vomiting for a day , according to the report , published Saturday ( Nov. 21 ) in The New England Journal of Medicine .
The man had previously been healthy with no known medical conditions .
Tests showed the man had high levels of white blood cells , which can indicate an infection .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ , a protein in the blood that carries oxygen .
This latter result can indicate a number of conditions , from dehydration to blood cancer , according to the .
Doctors performed an ultrasound of the inferior vena cava , a large vein near the abdomen , to check fluid levels in his blood vessels .
But during this process , they observed a `` tubular ... structure that moved with a curling motion '' inside his stomach , the authors wrote .
Related : 8 awful parasite infections that will make your @ @ @ @ @ @ @ for a stool sample , which they examined for parasites .
They found that his stool contained eggs from the roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides , a type of intestinal parasite .
A. lumbricoides is one of the most common human parasitic worms worldwide .
An estimated 800 million to 1.2 billion people have A. lumbricoides in their intestinal tracts , according to the .
These worms can grow up to 14 inches ( 35 centimeters ) long .
Although relatively rare in the United States , the worm is most often found in tropical @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and lack of access to hygiene supplies , the CDC says .
The worm is extremely common in India , .
People become infected with the worm when they ingest eggs from the parasite , and this can happen when people eat fruits or vegetables that have been grown in contaminated soil , according to the CDC .
Soil can become contaminated if human feces are used as fertilizer or if infected people defecate outside .
People can also become infected if their hands become contaminated with this soil and they do n't @ @ @ @ @ @ @ be treated with antiparasitic drugs .
In this case , the man received an antiparasitic drug called albendazole , and he was released from the hospital after one day .
At a follow-up visit two weeks later , the man said he felt well and had passed worms in his stool .
In areas where this worm is common , ways to prevent infection include washing your hands with soap and water before handling food ; washing , peeling or cooking raw vegetables before eating them ; and avoiding contact with soil that @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the CDC says .

A man's ultrasound (left) showed tubular structures "that moved with a curling motion," which were later identified as the roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides, according to a new report. The man's stool was found to contain eggs from the worm (right).
An ultrasound of a man's stomach captured some unwelcome inhabitants — a tangle of parasitic roundworms squirming around, according to a new report.
The 20-year-old man, who lives in New Delhi, went to the emergency room after experiencing abdominal pain, diarrhea and vomiting for a day, according to the report, published Saturday (Nov. 21) in The New England Journal of Medicine . The man had previously been healthy with no known medical conditions.
Tests showed the man had high levels of white blood cells, which can indicate an infection. He also had elevated levels of hemoglobin, a protein in the blood that carries oxygen. This latter result can indicate a number of conditions, from dehydration to blood cancer, according to the Mayo Clinic .
Doctors performed an ultrasound of the inferior vena cava, a large vein near the abdomen, to check fluid levels in his blood vessels. But during this process, they observed a "tubular ... structure that moved with a curling motion" inside his stomach, the authors wrote.
Related: 8 awful parasite infections that will make your skin crawl
Doctors then asked the man for a stool sample, which they examined for parasites. They found that his stool contained eggs from the roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides, a type of intestinal parasite.
A. lumbricoides is one of the most common human parasitic worms worldwide. An estimated 800 million to 1.2 billion people have A. lumbricoides in their intestinal tracts, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) . These worms can grow up to 14 inches (35 centimeters) long. Although relatively rare in the United States, the worm is most often found in tropical and subtropical areas with poor sanitation systems and lack of access to hygiene supplies, the CDC says. The worm is extremely common in India, Live Science previously reported .
People become infected with the worm when they ingest eggs from the parasite, and this can happen when people eat fruits or vegetables that have been grown in contaminated soil, according to the CDC . Soil can become contaminated if human feces are used as fertilizer or if infected people defecate outside. People can also become infected if their hands become contaminated with this soil and they don't wash their hands.
The disease can be treated with antiparasitic drugs. In this case, the man received an antiparasitic drug called albendazole, and he was released from the hospital after one day. At a follow-up visit two weeks later, the man said he felt well and had passed worms in his stool.
In areas where this worm is common, ways to prevent infection include washing your hands with soap and water before handling food; washing, peeling or cooking raw vegetables before eating them; and avoiding contact with soil that may be contaminated with human feces, the CDC says.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-11-21--Why do some animal sleep so much?

Why do some animal sleep so much?

A dog snoring away the afternoon on the living room floor .
snoozing belly-up on a beach .
sprawled out on the .
A dozing on a mudbank .
These slumberous scenes may make folks wonder why these other mammals seem to be getting so much more sleep than humans .
Do they actually need more sleep ?
Are they just sleeping because they can ?
Should humans be sleeping more , too ?
Be prepared for a surprising and fascinating answer to these questions : Related : Can any animal survive without sleep ?
Though constantly studied , sleep @ @ @ @ @ @ @ science has n't completely cracked .
`` We really do n't know what sleep is for , '' Dr. David Raizen , associate professor of neurology at the University of Pennsylvania 's Perelman School of Medicine , told Live Science .
Raizen said scientists have identified relationships between sleep and animal function — certain kinds of sleep can increase a critter 's ability to fight off illness or .
Yet these associations do n't necessarily describe the ultimate purpose of sleep and can be misleading .
`` A brown bat that sleeps 20 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ be a genius , '' Raizen said , speaking to the idea that sleep is meant to serve learning and memory .
Likewise , a 2017 study published in the journal found that elephants sleep for an average of only two hours a night , but it 's known elephants are intelligent animals with very good memories .
`` This difference in sleep amounts has been used for arguments against a core function of sleep , '' Raizen said .
How could sleep be so important if an animal like an is perfectly @ @ @ @ @ @ @ typical human needs quadruple that ?
But Raizen thinks sleep does serve a core function , though an as-of-yet poorly understood one .
Sleep has been observed in every animal ever studied by science , Raizen said , making it as universal across lifeforms as energy intake .
Studies have also shown that various animals ' bodies begin to break down if they 're continuously sleep deprived , suggesting sleep is essential .
So if it 's essential , why is n't more always better and the amount always similar , particularly across @ @ @ @ @ @ @ idea is that sleep in mammals has to do with body size and diet , according to a 2005 study in the journal .
Across many studies of mammalian sleep , scientists have observed that less sleep is correlated with larger body sizes , and this correlation is stronger and more extreme among herbivores than it is among carnivores .
A reason for this may be that the larger an animal is , the more calories it needs , and the more time it needs to spend eating .
Herbivores tend to rely @ @ @ @ @ @ @ than the food carnivores eat so need to gulp down much more .
This could partly explain why an elephant may have evolved to survive on only two hours a day , Raizen said .
However , the matter is far from settled .
Sleep is complex , hard to measure in wild animals and even harder to interpret .
Along those lines , it 's important to remember that some differences in observed sleep might not be what they seem .
Just because a house cat sleeps for 18 hours a day @ @ @ @ @ @ @ sleep to function , Raizen said .
Some sleep is probably a matter of convenience — done when it 's not safe for an animal to be out and about , when food availability is low or simply because there 's nothing else to do .
As for human sleep ?
Raizen said the most important thing is for people to listen to their bodies and get as much sleep as they feel they need — which is about eight hours for most folks but might be as few as five and as @ @ @ @

A dog snoring away the afternoon on the living room floor. Walruses snoozing belly-up on a beach. Lions sprawled out on the Serengeti . A hippo dozing on a mudbank.
