livescience--2020-10-27--Zombie diet: 10 real-life examples of humans eating humans

In any zombie horror story , the undead human corpses roam the world in their hunt for human flesh .
Now , we know zombies are n't real , but human cannibalism is far from fictional .
Here are 10 real-life examples of human flesh-eaters that are just about as horrifying as zombies .
Cannibalism goes way , way back .
Around 900,000 years ago in what is now Spain , Homo antecessor , an ancient relative of humans , practiced cannibalism likely out of practicality , according to a study published in June 2019 in the Journal of Human @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and easy to catch , making them an excellent prey option .
Our closer and more recent relatives , the Neanderthals , were also cannibals on occasion .
Archaeologists have discovered evidence of Neanderthal cannibalism in a few different spots around the world , including a cave in El Sidrón , Spain , another cave at Moula-Guercy , France , and most recently at a cave in Belgium .
Beyond cannibalism , it appears that Neaderthals also made tools out of their comrades ' remains .
3 .
The Biami people of Papua @ @ @ @ @ @ @ cultures in Papua New Guinea known to have killed and eaten humans , although they likely have n't practiced cannibalism for several decades .
In 2011 , British television host Piers Gibbon visited the Biami people — a group who once practiced cannibalism and `` were very happy to talk about it , '' Gibbon said .
An older member of the tribe told Gibbon about one instance where members of the tribe killed two women suspected of speaking ill of a dying husband .
The man said they roasted the women over @ @ @ @ @ @ @ their flesh to eat it .
4 .
The Fore people of Papua New Guinea The practice of cannibalism in another Papua New Guinea tribe , the Fore people , led to the spread of a fatal brain disease called kuru that caused a devastating epidemic in the group .
But not all members of the tribe died — some of them carry a gene that protects against kuru and other `` prion diseases '' such as mad cow .
The tribe stopped practicing cannibalism in the 1950s , which led to a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ disease can take many years to show up , cases of kuru continued to pop up for decades .
Researchers are working to understand how the genetic mutation works to prevent kuru and gather new insights into how to prevent prion diseases .
In 2011 , archaeologists reported finding dozens of human bones bearing marks of cannibalism at the ancient Xiximes settlement of Cuevas del Maguey in northern Mexico .
The bones were found inside shelters dating back to the early 1400s , National Geographic reported .
The Xiximes believed that eating the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ prolific grain harvest .
The Aztecs are well known for having performed ritual human sacrifices , but there 's also evidence that they engaged in ritualistic cannibalism , History reported .
The bodies of sacrificed victims were likely presented to noblemen and other distinguished members of the community .
Some experts suggest cannibalism among the Aztecs may have been more common during famine .
Another theory posits that cannibalism was their way of communing with the gods .
The Wari ' people of Brazil practiced cannibalism of their war enemies and their own @ @ @ @ @ @ @ way of expressing hatred and anger .
But the group also consumed the vast majority of their dead up until the 1960s .
For them , it was their way of mourning , honoring and respecting the deceased members of their tribe .
Beth A. Conklin , an anthropologist at Vanderbilt University , lived with the Wari ' for more than a year and published her description of the Wari ' tribe 's history of cannibalism in the journal American Ethnologist in 1995 .
Until the end of the 18th century , it @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the flesh of a dead human for medicinal consumption , Smithsonian reported .
For example , Paracelsus , the 16th-century physician , believed blood was healthy to drink .
Although drinking fresh blood was uncommon , people unable to afford apothecary products would stand by at executions and pay a small fee for a cup of fresh blood from the condemned .
There are several stories of stranded explorers resorting to cannibalism in a desperate attempt to survive .
One of the most famous examples is the doomed 19th century Franklin expedition that @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the Canadian Arctic .
Explorers from the two trapped ships , the HMS Erebus and HMS Terror , attempted to trek 1,000 miles ( 1,609 kilometers ) to the nearest trading post , but their efforts were futile .
For the next 150 years , researchers uncovered the explorers ' remains .
Scientists found cut marks on many of the bones , and signs of breakage and marrow extraction — convincing evidence of cannibalism .
The Aghoris make up a small group of extremists who live in Varanasi , India , and worship @ @ @ @ @ @ @ believe there is no difference between the pure and impure , and engage in many obscure practices , such as meditating on top of corpses and making bowls out of human skulls .
They also practice ritual cannibalism , according to some reports .
• Exploring the Inevitable : Gallery of Death in Art • Top 10 Weird Ways We Deal With the Dead Originally published on Live Science .
This article was originally published on May 30 , 2019 and was updated on Oct. 27 , 2020 .

In any zombie horror story, the undead human corpses roam the world in their hunt for human flesh. Now, we know zombies aren't real, but human cannibalism is far from fictional. Here are 10 real-life examples of human flesh-eaters that are just about as horrifying as zombies.
1. Our prehistoric ancestors
Cannibalism goes way, way back. Around 900,000 years ago in what is now Spain, Homo antecessor, an ancient relative of humans, practiced cannibalism likely out of practicality, according to a study published in June 2019 in the Journal of Human Evolution. Fellow hominins were moderately nutritious and easy to catch, making them an excellent prey option.
