livescience--2020-11-04--Who invented the Electoral College?

Who invented the Electoral College?

The delegates in Philadelphia agreed , in the summer of 1787 , that the new country they were creating would not have a king but rather an elected executive .
But they did not agree on how to choose that president .
Pennsylvania delegate James Wilson called the problem of picking a president `` in truth , one of the most difficult of all we have to decide . ''
Other delegates , when they later recounted the group ’ s effort , said `` this very subject embarrassed them more than any other – that various systems were proposed @ @ @ @ @ @ @ They were at risk of concluding their meetings without finding a way to pick a leader .
In fact , this was the very last thing written into the final draft .
Had no agreement been reached , the delegates would not have approved the Constitution .
I am a civics educator who has also run Purdue University ’ s Constitution Day celebration for 15 years , and one lesson I always return to is the degree to which the founders had to compromise in order to ensure ratification .
Selecting the president @ @ @ @ @ @ @ approaches were debated during the Constitutional Convention : election by Congress , selection by state legislatures and a popular election – though the right to vote was generally restricted to white , landowning men .
Some delegates at the Constitutional Convention thought that letting Congress pick the president would provide a buffer from what Thomas Jefferson referred to as the `` well-meaning , but uninformed people '' who , in a nation the size of the United States , `` could have no knowledge of eminent characters and qualifications and the actual selection @ @ @ @ @ @ @ this approach threatened the separation of powers created in the first three articles of the Constitution : Congress might choose a weak executive to prevent the president from wielding veto power , reducing the effectiveness of one of the system ’ s checks and balances .
In addition , the president might feel indebted to Congress and yield some power back to the legislative branch .
Virginia delegate James Madison was concerned that giving Congress the power to select the president `` would render it the executor as well as the maker of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ may be made that they may be executed in a tyrannical manner . ''
That view persuaded his fellow Virginian George Mason to reverse his previous support for congressional election of the president and to then conclude that he saw `` making the Executive the mere creature of the Legislature as a violation of the fundamental principle of good Government . ''
Some delegates thought getting states directly involved in picking the leader of the national government was a good approach for the new federal system .
But others , including Alexander Hamilton @ @ @ @ @ @ @ weak executive , to increase their own power .
Hamilton also observed that legislators are often slower to move than top leaders might be expected to : `` In the legislature , promptitude of decision is oftener an evil than a benefit . ''
It ’ s not as pithy as the musical , perhaps , but the point is clear : Don ’ t trust the state legislatures .
The final approach debated was that of popular election .
Some delegates , like New York delegate Gouverneur Morris , viewed the president @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , '' whom the public should elect directly .
The Southern states objected , arguing that they would be disadvantaged in a popular election in proportion to their actual populations because of the large numbers of enslaved people in those states who could not vote .
This was eventually resolved – in one of those many compromises – by counting each enslaved person as three-fifths of a free person for the purposes of representation .
George Mason , a delegate from Virginia , shared Jefferson ’ s skepticism about regular Americans , saying @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the choice of a proper character for chief Magistrate to the people , as it would , to refer a trial of colors to a blind man .
The extent of the Country renders it impossible that the people can have the requisite capacity to judge of the respective pretensions of the Candidates . ''
The delegates appointed a committee of 11 members – one from each state at the Constitutional Convention – to solve this and other knotty problems , which they called the `` Grand Committee on Postponed Questions , '' @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , including how to elect the President . ''
At the beginning , six of the 11 members preferred national popular elections .
But they realized they could not get the Constitution ratified with that provision : The Southern states simply would not agree to it .
Between Aug. 31 and Sept. 4 , 1787 , the committee wrestled with producing an acceptable compromise .
The committee ’ s third report to the Convention proposed the adoption of a system of electors , through which both the people and the states would help @ @ @ @ @ @ @ clear which delegate came up with the idea , which was a partly national and partly federal solution , and which mirrored other structures in the Constitution .
Hamilton and the other founders were reassured that with this compromise system , neither public ignorance nor outside influence would affect the choice of a nation ’ s leader .
They believed that the electors would ensure that only a qualified person became president .
And they thought the Electoral College would serve as a check on a public who might be easily misled , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ knowledge , daily .
Sign up for The Conversation ’ s newsletter . ]
But the original system – in which the winner of the Electoral College would become president and the runner-up became vice president – fell apart almost immediately .
By the election of 1800 , political parties had arisen .
Because electoral votes for president and vice president were not listed on separate ballots , Democratic-Republican running mates Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr tied in the Electoral College , sending the contest to the House of Representatives .
The House @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , leaving Burr as vice president – not John Adams , who had led the opposing Federalist party ticket .
The problem was resolved in 1804 when the 12th Amendment was ratified , allowing the electors to cast separate ballots for president and vice president .
It has been that way ever since .

The delegates in Philadelphia agreed, in the summer of 1787, that the new country they were creating would not have a king but rather an elected executive. But they did not agree on how to choose that president.
Pennsylvania delegate James Wilson called the problem of picking a president "in truth, one of the most difficult of all we have to decide." Other delegates, when they later recounted the group’s effort, said "this very subject embarrassed them more than any other – that various systems were proposed, discussed, and rejected."
They were at risk of concluding their meetings without finding a way to pick a leader. In fact, this was the very last thing written into the final draft. Had no agreement been reached, the delegates would not have approved the Constitution.
I am a civics educator who has also run Purdue University’s Constitution Day celebration for 15 years, and one lesson I always return to is the degree to which the founders had to compromise in order to ensure ratification. Selecting the president was one of those compromises.
Three approaches were debated during the Constitutional Convention: election by Congress, selection by state legislatures and a popular election – though the right to vote was generally restricted to white, landowning men.
Should Congress pick the president?
Some delegates at the Constitutional Convention thought that letting Congress pick the president would provide a buffer from what Thomas Jefferson referred to as the "well-meaning, but uninformed people" who, in a nation the size of the United States, "could have no knowledge of eminent characters and qualifications and the actual selection decision."
Others were concerned that this approach threatened the separation of powers created in the first three articles of the Constitution: Congress might choose a weak executive to prevent the president from wielding veto power, reducing the effectiveness of one of the system’s checks and balances. In addition, the president might feel indebted to Congress and yield some power back to the legislative branch.
Virginia delegate James Madison was concerned that giving Congress the power to select the president "would render it the executor as well as the maker of laws; and then … tyrannical laws may be made that they may be executed in a tyrannical manner."
That view persuaded his fellow Virginian George Mason to reverse his previous support for congressional election of the president and to then conclude that he saw "making the Executive the mere creature of the Legislature as a violation of the fundamental principle of good Government."
Letting state lawmakers choose
Some delegates thought getting states directly involved in picking the leader of the national government was a good approach for the new federal system.
But others, including Alexander Hamilton, worried that states would select a weak executive, to increase their own power. Hamilton also observed that legislators are often slower to move than top leaders might be expected to: "In the legislature, promptitude of decision is oftener an evil than a benefit."
It’s not as pithy as the musical, perhaps, but the point is clear: Don’t trust the state legislatures.
Power to the people?
The final approach debated was that of popular election. Some delegates, like New York delegate Gouverneur Morris, viewed the president as the "guardian of the people," whom the public should elect directly.
The Southern states objected, arguing that they would be disadvantaged in a popular election in proportion to their actual populations because of the large numbers of enslaved people in those states who could not vote. This was eventually resolved – in one of those many compromises – by counting each enslaved person as three-fifths of a free person for the purposes of representation.
George Mason, a delegate from Virginia, shared Jefferson’s skepticism about regular Americans, saying it would be "unnatural to refer the choice of a proper character for chief Magistrate to the people, as it would, to refer a trial of colors to a blind man. The extent of the Country renders it impossible that the people can have the requisite capacity to judge of the respective pretensions of the Candidates."
11 left to make the decision
The delegates appointed a committee of 11 members – one from each state at the Constitutional Convention – to solve this and other knotty problems, which they called the "Grand Committee on Postponed Questions," and charged with resolving "unfinished business, including how to elect the President."
At the beginning, six of the 11 members preferred national popular elections. But they realized they could not get the Constitution ratified with that provision: The Southern states simply would not agree to it.
Between Aug. 31 and Sept. 4, 1787, the committee wrestled with producing an acceptable compromise. The committee’s third report to the Convention proposed the adoption of a system of electors, through which both the people and the states would help choose the president. It's not clear which delegate came up with the idea, which was a partly national and partly federal solution, and which mirrored other structures in the Constitution.
Popularity and protection
Hamilton and the other founders were reassured that with this compromise system, neither public ignorance nor outside influence would affect the choice of a nation’s leader. They believed that the electors would ensure that only a qualified person became president. And they thought the Electoral College would serve as a check on a public who might be easily misled, especially by foreign governments.
[Deep knowledge, daily. Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter.]
But the original system – in which the winner of the Electoral College would become president and the runner-up became vice president – fell apart almost immediately. By the election of 1800, political parties had arisen. Because electoral votes for president and vice president were not listed on separate ballots, Democratic-Republican running mates Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr tied in the Electoral College, sending the contest to the House of Representatives. The House ultimately chose Jefferson as the third president, leaving Burr as vice president – not John Adams, who had led the opposing Federalist party ticket.
The problem was resolved in 1804 when the 12th Amendment was ratified, allowing the electors to cast separate ballots for president and vice president. It has been that way ever since.


