livescience--2020-12-24--Fast-spreading UK coronavirus variant: All your questions answered

A scary new strain of coronavirus , innocuously named B.1.1.7 , has recently exploded across southeast England , prompting the government to tighten lockdowns on the region .
Though we do n't know all the details , experts are increasingly confident it is more easily transmitted than other strains .
Here 's everything we know so far about this novel strain .
What is it ?
The B.1.1.7 strain of SARS-CoV-2 is a version of the virus with 23 mutations , eight of which are in the spike protein the virus uses to bind to and enter human cells , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ It was first detected Sept. 21 in Kent County in England , then took off and spread in November , according to the World Health Organization .
Since then , it has become the most common variant in England , representing more than 50 % of new cases diagnosed between October and Dec. 13 in the U.K. , according to the WHO .
However , some scientists now believe that the virus may have mutated in a person who was immunocompromised , .
That 's because , unlike the flu , the novel @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , and so tends to have a fairly stable genome , Live Science previously reported .
However , studies have shown that people who have weakened immune systems — because they are taking immunosuppressant drugs or are being treated with chemotherapy , for instance — may harbor infectious virus for months .
That , in turn , would give the virus many chances to acquire mutations that help it replicate or evade the .
What do these mutations do ?
We do n't know for sure .
Viruses mutate all the time , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ affect how deadly or infectious the virus is .
In this case , some of these mutations may have arisen purely by chance and may not affect the function of the virus .
But three mutations in particular have worried experts .
One , a two amino-acid deletion known as 69-70Delta , was first detected separately in a patient being treated with immunosuppressants who developed COVID-19 .
The patient received remdesevir , convalescent plasma and neutralizing antibodies , but died months later .
Though the virus did not initially have this deletion , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ reported in a preprint article published Dec. 19 to the .
( It has not been peer-reviewed . )
The authors suspect it evolved to evade the immune system .
Another wrinkle associated with this deletion is that it can make one of the targets of SARS-CoV-2 PCR tests — known as the S gene — falsely test negative .
Some tests only look for positives in this S gene and would therefore miss the new variant .
Most PCR assays , however , look for three separate regions of the spike protein @ @ @ @ @ @ @ affected , the WHO said .
Another mutation , known as N501Y , alters the key amino acids that make up the so-called receptor-binding domain of SARS-CoV-2 , where amino acid asparagine ( N ) has been replaced with tyrosine ( Y ) in the part of the virus that latches onto the ACE2 receptor on human cells , according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention .
A September study in the journal found this variant binds more tightly to the ACE2 receptor than other versions of the coronavirus — at @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of samples of SARS-CoV-2 from South Africa and Australia have tested positive for this mutation , but lab tests suggest the South African and U.K. variants separately evolved the same mutation .
That suggests it may provide an evolutionary advantage to the virus .
The third suspicious mutation is P681H , which is also in the receptor-binding domain of the virus .
According to preliminary information posted by the , this mutation sits next to the `` furin cleavage site , '' which is where the spike protein must be cleaved in order @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
Does it spread more easily ?
Yes .
Experts now think the new variant is between 50 % and 74 % more transmissible than other dominant strains , according to a study by the ( CMMID ) that has not yet been peer-reviewed .
The WHO estimates this would tack on 0.4 to the basic reproductive number R , which dictates how many people each infected person would spread the virus to .
Based on models of that growth , the new variant could be responsible for 90 % of all new @ @ @ @ @ @ @ South England by mid-January , that study found .
Is it more deadly ?
We do n't know , but experts suspect it is not .
However , if it spreads much more easily , that means more people will be hospitalized .
Once hospitals become overwhelmed , the quality of care of the sickest patients drops , which can lead to higher death rates than would otherwise be expected .
The CMMID study found that the new variant could explain an uptick in hospitalizations in southeast England , largely due to increased @ @ @ @ @ @ @ is more dangerous .
Another study , also not peer-reviewed , by CMMID , used a mathematical model to see whether the virus ' rapid growth in London was due to increased infectiousness , or due to it being more severe .
The latter did n't fit the data well , whereas the former fit nicely .
Has the variant spread to the U.S. ?
So far , scientists have n't detected this strain anywhere in the U.S. , though America has not done nearly as much genetic sequencing on viral samples as @ @ @ @ @ @ @ as of December , the U.S. had sequenced 51,000 viral samples out of 17 million identified cases of SARS-CoV-2 , according to the CDC .
The U.K. has sequenced more than twice as many viral samples as the U.S. , despite having slightly more than a tenth of the diagnosed cases .
Dr. Stanley Perlman , an immunologist and pediatric infectious diseases specialist at the University of Iowa told the Center for Infectious Disease Research and Policy ( CIDRAP ) that he suspects the variant is already in the U.S. `` I 'd @ @ @ @ @ @ @ '' he said .
Can kids catch it more easily ?
Several lines of evidence in the past have suggested kids might be less susceptible to the novel coronavirus .
If this new variant sticks more easily to cells , there 's the chance it could spread more readily amongst children than it did before .
However , further studies will be needed to see whether that 's the case .
There has been an uptick in cases in children in England at the same time that this virus has increased its prevalence @ @ @ @ @ @ @ kids first returned to schools in early fall .
But schools were open while many other things were closed at this time , so it 's possible schools represented one of relatively few chances the virus had to spread .
We ca n't yet say that kids will catch and spread this variant more readily .
Will vaccines work against the new virus ?
Most experts think the newly developed vaccines will still work against the novel U.K. variant .
When vaccines stimulate the immune system , the body builds an arsenal of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of the virus .
Mutations in a handful of spots will likely not be enough to make the vaccine less effective , according to the CDC .
Given that 99 % of the proteins on the new variant are identical to the strain the Pfizer-BioNtech mRNA vaccine targets ( the Moderna vaccine is very similar ) , it is highly likely that the vaccine will work , BioNTech CEO Uğur Şahin said at a news briefing .
It 's possible that over time a variant could emerge that will evade some of our @ @ @ @ @ @ @ vaccine needs to be updated every year .
However , the new mRNA vaccines could be updated to reflect new mutations in about six weeks , .
What can we do to stop this ?
The new variant still spreads the same way as the ordinary form of the coronavirus .
That means the same things everyone has been doing to prevent the spread of the virus since March will also work for the new U.K. variant : washing hands , physical distancing , masks and good ventilation .
Adhering strictly to those @ @ @ @ @ @ @ prevent its spread .