There's evidence that our ancient human ancestors occasionally participated in cannibalism. (Image credit: Shutterstock)
2. Neanderthals: Our more recent prehistoric ancestors
Our closer and more recent relatives, the Neanderthals, were also cannibals on occasion. Archaeologists have discovered evidence of Neanderthal cannibalism in a few different spots around the world, including a cave in El Sidrón, Spain, another cave at Moula-Guercy, France, and most recently at a cave in Belgium. Beyond cannibalism, it appears that Neaderthals also made tools out of their comrades' remains.
3. The Biami people of Papua New Guinea
There are a few isolated cultures in Papua New Guinea known to have killed and eaten humans, although they likely haven't practiced cannibalism for several decades. In 2011, British television host Piers Gibbon visited the Biami people — a group who once practiced cannibalism and "were very happy to talk about it," Gibbon said. An older member of the tribe told Gibbon about one instance where members of the tribe killed two women suspected of speaking ill of a dying husband. The man said they roasted the women over the fire like pigs and cut up their flesh to eat it.
Papua New Guinea, Western Province: Piers Gibbon with song leader Tidikawa, who was responsible for identifying 'magic men' who would be killed and eaten. Gibbon is helping butcher a pig with the bamboo knife he holds. The same sort of knife was once used to butcher humans. (Image credit: © Bullseye Productions Ltd.)
4. The Fore people of Papua New Guinea
The practice of cannibalism in another Papua New Guinea tribe, the Fore people, led to the spread of a fatal brain disease called kuru that caused a devastating epidemic in the group. But not all members of the tribe died — some of them carry a gene that protects against kuru and other "prion diseases" such as mad cow. The tribe stopped practicing cannibalism in the 1950s, which led to a decline in kuru. But because the disease can take many years to show up, cases of kuru continued to pop up for decades. Researchers are working to understand how the genetic mutation works to prevent kuru and gather new insights into how to prevent prion diseases.
5. The Xiximes people of Mexico
In 2011, archaeologists reported finding dozens of human bones bearing marks of cannibalism at the ancient Xiximes settlement of Cuevas del Maguey in northern Mexico. The bones were found inside shelters dating back to the early 1400s, National Geographic reported. The Xiximes believed that eating the flesh of their enemies would ensure a prolific grain harvest.
A stone wall with skull carvings found at the Templo Mayor in Zocalo, Mexico City. The Templo Mayor (Main Temple) was located in the center of the city, where the most important ritual and ceremonial activities in Aztec life took place. (Image credit: Shutterstock)
6. The Aztec people of Mexico
The Aztecs are well known for having performed ritual human sacrifices, but there's also evidence that they engaged in ritualistic cannibalism, History reported. The bodies of sacrificed victims were likely presented to noblemen and other distinguished members of the community. Some experts suggest cannibalism among the Aztecs may have been more common during famine. Another theory posits that cannibalism was their way of communing with the gods.
7. The Wari' people of Brazil
The Wari' people of Brazil practiced cannibalism of their war enemies and their own dead. Eating their enemies was their way of expressing hatred and anger. But the group also consumed the vast majority of their dead up until the 1960s. For them, it was their way of mourning, honoring and respecting the deceased members of their tribe. Beth A. Conklin, an anthropologist at Vanderbilt University, lived with the Wari' for more than a year and published her description of the Wari' tribe's history of cannibalism in the journal American Ethnologist in 1995.
8. 16th and 17th century Europeans
Until the end of the 18th century, it was not uncommon for Europeans to seek the flesh of a dead human for medicinal consumption, Smithsonian reported. For example, Paracelsus, the 16th-century physician, believed blood was healthy to drink. Although drinking fresh blood was uncommon, people unable to afford apothecary products would stand by at executions and pay a small fee for a cup of fresh blood from the condemned.
Some medieval physicians and alchemists recommended drinking human blood for good health. People who couldn't afford to purchase medicinals could sometimes buy a cup of fresh human blood from the local executioner. (Image credit: Shutterstock)
9. 19th century Arctic explorers
There are several stories of stranded explorers resorting to cannibalism in a desperate attempt to survive. One of the most famous examples is the doomed 19th century Franklin expedition that aimed to discover a sea route through the Canadian Arctic. Explorers from the two trapped ships, the HMS Erebus and HMS Terror, attempted to trek 1,000 miles (1,609 kilometers) to the nearest trading post, but their efforts were futile. For the next 150 years, researchers uncovered the explorers' remains. Scientists found cut marks on many of the bones, and signs of breakage and marrow extraction — convincing evidence of cannibalism.
10. The Aghori cult of India
The Aghoris make up a small group of extremists who live in Varanasi, India, and worship the Hindu deity Shiva. The Aghoris believe there is no difference between the pure and impure, and engage in many obscure practices, such as meditating on top of corpses and making bowls out of human skulls. They also practice ritual cannibalism, according to some reports.
Originally published on Live Science.
This article was originally published on May 30, 2019 and was updated on Oct. 27, 2020.


livescience--2020-10-27--Researchers revamp famous alien-hunting equation to predict spread of COVID-19

A famous equation used in the search for alien life has inspired a new model that estimates the odds of .
The new model — which is essentially a single equation with several terms multiplied together — estimates the risk of COVID-19 transmission through the air .
The researchers were motivated in their work by another simple , yet historically significant mathematical formula known as the , which estimates the chances of finding intelligent extraterrestrial life in our galaxy .