livescience--2020-11-04--Possible cause of COVID-19 blood clots found

One of the many dangers of COVID-19 is the disease 's mysterious ability to throughout the body .
Now , a new study may explain why — the disease appears to spur the production of special known to trigger blood clots .
These so-called `` autoimmune antibodies '' or `` autoantibodies '' attack a person 's own tissues .
Specific types of autoantibodies called `` antiphospholipid autoantibodies '' attack cells in such a way as to promote blood clots .
In the study , published Nov. 2 in the journal , researchers detected these autoantibodies in about half of patients @ @ @ @ @ @ @ COVID-19 pandemic , these autoantibodies were typically seen in people who have an known as antiphospholipid syndrome , or APS .
This syndrome affects about 1 in every 2,000 people , and it triggers dangerous blood clots inpatients ' arteries and veins .
`` Now , we 're learning that autoantibodies could be a culprit '' in complications of COVID-19 , study co-author Dr. Yogen Kanthi , an assistant professor at the Michigan Medicine Frankel Cardiovascular Center , .
They may play a role in a vicious cycle of blood clotting and that @ @ @ @ @ @ @ who were already struggling even sicker , '' Kanthi said .
In the new study , the researchers analyzed blood samples from 172 patients hospitalized with COVID-19 .
Overall , 52 % of these patients had antiphospholipid autoantibodies in their blood .
What 's more , when the researchers injected these autoantibodies into mice used to study blood clots in a lab , they observed `` a striking amount of clotting in animals — some of the worst clotting we 've ever seen , '' Kanthi said .
In both COVID-19 and APS @ @ @ @ @ @ @ produces these clot-causing antibodies .
With APS , scientists think that the disease is caused by a combination of a person 's genetics and environmental exposures — including exposures to certain viruses , according to the .
The researchers also found a link between levels of autoantibodies and levels of another substance in the blood called neutrophil extracellular traps ( NETS ) .
These are web-like structures released by white blood cells ( known as neutrophils ) that can trap viruses and other pathogens .
The authors hypothesize that autoantibodies and NETS may @ @ @ @ @ @ @ However , more research is needed to better understand the role of these autoantibodies in COVID-19 , and what 's triggering their production .
Severe cases of COVID-19 are now commonly treated with anti-clotting drugs to reduce the risk of life-threatening blood clots .
But it 's possible that inhibiting or removing the autoantibodies could also improve patients ' outcomes , the authors said .
If that 's the case , patients might benefit from a treatment called plasmapheresis , which is sometimes used in cases of severe autoimmune disease and involves removing @ @ @ @ @ @ @ liquid portion of blood that contains the harmful antibodies .
The study also raises questions about the use of , or plasma from recovered COVID-19 patients , to treat the disease , since that plasma may contain these harmful autoantibodies in addition to helpful antibodies against COVID-19 .
Future studies are needed to investigate this concern , and the authors are currently conducting research to see how long the autoantibodies stick around after people recover from COVID-19 .

One of the many dangers of COVID-19 is the disease's mysterious ability to promote blood clots throughout the body. Now, a new study may explain why — the disease appears to spur the production of special antibodies known to trigger blood clots.
These so-called "autoimmune antibodies" or "autoantibodies" attack a person's own tissues. Specific types of autoantibodies called "antiphospholipid autoantibodies" attack cells in such a way as to promote blood clots.
In the study, published Nov. 2 in the journal Science Translational Medicine , researchers detected these autoantibodies in about half of patients hospitalized with COVID-19.
Related: Coronavirus Live Updates
Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, these autoantibodies were typically seen in people who have an autoimmune disorder known as antiphospholipid syndrome, or APS. This syndrome affects about 1 in every 2,000 people, and it triggers dangerous blood clots inpatients' arteries and veins.
"Now, we're learning that autoantibodies could be a culprit" in complications of COVID-19, study co-author Dr. Yogen Kanthi, an assistant professor at the Michigan Medicine Frankel Cardiovascular Center, said in a statement . They may play a role in a vicious cycle of blood clotting and inflammation that "makes people [with COVID-19] who were already struggling even sicker," Kanthi said.
Clot-causing antibodies
In the new study, the researchers analyzed blood samples from 172 patients hospitalized with COVID-19. Overall, 52% of these patients had antiphospholipid autoantibodies in their blood.
What's more, when the researchers injected these autoantibodies into mice used to study blood clots in a lab, they observed "a striking amount of clotting in animals — some of the worst clotting we've ever seen," Kanthi said.
In both COVID-19 and APS, it's unclear why the body produces these clot-causing antibodies. With APS, scientists think that the disease is caused by a combination of a person's genetics and environmental exposures — including exposures to certain viruses, according to the National Institutes of Health .
The researchers also found a link between levels of autoantibodies and levels of another substance in the blood called neutrophil extracellular traps (NETS). These are web-like structures released by white blood cells (known as neutrophils) that can trap viruses and other pathogens. The authors hypothesize that autoantibodies and NETS may act together to promote blood clots.
However, more research is needed to better understand the role of these autoantibodies in COVID-19, and what's triggering their production.
Severe cases of COVID-19 are now commonly treated with anti-clotting drugs to reduce the risk of life-threatening blood clots. But it's possible that inhibiting or removing the autoantibodies could also improve patients' outcomes, the authors said.
If that's the case, patients might benefit from a treatment called plasmapheresis, which is sometimes used in cases of severe autoimmune disease and involves removing, filtering and returning plasma, the liquid portion of blood that contains the harmful antibodies.
The study also raises questions about the use of convalescent plasma , or plasma from recovered COVID-19 patients, to treat the disease, since that plasma may contain these harmful autoantibodies in addition to helpful antibodies against COVID-19. Future studies are needed to investigate this concern, and the authors are currently conducting research to see how long the autoantibodies stick around after people recover from COVID-19.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-11-04--Mysterious 'fast radio burst' traced to a known object in the Milky Way for the first time ever

Fast radio bursts ( ) are some of the most energetic — and most brief — blasts of light in the universe .
These mysterious pulses flash through space a thousand times a day , occasionally brushing past Earth and its vigilant telescopes .
FRBs appear and disappear in milliseconds , yet pack more energy than the sun unleashes in three days .
Some over days or months .
Most travel hundreds of millions of to reach .
And none have ever led back to a definitive source in the cosmos — until now .
In a series of three @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in the journal , researchers from the United States and Canada report the detection of an FRB that originates not in some far-flung galaxy , but 30,000 light-years away in the northern sky of the Milky Way .
Not only is this the first FRB ever detected within our own galaxy , but also the first to originate from a known object in the universe — in this case , a highly-magnetized stellar corpse known as a .
Related : The 12 strangest objects in the universe This burnt-out star — named SGR @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of the origins of FRBs after more than a decade of mystery , Daniele Michilli , a co-author of one of the new studies , told Live Science .
`` This is the most powerful radio burst ever detected in our galaxy , which is exciting on its own , '' Michilli , an astrophysicist with the FRB-hunting Canadian Hydrogen Intensity Mapping Experiment ( CHIME ) , said in an email .
`` But now we finally have evidence of at least one object that can produce FRBs .
Magnetars were already one @ @ @ @ @ @ @ is a nice confirmation of our theories . ''
Nestled in the bosom of a supernova remnant ( the gassy graveyard left behind by a blown-apart star ) in the constellation Vulpecula , SGR 1935+2154 first caught scientists ' attention in 2014 when it began flinging powerful X-ray and gamma-ray pulses in Earth 's direction .
As the outbursts continued , astronomers identified the object as a magnetar .
Magnetars are a type of neutron star — the collapsed core of a once-mighty star that packs about twice the mass of Earth 's @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a city .
When those balls are surrounded by a particularly strong magnetic field — trillions of times stronger than Earth 's — scientists call them magnetars .
For thousands of years after their formation , these temperamental objects cycle through periods of violent activity , beaming powerful pulses of X-ray and gamma-ray radiation into the universe around them at seemingly random intervals .
The Milky Way hosts about 30 known magnetars , but none have ever spit out anything resembling an FRB in their high-energy tantrums .
None , except SGR 1935+2154 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the magnetar burst into a new period of activity ; among the radiation it shot out was an FRB — two blips of bright radio energy , one lasting 0.58 milliseconds and the other 0.33 , with about 30 milliseconds between them .
The brief burst was 4,000 times brighter than any other radio pulse ever recorded in the Milky Way , the researchers wrote .
Two separate radio telescopes confirmed the FRB : CHIME , based in the hills of British Columbia , and the Survey for Transient Astronomical Radio Emission 2 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ three telescopes based in the southwestern United States .
Both institutions traced the FRB to the same region of the sky , pinpointing the newly reactivated magnetar .
According to the researchers this is proof , at last , that active magnetars are capable of generating FRBs during their high-energy tantrums .
Considering that as many as 50 % of all stars that die in a core-collapse could become magnetars , there are more than enough magnetars in the universe to account for every observed FRB , the researchers said .
However , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ be other objects in the universe also fueling FRBs .
One troublesome point about the Milky Way magnetar FRB : Its estimated energy output was significantly lower than almost any other FRB detected outside our galaxy .
It 's also `` puzzling , '' the researchers wrote , that none of the other 30 known magnetars in the Milky Way have ever released FRB-like energies before .
It 's impossible to rule out other cosmic events as possible FRB engines , the researchers concluded , such as two neutron stars colliding together , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ for now , at least , it 's safe to say that some of the universe 's strangest stars are responsible for some of its strangest light shows .