Editor's Note: This story was last updated on Feb. 1, 2021.
A scary new strain of coronavirus, innocuously named B.1.1.7, has recently exploded across southeast England, prompting the government to tighten lockdowns on the region. Though we don't know all the details, experts are increasingly confident it is more easily transmitted than other strains. Here's everything we know so far about this novel strain.
What is it?
The B.1.1.7 strain of SARS-CoV-2 is a version of the virus with 23 mutations, eight of which are in the spike protein the virus uses to bind to and enter human cells, Science Magazine reported .
Where did it come from?
It was first detected Sept. 21 in Kent County in England, then took off and spread in November, according to the World Health Organization .
Since then, it has become the most common variant in England, representing more than 50% of new cases diagnosed between October and Dec. 13 in the U.K., according to the WHO.
However, some scientists now believe that the virus may have mutated in a person who was immunocompromised, according to Science Magazine . That's because, unlike the flu, the novel coronavirus can correct mistakes when it replicates, and so tends to have a fairly stable genome, Live Science previously reported. However, studies have shown that people who have weakened immune systems — because they are taking immunosuppressant drugs or are being treated with chemotherapy, for instance — may harbor infectious virus for months. That, in turn, would give the virus many chances to acquire mutations that help it replicate or evade the immune system .
What do these mutations do?
We don't know for sure. Viruses mutate all the time, and most of these changes don't affect how deadly or infectious the virus is. In this case, some of these mutations may have arisen purely by chance and may not affect the function of the virus.
But three mutations in particular have worried experts.
One, a two amino-acid deletion known as 69-70Del, was first detected separately in a patient being treated with immunosuppressants who developed COVID-19. The patient received remdesevir, convalescent plasma and neutralizing antibodies, but died months later. Though the virus did not initially have this deletion, it acquired it over months, researchers reported in a preprint article published Dec. 19 to the medRiv database . (It has not been peer-reviewed.) The authors suspect it evolved to evade the immune system. Another wrinkle associated with this deletion is that it can make one of the targets of SARS-CoV-2 PCR tests — known as the S gene — falsely test negative. Some tests only look for positives in this S gene and would therefore miss the new variant. Most PCR assays, however, look for three separate regions of the spike protein, so those assays won't be affected, the WHO said.
Another mutation, known as N501Y, alters the key amino acids that make up the so-called receptor-binding domain of SARS-CoV-2, where amino acid asparagine (N) has been replaced with tyrosine (Y) in the part of the virus that latches onto the ACE2 receptor on human cells, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . A September study in the journal Cell found this variant binds more tightly to the ACE2 receptor than other versions of the coronavirus — at least in a lab dish.
Dozens of samples of SARS-CoV-2 from South Africa and Australia have tested positive for this mutation, but lab tests suggest the South African and U.K. variants separately evolved the same mutation. That suggests it may provide an evolutionary advantage to the virus.
The third suspicious mutation is P681H, which is also in the receptor-binding domain of the virus. According to preliminary information posted by the COVID-19 Genomics Consortium UK , this mutation sits next to the "furin cleavage site," which is where the spike protein must be cleaved in order for the virus to enter cells, according to Science Magazine .
Does it spread more easily?
Yes. Experts now think the new variant is between 50% and 74% more transmissible than other dominant strains, according to a study by the Center for Mathematical Modeling and Infectious Diseases (CMMID) that has not yet been peer-reviewed. The WHO estimates this would tack on 0.4 to the basic reproductive number R, which dictates how many people each infected person would spread the virus to.
Based on models of that growth, the new variant could be responsible for 90% of all new COVID-19 cases in London and East and South England by mid-January, that study found.
Another study from the U.K., published Dec. 27 to medrXiv and also not peer reviewed, found higher viral loads in PCR tests that are negative for the S gene. Testing negative for the S gene means the virus has the 69-70Del mutation and so such S-gene dropouts are thus a proxy for, but not a certain indication of, the samples coming from the B.1.1.7 variant. And a higher viral load makes it easier for the virus to spread.
Is it more deadly?
Maybe. Early evidence from the U.K. hints that the variant may be 30% more deadly, officials said at a news briefing on Jan. 22. However, officials stressed that the evidence for this was still very uncertain, Live Science previously reported .
Has the variant spread to the U.S.?
Yes. On Dec. 29, Colorado Gov. Jared Polis announced that the variant had been detected in a man in his 20s in the state. Whether the virus has spread further is still unknown, but seems increasingly likely.
That's because America has not done nearly as much genetic sequencing on viral samples as the U.K. has. For instance, as of December, the U.S. had sequenced 51,000 viral samples out of 17 million identified cases of SARS-CoV-2, according to the CDC . The U.K. has sequenced more than twice as many viral samples as the U.S., despite having slightly more than a tenth of the diagnosed cases.
Dr. Stanley Perlman, an immunologist and pediatric infectious diseases specialist at the University of Iowa, previously told the Center for Infectious Disease Research and Policy (CIDRAP) that he suspected the variant is already in the U.S. "I'd be surprised if it weren't," he said.
One indication that the variant is spreading could be an increasing number of positive PCR tests that test negative for the S gene. On Dec. 23, scientists with Helix, a company that has administered at least 2 million COVID-19 PCR tests, wrote in a blog post that the incidence of such S-gene dropouts in their samples started increasing in October. As of mid-December, about 0.5% of the company's positive tests are so-called S-gene dropouts, coming from at least 14 states, including California, Florida, New York and Texas. (Colorado was not one of those states.) However, this doesn't necessarily mean B.1.1.7 is spreading in multiple U.S. states. That's because S-gene dropouts only indicate that the virus being sampled likely has the 69-70Del mutation; it doesn't reveal whether the sample also contains the other two significant mutations associated with B.1.1.7.
And on the flip side, because Helix only administers some of the country's PCR tests, they may be missing some states where S-gene dropouts are on the rise.
Can kids catch it more easily?
Several lines of evidence in the past have suggested kids might be less susceptible to the novel coronavirus. If this new variant sticks more easily to cells, there's the chance it could spread more readily amongst children than it did before. However, further studies will be needed to see whether that's the case.
There has been an uptick in cases in children in England at the same time that this virus has increased its prevalence. That uptick was not seen when kids first returned to schools in early fall. But schools were open while many other things were closed at this time, so it's possible schools represented one of relatively few chances the virus had to spread. We can't yet say that kids will catch and spread this variant more readily.
Will vaccines work against the new virus?
Most experts think the newly developed vaccines will still work against the novel U.K. variant. When vaccines stimulate the immune system, the body builds an arsenal of cells to bind to many different parts of the virus. Mutations in a handful of spots will likely not be enough to make the vaccine less effective, according to the CDC.
Given that 99% of the proteins on the new variant are identical to the strain the Pfizer-BioNtech mRNA vaccine targets (the Moderna vaccine is very similar), it is highly likely that the vaccine will work, BioNTech CEO Uğur Şahin said at a news briefing.
It's possible that over time a variant could emerge that will evade some of our vaccines, similar to how the flu vaccine needs to be updated every year. However, the new mRNA vaccines could be updated to reflect new mutations in about six weeks, Şahin told the Financial Times .
What can we do to stop this?
The new variant still spreads the same way as the ordinary form of the coronavirus. That means the same things everyone has been doing to prevent the spread of the virus since March will also work for the new U.K. variant: washing hands, physical distancing, masks and good ventilation. Adhering strictly to those rules and avoiding unnecessary outings will help prevent its spread.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-12-25--Our most popular science stories of 2020

The biggest science news this year , by far , was anything to do with the novel coronavirus and the ongoing pandemic .
Stories about COVID-19 received exponentially more views on Live Science than any other science news we shared .
But despite the hardship of the pandemic , there was plenty of fascinating science happening outside the realm of COVID-19 research .
From enormous sea creatures to asteroids to , yes , COVID-19 , here 's a roundup of some of this year 's most popular stories on Live Science .
Live Science loves weird creatures , and our @ @ @ @ @ @ @ excited to learn about the discovery of a 150-foot-long ( 45 meters ) marine animal called a siphonophore — a translucent , string creature that , like coral , is made up of smaller critters .
Underwater explorers with the research vessel Falkor spotted the lengthy beast in a submarine canyon off the coast of Australia .
The team said this siphonophore is `` seemingly the largest animal ever discovered . ''
Read more : 'Longest animal ever ' discovered in deep-sea canyon off Australian coast In October , SpaceX 's `` Starman @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 's seat of a cherry-red Tesla Roadster , made its closest approach ever to Mars .
Close is relative , though — the rapidly-decaying sports car and dummy were just under 5 million miles ( 8 million kilometers ) away from the Red Planet , which is about 19 times the distance from Earth to the moon .
Starman and his Roadster have been orbiting the sun for about two years , since launching in February 2018 .
Read more : 'Starman ' just zipped past Mars in his rapidly-decaying Tesla Roadster April @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a real treat : A pink supermoon !
On April 7 , the moon was closer to Earth than any other time in the year , making it the largest full moon of the year .
But the pink supermoon was n't actually pink .
April 's moon is named for the pink wildflower Phlox subulata , which blossoms in eastern North America in the early springtime .
Although April 's supermoon was n't colorful , it was still impressive .
Read more : How to see tonight 's pink supermoon , the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ forward to the Comedy Wildlife Photo Awards every year , and this year did not disappoint .
The winning image was a perfectly-timed photo of a sea turtle appearing to be flipping the bird .
`` It 's been amazing to see the reaction to my photo of Terry the Turtle flipping the bird , '' said photographer Mark Fitzpatrick , `` with Terry giving people a laugh in what has been a difficult year for many , as well as helping spread an important conservation message . ''
Read more : Is @ @ @ @ @ @ @ In April , we were intrigued ( and perhaps a little concerned ) to learn that scientists detected what may have been the largest hole in the ozone layer ever recorded over the North Pole .
The hole covered an area roughly three times the size of Greenland and had the potential to expose people living at far northern latitudes to high levels of ultraviolet radiation .
Fortunately , the hole eventually closed on its own .
Read more : Ozone hole three times the size of Greenland opens over the North Pole @ @ @ @ @ @ @ technology 'Oumuamua is a mysterious , interstellar object that ventured through our solar system two years ago .
Several people suspected that the cigar-shaped object was some kind of alien technology , particularly because it was accelerating as though something were propelling it .
But scientists were quick to point out that the chances of alien-origin were slim , and a physical or astronomical explanation is more likely .
However , in August , astrophysicists published a study debunking at least one non-alien theory — that hydrogen is working to propel the object @ @ @ @ @ @ @ it 's aliens !
Read more : Interstellar visitor 'Oumuamua could still be alien technology , new study hints Humans are so weird .
This year , scientists found a new human organ : A set of salivary glands sitting deep in the upper part of the throat .
Prior to finding these hidden glands , scientists did n't think there were any organs in this area behind the nose — only microscopic , diffuse , salivary glands .
But this set , called tubarial salivary glands , is a noticeable 1.5 inches @ @ @ @ @ @ @ on average , and probably lubricate and moisten the upper throat behind the nose and mouth .
Read more : Scientists discover new organ in the throat This article on the deadliest viruses was n't new , but it garnered a lot of attention this year .
Humans have been battling viruses since the beginning of our existence , and fortunately , we 've conquered a few with vaccines and effective antiviral drugs .
But , as evidenced by this list , there are still many viruses that can take us down .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ on Earth 2 .
The worst epidemics and pandemics in history Readers were also fascinated by a story on the most deadly epidemics and pandemics in history , from a prehistoric outbreak in 3000 B.C .
to the ongoing Zika Virus epidemic that began in 2015 .
This lengthy list reveals how disease outbreaks have plagued humankind throughout our existence , sometimes changing the course of history and even eliminating entire civilizations .
Read more : 20 of the worst epidemics and pandemics in history As mentioned earlier , the coronavirus pandemic was @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
The top three most-read coronavirus stories of 2020 were : People with COVID-19 can have asymptomatic , mild or severe disease , and may experience a wide range of symptoms .
Live Science health reporters have updated this article at least three times this year , as doctors and scientists discover more about how the novel coronavirus manifests in humans .
Read more : What are the symptoms of COVID-19 ?
The origin of the novel coronavirus , called SARS-CoV-2 , was initially unclear , which gave rise to the persistent myth @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and escaped from a lab in Wuhan , China , where the outbreak began .
But an analysis of the SARS-CoV-2 genome revealed that the virus is naturally occurring , and highly unlikely to be human-engineered .
There is still no evidence that the SARS-CoV-2 virus is human-made , despite continued investigation into the possibility .
Read more : The coronavirus was not engineered in a lab .
Here 's how we know .
The coronavirus is different from the flu When the novel coronavirus emerged , some people assumed that because symptoms @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of the seasonal flu virus , the two viruses presented a similar threat .
However , scientists and doctors soon realized this was not the case — the coronavirus spreads much more easily and has a far higher death rate than the flu .
This was our single most-read story of the year .
Read more : How does the new coronavirus compare with the flu ?