Developed in 1961 by astronomer Frank Drake , the equation is based on just seven variables and provides an `` @ @ @ @ @ @ @ as seemingly unknowable as the number of alien civilizations , the authors said .
Related : The four most promising worlds for alien life in the solar system They wanted to provide a similar framework for understanding COVID-19 transmission risk .
`` There 's still much confusion about the transmission pathways of COVID-19 .
This is partly because there is no common 'language ' that makes it easy to understand the risk factors involved , '' study co-author Rajat Mittal , a professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at Johns Hopkins University @ @ @ @ @ @ @ happen for one to get infected ?
If we can visualize this process more clearly and in a quantitative manner , we can make better decisions about which activities to resume and which to avoid . ''
The new model , published Oct. 7 in the journal , breaks down COVID-19 transmission into three stages : the expulsion of virus-containing droplets from an infected person into the air ; the dispersion of these droplets ; and the inhalation of these droplets by a susceptible person .
Overall , the model is composed of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ including the breathing rate of the infected and susceptible people , the amount of virus particles in the exhaled droplets and the amount of time a susceptible person is exposed , the statement said .
The authors then used their model , which they call the Contagion Airborne Transmission ( CAT ) inequality model , to estimate the transmission risk in different scenarios , including ones in which people use or practice social distancing , as well as when people exercise .
In the inequality model , if the amount of virus inhaled @ @ @ @ @ @ @ cause infection , the other person would get sick .
One big caveat : We currently do n't know how many particles are needed to cause an infection .
As a result , the model ca n't calculate an absolute risk of infection , but can only compare the level of risk of different activities .
For face masks , the researchers estimated that , with all other factors being equal , a scenario in which both infected and susceptible individuals are wearing N95 masks could reduce the transmission risk by a factor @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in which both people are n't wearing masks at all .
Surgical masks may reduce transmission by a factor of 10 , and cloth masks by a factor of 7 , if both parties are wearing masks .
In a scenario in which people are exercising vigorously , such as at the gym , the transmission risk skyrockets , the model found .
`` Imagine two people on treadmills at the gym ; both are breathing harder than normal .
The infected person is expelling more droplets , and the noninfected person is @ @ @ @ @ @ @ space , the risk of transmission increases by a factor of 200 , '' compared with a scenario in which people are n't exercising , Mittal said .
For social distancing , the researchers found that there was a linear relationship between distance and transmission risk .
`` If you double your distance , you generally double your protection , '' Mittal said in a separate from the journal .
`` This kind of scaling or rule can help inform policy . ''
The researchers note that they intended their model to be @ @ @ @ @ @ @ be accessible not only to scientists but policy makers and even the general public .
They acknowledge that their model makes a number of assumptions , and it includes key unknown variables .
Still , the authors hope their work `` can inform future studies that will close these gaps in our understanding about COVID-19 , '' Mittal said .

A famous equation used in the search for alien life has inspired a new model that estimates the odds of COVID-19 transmission .
The new model — which is essentially a single equation with several terms multiplied together — estimates the risk of COVID-19 transmission through the air. The researchers were motivated in their work by another simple, yet historically significant mathematical formula known as the Drake equation , which estimates the chances of finding intelligent extraterrestrial life in our galaxy. Developed in 1961 by astronomer Frank Drake, the equation is based on just seven variables and provides an "easy-to-understand framework" for looking at something as seemingly unknowable as the number of alien civilizations, the authors said.
Related: The four most promising worlds for alien life in the solar system
They wanted to provide a similar framework for understanding COVID-19 transmission risk.
"There's still much confusion about the transmission pathways of COVID-19. This is partly because there is no common 'language' that makes it easy to understand the risk factors involved," study co-author Rajat Mittal, a professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at Johns Hopkins University, said in a statement . "What really needs to happen for one to get infected? If we can visualize this process more clearly and in a quantitative manner, we can make better decisions about which activities to resume and which to avoid."
The new model, published Oct. 7 in the journal Physics of Fluids , breaks down COVID-19 transmission into three stages: the expulsion of virus-containing droplets from an infected person into the air; the dispersion of these droplets; and the inhalation of these droplets by a susceptible person. Overall, the model is composed of 10 variables involved in COVID-19 transmission, including the breathing rate of the infected and susceptible people, the amount of virus particles in the exhaled droplets and the amount of time a susceptible person is exposed, the statement said.
A new equation, called the Contagion Airborne Transmission (CAT) inequality model, estimates the risk of COVID-19 transmission through the air. The equation consists of ten variables multiplied together. (Image credit: MARISSA LANTERMAN / JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY)
The authors then used their model, which they call the Contagion Airborne Transmission (CAT) inequality model, to estimate the transmission risk in different scenarios, including ones in which people use face masks or practice social distancing, as well as when people exercise. In the inequality model, if the amount of virus inhaled is greater than the amount needed to cause infection, the other person would get sick. One big caveat: We currently don't know how many particles are needed to cause an infection. As a result, the model can't calculate an absolute risk of infection, but can only compare the level of risk of different activities.
For face masks, the researchers estimated that, with all other factors being equal, a scenario in which both infected and susceptible individuals are wearing N95 masks could reduce the transmission risk by a factor of 400, relative to a scenario in which both people aren't wearing masks at all. Surgical masks may reduce transmission by a factor of 10, and cloth masks by a factor of 7, if both parties are wearing masks.