These slumberous scenes may make folks wonder why these other mammals seem to be getting so much more sleep than humans. Do they actually need more sleep? Are they just sleeping because they can? Should humans be sleeping more, too?
Be prepared for a surprising and fascinating answer to these questions:
Nobody knows.
Related: Can any animal survive without sleep?
Though constantly studied, sleep is one of the great mysteries modern science hasn't completely cracked. "We really don't know what sleep is for," Dr. David Raizen, associate professor of neurology at the University of Pennsylvania's Perelman School of Medicine, told Live Science.
Raizen said scientists have identified relationships between sleep and animal function — certain kinds of sleep can increase a critter's ability to fight off illness or consolidate memories . Yet these associations don't necessarily describe the ultimate purpose of sleep and can be misleading.
"A brown bat that sleeps 20 hours a day you'd think would be a genius," Raizen said, speaking to the idea that sleep is meant to serve learning and memory. Likewise, a 2017 study published in the journal PLOS One found that elephants sleep for an average of only two hours a night , but it's known elephants are intelligent animals with very good memories.
"This difference in sleep amounts has been used for arguments against a core function of sleep," Raizen said. How could sleep be so important if an animal like an elephant is perfectly functional with only two hours while a typical human needs quadruple that?
But Raizen thinks sleep does serve a core function, though an as-of-yet poorly understood one. Sleep has been observed in every animal ever studied by science, Raizen said, making it as universal across lifeforms as energy intake. Studies have also shown that various animals' bodies begin to break down if they're continuously sleep deprived, suggesting sleep is essential.
So if it's essential, why isn't more always better and the amount always similar, particularly across closely-related animals, like mammals?
One idea is that sleep in mammals has to do with body size and diet, according to a 2005 study in the journal Nature . Across many studies of mammalian sleep, scientists have observed that less sleep is correlated with larger body sizes, and this correlation is stronger and more extreme among herbivores than it is among carnivores.
A reason for this may be that the larger an animal is, the more calories it needs, and the more time it needs to spend eating. Herbivores tend to rely on food that is far less calorie-dense than the food carnivores eat so need to gulp down much more. This could partly explain why an elephant may have evolved to survive on only two hours a day, Raizen said.
However, the matter is far from settled. Sleep is complex, hard to measure in wild animals and even harder to interpret.
Along those lines, it's important to remember that some differences in observed sleep might not be what they seem. Just because a house cat sleeps for 18 hours a day doesn't mean it needs all that sleep to function, Raizen said. Some sleep is probably a matter of convenience — done when it's not safe for an animal to be out and about, when food availability is low or simply because there's nothing else to do.
As for human sleep? Raizen said the most important thing is for people to listen to their bodies and get as much sleep as they feel they need — which is about eight hours for most folks but might be as few as five and as many as 11.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-11-22--Could we ever pull enough carbon out of the atmosphere to stop climate change?

Nature has equipped Earth with several giant `` sponges , '' or carbon sinks , that can help humans battle climate change .
These natural sponges , as well as human-made ones , can sop up carbon , effectively removing it from the atmosphere .
But what does this sci-fi-like act really entail ?
And how much will it actually take — and cost — to make a difference and slow ?
Sabine Fuss has been looking for these answers for the last two years .
An economist in Berlin , Fuss leads a research group at the Mercator Research @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and was part of the original Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) — established by the United Nations to assess the science , risks and impacts of global warming .
After the panel ’ s 2018 report and the new Paris Agreement goal to keep global warming to 2.7 degrees Fahrenheit ( 1.5 degrees Celsius ) or less , Fuss was tasked with finding out which removal strategies were most promising and feasible .
Afforestation and reforestation — planting or replanting of forests , respectively — are well known natural carbon @ @ @ @ @ @ @ sequester the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere for , a chemical reaction that uses the sun 's energy to turn carbon dioxide and water into sugar and oxygen .
According to a 2019 study in the journal , planting could store about 225 billion tons ( 205 billion metric tons ) of carbon , or about two-thirds of the carbon released by humans into the atmosphere since the Industrial Revolution began .
Agriculture land management is another natural carbon removal approach that 's relatively low risk and already @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Zelikova , terrestrial ecologist and chief scientist at Carbon180 , a nonprofit that advocates for carbon removal strategies in the U.S. Practices such as rotational grazing , reduced tilling and crop rotation increase carbon intake by photosynthesis , and that carbon is eventually stored in root tissues that decompose in the soil .
The National Academy of Sciences found that carbon storage in soil was enough to offset as much as 10 % of U.S. annual net emissions — or about 632 million tons ( — at a low cost .
But nature-based @ @ @ @ @ @ @ forests , can conflict with other policy goals , like food production , Fuss said .
Scaled up , these strategies require a lot of land , oftentimes land that 's already in use .
This is why more tech-based approaches to carbon removal are crucial , they say .
With direct air capture and carbon storage , for instance , a chemical process takes carbon dioxide out of the air and binds it to filters .
When the filter is heated , the CO2 can be captured and then injected underground .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ plants worldwide , according to the .
There 's also .
With this method , plants and trees are grown , creating a carbon sink , and then the organic material is burned to produce heat or fuel known as bioenergy .
During combustion , the carbon emissions are captured and stored underground .
Another carbon capture trick involves mineralization ; in this process , rocks get ground up to increase the surfaces available to chemically react with , and crystallize , CO2 .
Afterward , the mineralized CO2 is stored underground .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ been implemented on a large scale .
They 're extremely , with estimates as high as of CO2 removed , and each still requires a lot of research and support before being deployed .
But the U.S. is a good example of how a mix of carbon removal solutions could work together , Zelikova said : Land management could be used in the agricultural Midwest ; basalt rocks in the Pacific Northwest are great for mineralization ; and the oil fields in the Southwest are already primed with the right technology and skilled @ @ @ @ @ @ @ said .
Related : Why does the Earth rotate ?
Ultimately , every country will have to put together its own unique portfolio of CO2 removal strategies because no single intervention will be successful on its own .
`` If we scaled up any of them exclusively , it would be a disaster , '' Fuss said .
`` It would use a lot of land or be prohibitively expensive . ''
Her research has shown that afforestation and reforestation will be most productive in tropical regions , whereas solar radiation differences in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( reflection of light back into space ) mean those countries will likely have better luck investing in the more technological interventions , such as carbon capture and biomass extraction .
The need to deploy these solutions is imminent .
The global carbon budget , the amount of CO2 humans can emit before the global temperature rises 2.7 F ( 1.5 C ) above preindustrial levels , is about 300 gigatons of CO2 , Fuss said .
`` In recent years , we 've emitted 40 gigatons , '' she said .
Put @ @ @ @ @ @ @ are left in that budget .
A recent study in the journal suggests that waiting even a few years from now may be too late if we are to meet the goal set in the Paris Agreement .
Based on their climate model , the authors predict that even if we stop emitting greenhouse gases entirely , `` global temperatures will be 3 C [ 5.4 F ] warmer and sea levels 3 meters [ 10 feet ] higher by 2500 than they were in 1850 . ''
To reverse climate change 's @ @ @ @ @ @ @ gases must be removed this year and every year moving forward , the researchers said .
The reality , however , is these approaches are not ready and there 's not a consensus on how to pay for them .
There is a consensus among scientists on the next step : We need to stop further emissions immediately .