The biggest science news this year, by far, was anything to do with the novel coronavirus and the ongoing pandemic. Stories about COVID-19 received exponentially more views on Live Science than any other science news we shared.
Related: Coronavirus outbreak: Live updates
But despite the hardship of the pandemic, there was plenty of fascinating science happening outside the realm of COVID-19 research. From enormous sea creatures to asteroids to, yes, COVID-19, here's a roundup of some of this year's most popular stories on Live Science.
10. Longest underwater creature
An image showing the coils of the long siphonophore. (Image credit: Schmidt Ocean Institute)
Live Science loves weird creatures, and our readers do, too. Many were excited to learn about the discovery of a 150-foot-long (45 meters) marine animal called a siphonophore — a translucent, string creature that, like coral, is made up of smaller critters. Underwater explorers with the research vessel Falkor spotted the lengthy beast in a submarine canyon off the coast of Australia. The team said this siphonophore is "seemingly the largest animal ever discovered."
Read more: 'Longest animal ever' discovered in deep-sea canyon off Australian coast
9. Following "Starman" to Mars
Starman sent pictures home before leaving Earth orbit. (Image credit: SpaceX)
In October, SpaceX's "Starman" mannequin, riding in the driver's seat of a cherry-red Tesla Roadster, made its closest approach ever to Mars. Close is relative, though — the rapidly-decaying sports car and dummy were just under 5 million miles (8 million kilometers) away from the Red Planet, which is about 19 times the distance from Earth to the moon. Starman and his Roadster have been orbiting the sun for about two years, since launching in February 2018.
Read more: 'Starman' just zipped past Mars in his rapidly-decaying Tesla Roadster
8. The pink supermoon
Supermoons are impressive even when they aren't pink. (Image credit: Mike Hewitt /Getty Images)
April's full moon this year year was a real treat: A pink supermoon! On April 7, the moon was closer to Earth than any other time in the year, making it the largest full moon of the year. But the pink supermoon wasn't actually pink. April's moon is named for the pink wildflower Phlox subulata, which blossoms in eastern North America in the early springtime. Although April's supermoon wasn't colorful, it was still impressive.
Read more: How to see tonight's pink supermoon, the largest full moon of 2020
7. Funniest animal photos
The best wildlife photo of 2020. Appropriate. (Image credit: © Mark Fitzpatrick / Comedy Wildlife Photo Awards 2020)
We look forward to the Comedy Wildlife Photo Awards every year, and this year did not disappoint. The winning image was a perfectly-timed photo of a sea turtle appearing to be flipping the bird. "It's been amazing to see the reaction to my photo of Terry the Turtle flipping the bird," said photographer Mark Fitzpatrick, "with Terry giving people a laugh in what has been a difficult year for many, as well as helping spread an important conservation message."
Read more: Is this the funniest animal picture ever?
6. Largest ozone hole at the North Pole
An enormous ozone hole opened over the North Pole this year. (Image credit: European Space Agency)
In April, we were intrigued (and perhaps a little concerned) to learn that scientists detected what may have been the largest hole in the ozone layer ever recorded over the North Pole. The hole covered an area roughly three times the size of Greenland and had the potential to expose people living at far northern latitudes to high levels of ultraviolet radiation. Fortunately, the hole eventually closed on its own.
Read more: Ozone hole three times the size of Greenland opens over the North Pole
5. 'Oumuamua could still be alien technology
An artist's depiction of the first identified interstellar object, 'Oumuamua. (Image credit: M. Kornmesser/ESO)
'Oumuamua is a mysterious, interstellar object that ventured through our solar system two years ago. Several people suspected that the cigar-shaped object was some kind of alien technology, particularly because it was accelerating as though something were propelling it. But scientists were quick to point out that the chances of alien-origin were slim, and a physical or astronomical explanation is more likely. However, in August, astrophysicists published a study debunking at least one non-alien theory — that hydrogen is working to propel the object. This means there's still hope it's aliens!
Read more: Interstellar visitor 'Oumuamua could still be alien technology, new study hints
4. A new human organ
A new set of salivary glands has been found hiding behind the nose. (Image credit: The Netherlands Cancer Institute)
Humans are so weird. This year, scientists found a new human organ: A set of salivary glands sitting deep in the upper part of the throat. Prior to finding these hidden glands, scientists didn't think there were any organs in this area behind the nose — only microscopic, diffuse, salivary glands. But this set, called tubarial salivary glands, is a noticeable 1.5 inches (3.9 centimeters) in length, on average, and probably lubricate and moisten the upper throat behind the nose and mouth.
Read more: Scientists discover new organ in the throat
3. The deadliest viruses on Earth
The SARS-CoV-2 virus could make it on this list in the future. (Image credit: Shutterstock)
This article on the deadliest viruses wasn't new, but it garnered a lot of attention this year. Humans have been battling viruses since the beginning of our existence, and fortunately, we've conquered a few with vaccines and effective antiviral drugs. But, as evidenced by this list, there are still many viruses that can take us down.
Read more: The 12 deadliest viruses on Earth
2. The worst epidemics and pandemics in history
An influenza ward at a U.S. Army Camp Hospital in France during the Spanish flu pandemic of 1918. (Image credit: Shutterstock)
Readers were also fascinated by a story on the most deadly epidemics and pandemics in history, from a prehistoric outbreak in 3000 B.C. to the ongoing Zika Virus epidemic that began in 2015. This lengthy list reveals how disease outbreaks have plagued humankind throughout our existence, sometimes changing the course of history and even eliminating entire civilizations.
Read more: 20 of the worst epidemics and pandemics in history
1. Coronavirus and the COVID-19 pandemic
People waiting in line in Reading, PA on April 25, 2020. (Image credit: Ben Hasty/MediaNews Group/Reading Eagle via Getty Images)
As mentioned earlier, the coronavirus pandemic was the biggest science news of the year. The top three most-read coronavirus stories of 2020 were:
The symptoms of COVID-19
People with COVID-19 can have asymptomatic, mild or severe disease, and may experience a wide range of symptoms. Live Science health reporters have updated this article at least three times this year, as doctors and scientists discover more about how the novel coronavirus manifests in humans.
Read more: What are the symptoms of COVID-19?
The coronavirus wasn't made in a lab
The origin of the novel coronavirus, called SARS-CoV-2, was initially unclear, which gave rise to the persistent myth that the virus was made by scientists and escaped from a lab in Wuhan, China, where the outbreak began. But an analysis of the SARS-CoV-2 genome revealed that the virus is naturally occurring, and highly unlikely to be human-engineered. There is still no evidence that the SARS-CoV-2 virus is human-made, despite continued investigation into the possibility.
Read more: The coronavirus was not engineered in a lab. Here's how we know.
The coronavirus is different from the flu
When the novel coronavirus emerged, some people assumed that because symptoms of coronavirus seemed to overlap with symptoms of the seasonal flu virus, the two viruses presented a similar threat. However, scientists and doctors soon realized this was not the case — the coronavirus spreads much more easily and has a far higher death rate than the flu. This was our single most-read story of the year.
Read more: How does the new coronavirus compare with the flu?
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-12-25--10 bizarre animal stories of 2020

10 bizarre animal stories of 2020

Penguins throw poop bombs , lemurs secrete a stinky perfume to woo mates and even the cutest of monkeys sometimes eat their own .
When you study animals , you never quite know what oddball behaviors you might see .
Here are 10 of the weirdest animal stories that caught our eye in 2020 .
Asian kukri snakes use their knifelike teeth to and gobble down their organs , leaving little behind but an empty pouch of skin .
The snakes sometimes spend hours gorging themselves on toad innards ; specifically , scientists caught the snakes consuming poisonous toads called @ @ @ @ @ @ @ common toads or Asian black-spotted toads .
The toads secrete a toxic white substance , so the scientists suspect that kukri snakes may have adopted their vicious eating strategy to avoid this poison .
White-faced capuchin monkeys ( Cebus imitator ) look absolutely darling , with their deep brown eyes and tiny faces ringed with white fur — but sometimes , these adorable creatures will .
When an infant monkey fell from a tree in the Santa Rosa National Park in Costa Rica , its relatives gathered around the corpse in interest .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ a pregnant female began nibbling at the infant 's legs and feet .
In the end , they left only the head , chest and arms untouched .
When hunting prey animals , the capuchins would usually consume an entire animal in one sitting and as a group , rather than just two monkeys eating part of the part ; because of this , scientists suspect cannibalism may be unusual behavior for white-faced capuchins .
After three years tracking pandas through China 's Qinling Mountains , filmmakers caught two male bears vying for @ @ @ @ @ @ @ is the first time this courtship behavior has been captured on film , and if you expected something cute and cuddly , you 'd be sorely mistaken .
The two males squared off at the foot of a tree , fighting and bellowing while the female sat in the branches above .
The older of the males won this initial skirmish , but when the female clambered down , she managed to slip away .
Both males continued to trail the female for several weeks until , finally , the younger male won @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , up to about twice their body lengths , and scientists calculated exactly how much force they require to do so .
The team specifically looked at Humboldt penguins ( Spheniscus humboldti ) , which spew their feces in a graceful arc from their nests on high ground .
They calculated that the pressure generated in the penguins ' rectums was as much roughly 4 pounds per square inch ( 28.2 kilopascals ) .
That means the powerful poopers can fling their feces at about 5 mph ( 8 km/h ) and up @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ) away .
The Microgaster godzilla wasp from the way it hunts down hosts .
The parasitic wasp dives underwater to capture moth caterpillars , which float just below the surface in homemade casings .
One-by-one , the wasp wrestles the caterpillars out of their casings , drags them above water and quickly pumps them full of eggs .
The way the wasp bursts from the water reminded the scientists of Godzilla emerging from the sea in classic sci-fi movies .
A blue heron was flying over the Delaware shoreline when , suddenly @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Sam Davis , an engineer from Maryland , the eel can be seen dangling off the bird like a fat necktie .
After escaping the blue heron 's belly , the daring eel may have survived — but only if it fell in or near water that was salty enough .
The heron likely lived to fly another day , despite this gut-wrenching encounter .
Naked mole rats live in crowded underground burrows with little oxygen , but that 's no problem for these wrinkly weirdos .
Rather than depending on oxygen , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , their brains short-circuit and the critters have seizures .
Due to a genetic mutation , the mole rats lack a switch in their brains that usually keeps electrical activity in check .
This mutation allows the animals to conserve precious energy stores , and thankfully , high levels of carbon dioxide in their burrows suppresses brain activity in a different way , which normally saves the mole rats from seizures .
Male ring-tailed lemurs ( Lemur catta ) from a gland in their wrists and douse their tails with the liquid during @ @ @ @ @ @ @ bitter and leathery most of the year , but come breeding season , the cologne takes on a sweeter , fruitier aroma .
Scientists theorize that fluctuations in testosterone might drive this change in smell , and this may signal when a male is ready to mate .
But while females show strong interest in the mating-season scent , it 's unclear whether this smelly form of flirting actually makes males more desirable partners .
When scientists were studying old platypus specimens , they made a surprising discovery : under , the normally @ @ @ @ @ @ @ flying squirrels and opossums are the only other mammals known to display this kind of biofluorescence .
The scientists discovered this glow after studying flying squirrels at the Field Museum in Chicago , when they decided to train their black lights on the duckbilled mammals as well , since both animals hunt at twilight and during the night .
The platypuses ' green sheen might reduce their visibility to predators , the team hypothesizes , but more research is needed to confirm that theory .
The mantis shrimp Neogonodactylus bredini wield clublike arms @ @ @ @ @ @ @ shrimp out of their homes .
The crustaceans , nicknamed `` smashers , '' can swing their arms at 50 mph ( 80 km/h ) and duke it out over coral burrows in the southern Caribbean Sea .
In laboratory studies , scientists found that , if given a choice between empty burrows , the shrimp choose large , roomy ones that they could grow into .
But when other shrimp take up house in the burrows , smashers tend to attack shrimp in small burrows most fiercely .
Although the burrow might @ @ @ @ @ @ @ shrimp likely knows that the occupant will be small and therefore easier to defeat , the researchers suggested .