An illustration of a magnetar -- the highly magnetized corpse of a collapsed star -- bursting with energy. Scientists think they could be responsible for fast radio bursts (FRB)
Fast radio bursts ( FRBs ) are some of the most energetic — and most brief — blasts of light in the universe.
These mysterious radio wave pulses flash through space a thousand times a day, occasionally brushing past Earth and its vigilant telescopes. FRBs appear and disappear in milliseconds, yet pack more energy than the sun unleashes in three days. Some FRBs repeat over days or months. Most travel hundreds of millions of light-years to reach Earth . And none have ever led back to a definitive source in the cosmos — until now.
In a series of three papers published today (Nov. 4) in the journal Nature , researchers from the United States and Canada report the detection of an FRB that originates not in some far-flung galaxy, but 30,000 light-years away in the northern sky of the Milky Way. Not only is this the first FRB ever detected within our own galaxy, but also the first to originate from a known object in the universe — in this case, a highly-magnetized stellar corpse known as a magnetar .
Related: The 12 strangest objects in the universe
This burnt-out star — named SGR 1935+2154 — provides the first concrete evidence of the origins of FRBs after more than a decade of mystery, Daniele Michilli, a co-author of one of the new studies, told Live Science.
"This is the most powerful radio burst ever detected in our galaxy, which is exciting on its own," Michilli, an astrophysicist with the FRB-hunting Canadian Hydrogen Intensity Mapping Experiment (CHIME), said in an email. "But now we finally have evidence of at least one object that can produce FRBs. Magnetars were already one of the main candidates, so it is a nice confirmation of our theories."
When dead stars belch
Nestled in the bosom of a supernova remnant (the gassy graveyard left behind by a blown-apart star) in the constellation Vulpecula, SGR 1935+2154 first caught scientists' attention in 2014 when it began flinging powerful X-ray and gamma-ray pulses in Earth's direction. As the outbursts continued, astronomers identified the object as a magnetar.
Magnetars are a type of neutron star — the collapsed core of a once-mighty star that packs about twice the mass of Earth's sun into a ball no wider than a city. When those balls are surrounded by a particularly strong magnetic field — trillions of times stronger than Earth's — scientists call them magnetars.
For thousands of years after their formation, these temperamental objects cycle through periods of violent activity, beaming powerful pulses of X-ray and gamma-ray radiation into the universe around them at seemingly random intervals. The Milky Way hosts about 30 known magnetars, but none have ever spit out anything resembling an FRB in their high-energy tantrums.
The CHIME radio telescope in British Columbia, Canada has detected more than 1,000 fast radio bursts (FRBs) as of mid-2020. (Image credit: Andre Renard / CHIME)
None, except SGR 1935+2154. On April 28, 2020, the magnetar burst into a new period of activity; among the radiation it shot out was an FRB — two blips of bright radio energy, one lasting 0.58 milliseconds and the other 0.33, with about 30 milliseconds between them. The brief burst was 4,000 times brighter than any other radio pulse ever recorded in the Milky Way, the researchers wrote.
Two separate radio telescopes confirmed the FRB: CHIME, based in the hills of British Columbia, and the Survey for Transient Astronomical Radio Emission 2 (STARE2), a suite of three telescopes based in the southwestern United States. Both institutions traced the FRB to the same region of the sky, pinpointing the newly reactivated magnetar.
According to the researchers this is proof, at last, that active magnetars are capable of generating FRBs during their high-energy tantrums. Considering that as many as 50% of all stars that die in a core-collapse could become magnetars, there are more than enough magnetars in the universe to account for every observed FRB, the researchers said.
However, both teams acknowledged that there may well be other objects in the universe also fueling FRBs.
One troublesome point about the Milky Way magnetar FRB: Its estimated energy output was significantly lower than almost any other FRB detected outside our galaxy. It's also "puzzling," the researchers wrote, that none of the other 30 known magnetars in the Milky Way have ever released FRB-like energies before.
It's impossible to rule out other cosmic events as possible FRB engines, the researchers concluded, such as two neutron stars colliding together, or certain black hole outbursts. But for now, at least, it's safe to say that some of the universe's strangest stars are responsible for some of its strangest light shows.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-11-04--Mark Kelly becomes 4th astronaut elected to Congress

Mark Kelly has won a seat in the U.S. Senate , making him only the fourth NASA astronaut to be elected to Congress .
Kelly , who launched four times into space before pursuing a career in politics , was successful in his bid to represent the state of Arizona in the U.S. Senate .
Kelly , a Democrat , ran against incumbent Martha McSally , a Republican and former U.S. Air Force combat pilot .
The special election was held to complete the six-year term of Senator John McCain , who died in 2018 ( McSally was temporarily appointed @ @ @ @ @ @ @ death ) .
`` When we launched this campaign from this very spot , right here , 619 days ago , I could have never anticipated just how many Arizonians would be part of this mission , '' said Kelly , addressing supporters at the Hotel Congress in Tucson on Tuesday night ( Nov. 3 ) .
`` This mission does not end when the last vote is counted .
It is only the beginning . ''
by a margin of 52.63 percent , according to the Secretary of State for the state @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 2020 presidential election mean for space exploration '' When I was at NASA , we would train for two years for a space shuttle mission .
From being in the space shuttle simulator and flying and training , two years of focusing on the details .
Two years before we were on the launchpad ready to go .
And then the work started , '' he said .
`` Now the work starts . ''
Kelly , who is married to former Arizona Congresswoman Gabby Giffords , moved to Tucson in 2012 after @ @ @ @ @ @ @ an assassination attempt the year earlier .
Together , the couple co-founded `` Giffords '' to advocate for reduced gun violence and to help make communities safer .
Kelly could possibly take office as soon as the end of the month , pending the state certifying the .
When he is sworn in , Kelly will become the only active member of Congress who has flown in space .
He is preceded in the legislative branch of the U.S. government by three former NASA astronauts and two members of Congress who flew on @ @ @ @ @ @ @ How astronauts vote from space : The only American in orbit now explains Kelly , a former captain in the U.S. Navy , a naval aviator and test pilot who flew combat missions in Operation Desert Storm , was selected for NASA 's 1996 class of astronaut candidates — the same group that , Scott .
Kelly logged more than 54 days in space on four shuttle missions .
He served as the pilot on his first flight , STS-108 , launching on the space shuttle Endeavour to deliver supplies to the International @ @ @ @ @ @ @ later , Kelly flew as pilot of the shuttle Discovery on STS-121 , NASA 's second return-to-flight mission after the loss of the orbiter Columbia and its crew in 2003 .
Kelly commanded Discovery 's STS-124 crew in 2008 , which installed Japan 's Kibo laboratory on the space station .
His fourth and final mission , STS-134 , marked the last flight of Endeavour and delivered the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer , a cosmic ray detector , to be mounted to the station 's backbone truss .
After leaving NASA , Kelly volunteered @ @ @ @ @ @ @ allowing the agency 's scientists to collect his physiological and medical data while his brother provided the same during a year aboard the space station .
The landmark `` twins study '' helped further reveal the effects that long-duration space travel has on the human body .
Related : Presidential Visions for Space : From Ike to Trump The first astronaut to trade his spacecraft couch for a seat in Congress was John Glenn , the .
One of the original Mercury 7 astronauts , Glenn served as a U.S .
Senator representing @ @ @ @ @ @ @ for four terms , from 1974 to 1999 .
After leaving office , Glenn , then 77 , flew into orbit again , launching on space shuttle Discovery as a payload specialist .
Apollo 13 command module pilot John `` Jack '' Swigert was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives representing Colorado 's 6th district as a Republican in 1982 , but tragically died of cancer before he could take office .
Apollo 17 lunar module pilot Harrison `` Jack '' Schmitt followed up being one of the two last people to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ serving the state of New Mexico in the Senate as a Republican for six years , from 1977 to 1983 .
Following the opposite path , Senator Jake Garn ( R-UT ) and Representative Bill Nelson ( D-FL ) were chosen to fly on the space shuttle as congressional observers and payload specialists at a time when NASA was working towards opening up spaceflight to `` citizen '' passengers .
Garn joined the STS-51D crew on Discovery for a week-long mission to deploy two communications satellites in 1985 .
Nelson , who later @ @ @ @ @ @ @ on Columbia with the STS-61C crew .
The six-day mission , which was the last to fly before the shuttle Challenger tragedy , deployed a satellite and conducted science in 1986 .
In addition to those five space explorers and Kelly , four other U.S. astronauts ran for Congress , but were unsuccessful in their bids .
Apollo 15 command module pilot Al Worden campaigned for but lost the Republican primary for Florida 's 12th district seat in the House of Representatives in 1982 .
Skylab and space shuttle crew member Jack Lousma @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the election to be a senator from Michigan in 1984 .
Jay Buckey , who flew as an STS-90 payload specialist on Columbia , withdrew his bid for a New Hampshire Senate seat prior to the Democratic primary in 2008 .
Two years later , STS-128 mission specialist José Hernández won the Democratic nomination for California 's 10th district seat in the House of Representatives .
Follow on and on Twitter at @ .
Copyright 2020 collectSPACE.com .
All rights reserved .