But , `` since emissions are embedded in our daily lives and infrastructure , '' Fuss said , `` [ carbon ] removal comes more to the forefront . ''

Nature has equipped Earth with several giant "sponges," or carbon sinks, that can help humans battle climate change. These natural sponges, as well as human-made ones, can sop up carbon, effectively removing it from the atmosphere.
But what does this sci-fi-like act really entail? And how much will it actually take — and cost — to make a difference and slow climate change ?
Sabine Fuss has been looking for these answers for the last two years. An economist in Berlin, Fuss leads a research group at the Mercator Research Institute on Global Commons and Climate Change and was part of the original Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) — established by the United Nations to assess the science, risks and impacts of global warming. After the panel’s 2018 report and the new Paris Agreement goal to keep global warming to 2.7 degrees Fahrenheit (1.5 degrees Celsius) or less, Fuss was tasked with finding out which carbon removal strategies were most promising and feasible.
Related: What is a carbon sink?
Afforestation and reforestation — planting or replanting of forests, respectively — are well known natural carbon sinks. Vast numbers of trees can sequester the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere for photosynthesis , a chemical reaction that uses the sun's energy to turn carbon dioxide and water into sugar and oxygen. According to a 2019 study in the journal Science , planting 1 trillion trees could store about 225 billion tons (205 billion metric tons) of carbon, or about two-thirds of the carbon released by humans into the atmosphere since the Industrial Revolution began.
Agriculture land management is another natural carbon removal approach that's relatively low risk and already being tested out, according to Jane Zelikova, terrestrial ecologist and chief scientist at Carbon180, a nonprofit that advocates for carbon removal strategies in the U.S. Practices such as rotational grazing, reduced tilling and crop rotation increase carbon intake by photosynthesis, and that carbon is eventually stored in root tissues that decompose in the soil. The National Academy of Sciences found that carbon storage in soil was enough to offset as much as 10% of U.S. annual net emissions — or about 632 million tons ( 574 million metric tons) of CO2 — at a low cost.
But nature-based carbon removal, like planting and replanting forests, can conflict with other policy goals, like food production, Fuss said. Scaled up, these strategies require a lot of land, oftentimes land that's already in use.
This is why more tech-based approaches to carbon removal are crucial, they say. With direct air capture and carbon storage, for instance, a chemical process takes carbon dioxide out of the air and binds it to filters. When the filter is heated, the CO2 can be captured and then injected underground. There are currently 15 direct air capture plants worldwide, according to the International Energy Agency . There's also bioenergy with carbon capture . With this method, plants and trees are grown, creating a carbon sink, and then the organic material is burned to produce heat or fuel known as bioenergy. During combustion, the carbon emissions are captured and stored underground. Another carbon capture trick involves mineralization; in this process, rocks get ground up to increase the surfaces available to chemically react with, and crystallize, CO2. Afterward, the mineralized CO2 is stored underground.
However, none of these technologies have been implemented on a large scale. They're extremely expensive , with estimates as high as $400 per ton of CO2 removed, and each still requires a lot of research and support before being deployed. But the U.S. is a good example of how a mix of carbon removal solutions could work together, Zelikova said: Land management could be used in the agricultural Midwest; basalt rocks in the Pacific Northwest are great for mineralization; and the oil fields in the Southwest are already primed with the right technology and skilled workers for underground carbon storage, she said.
Related: Why does the Earth rotate?
Ultimately, every country will have to put together its own unique portfolio of CO2 removal strategies because no single intervention will be successful on its own. "If we scaled up any of them exclusively, it would be a disaster," Fuss said. "It would use a lot of land or be prohibitively expensive." Her research has shown that afforestation and reforestation will be most productive in tropical regions, whereas solar radiation differences in the more northern latitudes with more albedo (reflection of light back into space) mean those countries will likely have better luck investing in the more technological interventions, such as carbon capture and biomass extraction.
The need to deploy these solutions is imminent. The global carbon budget, the amount of CO2 humans can emit before the global temperature rises 2.7 F (1.5 C) above preindustrial levels, is about 300 gigatons of CO2, Fuss said.
"In recent years, we've emitted 40 gigatons," she said. Put another way, only a few years are left in that budget. A recent study in the journal Scientific Reports suggests that waiting even a few years from now may be too late if we are to meet the goal set in the Paris Agreement. Based on their climate model, the authors predict that even if we stop emitting greenhouse gases entirely, "global temperatures will be 3 C [5.4 F] warmer and sea levels 3 meters [10 feet] higher by 2500 than they were in 1850." To reverse climate change's effects, 33 gigatons of existing greenhouse gases must be removed this year and every year moving forward, the researchers said.
The reality, however, is these approaches are not ready and there's not a consensus on how to pay for them. There is a consensus among scientists on the next step: We need to stop further emissions immediately. But, "since emissions are embedded in our daily lives and infrastructure," Fuss said, "[carbon] removal comes more to the forefront."
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-11-22--Rural hospitals are under siege from COVID-19. Here's what doctors are facing, in their own words.

It ’ s difficult to put into words how hard COVID-19 is hitting rural America ’ s hospitals .
North Dakota has so many cases , it ’ s allowing asymptomatic COVID-19-positive nurses to continue caring for patients to keep the hospitals staffed .
Iowa and South Dakota have teetered on the edge of running out of hospital capacity .
Yet in many communities , the initial cooperation and goodwill seen early in the pandemic have given way to COVID-19 fatigue and anger , making it hard to implement and enforce public health measures , like wearing face masks , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ spread .
Rural health care systems entered the pandemic in already precarious financial positions .
Over the years , shifting demographics , declining revenue and increasing operating expenses have made it harder for rural hospitals to stay in business .
The pandemic has made it even more difficult .
In mid-March , most rural hospitals halted elective procedures to slow the spread of the virus , cutting their revenue further , and many have faced price gouging for supplies given extreme shortages .
I work with rural doctors and hospital administrators across the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ see the stress they ’ re under from the pandemic .
Here is what two of them – Konnie Martin , chief executive officer at San Luis Valley Health in Alamosa , Colorado , and Dr. Jennifer Bacani McKenney , who practices family medicine in Fredonia , Kansas – are facing .
Their experiences reflect what others are going through and how rural communities are innovating under extraordinary pressure .
I ’ ll let them explain in their own words .
COVID-19 fatigue is real .
It ’ s wearing on people .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ I read the other day about health care workers being the “ keeper of fears.
” During COVID-19 , patients have disproportionately placed their fears on clinicians , many of whom experience the same fears themselves .
I focus on building resilience , but it ’ s hard .
My hospital currently has seven patients with COVID-19 and can make room for as many as 12 .
Back in the spring , we converted a visiting specialist center into a temporary respiratory clinic to keep potentially infectious patients separate and reduce pressure on @ @ @ @ @ @ @ all about making sure we have enough staff and hospital capacity .
There isn ’ t any hospital that isn ’ t under siege , which means that getting patients to the right level of care can be a challenge .
In the past few days , we have accepted three transfers from facilities that are on the front range .
We ’ ve never had to do this before .
With six ICU beds and 10 ventilators , we are trying to help others .
Influenza hasn ’ t arrived yet in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ when it comes .
We have nearly 40 staff out right now on isolation or quarantine , a staggering number for a small facility .
We are having to shift staffing coverage in half-day increments to keep up .
We are not at a point where we are even contemplating bringing COVID-19-positive staff back to work , like the governor of North Dakota suggested .
I hope we never get there .
We are , however , considering high-risk versus low-risk exposures .
If a clinician is exposed to COVID-19 during an aerosolizing @ @ @ @ @ @ @ risk .