Penguins throw poop bombs, lemurs secrete a stinky perfume to woo mates and even the cutest of monkeys sometimes eat their own. When you study animals, you never quite know what oddball behaviors you might see.
Here are 10 of the weirdest animal stories that caught our eye in 2020.
Related: Survival of the grossest: 8 disgusting animal behaviors
Snakes feasting on toad organs
(Image credit: Winai Suthanthangjai )
Asian kukri snakes use their knifelike teeth to slice into toads' abdominal cavities and gobble down their organs, leaving little behind but an empty pouch of skin. The snakes sometimes spend hours gorging themselves on toad innards; specifically, scientists caught the snakes consuming poisonous toads called Duttaphrynus melanostictus, also known as Asian common toads or Asian black-spotted toads. The toads secrete a toxic white substance, so the scientists suspect that kukri snakes may have adopted their vicious eating strategy to avoid this poison.
Cannibalistic monkeys
(Image credit: Shutterstock)
White-faced capuchin monkeys (Cebus imitator) look absolutely darling, with their deep brown eyes and tiny faces ringed with white fur — but sometimes, these adorable creatures will cannibalize their own kin . When an infant monkey fell from a tree in the Santa Rosa National Park in Costa Rica, its relatives gathered around the corpse in interest. Soon enough, a young male and a pregnant female began nibbling at the infant's legs and feet. In the end, they left only the head, chest and arms untouched. When hunting prey animals, the capuchins would usually consume an entire animal in one sitting and as a group, rather than just two monkeys eating part of the part; because of this, scientists suspect cannibalism may be unusual behavior for white-faced capuchins.
Panda courtship caught on camera
(Image credit: Photo by Jacky Poon/Copyright Terra Mater Factual Studios and Mark Fletcher Productions)
After three years tracking pandas through China's Qinling Mountains, filmmakers caught two male bears vying for the attention of a female . This is the first time this courtship behavior has been captured on film, and if you expected something cute and cuddly, you'd be sorely mistaken. The two males squared off at the foot of a tree, fighting and bellowing while the female sat in the branches above. The older of the males won this initial skirmish, but when the female clambered down, she managed to slip away. Both males continued to trail the female for several weeks until, finally, the younger male won out.
Related: Strange love: 11 animals with truly weird courtship rituals
Penguin poop bombs
(Image credit: Shutterstock)
Penguins can shoot their poop across great distances, up to about twice their body lengths, and scientists calculated exactly how much force they require to do so. The team specifically looked at Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti), which spew their feces in a graceful arc from their nests on high ground. They calculated that the pressure generated in the penguins' rectums was as much roughly 4 pounds per square inch (28.2 kilopascals). That means the powerful poopers can fling their feces at about 5 mph (8 km/h) and up to roughly 53 inches (134 centimeters) away.
'Godzilla' wasps lay their eggs in underwater caterpillars
(Image credit: Jose Fernandez-Triana)
The Microgaster godzilla wasp earned its monstrous name from the way it hunts down hosts. The parasitic wasp dives underwater to capture moth caterpillars, which float just below the surface in homemade casings. One-by-one, the wasp wrestles the caterpillars out of their casings, drags them above water and quickly pumps them full of eggs. The way the wasp bursts from the water reminded the scientists of Godzilla emerging from the sea in classic sci-fi movies.
An eel's daring (and gross) escape
(Image credit: Sam Davis)
A blue heron was flying over the Delaware shoreline when, suddenly, an American eel erupted from its gut . In photos captured by Sam Davis, an engineer from Maryland, the eel can be seen dangling off the bird like a fat necktie. After escaping the blue heron's belly, the daring eel may have survived — but only if it fell in or near water that was salty enough. The heron likely lived to fly another day, despite this gut-wrenching encounter.
Naked mole rats use carbon dioxide to avoid seizures
(Image credit: Roland Gockel)
Naked mole rats live in crowded underground burrows with little oxygen, but that's no problem for these wrinkly weirdos. Rather than depending on oxygen, naked mole rats actually depend more on carbon dioxide ; without it, their brains short-circuit and the critters have seizures. Due to a genetic mutation, the mole rats lack a switch in their brains that usually keeps electrical activity in check. This mutation allows the animals to conserve precious energy stores, and thankfully, high levels of carbon dioxide in their burrows suppresses brain activity in a different way, which normally saves the mole rats from seizures.
Lemurs flirt using smelly love potion
(Image credit: Shutterstock)
Male ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) produce their own cologne from a gland in their wrists and douse their tails with the liquid during breeding season. These wrist secretions smell bitter and leathery most of the year, but come breeding season, the cologne takes on a sweeter, fruitier aroma. Scientists theorize that fluctuations in testosterone might drive this change in smell, and this may signal when a male is ready to mate. But while females show strong interest in the mating-season scent, it's unclear whether this smelly form of flirting actually makes males more desirable partners.
Platypuses glow under UV light
(Image credit: Mammalia 2020; 10.1515/mammalia-2020-0027)
When scientists were studying old platypus specimens, they made a surprising discovery: under UV , the normally brown creatures emit a blue-green glow . Apart from the platypus , flying squirrels and opossums are the only other mammals known to display this kind of biofluorescence. The scientists discovered this glow after studying flying squirrels at the Field Museum in Chicago, when they decided to train their black lights on the duckbilled mammals as well, since both animals hunt at twilight and during the night. The platypuses' green sheen might reduce their visibility to predators, the team hypothesizes, but more research is needed to confirm that theory.
Mantis shrimp steal rival's homes
(Image credit: Roy Caldwell)
The mantis shrimp Neogonodactylus bredini wield clublike arms, which they use to bully smaller shrimp out of their homes . The crustaceans, nicknamed "smashers," can swing their arms at 50 mph (80 km/h) and duke it out over coral burrows in the southern Caribbean Sea. In laboratory studies, scientists found that, if given a choice between empty burrows, the shrimp choose large, roomy ones that they could grow into. But when other shrimp take up house in the burrows, smashers tend to attack shrimp in small burrows most fiercely. Although the burrow might be a tight squeeze, the attacking shrimp likely knows that the occupant will be small and therefore easier to defeat, the researchers suggested.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-12-26--Why aren't peanuts, pecans and almonds real nuts?

Fitting food into categories is a tricky business .
and grow like fruit but taste like vegetables .
is actually a berry , and so is an eggplant .
And if that were n't hard enough to swallow , it turns out that most of the `` nuts '' we love to munch on are n't really nuts at all .
, pistachios , , and even pecans — they 're all just masquerading as nuts .
How did we get it so wrong ?
The trouble is that buyers and botanists think about nuts very differently .
Consumers consider @ @ @ @ @ @ @ If a woody shell-encased food is small , round-ish , natural , dry and crunchy , we are likely to call it a nut .
But a botanist considers the whole plant .
A true botanical nut is a dry fruit with a single seed encased in a hard , nonsplitting ovary wall , Judy Jernstedt , a plant scientist at the University of California , Davis , told Live Science .
The hard outer shell of a true nut does n't open on its own — think walnuts , chestnuts , hazelnuts @ @ @ @ @ @ @ bananas berries , but strawberries are n't ?
Virtually all other `` nuts , '' however , do n't make the cut .
Peanuts , for instance , usually have two seeds and easily break open , Jernstedt said .
Because they grow in a pod , they 're technically a , a family of plants that produce their fruit ( often beans ) in a pod , and have more in common with snow peas than actual nuts .
Almonds , cashews and pecans , on the other hand , are actually @ @ @ @ @ @ @ stone fruit .
Instead of the hard outer shell of a true nut , a drupe has a fleshy outer layer surrounding a pit that contains the seed , just as a cherry or a peach does .
Almond seeds develop within a green , fleshy fruit , and cashews emerge from green , red and yellow cashew apples .
For many drupes , we eat the juicy fruit and discard the pit , but for nut-like drupes , we do the opposite : remove the outer layer , also called the husk @ @ @ @ @ @ @ pit .
Brazil nuts are not legumes or drupes .
The roughly 1.5-inch ( 3.8 centimeters ) snacks are disqualified from being true nuts , because 10 to 25 of them grow inside a single pod , according to the .
The round , wood-like pod — which weighs 4 to 6 lbs .
( 1.8 to 2.7 kilograms ) — falls to the ground at maturity , and rodents usually gnaw through its tough exterior and aid in spreading the `` seeds . ''
If we were to make grocery store shelves @ @ @ @ @ @ @ signs for `` almond seeds , '' `` Brazil seeds '' and `` peanut legumes '' placed closer to peas than nuts , Jernstedt said .
But changing the names now would be tough for both consumers and botanists , she said .
Most consumers are pretty set on their culinary idea of a nut , and some of the technical language for botanists goes back to classical scientists , like Aristotle .
`` I think we are stuck with it , '' Jernstedt said .