In a scenario in which people are exercising vigorously, such as at the gym, the transmission risk skyrockets, the model found. "Imagine two people on treadmills at the gym; both are breathing harder than normal. The infected person is expelling more droplets, and the noninfected person is inhaling more droplets. In that confined space, the risk of transmission increases by a factor of 200," compared with a scenario in which people aren't exercising, Mittal said.
For social distancing, the researchers found that there was a linear relationship between distance and transmission risk. "If you double your distance, you generally double your protection," Mittal said in a separate statement from the journal. "This kind of scaling or rule can help inform policy."
The researchers note that they intended their model to be simple and intuitive so that it could be accessible not only to scientists but policy makers and even the general public. They acknowledge that their model makes a number of assumptions, and it includes key unknown variables. Still, the authors hope their work "can inform future studies that will close these gaps in our understanding about COVID-19," Mittal said.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-10-28--Coronavirus outbreak: Live updates

Coronavirus outbreak: Live updates

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90-year-old woman in the UK receives first dose of Pfizer vaccine, FDA review confirms vaccine is safe and effective A 90-year-old woman (who will turn 91 next week) became the first in the world to be given Pfizer's coronavirus vaccine outside of clinical trials, according to the BBC. Margaret Keenan, who is originally from Northern Ireland, was given the vaccine at the University Hospital in Coventry, England. She received the first of 800,000 doses expected to be administered in the U.K. in the coming weeks, according to the BBC. "I feel so privileged to be the first person vaccinated against Covid-19," Keenan said, according to the BBC."It's the best early birthday present I could wish for because it means I can finally look forward to spending time with my family and friends in the new year after being on my own for most of the year." "My advice to anyone offered the vaccine is to take it. If I can have it at 90, then you can have it too," she added. Up to four million doses of Pfizer's vaccine is expected to be given to people in the U.K. by the end of the month. Meanwhile, a 53-page Food and Drug Administration (FDA) review published Tuesday (Dec. 8) confirmed that Pfizer's vaccine is safe and effective, according to The Washington Post.
Pfizer's COVID-19 vaccine starts to work just 10 days after 1st dose Pfizer's new COVID-19 vaccine starts to protect people from the novel coronavirus just 10 days after the first dose, according to new documents from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The documents were released on Tuesday (Dec. 8), two days before a meeting of the FDA's vaccine advisory panel, which will vote on whether to recommend authorization of the vaccine in the U.S, Live Science reported . The FDA analyzed data from Pfizer's phase 3 clinical trial, which included some 44,000 people in the United States, Brazil, Argentina, Germany and Turkey, about half of whom received the vaccine while the other half received a placebo. Both groups received two shots, 21 days apart. About 10 days after the first dose, there was a noticeable drop-off in new COVID-19 cases in the vaccine group compared with the placebo group, indicating that even one dose provides some protection, the report said. However, scientists don't know how long the protection from a single dose will last, so it will still be important for people to receive two shots, according to The New York Times . Overall, the vaccine was 52% effective after the first dose and 95% effective after the second dose, the report said.
People with significant allergies should avoid Pfizer vaccine, UK warns The U.K.'s Regulatory Agency is advising people with a history of "significant" allergic reactions to avoid Pfizer's coronavirus vaccine, after two National Health Service members developed severe allergic reactions to it on Tuesday (Dec. 8), Live Science reported. "As is common with new vaccines the MHRA (Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency) have advised on a precautionary basis that people with a significant history of allergic reactions do not receive this vaccination after two people with a history of significant allergic reactions responded adversely yesterday," Stephen Powis, the national medical director for England's National Health Service said in a statement on Wednesday (Dec. 9). Both workers have a history of severe allergies and carry adrenaline auto injectors (such as EpiPens) around with them, according to The Guardian. Shortly after receiving the vaccine, both NHS workers developed anaphylaxis-like symptoms, or severe allergic reactions, but have recovered after receiving treatment. The MHRA will investigate further and Pfizer and BioNTech will support their investigation, according to Reuters. "Allergic reaction occurs with quite a number of vaccines, and perhaps even more frequently with drugs. So it is not unexpected," Stephen Evans, a professor of pharmacoepidemiology at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine said in remarks to journalists published by Britain's Science Media Center. “What would be wise, as the MHRA have already advised, would be for anyone who has known severe allergic reaction such that they need to carry an EpiPen, to delay having a vaccination until the reason for the allergic reaction has been clarified," he said. For the general population this does not mean that they would need to be anxious about receiving the vaccination, he added. "One has to remember that even things like marmite [a quintessential British food spread] can cause unexpected severe allergic reactions.”
Canada approves Pfizer's COVID-19 vaccine Canada has authorized Pfizer's new COVID-19 vaccine, with the first doses expected to be administered there as early as next week. Health Canada, the country's health regulatory agency, said in a statement on Wednesday (Dec. 9) that it had determined that the vaccine "meets the Department's stringent safety, efficacy and quality requirements for use in Canada," according to CTV News . "We expect vaccines to arrive maybe as early as Monday [Dec. 14]. It takes time to prepare the vaccine," said Maj.-Gen. Dany Fortin, the top military general leading the vaccine rollout for the Public Health Agency of Canada, according to CTV News. The first doses could be administered by the middle of next week, he said. Canada is the third country in the world to authorize the Pfizer vaccine, following the United Kingdom and Bahrain. The country should receive up to 249,000 doses of the vaccine by the end of December, and has purchased 20 million doses total, with the option to purchase more, CTV News reported.