If a clinician is exposed in a classroom of 50 people who were all socially distanced and wearing masks , that ’ s low risk .
If we face critical workforce needs , we may bring back health care workers that have had low-risk exposures .
We have gained a lot of knowledge this year , and we all feel wiser now , but definitely older , too .
We chose to live in a rural community because we look out for one another .
Our one grocery store will deliver @ @ @ @ @ @ @ s department will drive medications outside of city limits .
If we could return to our rural values of caring for and protecting one another we would be in a better position .
Somewhere along the way , these values took a back seat to politics and fear .
Wilson County , where I practice in Southeast Kansas , didn ’ t see its first COVID-19 case until April 15 .
By August , you could still count the number of cases on two hands .
But by mid-November , the total was @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a population of about 8,500 – meaning about one out of every 40 residents has been infected .
Our 25-bed critical-access hospital doesn ’ t have dedicated ICU beds , and it has only two ventilators .
Emergency department calls are split among the five physicians in Fredonia .
In addition to dealing with COVID-19 cases , we ’ re managing every other illness and injury that walks through the door , including strokes , heart attacks , traumatic injuries and rattlesnake bites .
We have sectioned off a hallway of rooms for @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , however , we have to rely on other hospitals .
Recently , my partner had to transfer a patient who had a gastrointestinal bleed .
She had to call 11 different hospitals to find one that could take the patient .
I feel lucky to have on-site testing in the hospital lab .
But like many of my rural peers , getting enough face masks and other personal protective equipment early on was tough .
The community is tired , frustrated and stubborn .
Politicians talk about relying on personal responsibility to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ’ t see a majority of people wearing masks in public spaces despite pleas from health professionals .
Some people are scared .
Others act as if COVID-19 doesn ’ t exist .
Politics is making things harder .
I have been Wilson County ’ s health officer for the past eight years .
This year , county commissioners gained more control over COVID-19 health decisions .
When I proposed a mask mandate early in the pandemic , one county commissioner argued it would violate his rights .
Another commissioner balked at one @ @ @ @ @ @ @ no right to tell schools how to evaluate kids before they can return to sports , despite the health risks .
I recently proposed a new mask mandate given our rising numbers .
I explained that masks would not only save lives , they would help businesses stay open and keep employees at work .
The commissioners voted it down 3-0 .
Preparing for the next pandemic We live in an interconnected world where commerce and people cross state and national borders , and with that comes the risk of new diseases .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ future .
Rural health care delivery systems can leverage lessons from COVID-19 to prepare .
Among other things , their emergency preparedness “ tabletop exercises ” can include planning for infectious disease outbreaks , in addition to fire and floods ; mass casualty incidents ; and chemical spills .
They can permanently diversify supply chain options from other industries , such as construction and agriculture , to help ensure access to needed supplies .
To avoid staff and supply shortages , they can create regional rural health care networks for swapping staff , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , rural doctors and health care administrators are being as flexible and resourceful as they can in the face of adversity .
[ Understand new developments in science , health and technology , each week .
Subscribe to The Conversation ’ s science newsletter . ]
This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license .
Read the original article .
Follow all of the Expert Voices issues and debates — and become part of the discussion — on Facebook and Twitter .
The views expressed are those of the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ views of the publisher .
This version of the article was originally published on Live Science .

It’s difficult to put into words how hard COVID-19 is hitting rural America’s hospitals. North Dakota has so many cases, it’s allowing asymptomatic COVID-19-positive nurses to continue caring for patients to keep the hospitals staffed. Iowa and South Dakota have teetered on the edge of running out of hospital capacity.
Yet in many communities, the initial cooperation and goodwill seen early in the pandemic have given way to COVID-19 fatigue and anger, making it hard to implement and enforce public health measures, like wearing face masks, that can reduce the disease’s spread.
Rural health care systems entered the pandemic in already precarious financial positions. Over the years, shifting demographics, declining revenue and increasing operating expenses have made it harder for rural hospitals to stay in business. The pandemic has made it even more difficult. In mid-March, most rural hospitals halted elective procedures to slow the spread of the virus, cutting their revenue further, and many have faced price gouging for supplies given extreme shortages.
I work with rural doctors and hospital administrators across the country as a researcher, and I see the stress they’re under from the pandemic. Here is what two of them – Konnie Martin, chief executive officer at San Luis Valley Health in Alamosa, Colorado, and Dr. Jennifer Bacani McKenney, who practices family medicine in Fredonia, Kansas – are facing. Their experiences reflect what others are going through and how rural communities are innovating under extraordinary pressure.
I’ll let them explain in their own words.
Konnie Martin, Alamosa, Colorado
COVID-19 fatigue is real. It’s wearing on people. Everyone wishes we were past this. I read the other day about health care workers being the “keeper of fears.” During COVID-19, patients have disproportionately placed their fears on clinicians, many of whom experience the same fears themselves. I focus on building resilience, but it’s hard.
My hospital currently has seven patients with COVID-19 and can make room for as many as 12. Back in the spring, we converted a visiting specialist center into a temporary respiratory clinic to keep potentially infectious patients separate and reduce pressure on our emergency department.
It’s all about making sure we have enough staff and hospital capacity.
There isn’t any hospital that isn’t under siege, which means that getting patients to the right level of care can be a challenge. In the past few days, we have accepted three transfers from facilities that are on the front range. We’ve never had to do this before. With six ICU beds and 10 ventilators, we are trying to help others.
Influenza hasn’t arrived yet in our community, and I worry about when it comes. We have nearly 40 staff out right now on isolation or quarantine, a staggering number for a small facility. We are having to shift staffing coverage in half-day increments to keep up.
We are not at a point where we are even contemplating bringing COVID-19-positive staff back to work, like the governor of North Dakota suggested. I hope we never get there. We are, however, considering high-risk versus low-risk exposures. If a clinician is exposed to COVID-19 during an aerosolizing medical procedure, that’s high risk. If a clinician is exposed in a classroom of 50 people who were all socially distanced and wearing masks, that’s low risk. If we face critical workforce needs, we may bring back health care workers that have had low-risk exposures.
We have gained a lot of knowledge this year, and we all feel wiser now, but definitely older, too.
Dr. Jennifer Bacani McKenney, Fredonia, Kansas
We chose to live in a rural community because we look out for one another. Our one grocery store will deliver to your home. Our sheriff’s department will drive medications outside of city limits. If we could return to our rural values of caring for and protecting one another we would be in a better position. Somewhere along the way, these values took a back seat to politics and fear.
Wilson County, where I practice in Southeast Kansas, didn’t see its first COVID-19 case until April 15. By August, you could still count the number of cases on two hands. But by mid-November, the total was over 215 cases in a county with a population of about 8,500 – meaning about one out of every 40 residents has been infected.
Our 25-bed critical-access hospital doesn’t have dedicated ICU beds, and it has only two ventilators. Emergency department calls are split among the five physicians in Fredonia. In addition to dealing with COVID-19 cases, we’re managing every other illness and injury that walks through the door, including strokes, heart attacks, traumatic injuries and rattlesnake bites.
We have sectioned off a hallway of rooms for suspected COVID-19 cases. Without an ICU, however, we have to rely on other hospitals. Recently, my partner had to transfer a patient who had a gastrointestinal bleed. She had to call 11 different hospitals to find one that could take the patient.
I feel lucky to have on-site testing in the hospital lab. But like many of my rural peers, getting enough face masks and other personal protective equipment early on was tough.