Fitting food into categories is a tricky business. Tomatoes and avocados grow like fruit but taste like vegetables. A watermelon is actually a berry, and so is an eggplant. And if that weren't hard enough to swallow, it turns out that most of the "nuts" we love to munch on aren't really nuts at all.
Almonds , pistachios, peanuts , cashews and even pecans — they're all just masquerading as nuts. How did we get it so wrong? The trouble is that buyers and botanists think about nuts very differently.
Consumers consider what's on the grocery shelf. If a woody shell-encased food is small, round-ish, natural, dry and crunchy, we are likely to call it a nut. But a botanist considers the whole plant. A true botanical nut is a dry fruit with a single seed encased in a hard, nonsplitting ovary wall, Judy Jernstedt, a plant scientist at the University of California, Davis, told Live Science. The hard outer shell of a true nut doesn't open on its own — think walnuts, chestnuts, hazelnuts and acorns.
Related: Why are bananas berries, but strawberries aren't?
Virtually all other "nuts," however, don't make the cut. Peanuts, for instance, usually have two seeds and easily break open, Jernstedt said. Because they grow in a pod, they're technically a legume , a family of plants that produce their fruit (often beans) in a pod, and have more in common with snow peas than actual nuts.
Almonds, cashews and pecans, on the other hand, are actually seeds inside a drupe, or a stone fruit. Instead of the hard outer shell of a true nut, a drupe has a fleshy outer layer surrounding a pit that contains the seed, just as a cherry or a peach does. Almond seeds develop within a green, fleshy fruit, and cashews emerge from green, red and yellow cashew apples. For many drupes, we eat the juicy fruit and discard the pit, but for nut-like drupes, we do the opposite: remove the outer layer, also called the husk, and eat the seed inside the pit.
Two almonds with open husks in an almond tree. (Image credit: George D. Lepp)
Brazil nuts are not legumes or drupes. The roughly 1.5-inch (3.8 centimeters) snacks are disqualified from being true nuts, because 10 to 25 of them grow inside a single pod, according to the New York Botanical Garden . The round, wood-like pod — which weighs 4 to 6 lbs. (1.8 to 2.7 kilograms) — falls to the ground at maturity, and rodents usually gnaw through its tough exterior and aid in spreading the "seeds."
If we were to make grocery store shelves more botanically accurate, there would be signs for "almond seeds," "Brazil seeds" and "peanut legumes" placed closer to peas than nuts, Jernstedt said. But changing the names now would be tough for both consumers and botanists, she said. Most consumers are pretty set on their culinary idea of a nut, and some of the technical language for botanists goes back to classical scientists, like Aristotle. "I think we are stuck with it," Jernstedt said.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-12-26--6 times that 2020 showed us women from antiquity were totally badass

Throughout history , women have been fighters , strategists and charismatic leaders , performing feats of strength , cunning and bravery .
And in 2020 , archaeologists uncovered intriguing evidence from the past showing that women did n't hesitate to kick butt and take names .
From hoisting a spear to hurling a vengeful spell , here are six times that women from antiquity showed us that they were not to be trifled with .
Two women — one about 50 years old and the other about 20 — who were buried in Mongolia during the Xianbei period ( A.D. @ @ @ @ @ @ @ famed `` Ballad of Mulan , '' about a girl who served in the military in her father 's place .
Though the Ballad of Mulan was first transcribed by Chinese writers , tales of her brave deeds may have originated in what is now Mongolia ; she is described in the ballad as serving the `` khan , '' a term reserved for Mongolian leaders , and China did not have military conscription at the time , the researchers said .
The Mongolian women 's skeletal remains revealed that they were expert @ @ @ @ @ @ @ likely fought alongside men .
Read more : Two 'warrior women ' from ancient Mongolia may have helped inspire the Ballad of Mulan A 9,000-year-old burial of a female hunter sparked an investigation upending the long-held notion that men were the primary hunters in ancient hunter-gather societies , while women were relegated to collecting herbs and plants .
When researchers excavated the grave in the Andes Mountains in southern Peru , they found a hunting `` toolkit '' near the skeleton containing multiple projectile weapons , hinting that the person was a skilled @ @ @ @ @ @ @ community .
Though the remains were initially thought to belong to a man , further analysis of the bones and teeth revealed that the hunter was female .
`` These findings sort of underscore the idea that the gender roles that we take for granted in society today — or that many take for granted — may not be as natural as some may have thought , '' said lead author Randy Haas , an assistant professor of anthropology at the University of California , Davis .
Read more : Ancient burial of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ) discovered in Peru A paved 1,000-year-old limestone road connecting two ancient Mayan cities may have been built by a ruthless queen named Lady K'awiil Ajaw , so that she could expand her regional power .
She ruled in Cobá in what is now Mexico 's Yucatán Peninsula , and archaeologists recently reported that the Mayan queen constructed the road in order to invade a town about 60 miles ( 100 kilometers ) to the west , called Yaxuná , which had been steadily growing in strength and threatened her rule .
Using @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , a remote-sensing method using laser pulses to measure distances , the researchers analyzed the ancient `` white road . ''
Earlier surveys declared that the road ran in a straight line between Cobá and Yaxuná .
But the new analysis revealed unexpected twists and turns in the so-called white road that likely encompassed small settlements , which the queen 's forces would also have conquered on her path to victory .
Read more : Maya warrior queen may have built the longest 'white road ' in the Yucatán The burial of a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ included donkeys , perhaps so that she could play polo in the afterlife .
Because Cui Shi was wealthy and a member of the elite , the donkeys in her tomb likely served a more important purpose in her household than merely a means of carrying heavy loads .
Archaeologists discovered Cui Shi 's tomb in 2012 , and recent analysis of the donkeys ' leg bones confirmed that they had a different gait than pack animals did , hinting that they were bred for quick maneuvering during high-speed polo games .
Records @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( A.D. 618 to 907 ) show that polo was popular among imperial China 's upper classes , despite the game 's dangers ; one historic account notes that Cui Shi 's husband lost an eye during a polo match .
Read more : First proof of donkey polo in ancient China found in noblewoman 's tomb About 1,800 years ago in ancient Egypt , a lovestruck woman named Taromeway commissioned an `` erotic binding spell '' to drive a man named Kephalas mad with lust — the spell was documented in a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
It called upon a ghost to hound Kephalas until he gave in to Taromeway , with `` his male organs pursuing her female organs , '' according to the spell .
The scroll also contained a drawing of Kephalas in the nude , with the Egyptian jackal-headed god Anubis firing an arrow at the naked man ( presumably to inflame Kephalas ' desire for Taromeway ) .
Scholars have translated binding spells like this one before , but such spells are typically used by men to attract women , the scientists reported @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a woman warrior and her weapons stash , including an axe , knives and bronze daggers .
There are four bodies in total in the grave — the woman , a man , an older woman and an infant — and they belonged to the ancient Tagar culture , a subset of southern Siberia 's nomadic Scythian civilization .
The woman was likely in her 30s or 40s when she died , and she was arranged on her back with her set of weapons positioned close by .
Tagarian women were often buried @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of a melee-style long-handled battle axe is very unusual , one of the archaeologists said .