Former NASA astronaut Mark Kelly, seen addressing supporters on Tuesday night (Nov. 3) in Tucson, has been elected by the state of Arizona to the U.S. Senate. Kelly is the fourth astronaut to secure a seat in Congress.
Mark Kelly has won a seat in the U.S. Senate, making him only the fourth NASA astronaut to be elected to Congress .
Kelly, who launched four times into space before pursuing a career in politics, was successful in his bid to represent the state of Arizona in the U.S. Senate. Kelly, a Democrat, ran against incumbent Martha McSally, a Republican and former U.S. Air Force combat pilot. The special election was held to complete the six-year term of Senator John McCain, who died in 2018 (McSally was temporarily appointed by Arizona's governor after McCain's death).
"When we launched this campaign from this very spot, right here, 619 days ago, I could have never anticipated just how many Arizonians would be part of this mission," said Kelly, addressing supporters at the Hotel Congress in Tucson on Tuesday night (Nov. 3). "This mission does not end when the last vote is counted. It is only the beginning."
Kelly won the election by a margin of 52.63 percent, according to the Secretary of State for the state of Arizona.
Related: What the 2020 presidential election mean for space exploration
"When I was at NASA, we would train for two years for a space shuttle mission. From being in the space shuttle simulator and flying and training, two years of focusing on the details. Two years before we were on the launchpad ready to go. And then the work started," he said. "Now the work starts."
Kelly, who is married to former Arizona Congresswoman Gabby Giffords, moved to Tucson in 2012 after he retired from NASA and Giffords survived an assassination attempt the year earlier. Together, the couple co-founded "Giffords" to advocate for reduced gun violence and to help make communities safer.
Kelly could possibly take office as soon as the end of the month, pending the state certifying the results of the election . When he is sworn in, Kelly will become the only active member of Congress who has flown in space. He is preceded in the legislative branch of the U.S. government by three former NASA astronauts and two members of Congress who flew on the space shuttle as payload specialists.
How astronauts vote from space: The only American in orbit now explains
Full speed ahead
NASA astronaut Mark Kelly on the flight deck of the space shuttle Discovery during the STS-124 mission in June 2008. (Image credit: Mark Kelly)
Kelly, a former captain in the U.S. Navy, a naval aviator and test pilot who flew combat missions in Operation Desert Storm, was selected for NASA's 1996 class of astronaut candidates — the same group that included his twin brother , Scott.
Kelly logged more than 54 days in space on four shuttle missions. He served as the pilot on his first flight, STS-108, launching on the space shuttle Endeavour to deliver supplies to the International Space Station in 2001. Five years later, Kelly flew as pilot of the shuttle Discovery on STS-121, NASA's second return-to-flight mission after the loss of the orbiter Columbia and its crew in 2003.
Kelly commanded Discovery's STS-124 crew in 2008, which installed Japan's Kibo laboratory on the space station. His fourth and final mission, STS-134, marked the last flight of Endeavour and delivered the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer, a cosmic ray detector, to be mounted to the station's backbone truss.
After leaving NASA, Kelly volunteered for one more "mission," allowing the agency's scientists to collect his physiological and medical data while his brother provided the same during a year aboard the space station. The landmark "twins study" helped further reveal the effects that long-duration space travel has on the human body.
Related: Presidential Visions for Space: From Ike to Trump
Science + data + facts
Mark Kelly for U.S. Senate campaign buttons. (Image credit: Mark Kelly)
The first astronaut to trade his spacecraft couch for a seat in Congress was John Glenn, the first American to orbit Earth . One of the original Mercury 7 astronauts, Glenn served as a U.S. Senator representing the state of Ohio as a Democrat for four terms, from 1974 to 1999. After leaving office, Glenn, then 77, flew into orbit again, launching on space shuttle Discovery as a payload specialist.
Apollo 13 command module pilot John "Jack" Swigert was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives representing Colorado's 6th district as a Republican in 1982, but tragically died of cancer before he could take office.
Apollo 17 lunar module pilot Harrison "Jack" Schmitt followed up being one of the two last people to walk on the moon in 1972 by serving the state of New Mexico in the Senate as a Republican for six years, from 1977 to 1983.
Following the opposite path, Senator Jake Garn (R-UT) and Representative Bill Nelson (D-FL) were chosen to fly on the space shuttle as congressional observers and payload specialists at a time when NASA was working towards opening up spaceflight to "citizen" passengers. Garn joined the STS-51D crew on Discovery for a week-long mission to deploy two communications satellites in 1985.
Nelson, who later was elected to the Senate, flew on Columbia with the STS-61C crew. The six-day mission, which was the last to fly before the shuttle Challenger tragedy, deployed a satellite and conducted science in 1986.
In addition to those five space explorers and Kelly, four other U.S. astronauts ran for Congress, but were unsuccessful in their bids.
Apollo 15 command module pilot Al Worden campaigned for but lost the Republican primary for Florida's 12th district seat in the House of Representatives in 1982. Skylab and space shuttle crew member Jack Lousma won the Republican primary, but lost the election to be a senator from Michigan in 1984.
Jay Buckey, who flew as an STS-90 payload specialist on Columbia, withdrew his bid for a New Hampshire Senate seat prior to the Democratic primary in 2008. Two years later, STS-128 mission specialist José Hernández won the Democratic nomination but lost the election for California's 10th district seat in the House of Representatives.


livescience--2020-11-04--What does the 2020 presidential election mean for space exploration?

Space is not one of the presidential election 's big battlegrounds .
President Donald Trump and former Vice President Joe Biden have n't talked much about the final frontier during the 2020 race , which peaks today ( Nov. 3 ) with Election Day .
( That moniker is a bit misleading , however , given that cast their ballots early and multiple states will be counting votes for days afterward . )
But a lot of us care deeply about the United States ' space policy and how the next four years could shape it .
Here 's a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ candidates stand .
Related : Presidential Visions for Space : From Ike to Trump Trump has been quite active in the space-policy realm .
For example , he resurrected the National Space Council , which had been dormant since the early 1990s .
Vice President Mike Pence chairs the council , which serves to streamline the country 's off-Earth plans and priorities .
Trump has also signed five different space policy directives .
The first of them , which amended and updated a directive issued by President Barack Obama in 2010 , set @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to the moon and beyond .
NASA is working to achieve these goals via its of crewed lunar exploration , which aims to establish a sustainable human presence on and around the moon by 2028 .
The first crewed Artemis landing is currently targeted for 2024 , an ambitious timeline Pence announced in 2019 .
Two of the president 's other space policy directives seek to streamline regulation of the commercial space industry and protocols for space traffic control .
Another one aims to strengthen cybersecurity for space systems , and yet another @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the U.S. Space Force .
, which was officially established in December 2019 , is the nation 's first new military branch since the Air Force was stood up in 1947 .
The Space Force is part of the Air Force , in the same way that the Marine Corps is part of the U.S. Navy .
The Space Force has been officially operating for less than a year , so it 's unclear at the moment how much it will change the way the U.S. does business in space , especially given @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the Air Force once performed .
But the Space Force 's existence does signal a commitment to treat space as an increasingly contested domain and to defend the United States ' long-held off-Earth dominance more vigorously , priorities over the past few years .
Trump also signed an stating that space mining is compatible with 1967 's Outer Space Treaty , the backbone of international space law .
This order affirmed a stance already taken by Congress , which in 2015 passed a law explicitly allowing American citizens and companies to use asteroid @ @ @ @ @ @ @ lunar water ice that could sustain moon outposts .
The president has also consistently sought to during his term in office .
Much of the increased funding has been earmarked for the crewed moon push ; Earth science , on the other hand , has typically been .
So , if a second Trump term looks like the first one , we can probably expect a continued stress on the commercialization of space , including the use of off-Earth resources ; an ongoing push to protect American space assets and space dominance more @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 's crewed exploration programs , especially the drive to return astronauts to the moon quickly .
'By any means necessary ' : Vice President Pence urges NASA to the moon A discussion of Joe Biden 's space policy is of course much more speculative , but we can make some educated guesses .
For example , that U.S. space policy wo n't change dramatically if Biden wins the election .
Such forecasts often cite the official Democratic Party Platform , which pledges continued support for NASA and space exploration more broadly .
`` @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Americans to the moon and go beyond to Mars , taking the next step in exploring our solar system , '' , in part .
( Whether the same urgency — getting boots back on the moon by 2024 , for example — will apply is another question , however . )
But the next sentence highlights an important difference with the priorities of the current White House : `` Democrats additionally support strengthening NASA and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's Earth-observation missions to better understand how climate change is impacting @ @ @ @ @ @ @ sense : Biden has said that combating climate change will be a priority of his administration if he wins the White House .
That would be a departure from the current administration ; President Trump has about the reality and dangers of human-caused climate change .
Back on the similarities side , a President Biden might also be quite friendly to commercial spaceflight endeavors .
After all , Biden served as vice president during the administration of President Barack Obama , whose federal budget requests directed NASA to hand off crewed operations in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ like SpaceX 's .
NASA 's Commercial Crew Program got up and running in 2010 and awarded crew-carrying contracts to SpaceX and Boeing in 2014 .
It 's far too early to speculate about other important matters , such as whether a President Biden would keep on the current NASA Administrator , Jim Bridenstine , or bring in his own pick .
We 'll just have to wait and see what Election Day and beyond have in store .
Mike Wall is the author of `` `` ( Grand Central Publishing , 2018 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a book about the search for alien life .
Follow him on Twitter @ michaeldwall .
Follow us on Twitter @ Spacedotcom or Facebook .