The community is tired, frustrated and stubborn. Politicians talk about relying on personal responsibility to end the pandemic, but I don’t see a majority of people wearing masks in public spaces despite pleas from health professionals. Some people are scared. Others act as if COVID-19 doesn’t exist.
Politics is making things harder. I have been Wilson County’s health officer for the past eight years. This year, county commissioners gained more control over COVID-19 health decisions.
When I proposed a mask mandate early in the pandemic, one county commissioner argued it would violate his rights. Another commissioner balked at one of my reports, saying I had no right to tell schools how to evaluate kids before they can return to sports, despite the health risks.
I recently proposed a new mask mandate given our rising numbers. I explained that masks would not only save lives, they would help businesses stay open and keep employees at work. The commissioners voted it down 3-0.
Preparing for the next pandemic
We live in an interconnected world where commerce and people cross state and national borders, and with that comes the risk of new diseases. America will face another pandemic in the future.
Rural health care delivery systems can leverage lessons from COVID-19 to prepare. Among other things, their emergency preparedness “tabletop exercises” can include planning for infectious disease outbreaks, in addition to fire and floods; mass casualty incidents; and chemical spills.
They can permanently diversify supply chain options from other industries, such as construction and agriculture, to help ensure access to needed supplies. To avoid staff and supply shortages, they can create regional rural health care networks for swapping staff, conducting testing and acquiring supplies.
Meanwhile, rural doctors and health care administrators are being as flexible and resourceful as they can in the face of adversity.
[Understand new developments in science, health and technology, each week. Subscribe to The Conversation’s science newsletter.]
This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.
Follow all of the Expert Voices issues and debates — and become part of the discussion — on Facebook and Twitter. The views expressed are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the publisher. This version of the article was originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-11-22--JFK conspiracy theory is debunked in Mexico 57 years after Kennedy assassination

Most conspiracy theories surrounding President John F. Kennedy ’ s assassination have been disproven .
Kennedy was not killed by a gas-powered device triggered by aliens or by actor Woody Harrelson ’ s dad .
But speculation about Kennedy ’ s Nov. 22 , 1963 murder in Dallas continues , fueled by unreleased classified documents , bizarre ballistics and the claim of assassin Lee Harvey Oswald – who was later killed on live TV while in police custody – that he was “ just a patsy.
” Several JFK assassination experts , like the former New York Times investigative reporter @ @ @ @ @ @ @ best place to find answers regarding a possible conspiracy and who was behind it .
Just over a month before Kennedy ’ s killing , Oswald took a bus from Texas to Mexico City .
He arrived Friday morning , Sept. 27 , 1963 and left very early on Wednesday , Oct. 2 , according to American and Mexican intelligence .
Was Oswald a kind of rogue James Bond who went south of the border to consort with communists , Cuban revolutionaries and spies – or just a deranged killer ?
I dug @ @ @ @ @ @ @ on conspiracy narratives in Mexico , and I think I found something everybody else missed : a hole in the story of the very man who started a tenacious conspiracy theory about Oswald ’ s Mexico trip .
Mexico was a Cold War hot spot in the mid-20th century , a haven for Soviet exiles , American leftists fleeing the anti-communist persecution of McCarthyism and sympathizers with Cuba ’ s Castro regime .
Every communist and democratic country had an embassy in Mexico City – the only place in the Western Hemisphere where @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
According to witnesses from the Cuban and Soviet diplomatic missions , Oswald visited their embassies repeatedly on Friday and Saturday .
He was desperately seeking visas to those countries , which Americans were then prohibited from visiting .
Told such documents would take months to process , Oswald got in a heated argument with the Cuban consul , Emilio Azcué .
Oswald also forced a KGB volleyball match on Saturday morning to be canceled when he brandished a weapon at the Soviet consulate , before bursting into tears and leaving .
Those @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , which in the 1960s had ramped up its Mexico operations to monitor communist activity , even hiring 200 Mexican agents to help .
The Mexican Secret Service , whose 1960s-era files Mexico has recently begun to declassify , also tracked Oswald on Sept. 27 and Sept. 28 , 1963 .
Oswald ’ s whereabouts for the next three-and-a-half days , however , remain unknown .
A main conspiracy about Oswald ’ s undocumented time in Mexico City puts him in contact with dangerous Mexicans on the left side of the Cold War @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , when the American consul in the Mexican coastal city of Tampico , Benjamin Ruyle , was buying drinks for local journalists .
One of them – Óscar Contreras Lartigue , a 28-year-old reporter for El Sol de Tampico – told Ruyle he ’ d met Oswald in 1963 when he was a law student at Mexico ’ s National Autonomous University .
Contreras said he ’ d been in a pro-Castro campus group and that Oswald had begged this group for help getting a Cuban visa .
According to Contreras , Oswald @ @ @ @ @ @ @ University students , then met up with them again a few days later at the Cuban Embassy .
Evidently afraid for his life , Contreras wouldn ’ t tell Ruyle much more .
He said he himself had traveled to Cuba , knew people in the Castro regime and had blown up the statue of a former Mexican president on campus in Mexico City .
Contreras feared persecution for his political activities .
Contreras did say this wasn ’ t the first time he was sharing his story , though .
After JFK @ @ @ @ @ @ @ he ’ d commented to his editor that he ’ d recently met Oswald .
Contreras ’ account hinted at suspicious , previously unknown connections between Oswald and communist Cuba made shortly before JFK ’ s assassination .
His story was , according to a memo later sent from CIA headquarters , “ the first solid investigative lead we have on Oswald ’ s activities in Mexico.
” U.S. government officials needed to find out if Contreras was a trustworthy source .
Three months after Ruyle ’ s happy hour , a CIA @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to question Contreras .
During the six-hour interrogation , Contreras still refused to go into details , but he did say Oswald never mentioned assassination – only that he said repeatedly he “ had to get to Cuba.
” In 1978 , a researcher from the U.S. House Select Commission on Assassinations named Dan Hardway went to Mexico to investigate the JFK assassination .
He was unable to interview Contreras despite several attempts , but in an influential report warned his account should not be dismissed .
The New York Times reporter Shenon @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 2013 book on the JFK assassination , also found Contreras credible .
Shenon wrote that Contreras – whom he calls a “ prominent journalist ” – “ went much further ” in their interview than he had with the CIA , alleging “ far more extensive contacts between Oswald and Cuban agents in Mexico.
” Dan Hardway , who is now a lawyer in West Virginia , still believes Contreras .
After reading Shenon ’ s book , he reiterated in 2015 that Lee Harvey Oswald might have been part of a wider @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in 2016 , so I could not interview him myself .
But in my investigation , a minute detail of his biography grabbed my attention – an apparently overlooked contradiction that could undermine his entire story .
In Contreras ’ telling , he fled the National Autonomous University campus and moved to Tampico around 1964 .
Yet Contreras also allegedly told his “ editor ” about his encounter with Oswald after the 1963 Kennedy assassination .
College newspapers aren ’ t common in Mexico , and Contreras was a law student .
So @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in 1963 ?
I thought his hometown paper , El Sol de Tampico , might hold the answer .
Digging through its archives , I found that the newspaper ran a Sunday gossip column in the early 1960s called “ Crisol , ” or “ melting pot.
” Óscar Contreras became the reporter for “ Crisol ” on June 6 , 1963 , and continued writing the gossip column in September and October that year .