Throughout history, women have been fighters, strategists and charismatic leaders, performing feats of strength, cunning and bravery. And in 2020, archaeologists uncovered intriguing evidence from the past showing that women didn't hesitate to kick butt and take names. From hoisting a spear to hurling a vengeful spell, here are six times that women from antiquity showed us that they were not to be trifled with.
Inspiration for 'Mulan'
The remains of the older warrior woman (left) and her husband, which were excavated from the Airagiin Gozgor archaeological site, in the Orkhon province of northern Mongolia. (Image credit: Christine Lee)
Two women — one about 50 years old and the other about 20 — who were buried in Mongolia during the Xianbei period (A.D. 147 to 552) possibly inspired the famed "Ballad of Mulan," about a girl who served in the military in her father's place. Though the Ballad of Mulan was first transcribed by Chinese writers, tales of her brave deeds may have originated in what is now Mongolia; she is described in the ballad as serving the "khan," a term reserved for Mongolian leaders, and China did not have military conscription at the time, the researchers said. The Mongolian women's skeletal remains revealed that they were expert archers and horseback riders, and they likely fought alongside men.
Read more: Two 'warrior women' from ancient Mongolia may have helped inspire the Ballad of Mulan
Big game hunter
Artistic reconstruction of a vicuña hunt in Wilamaya Patjxa. (Image credit: Matthew Verdolivo (UC Davis IET Academic Technology Services))
A 9,000-year-old burial of a female hunter sparked an investigation upending the long-held notion that men were the primary hunters in ancient hunter-gather societies, while women were relegated to collecting herbs and plants. When researchers excavated the grave in the Andes Mountains in southern Peru, they found a hunting "toolkit" near the skeleton containing multiple projectile weapons, hinting that the person was a skilled hunter and respected as such by their community. Though the remains were initially thought to belong to a man, further analysis of the bones and teeth revealed that the hunter was female.
"These findings sort of underscore the idea that the gender roles that we take for granted in society today — or that many take for granted — may not be as natural as some may have thought," said lead author Randy Haas, an assistant professor of anthropology at the University of California, Davis.
Read more: Ancient burial of fierce female hunter (and her weapons) discovered in Peru
Road warrior
Archaeologists have surveyed the Mayan road with airborne LIDAR technology to reveal the ancient structures along its length. (Image credit: Courtesy of Traci Ardren (University of Miami), Proyecto Sacbe Yacuna-Coba, and Cultural Heritage Engineering Initiative)
A paved 1,000-year-old limestone road connecting two ancient Mayan cities may have been built by a ruthless queen named Lady K'awiil Ajaw, so that she could expand her regional power. She ruled in Cobá in what is now Mexico's Yucatán Peninsula, and archaeologists recently reported that the Mayan queen constructed the road in order to invade a town about 60 miles (100 kilometers) to the west, called Yaxuná, which had been steadily growing in strength and threatened her rule.
Using lidar (light detection and ranging), a remote-sensing method using laser pulses to measure distances, the researchers analyzed the ancient "white road." Earlier surveys declared that the road ran in a straight line between Cobá and Yaxuná. But the new analysis revealed unexpected twists and turns in the so-called white road that likely encompassed small settlements, which the queen's forces would also have conquered on her path to victory.
Read more: Maya warrior queen may have built the longest 'white road' in the Yucatán
Polo champ
A tri-colored glazed donkey figurine from Xi'an. (Image credit: Antiquity Publications Ltd/X. Hu and J. Han )
The burial of a noblewoman named Cui Shi from ancient China included donkeys, perhaps so that she could play polo in the afterlife. Because Cui Shi was wealthy and a member of the elite, the donkeys in her tomb likely served a more important purpose in her household than merely a means of carrying heavy loads.
Archaeologists discovered Cui Shi's tomb in 2012, and recent analysis of the donkeys' leg bones confirmed that they had a different gait than pack animals did, hinting that they were bred for quick maneuvering during high-speed polo games. Records from this period during the Tang Dynasty (A.D. 618 to 907) show that polo was popular among imperial China's upper classes, despite the game's dangers; one historic account notes that Cui Shi's husband lost an eye during a polo match.
Read more: First proof of donkey polo in ancient China found in noblewoman's tomb
Under her spell
A closeup of the papyrus showing the Egyptian jackal-headed god Anubis shooting Kephalas with an arrow. Kephalas is depicted nude with an enlarged penis and scrotum. The arrow Anubis shoots is supposed to make Kephalas lustful for a woman named Taromeway. (Image credit: Photo courtesy University of Michigan)
About 1,800 years ago in ancient Egypt, a lovestruck woman named Taromeway commissioned an "erotic binding spell" to drive a man named Kephalas mad with lust — the spell was documented in a papyrus scroll, which researchers recently translated. It called upon a ghost to hound Kephalas until he gave in to Taromeway, with "his male organs pursuing her female organs," according to the spell. The scroll also contained a drawing of Kephalas in the nude, with the Egyptian jackal-headed god Anubis firing an arrow at the naked man (presumably to inflame Kephalas' desire for Taromeway). Scholars have translated binding spells like this one before, but such spells are typically used by men to attract women, the scientists reported.
Read more: Woman seeks man in ancient Egyptian 'erotic binding spell'
Daggers, knives and an axe
Some of metal grave goods found in the group burial. (Image credit: Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences)
A 2,500-year-old burial in Siberia holds a woman warrior and her weapons stash, including an axe, knives and bronze daggers. There are four bodies in total in the grave — the woman, a man, an older woman and an infant — and they belonged to the ancient Tagar culture, a subset of southern Siberia's nomadic Scythian civilization. The woman was likely in her 30s or 40s when she died, and she was arranged on her back with her set of weapons positioned close by. Tagarian women were often buried with long-range weapons, so the presence of a melee-style long-handled battle axe is very unusual, one of the archaeologists said.
Read more: Ancient Siberian grave holds 'warrior woman' and huge weapons stash
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-12-26--Live Science's top stories of 2020: Writers' choice

At Live Science we cover hundreds of science news stories each month , totalling more than one thousand over the course of a year .
That 's a lot of science !
So as 2020 winds down , we 're taking a look back , revisiting and spotlighting many of the year 's top stories — as we usually do .
But during this exceptional year , we 'd also like to showcase a few of the articles that stood out to our reporters and editors .
For the first time at Live Science , we 've asked our writers @ @ @ @ @ @ @ made the biggest impressions on them in 2020 .
From a mirror universe to X-shaped galaxies , these stories guaranteed that 2020 would be a year to remember .
Rafael Letzter , Senior Writer : My favorite science story this year was n't true at all .
Over the summer , a bunch of tabloids misread a 2018 paper about a fascinating subject — the mysterious particles detected shooting out of the ground in Antarctica , and how they relate to an unusual theory of time — and claimed they were coming from @ @ @ @ @ @ @ their error was our gain : It gave us an opportunity to learn about this bizarre theory of time , and a real mirror universe that might be hiding in space-time behind the Big Bang .
This one 's got all the hits : dark matter , unsolvable equations , a `` fourth type of neutrino '' and the cosmic microwave background .
Read more : Why some physicists really think there 's a 'mirror universe ' hiding in space-time Kimberly Hickok , Reference Editor : My favorite science story this year was @ @ @ @ @ @ @ with the ability of gray whales to navigate Earth 's oceans .
Research presented at the 2020 Society for Integrative and Comparative Biology conference found that healthy gray whales are nearly 4.5 times more likely to strand when our sun has lots of sunspots , which indicate increased solar storm activity and high emissions of radio waves .
Scientists have long suspected that gray whales use to navigate .
So , it 's possible that when something disrupts Earth 's magnetic field , such as a solar storm , it causes the whales @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
But scientists do n't know for sure if whales even have a magnetoreceptive sense or not , so maybe something else is going on .
All that 's clear right now is that healthy gray whales strand more often when the sun is acting crazy .
Read more : Solar storms might be causing gray whales to get lost Nicoletta Lanese , Staff Writer : I 've been covering COVID-19 since January , writing articles about the virus 's biology , the thorny logistics of vaccine development and contact tracing , the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and everything in-between .
Of all the stories I 've written , this one stands out most in my memory , not as a happy story , per se , but as a hopeful one .
This story features several `` long-haulers '' — people who contracted COVID-19 and remained ill for many months after their initial infections subsided .
When doctors could n't offer them answers , long-haulers formed online communities to validate each other 's experiences and offer emotional support .
But what began as a collection of internet forums blossomed @ @ @ @ @ @ @ long COVID . ''
This story highlights the early efforts of these patient-led research groups .
Their advocacy continues today , but now , the broader scientific and medical community has joined the charge .
Read more : 'We just had no answers ' : COVID-19 'long-haulers ' still learning why they 're sick Jeanna Bryner , Editor-in-Chief : One of the most intriguing questions yet to be answered about the novel coronavirus causing COVID-19 is : Where did it originate ?
Back in the spring , I explored that question in a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ than answers , and the experts contacted by Live Science indicated there 's a chance we 'll never know exactly where the virus came from .
Even so , scientists know the virus most closely matches coronaviruses found in certain populations of horseshoe bats that live in Yunnan province , China .
However , even if they know the virus likely originated in a horseshoe bat , scientists are n't sure how it hopped to humans and whether an intermediary host was involved — several intermediaries have been proposed , including pangolins and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ took off earlier in the pandemic suggesting the virus was human made , several genetic analyses suggest that is very , very unlikely .
And the idea that the virus somehow `` escaped '' from a virology lab in Wuhan that works with coronaviruses also seems unlikely .
Live Science will keep you up to date as we learn more about the origins of SARS-CoV-2 .
Read more : Wuhan lab says there 's no way coronavirus originated there .
Here 's the science .
Brandon Specktor , Senior Writer : My favorite @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , boomerang-shaped galaxy PKS 2014−55 .
When seen with radio telescopes , this galaxy looks like a giant X in the sky , each arm stretching into space for tens of millions of light-years ( or about 100 times the length of the Milky Way ! )
.
The question is : why ?
I spoke to Bill Cotton of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory in Virginia about it .
He and his colleagues had just mapped this crazy galaxy with South Africa 's massive MeerKAT radio telescope , and developed a truly @ @ @ @ @ @ @ clearly shows two jets of super-charged matter flying out of the galaxy 's central black hole , then being repelled backwards by the pressure of intergalactic space .
Some of that retreating matter bounced off of the galaxy 's dusty disk , creating the vivid boomerang shape we see here .
I looked at hundreds of astronomy photos this year , and this one is my favorite .
Bill was also the first person I interviewed over Zoom during the spring lockdown .
Seeing him at home with a big calendar of X-shaped @ @ @ @ @ @ @ sense of hope that there was still more to life than COVID .
Read more : The sky is full of weird X-shaped galaxies .
Here 's why .
Rachael Rettner , Senior Writer : My most memorable story of 2020 was on an unusual case of a teenager who unknowingly swallowed a sewing pin that pierced his heart .
As a health reporter , I 've seen my fair share of strange medical cases , but this one stood out .
I had never heard of a sewing pin , or other @ @ @ @ @ @ @ traveling through the stomach and into the heart , as doctors believe happened in this case .
Fortunately , doctors were able to remove the sewing pin via open heart surgery , and the teen experienced no complications .
Laura Geggel , Editor : During the last ice age , humans in what is now Mexico ventured into pitch black caves , risking life and limb to mine a valuable mineral .
It was n't gold or silver they sought , but ochre — a crayon-like reddish pigment used for rituals and everyday @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the journal Science Advances , shows just how clever and driven humans were 12,000 years ago .
We tend to think of prehistoric humans as people who were n't terribly sophisticated , but that 's far from the truth .
In this case , the Indigenous people of the Yucatan Peninsula carried torches into the caves , made stone tools and crafted stone markers al la Hansel and Gretel so they would n't get lost .
They did all of this work to mine ochre , which they possibly used as a sunscreen @ @ @ @ @ @ @ !
I stock up on similar supplies every summer .
Tia Ghose , Assistant Managing Editor : My favorite story of the year , about the longest-exposure photo ever taken , came about thanks to a few key elements : time , luck and beer !
When UK-based graduate student Regina Valkenborgh poked a hole in a beer can and taped some photo paper to it eight years ago , she had no idea she would be breaking records .
The photographer had created a low-tech “ pinhole camera , ” suitable for @ @ @ @ @ @ @ affixed it to a telescope at the Bayfordbury Observatory at the University of Hertfordshire .
Then , she promptly forgot about it .
Luckily for Valkenborgh , a staff member at the observatory recently detached the beer can and discovered the treasure attached to it .
The end result ?
An eerie blue image of the sun ’ s neverending dance across our sky .
The time-lapse photo , which captures 2,953 arcs of light from the sun , beats the next-best record holder for longest-exposure image by four years .
Read more @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
It was made through a beer can .
Yasemin Saplakoglu , Staff Writer : My favorite story this year was about mRNA vaccines and how they could dramatically reshape vaccine production in the future .
Two of the leading COVID-19 vaccines are based on mRNA , a strand of genetic code that primes the immune system to fight the novel coronavirus .
The day we published this feature article , the Food and Drug Administration approved the very first coronavirus vaccine — based on mRNA — for emergency use in the U.S. @ @ @ @ @ @ @ received the very first doses across the country .
Having followed and reported on the development of COVID-19 vaccines since the very first clinical trials , it was heart-warming to be able to write a hopeful story .
COVID-19 vaccines , which were rolled out on unprecedented timescales , are truly one of the most impressive scientific achievements of 2020 — and writing about them has left me in awe .
Read more : COVID-19 vaccines : The new technology that made them possible Mindy Weisberger , Senior Writer : Biologists are constantly @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and this story was one of the more unusual cases that I read about this year ... or any year , really .
It 's about a water beetle that performs an ingenious escape from a frog predator after the frog swallows it .
And the beetle exits the frog through a different route than the one it came in by .
When pond frogs gulp down the aquatic beetle Regimbartia attenuata , the satisfaction from their meal is short-lived .
The slippery beetles emerge unscathed just a few hours later , squeezing @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , or vent .
A frog 's vent is typically held tightly shut by sphincter muscles , but researchers suspect that the swallowed beetle may be stimulating the frog 's defecation reflex to open a portal to safety .
After witnessing a beetle 's escape , scientist Shinji Sugiura of Kobe University in Japan was `` very surprised , '' he told me .
I expect that the frog was pretty surprised , too .
Read more : After being swallowed alive , water beetle stages 'backdoor ' escape from frog 's gut