Daily COVID-19 death toll in the U.S. reaches record-high, surpassed 9/11 On Wednesday (Dec. 9), the U.S. recorded 3,124 new COVID-19 deaths, the highest daily death toll to date, according to CNN . In comparison, 2,977 people were killed in the 9/11 attacks. The U.S. has now recorded 280,488 deaths related to the virus, according to The COVID Tracking Project . A forecast from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention predicts that the total death toll can increase to between 332,000 and 362,000 by January 2, according to CNN. There are currently 106,671 people hospitalized with the virus in the U.S.; 20,903 of them are currently in the ICU and 7,621 are currently on a ventilator, according to the COVID Tracking Project. On Thursday (Dec. 10), the Vaccines and Related Biological Products Advisory Committee is set to meet to discuss an emergency use authorization for the Pfizer-BioNTech coronavirus vaccine.
FDA panel recommends authorization of Pfizer's COVID-19 vaccine A panel of experts for the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has recommended that the agency authorize Pfizer's new COVID-19 vaccine in the United States. On Thursday (Dec. 10), the panel voted 17 to 4 to recommend that the vaccine receive emergency use authorization (EUA) for people ages 16 and older, according to The New York Times . The FDA typically follows the advice of its panels, and so today's vote is an important step towards the vaccine's authorization. It is anticipated that the agency will officially authorize the vaccine on Saturday (Dec. 12), the Times reported. Several countries have already authorized Pfizer's vaccine, including Canada, the United Kingdom and Bahrain.
Vaccine approval could come this weekend, as U.S. continues to record high daily death tolls On Thursday (Dec. 10), the U.S. recorded another 2,902 COVID-19 deaths, a day after the country set a record of 3,253 deaths, according to Reuters . “Probably for the next 60 to 90 days, we’re going to have more deaths per day than we had on 9/11 or we had at Pearl Harbor,” Dr. Robert Redfield, the director of the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, told the Council on Foreign Relations on Thursday, according to Reuters. "The reality is the vaccine approval this week is not going to really impact that, I think, to any degree for the next 60 days." On Thursday, the Vaccines and Related Biological Products Advisory Committee discussed, voted and recommended that the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) should grant an emergency use authorization for Pfizer's coronavirus vaccine. The Pfizer vaccine has already been approved in the U.K. and in Canada, and FDA approval for use in the U.S. could come this weekend.
Australia abandons local COVID-19 vaccine after it caused false-positive HIV tests An Australian COVID-19 vaccine that had shown promising results in early trials is being abandoned after researchers found that the shot caused false-positive results on HIV tests. On Friday (Dec. 11), Australian officials said they had canceled an order for some 51 million doses of the vaccine, which was being developed by The University of Queensland and CSL Ltd., a local biotech company, according to The New York Times . In an early trial with 216 participants, the vaccine appeared to be safe and to produce a robust immune response against COVID-19, according to a statement from CSL . But some volunteers falsely tested positive for HIV, which officials feared would undermine trust in the vaccine, the Times reported. The vaccine contained small fragments of an HIV protein, which helped stabilize the vaccine. Some of the participants developed antibodies against these fragments, and these antibodies triggered false positive results on some HIV tests. It's important to note that there is no way for the vaccine to cause an HIV infection, because it contains harmless fragments of the virus.
ICU nurse in New York becomes first person in the US to receive a coronavirus vaccine outside of clinical trials New York, the worst-hit state at the start of the pandemic, just became the first to administer a coronavirus vaccine outside of clinical trials, kicking off a long, massive effort to vaccinate the American people, Live Science reported. Around 9 a.m. E.T. on Monday (Dec. 14), the very first dose of Pfizer and BioNTech's coronavirus vaccine was given to Sandra Lindsay, an intensive care nurse in Long Island Jewish Medical Center in Queens, New York, according to The New York Times. This comes as the U.S. continues to battle a massive wave of the virus that has more than 109,000 people currently hospitalized, according to The COVID Tracking Project. Since the start of the pandemic, New York has recorded more than 780,000 cases of COVID-19 and more than 35,100 deaths, according to The Times. "This vaccine is exciting because I believe this is the weapon that will end the war," Gov. Andrew Cuomo said during a live broadcast of the first vaccination. "It's the beginning of the last chapter of the book, but now we just have to do it."
FDA analysis confirms Moderna's vaccine is safe and effective, emergency authorization is likely to come Friday A new briefing document from the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) released on Tuesday (Dec. 15) confirmed that Moderna's COVID-19 vaccine is safe and effective, according to NPR . Moderna's COVID-19 vaccine is 94% effective and has "a favorable safety profile," according to the document. A panel of experts is set to meet on Thursday (Dec. 17) to discuss the effectiveness and safety of the vaccine and vote on whether or not the FDA should grant emergency approval to the vaccine. Last week, the same panel voted that the FDA should grant emergency approval to Pfizer's coronavirus vaccine; the authorization came a day late and the first doses were given on Monday (Dec. 15). The FDA will likely approve Moderna's vaccine for emergency use on Friday (Dec. 18), according to The New York Times .