While Lee Harvey Oswald was in Mexico City , Contreras was 300 miles away in Tampico .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ of the local paper show , he chronicled the sumptuous wedding receptions , quinceañeras and yacht excursions of Tampico ’ s high society .
A political correspondent may live far from where his newspaper is published .
But for a gossip columnist , that would be dereliction of duty .
This revelation plunges Oswald ’ s fall 1963 trip to Mexico back into the dark .
There are other conspiracy theories , including that Oswald had a Mexican mistress who took him to a party of communists and spies .
But it ’ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ clues to JFK ’ s assassination .
Conspiracy theories offer assurances of depth and closure , a promise that the biggest enigma of the 20th century is solvable .
But from what we know about what Oswald did and didn ’ t do in Mexico City , he was a volatile , disorganized loner who couldn ’ t even handle travel logistics .
JFK ’ s assassination is a cold case .
And in Mexico , only exhausted leads remain .
This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license @ @ @ @ @ @ @ all of the Expert Voices issues and debates — and become part of the discussion — on Facebook and Twitter .
The views expressed are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the publisher .
This version of the article was originally published on Live Science .

This man visited the Soviet embassy in Mexico City while Lee Harvey Oswald was in Mexico in 1963. U.S. officials think it may be Oswald.
Most conspiracy theories surrounding President John F. Kennedy’s assassination have been disproven. Kennedy was not killed by a gas-powered device triggered by aliens or by actor Woody Harrelson’s dad.
But speculation about Kennedy’s Nov. 22, 1963 murder in Dallas continues, fueled by unreleased classified documents, bizarre ballistics and the claim of assassin Lee Harvey Oswald – who was later killed on live TV while in police custody – that he was “just a patsy.”
Several JFK assassination experts, like the former New York Times investigative reporter Phillip Shenon, see Mexico as the best place to find answers regarding a possible conspiracy and who was behind it.
Just over a month before Kennedy’s killing, Oswald took a bus from Texas to Mexico City. He arrived Friday morning, Sept. 27, 1963 and left very early on Wednesday, Oct. 2, according to American and Mexican intelligence.
Was Oswald a kind of rogue James Bond who went south of the border to consort with communists, Cuban revolutionaries and spies – or just a deranged killer?
I dug into that question while researching my book on conspiracy narratives in Mexico, and I think I found something everybody else missed: a hole in the story of the very man who started a tenacious conspiracy theory about Oswald’s Mexico trip.
Communist Mexico City
Mexico was a Cold War hot spot in the mid-20th century, a haven for Soviet exiles, American leftists fleeing the anti-communist persecution of McCarthyism and sympathizers with Cuba’s Castro regime. Every communist and democratic country had an embassy in Mexico City – the only place in the Western Hemisphere where these enemies coexisted more or less openly.
According to witnesses from the Cuban and Soviet diplomatic missions, Oswald visited their embassies repeatedly on Friday and Saturday. He was desperately seeking visas to those countries, which Americans were then prohibited from visiting.
Told such documents would take months to process, Oswald got in a heated argument with the Cuban consul, Emilio Azcué. Oswald also forced a KGB volleyball match on Saturday morning to be canceled when he brandished a weapon at the Soviet consulate, before bursting into tears and leaving.
Those events are well documented by the CIA, which in the 1960s had ramped up its Mexico operations to monitor communist activity, even hiring 200 Mexican agents to help. The Mexican Secret Service, whose 1960s-era files Mexico has recently begun to declassify, also tracked Oswald on Sept. 27 and Sept. 28, 1963.
Oswald’s whereabouts for the next three-and-a-half days, however, remain unknown.
A conspiracy theory is born
A main conspiracy about Oswald’s undocumented time in Mexico City puts him in contact with dangerous Mexicans on the left side of the Cold War.
This story originated in March 1967, when the American consul in the Mexican coastal city of Tampico, Benjamin Ruyle, was buying drinks for local journalists.
One of them – Óscar Contreras Lartigue, a 28-year-old reporter for El Sol de Tampico – told Ruyle he’d met Oswald in 1963 when he was a law student at Mexico’s National Autonomous University.
Contreras said he’d been in a pro-Castro campus group and that Oswald had begged this group for help getting a Cuban visa. According to Contreras, Oswald spent two days with these National Autonomous University students, then met up with them again a few days later at the Cuban Embassy.
Evidently afraid for his life, Contreras wouldn’t tell Ruyle much more. He said he himself had traveled to Cuba, knew people in the Castro regime and had blown up the statue of a former Mexican president on campus in Mexico City. Contreras feared persecution for his political activities.
Contreras did say this wasn’t the first time he was sharing his story, though. After JFK was shot, Contreras told Ruyle, he’d commented to his editor that he’d recently met Oswald.
The Contreras question
Contreras’ account hinted at suspicious, previously unknown connections between Oswald and communist Cuba made shortly before JFK’s assassination.
His story was, according to a memo later sent from CIA headquarters, “the first solid investigative lead we have on Oswald’s activities in Mexico.” U.S. government officials needed to find out if Contreras was a trustworthy source.
Three months after Ruyle’s happy hour, a CIA official from Mexico City went to Tampico to question Contreras. During the six-hour interrogation, Contreras still refused to go into details, but he did say Oswald never mentioned assassination – only that he said repeatedly he “had to get to Cuba.”
In 1978, a researcher from the U.S. House Select Commission on Assassinations named Dan Hardway went to Mexico to investigate the JFK assassination. He was unable to interview Contreras despite several attempts, but in an influential report warned his account should not be dismissed.
The New York Times reporter Shenon, who interviewed Oscar Contreras for a 2013 book on the JFK assassination, also found Contreras credible. Shenon wrote that Contreras – whom he calls a “prominent journalist” – “went much further” in their interview than he had with the CIA, alleging “far more extensive contacts between Oswald and Cuban agents in Mexico.”
Dan Hardway, who is now a lawyer in West Virginia, still believes Contreras. After reading Shenon’s book, he reiterated in 2015 that Lee Harvey Oswald might have been part of a wider Cuban intelligence web.
Hole in the web
Óscar Contreras died in 2016, so I could not interview him myself.
But in my investigation, a minute detail of his biography grabbed my attention – an apparently overlooked contradiction that could undermine his entire story.
In Contreras’ telling, he fled the National Autonomous University campus and moved to Tampico around 1964. Yet Contreras also allegedly told his “editor” about his encounter with Oswald after the 1963 Kennedy assassination.
College newspapers aren’t common in Mexico, and Contreras was a law student. So how could he have had an editor in 1963?
I thought his hometown paper, El Sol de Tampico, might hold the answer. Digging through its archives, I found that the newspaper ran a Sunday gossip column in the early 1960s called “Crisol,” or “melting pot.”
Óscar Contreras became the reporter for “Crisol” on June 6, 1963, and continued writing the gossip column in September and October that year.
While Lee Harvey Oswald was in Mexico City, Contreras was 300 miles away in Tampico. In flamboyant prose, faded back issues of the local paper show, he chronicled the sumptuous wedding receptions, quinceañeras and yacht excursions of Tampico’s high society.
Three dark days
I believe the Sol de Tampico archives discredit Contereras’ account.
A political correspondent may live far from where his newspaper is published. But for a gossip columnist, that would be dereliction of duty.
This revelation plunges Oswald’s fall 1963 trip to Mexico back into the dark.
There are other conspiracy theories, including that Oswald had a Mexican mistress who took him to a party of communists and spies.
But it’s more likely Mexico holds no hidden clues to JFK’s assassination.