The U.S. presidential election of 2020 between President Donald Trump (right) and former Vice President Joe Biden will determine NASA's future along with that of the United States.
Space is not one of the presidential election's big battlegrounds.
President Donald Trump and former Vice President Joe Biden haven't talked much about the final frontier during the 2020 race, which peaks today (Nov. 3) with Election Day. (That moniker is a bit misleading, however, given that more than 90 million people cast their ballots early and multiple states will be counting votes for days afterward.)
But a lot of us care deeply about the United States' space policy and how the next four years could shape it. Here's a brief rundown of where the two main candidates stand.
Related: Presidential Visions for Space: From Ike to Trump
Donald Trump
Trump has been quite active in the space-policy realm. For example, he resurrected the National Space Council, which had been dormant since the early 1990s. Vice President Mike Pence chairs the council, which serves to streamline the country's off-Earth plans and priorities.
Trump has also signed five different space policy directives. The first of them, which amended and updated a directive issued by President Barack Obama in 2010, set the U.S. firmly on a crewed course to the moon and beyond .
NASA is working to achieve these goals via its Artemis program of crewed lunar exploration, which aims to establish a sustainable human presence on and around the moon by 2028. The first crewed Artemis landing is currently targeted for 2024, an ambitious timeline Pence announced in 2019.
Two of the president's other space policy directives seek to streamline regulation of the commercial space industry and protocols for space traffic control. Another one aims to strengthen cybersecurity for space systems, and yet another directed the Department of Defense to create the U.S. Space Force.
Related: US astronaut votes early from space station
The Space Force , which was officially established in December 2019, is the nation's first new military branch since the Air Force was stood up in 1947. The Space Force is part of the Air Force, in the same way that the Marine Corps is part of the U.S. Navy.
The Space Force has been officially operating for less than a year, so it's unclear at the moment how much it will change the way the U.S. does business in space, especially given that many of its duties are ones the Air Force once performed. But the Space Force's existence does signal a commitment to treat space as an increasingly contested domain and to defend the United States' long-held off-Earth dominance more vigorously, priorities increasingly voiced by U.S. military officials over the past few years.
Trump also signed an executive order earlier this year stating that space mining is compatible with 1967's Outer Space Treaty, the backbone of international space law. This order affirmed a stance already taken by Congress, which in 2015 passed a law explicitly allowing American citizens and companies to use asteroid and moon resources, such as the lunar water ice that could sustain moon outposts.
The president has also consistently sought to increase NASA's budget during his term in office. Much of the increased funding has been earmarked for the crewed moon push; Earth science, on the other hand, has typically been targeted for cuts .
So, if a second Trump term looks like the first one, we can probably expect a continued stress on the commercialization of space, including the use of off-Earth resources; an ongoing push to protect American space assets and space dominance more broadly; and continued prioritization of NASA's crewed exploration programs, especially the drive to return astronauts to the moon quickly.
'By any means necessary': Vice President Pence urges NASA to the moon
Joe Biden
A discussion of Joe Biden's space policy is of course much more speculative, but we can make some educated guesses.
For example, some experts have predicted that U.S. space policy won't change dramatically if Biden wins the election. Such forecasts often cite the official Democratic Party Platform, which pledges continued support for NASA and space exploration more broadly.
"We support NASA's work to return Americans to the moon and go beyond to Mars, taking the next step in exploring our solar system," the platform reads , in part. (Whether the same urgency — getting boots back on the moon by 2024, for example — will apply is another question, however.)
But the next sentence highlights an important difference with the priorities of the current White House: "Democrats additionally support strengthening NASA and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Earth-observation missions to better understand how climate change is impacting our home planet."
That makes sense: Biden has said that combating climate change will be a priority of his administration if he wins the White House. That would be a departure from the current administration; President Trump has expressed skepticism about the reality and dangers of human-caused climate change.
Back on the similarities side, a President Biden might also be quite friendly to commercial spaceflight endeavors. After all, Biden served as vice president during the administration of President Barack Obama, whose federal budget requests directed NASA to hand off crewed operations in low Earth orbit to private astronaut taxis like SpaceX's Crew Dragon capsule . NASA's Commercial Crew Program got up and running in 2010 and awarded crew-carrying contracts to SpaceX and Boeing in 2014.
It's far too early to speculate about other important matters, such as whether a President Biden would keep on the current NASA Administrator, Jim Bridenstine, or bring in his own pick. We'll just have to wait and see what Election Day and beyond have in store.


livescience--2020-11-04--A history of contested presidential elections, from Samuel Tilden to Al Gore

As states continue to count their ballots in the 2020 election , it seems possible that Democrats and Republicans will end up in court over whether President Trump will win a second term in the White House .
President Trump has said he ’ s going to contest the election results – going so far as to say that he believes the election will ultimately be decided by the Supreme Court .
Meanwhile , Democratic presidential candidate Joe Biden has a team of lawyers lined up for a legal battle .
Unprecedented changes in voting procedures due to the coronavirus @ @ @ @ @ @ @ cry foul .
Republicans have argued that extending deadlines to receive and count ballots will lead to confusion and fraud , while Democrats believe Republicans are actively working to disenfranchise voters .
Should either candidate refuse to concede , it wouldn ’ t be the first time turmoil and claims of fraud dominated the days and weeks after the elections .
The elections of 1876 , 1888 , 1960 and 2000 were among the most contentious in American history .
In each case , the losing candidate and party dealt with the disputed @ @ @ @ @ @ @ that came at a price By 1876 – 11 years after the end of the Civil War – all the Confederate states had been readmitted to the Union , and Reconstruction was in full swing .
The Republicans were strongest in the pro-Union areas of the North and African-American regions of the South , while Democratic support coalesced around southern whites and northern areas that had been less supportive of the Civil War .
That year , Republicans nominated Ohio Gov .
Rutherford B. Hayes , and Democrats chose New York Gov .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ , there was widespread voter intimidation against African-American Republican voters throughout the South .
Three of those Southern states – Florida , Louisiana and South Carolina – had Republican-dominated election boards .
In those three states , some initial results seemed to indicate Tilden victories .
But due to widespread allegations of intimidation and fraud , the election boards invalidated enough votes to give the states – and their electoral votes – to Hayes .
With the electoral votes from all three states , Hayes would win a 185-184 majority in the Electoral @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and electoral votes were sent to Congress to be counted in January 1877 , so Congress voted to create a bipartisan commission of 15 members of Congress and Supreme Court justices to determine how to allocate the electors from the three disputed states .
Seven commissioners were to be Republican , seven were to be Democrats , and there would be one independent , Justice David Davis of Illinois .
But in a political scheme that backfired , Davis was chosen by Democrats in the Illinois state legislature to serve in the U.S. @ @ @ @ @ @ @ chosen by voters until 1913 . )
They ’ d hoped to win his support on the electoral commission .
Instead , Davis resigned from the commission and was replaced by Republican Justice Joseph Bradley , who proceeded to join an 8-7 Republican majority that awarded all the disputed electoral votes to Hayes .
Democrats decided not to argue with that final result due to the “ Compromise of 1877 , ” in which Republicans , in return for getting Hayes in the White House , agreed to an end to Reconstruction and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ had an ineffective , one-term presidency , while the compromise ended up destroying any semblance of African-American political clout in the South .
For the next century , southern legislatures , free from northern supervision , would implement laws discriminating against blacks and restricting their ability to vote .
In 1888 , Democratic President Grover Cleveland of New York ran for reelection against former Indiana U.S. Sen. Benjamin Harrison .
Back then , election ballots in most states were printed , distributed by political parties and cast publicly .
Certain voters , known @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to sell their votes to willing buyers .
Harrison had appointed an Indiana lawyer , William Wade Dudley , as treasurer of the Republican National Committee .
Shortly before the election , Dudley sent a letter to Republican local leaders in Indiana with promised funds and instructions for how to divide receptive voters into “ blocks of five ” to receive bribes in exchange for voting the Republican ticket .
The instructions outlined how each Republican activist would be responsible for five of these “ floaters.
” Democrats got a copy of the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ days leading up to the election .
Harrison ended up winning Indiana by only about 2,000 votes but still would have won in the Electoral College without the state .
Cleveland actually won the national popular vote by almost 100,000 votes .
But he lost his home state , New York , by about 1 percent of the vote , putting Harrison over the top in the Electoral College .
Cleveland ’ s loss in New York may have also been related to vote-buying schemes .
Cleveland did not contest the Electoral College @ @ @ @ @ @ @ four years later , becoming the only president to serve nonconsecutive terms of office .
Meanwhile , the blocks-of-five scandal led to the nationwide adoption of secret ballots for voting .
The 1960 election pitted Republican Vice President Richard Nixon against Democratic U.S. Sen. John F. Kennedy .
The popular vote was the closest of the 20th century , with Kennedy defeating Nixon by only about 100,000 votes – a less than 0.2 percent difference .
Because of that national spread – and because Kennedy officially defeated Nixon by less than 1 percent @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , Missouri , New Jersey , New Mexico ) and less than 2 percent in Texas – many Republicans cried foul .
They fixated on two places in particular – southern Texas and Chicago , where a political machine led by Mayor Richard Daley allegedly churned out just enough votes to give Kennedy the state of Illinois .
If Nixon had won Texas and Illinois , he would have had an Electoral College majority .
While Republican-leaning newspapers proceeded to investigate and conclude that voter fraud had occurred in both states , Nixon @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the example of Cleveland in 1892 , Nixon ran for president again in 1968 and won .
In 2000 , many states were still using the punch card ballot , a voting system created in the 1960s .
Even though these ballots had a long history of machine malfunctions and missed votes , no one seemed to know or care – until all Americans suddenly realized that the outdated technology had created a problem in Florida .
Then , on Election Day , the national media discovered that a “ butterfly ballot , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ design that violated Florida state law , had confused thousands of voters in Palm Beach County .
Many who had thought they were voting for Gore unknowingly voted for another candidate or voted for two candidates .
( For example , Reform Party candidate Pat Buchanan received about 3,000 votes from voters who had probably intended to vote for Gore . )
Gore ended up losing the state to Bush by 537 votes – and , in losing Florida , lost the election .
But ultimately , the month-long process to determine the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to an issue of “ hanging chads.
” Over 60,000 ballots in Florida , most of them on punch cards , had registered no vote for president on the punch card readers .
But on many of the punch cards , the little pieces of paper that get punched out when someone votes – known as chads – were still hanging by one , two or three corners and had gone uncounted .
Gore went to court to have those ballots counted by hand to try to determine voter intent , as allowed @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ’ s request in court .
While Gore won in the Florida State Supreme Court , the U.S. Supreme Court ruled at 10 p.m. on Dec. 12 that Congress had set a deadline of that date for states to choose electors , so there was no more time to count votes .
The national drama and trauma that followed Election Day in 1876 and 2000 could be repeated this year .
Of course , a lot will depend on the margins and how the candidates react .
Most eyes will be on Trump @ @ @ @ @ @ @ not he 'll accept the result if he loses .
On election night , he announced he had won before all the votes had been counted in a number of battleground states .
This is an updated version of an article originally published on Nov. 1 , 2016 .
This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license .
Read the original article .