FDA authorizes first over-the-counter COVID-19 test The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has authorized the first over-the-counter COVID-19 test, which can be done at home and does not need a prescription. The test, made by the Australia-based company Ellume, provides results in as little as 20 minutes, according to a statement from the FDA . It is a "lateral flow antigen test," meaning it works in a similar way to a home pregnancy test, by running a "liquid sample along a surface with reactive molecules," the FDA said. The test works in conjunction with a smartphone app. Users take a nasal swab and place their sample in an analyzer, which communicates to the smartphone app via Bluetooth. The results are delivered through the app, and also reported to public health authorities (based on a user's zip code) through a secure cloud connection, the company said . Ellume is ramping up production of its test, and expects to produce three million tests in January 2021, and 20 million within the first half of 2021.
A wild mink tested positive for the coronavirus, it may be the first wild animal to have a confirmed case A wild mink in Utah may be the first "free-ranging, native wild animal" confirmed to be infected with SARS-CoV-2, according to the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), Live Science reported. The mink was found near a mink farm and likely picked up the infection from the farmed mink. There's no evidence that the virus spread to other minks or wild animals; but if the virus does begin circulating in wild animals, it could pick up mutations that COVID-19 vaccines may not protect well against if it spreads back to humans, according to the report. "If it does [establish a reservoir], then we've got a long-term issue here, where this virus has the potential to be with us for millennia," Sarah Olson, associate director of the health program at the Wildlife Conservation Society, told Vox. The U.S. Department of Agriculture's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service has screened other animal species for the virus near mink farms in Utah, Michigan and Wisconsin, but all of them have tested negative so far, according to a statement.
An FDA advisory panel will meet today to vote on whether to recommend Moderna's coronavirus vaccine for emergency approval On Thursday (Dec. 17), a Food and Drug Administration (FDA) advisory committee will meet to determine whether to recommend that Moderna’s coronavirus vaccine for emergency approval, according to The New York Times . This panel, composed of independent experts, will vote on whether to recommend the vaccine after hearing from the company, FDA scientists and the public, according to The Times. Last week, the same panel of experts met to discuss Pfizer’s coronavirus vaccine and voted to recommend emergency authorization; the authorization came the next day. There have now been more than 16.9 million cases of COVID-19 in the U.S. and more than 307,000 deaths, according to the Johns Hopkins dashboard . There are currently 113,090 people hospitalized across the country with more than 21,900 of them in the ICU and 7,778 on a ventilator, according to The COVID Tracking Project .
California becomes new epicenter of COVID-19 in U.S. California, once praised for its early pandemic response, is now the new U.S. hotspot for COVID-19 infections. The state has reported an alarming surge in cases, breaking previous records for daily cases. On Thursday (Dec. 17), the state reported some 50,000 COVID-19 infections in 24 hours, and nearly 100,000 in 48 hours, according to The Washington Post . That's more than the daily cases reported in many countries, including India, Germany and Britain, the Post reported. The state also set a record for daily deaths on Thursday, with 379 fatalities reported, up from the previous high of 293. Capacity in intensive care units has also dropped dramatically, with hospitals in Southern California reporting zero percent capacity on Thursday. "I want to be very clear: Our hospitals are under siege, and our model shows no end in sight," said Christina Ghaly, director of Los Angeles County's Department of Health Services, the Post reported.
FDA expected to authorize Moderna's vaccine on Friday The U.S. Food and Drug Administration is expected to authorize Moderna's COVID-19 vaccine on Friday (Dec. 18). Once authorized, it will be the second coronavirus vaccine to get the green light from the agency in just a week, with Pfizer's vaccine gaining authorization on Dec. 11. Moderna is expected to begin shipping 5.9 million doses of its vaccine on Sunday (Dec. 20), with the first deliveries arriving Monday (Dec. 21), according to The New York Times . Unlike the Pfizer vaccine, Moderna's vaccine does not require storage in extremely cold temperatures, and states are hoping to distribute the vaccine to rural hospitals and community health centers, the Times reported.
COVID-19 cases continue to surge across the U.S. There have now been more than 17 million cases of COVID-19 in the U.S. and more than 300,000 deaths, according to The COVID Tracking Project . There are currently 114,237 people hospitalized across the country and 21,900 people in the ICU. California is facing a massive surge in cases; the state reported 41,012 new COVID-19 cases and 300 new deaths on Thursday (Dec. 17), according to the state's COVID-19 dashboard . By comparison, at the start of November, California was reporting a seven-day average of 4,183 cases, compared to an average of 38,774 on Thursday, according to CNN . "We're experiencing an explosive and very deadly surge," Dr. Barbara Ferrer, Los Angeles County Public Health Director said, according to CNN. Intensive care unit beds are rapidly filling up across the state; there are only 1,234 ICU beds left available in California, according to the dashboard. Current closures across California are impacting around 98% of the state's population, according to CNN.
London and southeast England are under an emergency lockdown Following concerns of a new version of the coronavirus that might be more transmissible, London and most of southeast England are now under an emergency lockdown, according to The New York Times . Prime Minister Boris Johnson announced the lockdown on Saturday (Dec. 19) citing concerns that the mutated virus — which was detected a couple of weeks ago in southeast England — may be as much as 70% more transmissible than previous versions, according to the Times. The new version of the coronavirus is detected in more than 60% of new infections in London and have also been detected in several other countries, according to the Times. But it's not yet clear if this coronavirus version is any more infectious than the last and thorough analyses will need to be conducted before conclusions are made, scientists cautioned. In South Africa, a similar version of the virus has been found in up to 90% of new cases detected since mid-November, according to The Times . It's common for viruses to mutate, and this particular coronavirus has mutated many times since the start of the pandemic. But experts told The Times that it would take years for the virus to mutate enough such that it would make the current vaccines developed to fight COVID-19 ineffective.