Conspiracy theories offer assurances of depth and closure, a promise that the biggest enigma of the 20th century is solvable. But from what we know about what Oswald did and didn’t do in Mexico City, he was a volatile, disorganized loner who couldn’t even handle travel logistics.
JFK’s assassination is a cold case. And in Mexico, only exhausted leads remain.
This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.
Follow all of the Expert Voices issues and debates — and become part of the discussion — on Facebook and Twitter. The views expressed are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the publisher. This version of the article was originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-11-22--Solar power stations in space could be the answer to our energy needs

It sounds like science fiction : giant solar power stations floating in space that beam down enormous amounts of energy to Earth .
And for a long time , the concept – first developed by the Russian scientist , Konstantin Tsiolkovsky , in the 1920s – was mainly an inspiration for writers .
A century later , however , scientists are making huge strides in turning the concept into reality .
The European Space Agency has realised the potential of these efforts and is now looking to fund such projects , predicting that the first industrial resource we will get @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
Climate change is the greatest challenge of our time , so there ’ s a lot at stake .
From rising global temperatures to shifting weather patterns , the impacts of climate change are already being felt around the globe .
Overcoming this challenge will require radical changes to how we generate and consume energy .
Renewable energy technologies have developed drastically in recent years , with improved efficiency and lower cost .
But one major barrier to their uptake is the fact that they don ’ t provide a constant supply @ @ @ @ @ @ @ only produce energy when the wind is blowing or the sun is shining – but we need electricity around the clock , every day .
Ultimately , we need a way to store energy on a large scale before we can make the switch to renewable sources .
A possible way around this would be to generate solar energy in space .
There are many advantages to this .
A space-based solar power station could orbit to face the Sun 24 hours a day .
The Earth ’ s atmosphere also absorbs and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ light , so solar cells above the atmosphere will receive more sunlight and produce more energy .
But one of the key challenges to overcome is how to assemble , launch and deploy such large structures .
A single solar power station may have to be as much as 10 kilometres squared in area – equivalent to 1,400 football pitches .
Using lightweight materials will also be critical , as the biggest expense will be the cost of launching the station into space on a rocket .
One proposed solution is to develop @ @ @ @ @ @ @ that will come together and configure to form a single , large solar generator .
In 2017 , researchers at the California Institute of Technology outlined designs for a modular power station , consisting of thousands of ultralight solar cell tiles .
They also demonstrated a prototype tile weighing just 280 grams per square metre , similar to the weight of card .
Recently , developments in manufacturing , such as 3D printing , are also being looked at for this application .
At the University of Liverpool , we are exploring new @ @ @ @ @ @ @ on to solar sails .
A solar sail is a foldable , lightweight and highly reflective membrane capable of harnessing the effect of the Sun ’ s radiation pressure to propel a spacecraft forward without fuel .
We are exploring how to embed solar cells on solar sail structures to create large , fuel-free solar power stations .
These methods would enable us to construct the power stations in space .
Indeed , it could one day be possible to manufacture and deploy units in space from the International Space Station or the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the Moon .
Such devices could in fact help provide power on the Moon .
The possibilities don ’ t end there .
While we are currently reliant on materials from Earth to build power stations , scientists are also considering using resources from space for manufacturing , such as materials found on the Moon .
Another major challenge will be getting the power transmitted back to Earth .
The plan is to convert electricity from the solar cells into energy waves and use electromagnetic fields to transfer them down to an antenna @ @ @ @ @ @ @ The antenna would then convert the waves back into electricity .
Researchers led by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency have already developed designs and demonstrated an orbiter system which should be able to do this .
There is still a lot of work to be done in this field , but the aim is that solar power stations in space will become a reality in the coming decades .
Researchers in China have designed a system called Omega , which they aim to have operational by 2050 .
This system should be capable @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ’ s grid at peak performance , which is a huge amount .
To produce that much power with solar panels on Earth , you would need more than six million of them .
Smaller solar power satellites , like those designed to power lunar rovers , could be operational even sooner .
Across the globe , the scientific community is committing time and effort to the development of solar power stations in space .
Our hope is that they could one day be a vital tool in our fight against climate change @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Conversation under a Creative Commons license .
Read the original article .
Follow all of the Expert Voices issues and debates — and become part of the discussion — on Facebook and Twitter .
The views expressed are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the publisher .
This version of the article was originally published on Live Science .

It sounds like science fiction: giant solar power stations floating in space that beam down enormous amounts of energy to Earth. And for a long time, the concept – first developed by the Russian scientist, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, in the 1920s – was mainly an inspiration for writers.
A century later, however, scientists are making huge strides in turning the concept into reality. The European Space Agency has realised the potential of these efforts and is now looking to fund such projects, predicting that the first industrial resource we will get from space is “beamed power”.
Climate change is the greatest challenge of our time, so there’s a lot at stake. From rising global temperatures to shifting weather patterns, the impacts of climate change are already being felt around the globe. Overcoming this challenge will require radical changes to how we generate and consume energy.
Renewable energy technologies have developed drastically in recent years, with improved efficiency and lower cost. But one major barrier to their uptake is the fact that they don’t provide a constant supply of energy. Wind and solar farms only produce energy when the wind is blowing or the sun is shining – but we need electricity around the clock, every day. Ultimately, we need a way to store energy on a large scale before we can make the switch to renewable sources.
Benefits of space
A possible way around this would be to generate solar energy in space. There are many advantages to this. A space-based solar power station could orbit to face the Sun 24 hours a day. The Earth’s atmosphere also absorbs and reflects some of the Sun’s light, so solar cells above the atmosphere will receive more sunlight and produce more energy.
But one of the key challenges to overcome is how to assemble, launch and deploy such large structures. A single solar power station may have to be as much as 10 kilometres squared in area – equivalent to 1,400 football pitches. Using lightweight materials will also be critical, as the biggest expense will be the cost of launching the station into space on a rocket.
One proposed solution is to develop a swarm of thousands of smaller satellites that will come together and configure to form a single, large solar generator. In 2017, researchers at the California Institute of Technology outlined designs for a modular power station, consisting of thousands of ultralight solar cell tiles. They also demonstrated a prototype tile weighing just 280 grams per square metre, similar to the weight of card.
Recently, developments in manufacturing, such as 3D printing, are also being looked at for this application. At the University of Liverpool, we are exploring new manufacturing techniques for printing ultralight solar cells on to solar sails. A solar sail is a foldable, lightweight and highly reflective membrane capable of harnessing the effect of the Sun’s radiation pressure to propel a spacecraft forward without fuel. We are exploring how to embed solar cells on solar sail structures to create large, fuel-free solar power stations.
These methods would enable us to construct the power stations in space. Indeed, it could one day be possible to manufacture and deploy units in space from the International Space Station or the future lunar gateway station that will orbit the Moon. Such devices could in fact help provide power on the Moon.
The possibilities don’t end there. While we are currently reliant on materials from Earth to build power stations, scientists are also considering using resources from space for manufacturing, such as materials found on the Moon.
Another major challenge will be getting the power transmitted back to Earth. The plan is to convert electricity from the solar cells into energy waves and use electromagnetic fields to transfer them down to an antenna on the Earth’s surface. The antenna would then convert the waves back into electricity. Researchers led by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency have already developed designs and demonstrated an orbiter system which should be able to do this.