At Live Science we cover hundreds of science news stories each month, totalling more than one thousand over the course of a year. That's a lot of science! So as 2020 winds down, we're taking a look back, revisiting and spotlighting many of the year's top stories — as we usually do. But during this exceptional year, we'd also like to showcase a few of the articles that stood out to our reporters and editors.
For the first time at Live Science, we've asked our writers and editors to pick the stories that made the biggest impressions on them in 2020. From a mirror universe to X-shaped galaxies, these stories guaranteed that 2020 would be a year to remember.
A mirror universe?
(Image credit: ESA and the Planck Collaboration)
Rafael Letzter, Senior Writer: My favorite science story this year wasn't true at all. Over the summer, a bunch of tabloids misread a 2018 paper about a fascinating subject — the mysterious particles detected shooting out of the ground in Antarctica, and how they relate to an unusual theory of time — and claimed they were coming from a "mirror universe." But their error was our gain: It gave us an opportunity to learn about this bizarre theory of time, and a real mirror universe that might be hiding in space-time behind the Big Bang. This one's got all the hits: dark matter, unsolvable equations, a "fourth type of neutrino" and the cosmic microwave background.
Read more: Why some physicists really think there's a 'mirror universe' hiding in space-time
Solar disruption
(Image credit: Mogens Trolle/Shutterstock)
Kimberly Hickok, Reference Editor: My favorite science story this year was about how solar storms could be messing with the ability of gray whales to navigate Earth's oceans.
Research presented at the 2020 Society for Integrative and Comparative Biology conference found that healthy gray whales are nearly 4.5 times more likely to strand when our sun has lots of sunspots, which indicate increased solar storm activity and high emissions of radio waves.
Scientists have long suspected that gray whales use Earth's magnetic field to navigate. So, it's possible that when something disrupts Earth's magnetic field, such as a solar storm, it causes the whales to make a navigational error and strand.
But scientists don't know for sure if whales even have a magnetoreceptive sense or not, so maybe something else is going on. All that's clear right now is that healthy gray whales strand more often when the sun is acting crazy.
Read more: Solar storms might be causing gray whales to get lost
Understanding "long COVID"
(Image credit: Shutterstock)
Nicoletta Lanese, Staff Writer: I've been covering COVID-19 since January, writing articles about the virus's biology, the thorny logistics of vaccine development and contact tracing, the threat evictions pose to public health, and everything in-between. Of all the stories I've written, this one stands out most in my memory, not as a happy story, per se, but as a hopeful one.
This story features several "long-haulers" — people who contracted COVID-19 and remained ill for many months after their initial infections subsided. When doctors couldn't offer them answers, long-haulers formed online communities to validate each other's experiences and offer emotional support. But what began as a collection of internet forums blossomed into a full-blown movement to understand "long COVID."
This story highlights the early efforts of these patient-led research groups. Their advocacy continues today, but now, the broader scientific and medical community has joined the charge.
Read more: 'We just had no answers': COVID-19 'long-haulers' still learning why they're sick
COVID-19 origins
(Image credit: Shutterstock)
Jeanna Bryner, Editor-in-Chief: One of the most intriguing questions yet to be answered about the novel coronavirus causing COVID-19 is: Where did it originate ? Back in the spring, I explored that question in a couple of articles that left more questions than answers, and the experts contacted by Live Science indicated there's a chance we'll never know exactly where the virus came from. Even so, scientists know the virus most closely matches coronaviruses found in certain populations of horseshoe bats that live in Yunnan province, China. However, even if they know the virus likely originated in a horseshoe bat, scientists aren't sure how it hopped to humans and whether an intermediary host was involved — several intermediaries have been proposed, including pangolins and even snakes. Though some conspiracy theories took off earlier in the pandemic suggesting the virus was human made, several genetic analyses suggest that is very, very unlikely. And the idea that the virus somehow "escaped" from a virology lab in Wuhan that works with coronaviruses also seems unlikely. Live Science will keep you up to date as we learn more about the origins of SARS-CoV-2.
Read more: Wuhan lab says there's no way coronavirus originated there. Here's the science.
X marks the spot
(Image credit: NRAO/AUI/NSF; SARAO; DES)
Brandon Specktor, Senior Writer: My favorite story of 2020 was about the strange, boomerang-shaped galaxy PKS 2014−55. When seen with radio telescopes, this galaxy looks like a giant X in the sky, each arm stretching into space for tens of millions of light-years (or about 100 times the length of the Milky Way!). The question is: why?
I spoke to Bill Cotton of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory in Virginia about it. He and his colleagues had just mapped this crazy galaxy with South Africa's massive MeerKAT radio telescope, and developed a truly incredible image of it. The image clearly shows two jets of super-charged matter flying out of the galaxy's central black hole, then being repelled backwards by the pressure of intergalactic space. Some of that retreating matter bounced off of the galaxy's dusty disk, creating the vivid boomerang shape we see here.
I looked at hundreds of astronomy photos this year, and this one is my favorite. Bill was also the first person I interviewed over Zoom during the spring lockdown. Seeing him at home with a big calendar of X-shaped galaxies behind him gave me a strange sense of hope that there was still more to life than COVID.
Read more: The sky is full of weird X-shaped galaxies. Here's why.
Hard to swallow
(Image credit: Shutterstock)
Rachael Rettner, Senior Writer: My most memorable story of 2020 was on an unusual case of a teenager who unknowingly swallowed a sewing pin that pierced his heart. As a health reporter, I've seen my fair share of strange medical cases, but this one stood out. I had never heard of a sewing pin, or other ingested foreign object for that matter, traveling through the stomach and into the heart, as doctors believe happened in this case. Fortunately, doctors were able to remove the sewing pin via open heart surgery, and the teen experienced no complications.
Read more: A teen unknowingly swallowed a sewing pin. It pierced his heart.
Ice age miners
(Image credit: © CINDAQ.ORG)
Laura Geggel, Editor: During the last ice age, humans in what is now Mexico ventured into pitch black caves, risking life and limb to mine a valuable mineral. It wasn't gold or silver they sought, but ochre — a crayon-like reddish pigment used for rituals and everyday activities.
This finding, published in the journal Science Advances, shows just how clever and driven humans were 12,000 years ago. We tend to think of prehistoric humans as people who weren't terribly sophisticated, but that's far from the truth. In this case, the Indigenous people of the Yucatan Peninsula carried torches into the caves, made stone tools and crafted stone markers al la Hansel and Gretel so they wouldn't get lost. They did all of this work to mine ochre, which they possibly used as a sunscreen or bug repellent. Talk about relatable! I stock up on similar supplies every summer.
Read more: Ice age mining camp found 'frozen in time' in underwater Mexican cave
Eerie image
(Image credit: Regina Valkenborgh/University of Hertfordshire)
Tia Ghose, Assistant Managing Editor: My favorite story of the year, about the longest-exposure photo ever taken, came about thanks to a few key elements: time, luck and beer!
When UK-based graduate student Regina Valkenborgh poked a hole in a beer can and taped some photo paper to it eight years ago, she had no idea she would be breaking records. The photographer had created a low-tech “pinhole camera,” suitable for tracking slow-moving objects over time, and affixed it to a telescope at the Bayfordbury Observatory at the University of Hertfordshire. Then, she promptly forgot about it.
Luckily for Valkenborgh, a staff member at the observatory recently detached the beer can and discovered the treasure attached to it.
The end result? An eerie blue image of the sun’s neverending dance across our sky. The time-lapse photo, which captures 2,953 arcs of light from the sun, beats the next-best record holder for longest-exposure image by four years.
Read more: Longest-exposure photo ever was just discovered. It was made through a beer can.
mRNA vaccines
(Image credit: Photo By BSIP/Universal Images Group via Getty Images)
Yasemin Saplakoglu, Staff Writer: My favorite story this year was about mRNA vaccines and how they could dramatically reshape vaccine production in the future. Two of the leading COVID-19 vaccines are based on mRNA, a strand of genetic code that primes the immune system to fight the novel coronavirus. The day we published this feature article, the Food and Drug Administration approved the very first coronavirus vaccine — based on mRNA — for emergency use in the U.S. A few days later, healthcare workers received the very first doses across the country. Having followed and reported on the development of COVID-19 vaccines since the very first clinical trials, it was heart-warming to be able to write a hopeful story. COVID-19 vaccines, which were rolled out on unprecedented timescales, are truly one of the most impressive scientific achievements of 2020 — and writing about them has left me in awe.
Read more: COVID-19 vaccines: The new technology that made them possible
Backdoor exit
(Image credit: Live Science/Photos courtesy of Shinji Sugiura)
Mindy Weisberger, Senior Writer: Biologists are constantly finding new examples of animal weirdness, and this story was one of the more unusual cases that I read about this year ... or any year, really. It's about a water beetle that performs an ingenious escape from a frog predator after the frog swallows it.
And the beetle exits the frog through a different route than the one it came in by.
When pond frogs gulp down the aquatic beetle Regimbartia attenuata, the satisfaction from their meal is short-lived. The slippery beetles emerge unscathed just a few hours later, squeezing out of the frog's anal opening, or vent. A frog's vent is typically held tightly shut by sphincter muscles, but researchers suspect that the swallowed beetle may be stimulating the frog's defecation reflex to open a portal to safety.
After witnessing a beetle's escape, scientist Shinji Sugiura of Kobe University in Japan was "very surprised," he told me. I expect that the frog was pretty surprised, too.
Read more: After being swallowed alive, water beetle stages 'backdoor' escape from frog's gut
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-12-26--Fireballs, spaceships and … iguanas? 7 strange things that fell from the sky