Biden gets Pfizer's COVID-19 vaccine President-elect Joe Biden received a dose of Pfizer's new COVID-19 vaccine on Monday (Dec. 21), according to The New York Times . He received the shot on camera at the Christiana Hospital in Newark, Delaware. "I'm doing this to demonstrate that people should be prepared when it's available to take the vaccine. There's nothing to worry about," Biden said.
Antarctica has its 1st COVID-19 outbreak The first COVID-19 cases have been reported in Antarctica , meaning the disease has now spread to every continent in the world. On Tuesday (Dec. 22), Chilean officials reported an outbreak of 36 COVID-19 cases at the Chilean research base General Bernardo O'Higgins Riquelme on the Antarctic Peninsula, according to the BBC . Of these, 26 cases were military personnel and 10 were maintenance workers, the BBC reported. All of these cases have been evacuated from Antarctica to Punta Arenas, Chile, according to The Guardian . Antarctica had been COVID-19 free up until the current outbreak. The continent has no permanent residents, but about 1,000 people, including scientists and other workers, stayed there this past winter, The Guardian reported.
Live updates will continue in 2021!


livescience--2020-10-28--'Fireball' meteorite that crashed in Michigan holds extraterrestrial organic compounds

A meteorite that landed on a frozen lake in 2018 contains thousands of organic compounds that formed billions of years ago and could hold clues about the origins of life on .
The entered Earth 's atmosphere on Jan. 16 , 2018 , after a very long journey through the freezing vacuum of space , lighting up skies over Ontario , Canada , and the midwestern United States .
Weather radar tracked the flaming space rock 's descent and breakup , helping meteorite hunters to quickly locate fallen fragments on Strawberry Lake in Hamburg , Michigan .
An international team @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of the meteorite `` while it was still fresh , '' scientists reported in a new study .
Their analysis revealed more than 2,000 organic molecules dating to when our was young ; similar compounds may have seeded the emergence of microbial life on our planet , the study authors reported .
Swift recovery of the meteorite from the lake 's frozen surface prevented liquid water from seeping into cracks and contaminating the sample with terrestrial spores and microbes .
This maintained the space rock 's pristine state , enabling experts to more @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , there was so little terrestrial weathering that the fragment brought to Chicago 's Field Museum looked like it had been collected in space , said study co-author Jennika Greer , a doctoral candidate in the Department of the Geophysical Sciences at the University of Chicago , and a resident graduate student at The Field Museum .
When space rocks enter the atmosphere at speeds of several miles per second , the air around them becomes ionized .
Extreme heat melts away up to 90 % of the meteor , and the rock @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a 1-millimeter-thick fusion crust of melted glass , said lead study author Philipp Heck , a curator of meteorites at the Field Museum and an associate professor at the University of Chicago .
That surviving fragment inside the glassy crust is a pristine record of the rock 's geochemistry in space .
And despite a fiery fall to Earth , after the vaporized external layers are carried away , rocky meteorites such as this one are very , very cold when they land , Heck told Live Science .
`` I 've heard @ @ @ @ @ @ @ after it rained , and the puddle froze because the meteorite was so cold , '' he said .
The Michigan meteorite 's ratio of ( isotopes 238 and 235 ) to the element 's decayed state as ( isotopes 207 and 206 ) told the scientists that the parent asteroid formed about 4.5 billion years ago .
Around that time , the rock underwent a process called thermal metamorphism , as it was subjected to temperatures of up to 1,300 degrees Fahrenheit ( 700 degrees Celsius ) .
After that , the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the last 3 billion years .
Then about 12 million years ago , an impact broke off the chunk of rock that recently fell in Michigan , according to an analysis of the meteorite 's exposure to cosmic rays in space , Heck told Live Science .
Because the meteorite was altered so little after its initial heating billions of years ago , it was classified as H4 : `` H '' indicates that it 's a rocky meteorite that 's high in iron , while type 4 meteorites have undergone thermal metamorphism @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Only about 4 % of the meteorites that fall to Earth today land in the H4 category .
`` When we 're looking at these meteorites , we 're looking at something that 's close to the material when it formed early in the solar system 's history , '' Greer said .
The meteorite held 2,600 organic , or carbon-containing compounds , the researchers reported in the study .
Because the meteorite was mostly unchanged since 4.5 billion years ago , these compounds likely are similar to the ones that other meteorites @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of which `` might have been incorporated into life , '' Heck said .
The transformation from extraterrestrial organic compounds into the first microbial life on Earth is `` a big step '' that is still shrouded in mystery , but evidence suggests that organics are common in meteorites — even in thermally metamorphosed meteorites such as the one that landed in Michigan , he added .
Meteor bombardment was also more frequent for a young Earth than it is today , `` so we are pretty certain that the input from meteorites @ @ @ @ @ @ @ important , '' for seeding life , Heck said .
The findings were published online Oct. 27 in the journal Meteoritics & Planetary Science .