Massachusetts Sen. John F. Kennedy shakes hands with a crowd in Seattle following his speech on the first day of his presidential campaign.
As states continue to count their ballots in the 2020 election, it seems possible that Democrats and Republicans will end up in court over whether President Trump will win a second term in the White House.
President Trump has said he’s going to contest the election results – going so far as to say that he believes the election will ultimately be decided by the Supreme Court. Meanwhile, Democratic presidential candidate Joe Biden has a team of lawyers lined up for a legal battle.
Unprecedented changes in voting procedures due to the coronavirus pandemic have created openings for candidates to cry foul. Republicans have argued that extending deadlines to receive and count ballots will lead to confusion and fraud, while Democrats believe Republicans are actively working to disenfranchise voters.
Should either candidate refuse to concede, it wouldn’t be the first time turmoil and claims of fraud dominated the days and weeks after the elections.
The elections of 1876, 1888, 1960 and 2000 were among the most contentious in American history. In each case, the losing candidate and party dealt with the disputed results differently.
1876: A compromise that came at a price
By 1876 – 11 years after the end of the Civil War – all the Confederate states had been readmitted to the Union, and Reconstruction was in full swing. The Republicans were strongest in the pro-Union areas of the North and African-American regions of the South, while Democratic support coalesced around southern whites and northern areas that had been less supportive of the Civil War. That year, Republicans nominated Ohio Gov. Rutherford B. Hayes, and Democrats chose New York Gov. Samuel Tilden.
But on Election Day, there was widespread voter intimidation against African-American Republican voters throughout the South. Three of those Southern states – Florida, Louisiana and South Carolina – had Republican-dominated election boards. In those three states, some initial results seemed to indicate Tilden victories. But due to widespread allegations of intimidation and fraud, the election boards invalidated enough votes to give the states – and their electoral votes – to Hayes. With the electoral votes from all three states, Hayes would win a 185-184 majority in the Electoral College.
Competing sets of election returns and electoral votes were sent to Congress to be counted in January 1877, so Congress voted to create a bipartisan commission of 15 members of Congress and Supreme Court justices to determine how to allocate the electors from the three disputed states. Seven commissioners were to be Republican, seven were to be Democrats, and there would be one independent, Justice David Davis of Illinois.
But in a political scheme that backfired, Davis was chosen by Democrats in the Illinois state legislature to serve in the U.S. Senate. (Senators weren’t chosen by voters until 1913.) They’d hoped to win his support on the electoral commission. Instead, Davis resigned from the commission and was replaced by Republican Justice Joseph Bradley, who proceeded to join an 8-7 Republican majority that awarded all the disputed electoral votes to Hayes.
Democrats decided not to argue with that final result due to the “Compromise of 1877,” in which Republicans, in return for getting Hayes in the White House, agreed to an end to Reconstruction and military occupation of the South.
Hayes had an ineffective, one-term presidency, while the compromise ended up destroying any semblance of African-American political clout in the South. For the next century, southern legislatures, free from northern supervision, would implement laws discriminating against blacks and restricting their ability to vote.
1888: Bribing blocks of five
In 1888, Democratic President Grover Cleveland of New York ran for reelection against former Indiana U.S. Sen. Benjamin Harrison.
Back then, election ballots in most states were printed, distributed by political parties and cast publicly. Certain voters, known as “floaters,” were known to sell their votes to willing buyers.
Harrison had appointed an Indiana lawyer, William Wade Dudley, as treasurer of the Republican National Committee. Shortly before the election, Dudley sent a letter to Republican local leaders in Indiana with promised funds and instructions for how to divide receptive voters into “blocks of five” to receive bribes in exchange for voting the Republican ticket. The instructions outlined how each Republican activist would be responsible for five of these “floaters.”
Democrats got a copy of the letter and publicized it widely in the days leading up to the election. Harrison ended up winning Indiana by only about 2,000 votes but still would have won in the Electoral College without the state.
Cleveland actually won the national popular vote by almost 100,000 votes. But he lost his home state, New York, by about 1 percent of the vote, putting Harrison over the top in the Electoral College. Cleveland’s loss in New York may have also been related to vote-buying schemes.
Cleveland did not contest the Electoral College outcome and won a rematch against Harrison four years later, becoming the only president to serve nonconsecutive terms of office. Meanwhile, the blocks-of-five scandal led to the nationwide adoption of secret ballots for voting.
1960: Did the Daley machine deliver?
The 1960 election pitted Republican Vice President Richard Nixon against Democratic U.S. Sen. John F. Kennedy.
The popular vote was the closest of the 20th century, with Kennedy defeating Nixon by only about 100,000 votes – a less than 0.2 percent difference.
Because of that national spread – and because Kennedy officially defeated Nixon by less than 1 percent in five states (Hawaii, Illinois, Missouri, New Jersey, New Mexico) and less than 2 percent in Texas – many Republicans cried foul. They fixated on two places in particular – southern Texas and Chicago, where a political machine led by Mayor Richard Daley allegedly churned out just enough votes to give Kennedy the state of Illinois. If Nixon had won Texas and Illinois, he would have had an Electoral College majority.
While Republican-leaning newspapers proceeded to investigate and conclude that voter fraud had occurred in both states, Nixon did not contest the results. Following the example of Cleveland in 1892, Nixon ran for president again in 1968 and won.
2000: The hanging chads
In 2000, many states were still using the punch card ballot, a voting system created in the 1960s. Even though these ballots had a long history of machine malfunctions and missed votes, no one seemed to know or care – until all Americans suddenly realized that the outdated technology had created a problem in Florida.
Then, on Election Day, the national media discovered that a “butterfly ballot,” a punch card ballot with a design that violated Florida state law, had confused thousands of voters in Palm Beach County.
Many who had thought they were voting for Gore unknowingly voted for another candidate or voted for two candidates. (For example, Reform Party candidate Pat Buchanan received about 3,000 votes from voters who had probably intended to vote for Gore.) Gore ended up losing the state to Bush by 537 votes – and, in losing Florida, lost the election.
But ultimately, the month-long process to determine the winner of the presidential election came down to an issue of “hanging chads.”
Over 60,000 ballots in Florida, most of them on punch cards, had registered no vote for president on the punch card readers. But on many of the punch cards, the little pieces of paper that get punched out when someone votes – known as chads – were still hanging by one, two or three corners and had gone uncounted. Gore went to court to have those ballots counted by hand to try to determine voter intent, as allowed by state law. Bush fought Gore’s request in court. While Gore won in the Florida State Supreme Court, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled at 10 p.m. on Dec. 12 that Congress had set a deadline of that date for states to choose electors, so there was no more time to count votes.
Gore conceded the next day.
The national drama and trauma that followed Election Day in 1876 and 2000 could be repeated this year. Of course, a lot will depend on the margins and how the candidates react.
Most eyes will be on Trump, who hasn't said whether or not he'll accept the result if he loses. On election night, he announced he had won before all the votes had been counted in a number of battleground states.
This is an updated version of an article originally published on Nov. 1, 2016.
This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.


livescience--2020-11-04--Long-hidden 'selfie' of a medieval mason found in historic Spanish cathedral

During the 11th century , an unknown , lowly medieval mason held an important job : helping to build the grand Santiago de Compostela Cathedral in northern Spain , now one of the country 's most famous churches .
That craftsman 's identity has been lost to time , but he left behind a tribute to himself in stone — a cleverly concealed self-portrait .
Whoever this mason was , his sneakily-executed `` selfie '' went unnoticed for about 900 years , until it was recently spotted by an art historian during a stone-by-stone survey of the cathedral .
In @ @ @ @ @ @ @ peers out over fronds of foliage .
Measuring about 11 inches ( 28 centimeters ) tall and located at the top of a pillar around 40 feet ( 12 meters ) off the ground , the portrait was positioned so that it would go unnoticed by the cathedral 's clergy , but would be easy for fellow masons to find and appreciate , .
Related : The 25 most mysterious archaeological finds on Earth Jennifer Alexander , a scholar in the History of Art department at the University of Warwick in the United @ @ @ @ @ @ @ experts in a painstaking search for mason 's marks in the cathedral — one stone at a time — when she found `` our little figure , '' Alexander told Live Science in an email .
Her team was paying close attention to the upper parts of the building ; on the ground level , many of the stones were covered by paint applied over centuries .
But stones that were installed higher up retained their original surface markings , Alexander explained .
`` We shone our lights on the upper capitals in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of the building the public does n't access and the clergy rarely used , '' Alexander said .
As they recorded the marks left behind by stonemasons 900 years ago , `` suddenly we were face-to-face with one of the men themselves , '' she said in the email .
Remarkable details in the self-portrait suggested that the carver must have been a talented stoneworker , as the granite stone used in the building is difficult to shape .
`` And yet his hair is detailed and you can make out all his @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Although these people were trained in the craft tradition , they were very much the artists of their period , quite capable of creating sculpture as well as cutting stone . ''
Artisan self-portraits such as these frequently appear in medieval buildings .
They are easily concealed `` in plain sight '' amid other sculptural flourishes and portraiture , though often `` they 're hidden away where only another mason , or someone working on the building would find them , '' such as the portrait in Santiago de Compostela , according to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in Southwell Minster , a church in Nottinghamshire , England , `` where he 's grinning at you at the bottom of the staircase to the chapter house roof , '' Alexander said .
`` But he 's in the dark , so you have to be carrying a light to spot him . ''
But even with all the portrait details in the cathedral selfie , the carver 's name will likely never be known , as historic records of low-ranking builders — even on important construction projects — are exceptionally rare @ @ @ @ @ @ @ identity of one mason who carved his own image would be very special — and I 've never managed to do this ! ''
she said .