There is still a lot of work to be done in this field, but the aim is that solar power stations in space will become a reality in the coming decades. Researchers in China have designed a system called Omega, which they aim to have operational by 2050. This system should be capable of supplying 2GW of power into Earth’s grid at peak performance, which is a huge amount. To produce that much power with solar panels on Earth, you would need more than six million of them.
Smaller solar power satellites, like those designed to power lunar rovers, could be operational even sooner.
Across the globe, the scientific community is committing time and effort to the development of solar power stations in space. Our hope is that they could one day be a vital tool in our fight against climate change.
This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.
Follow all of the Expert Voices issues and debates — and become part of the discussion — on Facebook and Twitter. The views expressed are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the publisher. This version of the article was originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-11-23--Whodunit solved when 'sword' is found embedded in thresher shark

When a dead thresher shark washed up onshore , it was obvious what had killed it — a swordfish had stabbed it from behind and left a large hunk of its `` sword '' embedded in the beast , a new study finds .
No one saw the actual attack , so it 's unclear why the swordfish jabbed the shark .
But the two ocean predators may have been competing for prey , the researchers said .
`` The most likely scenario is that both species were hunting on a school of fish or on squids in the deep @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Jambura , a doctoral student in the Department of Paleontology at the University of Vienna .
It 's also possible the two ocean predators were fighting over territory , or that the swordfish accidentally stabbed the thresher shark and left nearly 12 inches ( 30.1 centimeters ) of its `` sword '' in the victim , he said .
News of the fight 's deadly aftermath spread when the shark 's body washed up on the Mediterranean coast of Libya , near the town of Brega in April 2020 .
A local citizen @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of the 14.5-foot-long ( 4.5 meters ) dead shark , and after seeing the evidence `` I was just stunned for a few moments , '' Jambura told Live Science in an email .
Swordfish ( Xiphias gladius ) are known to defend themselves against blue sharks ( Prionace glauca ) and mako sharks ( Isurus oxyrinchus ) , as these sharks prey on swordfish .
Swordfish have also been reported attacking whales , , inanimate objects , including boats and submarines , and even , Jambura and his colleagues wrote in the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ when he speared a small swordfish that had wandered into a marina , '' said Yannis Papastamatiou , a marine biologist at Florida International University , who was not involved in the study .
`` It speared him through the chest . ''
But thresher sharks ( Alopias superciliosus ) eat small fish `` and would n't be a threat '' to swordfish , Jambura said .
Whatever the reason for the stabbing , `` we know that the swordfish attacked from above — the shark was most likely not even aware of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ until it was too late , '' Jambura said .
It appears that the roughly 10-foot-long ( 3.1 m ) swordfish stabbed the shark just behind the head , leaving a cut 2 inches ( 5 centimeters ) deep and 3 inches ( 8 cm ) wide where it pierced the shark 's gill system .
Because no one performed a necropsy ( an animal autopsy ) , there 's no way to know whether that caused deep internal damage , `` but from the angle and the depth of penetration , it @ @ @ @ @ @ @ region was heavily damaged , possibly also some important arteries , '' Jambura said .
While this is the first reported case of a swordfish killing a thresher shark , scientists do n't know how often this happens in the water 's depths .
`` We rarely see evidence of these outcomes : Sharks are negatively buoyant and will sink when they die , '' Papastamatiou told Live Science in an email .
`` Unless they wash up on the beach like here ( which is rare , most will sink into the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ n't find evidence of the interaction . ''
The swordfish left the altercation physically damaged , but that does n't mean the fish died ; there are known cases of billfish ( a close relative of the swordfish ) that have damaged , malformed or even missing rostra ( or its pointy `` sword '' ) that `` were apparently still in good physical shape , '' the researchers wrote in the study .
Perhaps the assailant survived .
The study was published online Oct. 7 in the journal .

A swordfish (Xiphias gladius) left part of its "sword" sticking out of the shark it killed.
When a dead thresher shark washed up onshore, it was obvious what had killed it — a swordfish had stabbed it from behind and left a large hunk of its "sword" embedded in the beast, a new study finds.
No one saw the actual attack, so it's unclear why the swordfish jabbed the shark. But the two ocean predators may have been competing for prey, the researchers said.
"The most likely scenario is that both species were hunting on a school of fish or on squids in the deep," said study lead researcher Patrick Jambura, a doctoral student in the Department of Paleontology at the University of Vienna.
Related: 7 unanswered questions about sharks
An illustration showing how the "sword" may have pieced the shark. However, no necropsy (an animal autopsy) was done, so it's unknown exactly what organs it sliced. (Image credit: The Ichthyological Society of Japan 2020)
It's also possible the two ocean predators were fighting over territory, or that the swordfish accidentally stabbed the thresher shark and left nearly 12 inches (30.1 centimeters) of its "sword" in the victim, he said.
News of the fight's deadly aftermath spread when the shark's body washed up on the Mediterranean coast of Libya, near the town of Brega in April 2020. A local citizen scientist group learned about photos and video taken of the 14.5-foot-long (4.5 meters) dead shark, and after seeing the evidence "I was just stunned for a few moments," Jambura told Live Science in an email. Swordfish (Xiphias gladius) are known to defend themselves against blue sharks (Prionace glauca) and mako sharks (Isurus oxyrinchus), as these sharks prey on swordfish.
Image 1 of 4 The body of a female bigeye thresher (Alopias superciliosus) was found by citizen scientists on the coast of Libya. (Image credit: The Ichthyological Society of Japan 2020) This is the first documented case of a swordfish attacking a thresher shark. (Image credit: The Ichthyological Society of Japan 2020) The swordfish's "sword" pierced the shark's branchial chamber, the area that helps the shark breathe. (Image credit: The Ichthyological Society of Japan 2020) A close-up of the shark's wound, where it was stabbed. (Image credit: The Ichthyological Society of Japan 2020)
Swordfish have also been reported attacking whales, sea turtles , inanimate objects, including boats and submarines, and even humans , Jambura and his colleagues wrote in the study. In 2015, "a diver was killed in Hawaii when he speared a small swordfish that had wandered into a marina," said Yannis Papastamatiou, a marine biologist at Florida International University, who was not involved in the study. "It speared him through the chest."
But thresher sharks (Alopias superciliosus) eat small fish "and wouldn't be a threat" to swordfish, Jambura said.
Whatever the reason for the stabbing, "we know that the swordfish attacked from above — the shark was most likely not even aware of the danger [it] was in until it was too late," Jambura said. It appears that the roughly 10-foot-long (3.1 m) swordfish stabbed the shark just behind the head, leaving a cut 2 inches (5 centimeters) deep and 3 inches (8 cm) wide where it pierced the shark's gill system. Because no one performed a necropsy (an animal autopsy), there's no way to know whether that caused deep internal damage, "but from the angle and the depth of penetration, it is safe to say that the gill region was heavily damaged, possibly also some important arteries," Jambura said.
While this is the first reported case of a swordfish killing a thresher shark, scientists don't know how often this happens in the water's depths. "We rarely see evidence of these outcomes: Sharks are negatively buoyant and will sink when they die," Papastamatiou told Live Science in an email. "Unless they wash up on the beach like here (which is rare, most will sink into the deep sea), then we won't find evidence of the interaction."
The swordfish left the altercation physically damaged, but that doesn't mean the fish died; there are known cases of billfish (a close relative of the swordfish) that have damaged, malformed or even missing rostra (or its pointy "sword") that "were apparently still in good physical shape," the researchers wrote in the study. Perhaps the assailant survived.
The study was published online Oct. 7 in the journal Ichthyological Research .
Originally published on Live Science.