Space rocks crash to Earth carrying compounds that were formed billions of years ago .
Spaceships perform fancy flips in the air but explode when they touch back down too quickly .
And sometimes , iguanas fall from trees and land belly-up , frozen on the ground .
Here 's a list of seven intriguing objects — and a few reptiles — that made headlines for falling from the sky .
Researchers captured an incredible video when a zipped over the southern coast of Tasmania , Australia — though a bit unfortunately , the video is in black-and-white .
A @ @ @ @ @ @ @ operated by Australia ’ s national science agency , CSIRO , filmed the fireball as it burst through Earth 's atmosphere , crossed the sky and then disintegrated above the Tasman Sea .
People who witnessed the meteor first-hand said that it appeared green to the naked eye .
A broke up over Costa Rica in 2019 and scattered debris between the villages of La Palmera and Aguas Zarcas .
Now , ongoing studies hint that the fireball may contain the chemical building blocks of life .
The soft meteor originally broke off @ @ @ @ @ @ @ out of dust from an ancient nebula .
That very nebula would later birth our solar system .
The rainbow meteor contains complex carbon compounds , which may include amino acids , which can come together to form proteins and molecules like DNA .
SpaceX 's Starship program launched a prototype called SN8 during a high-altitude test flight , and all went according to plan — other than the landing .
The prototype took off from SpaceX 's facility Boca Chica , Texas and zoomed about 7.8 miles ( 12.5 kilometers ) into @ @ @ @ @ @ @ on the way .
The vehicle then descended onto a designated landing mark on the ground , but it came in too fast and burst into flames .
The explosion occurred just 6 minutes and 42 seconds after liftoff .
A meteorite crumbled up in the sky over Hamburg , Michigan , and the pieces fell down onto a frozen lake below .
That was in January 2018 ; this year , after thoroughly analysing the space rock , scientists announced that the meteorite contained thousands of organic compounds that formed billions of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to the early days of our solar system , meaning meteorites that crashed onto young Earth may have carried similar molecules .
Back then , organic compounds from meteors could have been incorporated into primitive microbes , the team said , so studying the Michigan meteor can give us a glimpse into early life on the planet .
Comet debris may have leveled an ancient Syrian village The prehistoric village of Abu Hureyra in northern Syria housed the first known farmers on Earth , but then some destroyed the town , leaving mostly @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
Among the wreckage , excavators also found glass spheres formed from melting soil , melted iron- and sulfur-rich samples and nanodiamonds .
Scientists recently examined these glassy materials more closely and found that they could only have formed at temperatures over 3,630 F ( 2,000 C ) .
The team concluded that fragments from a passing comet likely exploded over the village , releasing an intense heatwave that scorched the village and the soil beneath it .
Dinosaur-killing asteroid struck at the worst possible angle The monstrous space rock that wiped out @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the dinos never really stood a chance .
Scientists modeled the path of the asteroid and found that it struck at an angle of about 60 degrees above the horizon .
Compared with shallower impact angles , this trajectory caused the asteroid to spew about three times as much sulfur and carbon dioxide into the atmosphere , according to the model .
The gas released by the impact triggered global climate change and killed 75 % of all life on Earth , including all non-avian dinosaurs .
`` Cool temperatures with a `` @ @ @ @ @ @ @ National Weather Service sends out when the temperature falls below 40 degrees Fahrenheit ( 4.4 degrees Celsius ) in southern Florida .
That 's because , when the weather gets cool , the iguanas that usually hang out in the treetops become too old to hold onto branches .
As their metabolisms slow down , the lizards go stiff , fall to the ground and appear dead ; but once the weather warms up , they snap back into action .

Space rocks crash to Earth carrying compounds that were formed billions of years ago. Spaceships perform fancy flips in the air but explode when they touch back down too quickly. And sometimes, iguanas fall from trees and land belly-up, frozen on the ground.
Here's a list of seven intriguing objects — and a few reptiles — that made headlines for falling from the sky.
Exploding, green fireball over the Tasman Sea
(Image credit: CSIRO)
Researchers captured an incredible video when a bright, green meteor zipped over the southern coast of Tasmania, Australia — though a bit unfortunately, the video is in black-and-white. A research vessel called Investigator, which is operated by Australia’s national science agency, CSIRO, filmed the fireball as it burst through Earth's atmosphere, crossed the sky and then disintegrated above the Tasman Sea. People who witnessed the meteor first-hand said that it appeared green to the naked eye.
Rainbow meteorite found in Costa Rica
(Image credit: Laurence Garvie/Center for Meteorite Studies/Arizona State University)
A rainbow-color space rock broke up over Costa Rica in 2019 and scattered debris between the villages of La Palmera and Aguas Zarcas. Now, ongoing studies hint that the fireball may contain the chemical building blocks of life. The soft meteor originally broke off of a larger asteroid, which formed out of dust from an ancient nebula. That very nebula would later birth our solar system. The rainbow meteor contains complex carbon compounds, which may include amino acids, which can come together to form proteins and molecules like DNA.
The sudden explosion of a SpaceX prototype
(Image credit: SpaceX)
SpaceX's Starship program launched a prototype called SN8 during a high-altitude test flight, and all went according to plan — other than the landing . The prototype took off from SpaceX's facility Boca Chica, Texas and zoomed about 7.8 miles (12.5 kilometers) into the sky, performing complex aerial maneuvers on the way. The vehicle then descended onto a designated landing mark on the ground, but it came in too fast and burst into flames. The explosion occurred just 6 minutes and 42 seconds after liftoff.
A meteorite in Michigan
(Image credit: Copyright Heck et al., Field Museum)
A meteorite crumbled up in the sky over Hamburg, Michigan, and the pieces fell down onto a frozen lake below. That was in January 2018; this year, after thoroughly analysing the space rock, scientists announced that the meteorite contained thousands of organic compounds that formed billions of years ago. The compounds date back to the early days of our solar system, meaning meteorites that crashed onto young Earth may have carried similar molecules. Back then, organic compounds from meteors could have been incorporated into primitive microbes, the team said, so studying the Michigan meteor can give us a glimpse into early life on the planet.
Comet debris may have leveled an ancient Syrian village
(Image credit: Jennifer Rice, CometResearchGroup.org)
The prehistoric village of Abu Hureyra in northern Syria housed the first known farmers on Earth, but then some mysterious, fiery incident destroyed the town, leaving mostly remnants of thatched huts coated in carbon. Among the wreckage, excavators also found glass spheres formed from melting soil, melted iron- and sulfur-rich samples and nanodiamonds. Scientists recently examined these glassy materials more closely and found that they could only have formed at temperatures over 3,630 F (2,000 C). The team concluded that fragments from a passing comet likely exploded over the village, releasing an intense heatwave that scorched the village and the soil beneath it.
Dinosaur-killing asteroid struck at the worst possible angle
(Image credit: Chase Stone)
The monstrous space rock that wiped out the dinosaurs slammed into Earth at such a steep angle that the dinos never really stood a chance. Scientists modeled the path of the asteroid and found that it struck at an angle of about 60 degrees above the horizon. Compared with shallower impact angles, this trajectory caused the asteroid to spew about three times as much sulfur and carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, according to the model. The gas released by the impact triggered global climate change and killed 75% of all life on Earth, including all non-avian dinosaurs.
Iguanas raining down on Floridians
(Image credit: Tim Chapman/El Nuevo Herald/MCT/Newscom)
"Cool temperatures with a chance of falling reptiles " — this is essentially the warning the National Weather Service sends out when the temperature falls below 40 degrees Fahrenheit (4.4 degrees Celsius) in southern Florida. That's because, when the weather gets cool, the iguanas that usually hang out in the treetops become too old to hold onto branches. As their metabolisms slow down, the lizards go stiff, fall to the ground and appear dead; but once the weather warms up, they snap back into action.
Originally published on Live Science.