During the 11th century, an unknown, lowly medieval mason held an important job: helping to build the grand Santiago de Compostela Cathedral in northern Spain, now one of the country's most famous churches. That craftsman's identity has been lost to time, but he left behind a tribute to himself in stone — a cleverly concealed self-portrait.
Whoever this mason was, his sneakily-executed "selfie" went unnoticed for about 900 years, until it was recently spotted by an art historian during a stone-by-stone survey of the cathedral.
In the carving, a jolly-looking round face peers out over fronds of foliage. Measuring about 11 inches (28 centimeters) tall and located at the top of a pillar around 40 feet (12 meters) off the ground, the portrait was positioned so that it would go unnoticed by the cathedral's clergy, but would be easy for fellow masons to find and appreciate, ArtNet reported .
Related: The 25 most mysterious archaeological finds on Earth
Jennifer Alexander, a scholar in the History of Art department at the University of Warwick in the United Kingdom, was leading a team of experts in a painstaking search for mason's marks in the cathedral — one stone at a time — when she found "our little figure," Alexander told Live Science in an email. Her team was paying close attention to the upper parts of the building; on the ground level, many of the stones were covered by paint applied over centuries. But stones that were installed higher up retained their original surface markings, Alexander explained.
"We shone our lights on the upper capitals in the gallery, which is a part of the building the public doesn't access and the clergy rarely used," Alexander said. As they recorded the marks left behind by stonemasons 900 years ago, "suddenly we were face-to-face with one of the men themselves," she said in the email.
Remarkable details in the self-portrait suggested that the carver must have been a talented stoneworker, as the granite stone used in the building is difficult to shape. "And yet his hair is detailed and you can make out all his fingers," Alexander said. "Although these people were trained in the craft tradition, they were very much the artists of their period, quite capable of creating sculpture as well as cutting stone."
Experts located the selfie in the cathedrals upper level in the gallery, which was rarely used by the church's clergy. (Image credit: Courtesy of Jennifer Alexander)
Artisan self-portraits such as these frequently appear in medieval buildings. They are easily concealed "in plain sight" amid other sculptural flourishes and portraiture, though often "they're hidden away where only another mason, or someone working on the building would find them," such as the portrait in Santiago de Compostela, according to Alexander.
Another memorable stonemason selfie lurks in Southwell Minster, a church in Nottinghamshire, England, "where he's grinning at you at the bottom of the staircase to the chapter house roof," Alexander said. "But he's in the dark, so you have to be carrying a light to spot him."
But even with all the portrait details in the cathedral selfie, the carver's name will likely never be known, as historic records of low-ranking builders — even on important construction projects — are exceptionally rare, Alexander said.
"Finding the identity of one mason who carved his own image would be very special — and I've never managed to do this!" she said.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-11-03--AI can detect COVID-19 from the sound of your cough

People with COVID-19 who are asymptomatic can spread the disease without any outward signs that they 're sick .
But a newly developed AI , with a keen algorithmic ear , might be able to detect asymptomatic cases from the sounds of people 's coughs , according to a new study .
A group of researchers at MIT recently developed an model that can detect asymptomatic COVID-19 cases by listening to subtle differences in coughs between healthy people and infected people .
The researchers are now testing their AI in clinical trials and have already started the process of seeking @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( FDA ) for it to be used as a screening tool .
The algorithm is based on previous models the team developed to detect conditions such as , and even , a memory-loss condition that can also cause other degradation in the body such as weakened vocal cords and respiratory performance .
Indeed , it is the Alzheimer 's model that the researchers adapted in an effort to detect COVID-19 .
`` The sounds of talking and coughing are both influenced by the vocal cords and surrounding organs , '' co-author Brian @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 's Auto-ID Laboratory .
`` Things we easily derive from fluent speech , AI can pick up simply from coughs , including things like the person 's gender , mother tongue or even emotional state .
There 's in fact sentiment embedded in how you cough . ''
First , they created a website where volunteers — both healthy and those with COVID-19 — could record coughs using their cellphones or computers ; they also filled out a survey with questions about their diagnosis and any symptoms they were experiencing .
People were @ @ @ @ @ @ @ '' such as the cough you let out when your doctor tells you to cough while listening to your chest with a stethoscope .
Through this website , the researchers gathered more than 70,000 individual recordings of forced-cough samples , according to the statement .
Of those , 2,660 were from patients who had COVID-19 , with or without symptoms .
They then used 4,256 of the samples to train their AI model and 1,064 of the samples to test their model to see whether or not it could detect the difference in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
They found that their AI was able to pick up differences in the coughs related to four features specific to COVID-19 ( which were also used in their Alzheimer 's algorithm ) — muscular degradation , vocal cord strength , sentiment such as doubt and frustration and respiratory and lung performance .
The AI model correctly identified 98.5 % of people with COVID-19 , and correctly ruled out COVID-19 in 94.2 % of people without the disease .
For asymptomatic people , the model correctly identifed 100 % of people with COVID-19 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 83.2 % of people without the disease .
These are `` a pretty encouraging set of numbers , '' and the results are `` very interesting , '' said Dr. Anthony Lubinsky , the medical director of respiratory care at NYU Langone Tisch Hospital who was not a part of the study .
But `` whether or not this performs well enough in a real-world setting to recommend its use as a screening tool would need further study , '' Lubinsky told Live Science .
What 's more , further research is needed @ @ @ @ @ @ @ coughs from people of all ages and ethnicities , he said ( The authors also mention this limitation in their paper ) .
If a doctor were to listen to the forced cough of a person with asymptomatic COVID-19 , they likely would n't be able to hear anything out of the ordinary .
It 's `` not a thing that a human ear would be easily able to do , '' Lubinsky said .
Though follow-up studies are definitely needed , if the software proves effective , this AI — which will @ @ @ @ @ @ @ could be `` very useful '' for finding asymptomatic cases of COVID-19 , especially if the tool is cheap and easy to use , he added .
The AI can `` absolutely '' help curb the spread of the by helping to detect people with asymptomatic disease , Subirana told Live Science in an email .
The AI can also detect the difference between people who have other illnesses such as the and those who have COVID-19 , but it 's much better at distinguishing COVID-19 cases from healthy cases , he said @ @ @ @ @ @ @ approval for the app that incorporates the AI model , which may come within the next month , he said .
They are also testing their AI in clinical trials in a number of hospitals around the world , according to the paper .
And they are n't the only team working on detecting COVID-19 through sound .
Similar projects are underway in Cambridge University , Carnegie Mellon University and the U.K. start-up Novoic , .
`` Pandemics could be a thing of the past if pre-screening tools are always-on in the background @ @ @ @ @ @ @ wrote in the paper .
Those always-listening tools could be smart speakers or smart phones , they wrote .
The study , partly supported by the drug company Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited , was published Sep. 30 in the IEEE Open Journal of Engineering in Medicine and Biology .

People with COVID-19 who are asymptomatic can spread the disease without any outward signs that they're sick. But a newly developed AI, with a keen algorithmic ear, might be able to detect asymptomatic cases from the sounds of people's coughs, according to a new study.
A group of researchers at MIT recently developed an artificial intelligence model that can detect asymptomatic COVID-19 cases by listening to subtle differences in coughs between healthy people and infected people. The researchers are now testing their AI in clinical trials and have already started the process of seeking approval from the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for it to be used as a screening tool.
The algorithm is based on previous models the team developed to detect conditions such as pneumonia , asthma and even Alzheimer's disease , a memory-loss condition that can also cause other degradation in the body such as weakened vocal cords and respiratory performance.
Related: Coronavirus live update
Indeed, it is the Alzheimer's model that the researchers adapted in an effort to detect COVID-19. "The sounds of talking and coughing are both influenced by the vocal cords and surrounding organs," co-author Brian Subirana, a research scientist in MIT's Auto-ID Laboratory said in a statement . "Things we easily derive from fluent speech, AI can pick up simply from coughs, including things like the person's gender, mother tongue or even emotional state. There's in fact sentiment embedded in how you cough."
First, they created a website where volunteers — both healthy and those with COVID-19 — could record coughs using their cellphones or computers; they also filled out a survey with questions about their diagnosis and any symptoms they were experiencing. People were asked to record "forced coughs," such as the cough you let out when your doctor tells you to cough while listening to your chest with a stethoscope.
Through this website, the researchers gathered more than 70,000 individual recordings of forced-cough samples, according to the statement. Of those, 2,660 were from patients who had COVID-19, with or without symptoms. They then used 4,256 of the samples to train their AI model and 1,064 of the samples to test their model to see whether or not it could detect the difference in coughs between COVID-19 patients and healthy people.
They found that their AI was able to pick up differences in the coughs related to four features specific to COVID-19 (which were also used in their Alzheimer's algorithm) — muscular degradation, vocal cord strength, sentiment such as doubt and frustration and respiratory and lung performance.
The sound of a cough
The AI model correctly identified 98.5% of people with COVID-19, and correctly ruled out COVID-19 in 94.2% of people without the disease. For asymptomatic people, the model correctly identifed 100% of people with COVID-19, and correctly ruled out COVID-19 in 83.2% of people without the disease.
These are "a pretty encouraging set of numbers," and the results are "very interesting," said Dr. Anthony Lubinsky, the medical director of respiratory care at NYU Langone Tisch Hospital who was not a part of the study.
But "whether or not this performs well enough in a real-world setting to recommend its use as a screening tool would need further study," Lubinsky told Live Science. What's more, further research is needed to ensure the AI would accurately evaluate coughs from people of all ages and ethnicities, he said (The authors also mention this limitation in their paper).
Related: Most promising COVID-19 vaccine candidates
If a doctor were to listen to the forced cough of a person with asymptomatic COVID-19, they likely wouldn't be able to hear anything out of the ordinary. It's "not a thing that a human ear would be easily able to do," Lubinsky said. Though follow-up studies are definitely needed, if the software proves effective, this AI — which will have a linked app if approved — could be "very useful" for finding asymptomatic cases of COVID-19, especially if the tool is cheap and easy to use, he added.
The AI can "absolutely" help curb the spread of the pandemic by helping to detect people with asymptomatic disease, Subirana told Live Science in an email. The AI can also detect the difference between people who have other illnesses such as the flu and those who have COVID-19, but it's much better at distinguishing COVID-19 cases from healthy cases, he said.
The team is now seeking regulatory approval for the app that incorporates the AI model, which may come within the next month, he said. They are also testing their AI in clinical trials in a number of hospitals around the world, according to the paper.
And they aren't the only team working on detecting COVID-19 through sound. Similar projects are underway in Cambridge University, Carnegie Mellon University and the U.K. start-up Novoic, according to BBC .
"Pandemics could be a thing of the past if pre-screening tools are always-on in the background and constantly improved," the authors wrote in the paper. Those always-listening tools could be smart speakers or smart phones, they wrote.
The study, partly supported by the drug company Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, was published Sep. 30 in the IEEE Open Journal of Engineering in Medicine and Biology .
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-11-03--2,000-year-old seal depicting Greek god Apollo found in Jerusalem

Archaeologists in have discovered a rare 2,000-year-old gem seal bearing the likeness of the god Apollo , but the gem 's owner likely was n't Greek or Roman , experts say .
Instead , this dark-brown jasper stone was likely owned by a Jewish person who lived during the first century A.D. , and who was monotheistic but admired the qualities associated with Apollo , said Eli Shukron , an archaeologist with the Israel Antiquities Authority and a tour guide at the City of David archaeological park .
`` I do n't think he [ the gem 's owner ] @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Shukron said in a ( translated from Hebrew ) .
`` But he believed in the virtues that the god Apollo offered ; light , purity , health , success , which are very , very positive attributes — very very conventional .
Everyone wants to have them . ''
Related : In images : The largest stash of gold coins in Israel City of David visitors , under the supervision of archaeologists , discovered the carved gem while sifting through soil that had once sat at the foundations of the Western Wall @ @ @ @ @ @ @ wall that once surrounded the Jewish people 's Second Temple , which the Romans destroyed in A.D. 70 .
The oval gem is smaller than a dime , measuring just 0.5 inches long , 0.4 inches wide and 0.1 inches thick ( 13 by 11 by 3 millimeters ) .
This is only the third known gem seal of its kind , also known as an intaglio — a gem whose upper side is carved — from the Second Temple period ( 516 B.C to A.D. 70 ) in Jerusalem , archaeologists from @ @ @ @ @ @ @ antiquity , jasper was considered a precious stone .
This particular carved gem was likely embedded in a ring , and used as a stamp on beeswax to serve as a personal signature on documents such as contracts , letters , wills , goods and bundles of money , according to City of David archaeologists .
In the carving , Apollo 's head is seen in profile , with his long hair flowing over a wide neck .
The Greek and Roman god also has a large nose , thick lips and a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ It is rare to find seal remains bearing the image of the god Apollo at sites identified with the Jewish population , '' Shukron , who led the gem 's excavation , .
`` When we found the gem , we asked ourselves 'What is Apollo doing in Jerusalem ?
And why would a Jew wear a ring with the portrait of a foreign god ? '
'' `` The answer to this , in our opinion , lies in the fact that the owner of the ring wore it not as a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ but as a means of making use of the impact that Apollo 's figure represents . ''
The sun god Apollo was `` one of the most popular and revered deities in Eastern Mediterranean regions '' at the end of the Second Temple period , Shua Amorai-Stark , an expert on engraved gems and professor emerita in the Art & Aesthetics Department at Kaye Academic College of Education in Beersheba , , said in the statement .
`` Among Apollo 's spheres of responsibility , it is likely that association with sun and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , reason , prophecy , and healing ) fascinated some Jews , given that the element of light versus darkness was prominently present in Jewish worldview in those days . ''
Amorai-Stark said .
`` The fact that the craftsman of this gem left the yellow-golden and light-brown layers on the god 's hair probably indicates a desire to emphasize the aspect of light in the god 's persona , as well as in the aura that surrounded his head . ''
Meanwhile , the decision to use a dark stone with highlighted @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to emphasize the `` aspect of light and darkness and/or their connectedness , '' she noted .
The Archeological Sifting Project was carried out in Tzurim Valley National Park , under the auspices of the City of David and the Nature and Parks Authority .
Other findings from the sifting project include ancient coins , arrowheads and jewelry .

Archaeologists in Jerusalem have discovered a rare 2,000-year-old gem seal bearing the likeness of the god Apollo, but the gem's owner likely wasn't Greek or Roman, experts say.
Instead, this dark-brown jasper stone was likely owned by a Jewish person who lived during the first century A.D., and who was monotheistic but admired the qualities associated with Apollo, said Eli Shukron, an archaeologist with the Israel Antiquities Authority and a tour guide at the City of David archaeological park.
"I don't think he [the gem's owner] believed in the god Apollo," Shukron said in a City of David video (translated from Hebrew). "But he believed in the virtues that the god Apollo offered; light, purity, health, success, which are very, very positive attributes — very very conventional. Everyone wants to have them."
Related: In images: The largest stash of gold coins in Israel
City of David visitors, under the supervision of archaeologists, discovered the carved gem while sifting through soil that had once sat at the foundations of the Western Wall — the ancient remains of the retaining wall that once surrounded the Jewish people's Second Temple, which the Romans destroyed in A.D. 70.
The oval gem is smaller than a dime, measuring just 0.5 inches long, 0.4 inches wide and 0.1 inches thick (13 by 11 by 3 millimeters). This is only the third known gem seal of its kind, also known as an intaglio — a gem whose upper side is carved — from the Second Temple period (516 B.C to A.D. 70) in Jerusalem, archaeologists from the City of David said.
This carved jasper stone was likely part of a ring. (Image credit: Eliyahu Yanai/City of David)
In antiquity, jasper was considered a precious stone. This particular carved gem was likely embedded in a ring, and used as a stamp on beeswax to serve as a personal signature on documents such as contracts, letters, wills, goods and bundles of money, according to City of David archaeologists.
In the carving, Apollo's head is seen in profile, with his long hair flowing over a wide neck. The Greek and Roman god also has a large nose, thick lips and a prominent chin in the carving.
"It is rare to find seal remains bearing the image of the god Apollo at sites identified with the Jewish population," Shukron, who led the gem's excavation, said in a statement . "When we found the gem, we asked ourselves 'What is Apollo doing in Jerusalem? And why would a Jew wear a ring with the portrait of a foreign god?'"
"The answer to this, in our opinion, lies in the fact that the owner of the ring wore it not as a ritual act that expresses religious belief, but as a means of making use of the impact that Apollo's figure represents."
It's likely that a Jewish person owned this ancient carving about 2,000 years ago. (Image credit: Yael Haeitan)
The sun god Apollo was "one of the most popular and revered deities in Eastern Mediterranean regions" at the end of the Second Temple period, Shua Amorai-Stark, an expert on engraved gems and professor emerita in the Art & Aesthetics Department at Kaye Academic College of Education in Beersheba, Israel , said in the statement.
"Among Apollo's spheres of responsibility, it is likely that association with sun and light (as well as with logic, reason, prophecy, and healing) fascinated some Jews, given that the element of light versus darkness was prominently present in Jewish worldview in those days." Amorai-Stark said. "The fact that the craftsman of this gem left the yellow-golden and light-brown layers on the god's hair probably indicates a desire to emphasize the aspect of light in the god's persona, as well as in the aura that surrounded his head."
Meanwhile, the decision to use a dark stone with highlighted light hair indicates that the creator wanted to emphasize the "aspect of light and darkness and/or their connectedness," she noted.
The Archeological Sifting Project was carried out in Tzurim Valley National Park, under the auspices of the City of David and the Nature and Parks Authority. Other findings from the sifting project include ancient coins, arrowheads and jewelry.
Originally published on Live Science.