A meteorite that landed on a frozen lake in 2018 contains thousands of organic compounds that formed billions of years ago and could hold clues about the origins of life on Earth .
The meteor entered Earth's atmosphere on Jan. 16, 2018, after a very long journey through the freezing vacuum of space, lighting up skies over Ontario, Canada, and the midwestern United States. Weather radar tracked the flaming space rock's descent and breakup, helping meteorite hunters to quickly locate fallen fragments on Strawberry Lake in Hamburg, Michigan.
An international team of researchers then examined a walnut-size piece of the meteorite "while it was still fresh," scientists reported in a new study. Their analysis revealed more than 2,000 organic molecules dating to when our solar system was young; similar compounds may have seeded the emergence of microbial life on our planet, the study authors reported.
Related: Space-y tales: The 5 strangest meteorites
Swift recovery of the meteorite from the lake's frozen surface prevented liquid water from seeping into cracks and contaminating the sample with terrestrial spores and microbes. This maintained the space rock's pristine state, enabling experts to more easily evaluate its composition.
In fact, there was so little terrestrial weathering that the fragment brought to Chicago's Field Museum looked like it had been collected in space, said study co-author Jennika Greer, a doctoral candidate in the Department of the Geophysical Sciences at the University of Chicago, and a resident graduate student at The Field Museum.
When space rocks enter the atmosphere at speeds of several miles per second, the air around them becomes ionized. Extreme heat melts away up to 90% of the meteor, and the rock that survives atmospheric passage becomes encased in a 1-millimeter-thick fusion crust of melted glass, said lead study author Philipp Heck, a curator of meteorites at the Field Museum and an associate professor at the University of Chicago.
That surviving fragment inside the glassy crust is a pristine record of the rock's geochemistry in space. And despite a fiery fall to Earth, after the vaporized external layers are carried away, rocky meteorites such as this one are very, very cold when they land, Heck told Live Science.
"I've heard eyewitness accounts of meteorites falling into puddles after it rained, and the puddle froze because the meteorite was so cold," he said.
Still frame from security video of the Hamburg fireball, recorded in Toledo, Ohio on Jan. 16, 2018. (Image credit: T. Masterson and the American Meteor Society)
Mostly unchanged
The Michigan meteorite's ratio of uranium (isotopes 238 and 235) to the element's decayed state as lead (isotopes 207 and 206) told the scientists that the parent asteroid formed about 4.5 billion years ago. Around that time, the rock underwent a process called thermal metamorphism, as it was subjected to temperatures of up to 1,300 degrees Fahrenheit (700 degrees Celsius). After that, the asteroid's composition stayed mostly unchanged for the last 3 billion years.
Then about 12 million years ago, an impact broke off the chunk of rock that recently fell in Michigan, according to an analysis of the meteorite's exposure to cosmic rays in space, Heck told Live Science.
Because the meteorite was altered so little after its initial heating billions of years ago, it was classified as H4: "H" indicates that it's a rocky meteorite that's high in iron, while type 4 meteorites have undergone thermal metamorphism sufficient to change their original composition. Only about 4% of the meteorites that fall to Earth today land in the H4 category.
"When we're looking at these meteorites, we're looking at something that's close to the material when it formed early in the solar system's history," Greer said.
The meteorite held 2,600 organic, or carbon-containing compounds, the researchers reported in the study. Because the meteorite was mostly unchanged since 4.5 billion years ago, these compounds likely are similar to the ones that other meteorites brought to a young Earth, some of which "might have been incorporated into life," Heck said.
The transformation from extraterrestrial organic compounds into the first microbial life on Earth is "a big step" that is still shrouded in mystery, but evidence suggests that organics are common in meteorites — even in thermally metamorphosed meteorites such as the one that landed in Michigan, he added. Meteor bombardment was also more frequent for a young Earth than it is today, "so we are pretty certain that the input from meteorites into the organic inventory on Earth was important," for seeding life, Heck said.
The findings were published online Oct. 27 in the journal Meteoritics & Planetary Science.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-10-28--Who lies in the tomb of the 'Six-Headed Chief'? DNA reveals clues.

A strange grave found in Scotland holding the medieval remains of what was thought to be a single man surrounded by five skulls — dubbed the `` Six-Headed Chief '' — is starting to divulge its secrets .
A new analysis now suggests the bones and skulls belong to members of the same extended family .
After the burial was discovered in 1997 near the altar of a former parish church at Portmahomack , a fishing village in the Easter Ross region , archaeologists soon realized two people had been buried in the same grave and surrounded by four disembodied @ @ @ @ @ @ @ two men were buried between the late 13th and early 15th centuries , and were cousins or an uncle and nephew ; and three of the four skulls came from the same family — the grandfather , father and mother of the second man .
Another relative , probably the son of the second man , was buried nearby .
The fourth skull dated from between the eighth and 10th centuries , and was originally buried in a nearby monastic cemetery .
Archaeologists now think the skull belonged to a Pictish monk , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and kept as a prized family relic .
Placing disembodied skulls beside a body in a grave is `` almost unheard of '' in Scotland at the time , archaeologist Cecily Spall of FAS Heritage , who leads the fieldwork at the site , told Live Science .
`` You can find examples in the Neolithic and the Bronze Age where body parts were used for worship , but this is something completely different , '' Spall said .
`` In the medieval period , harvesting the graves of your parents and grandparents @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a contemporary burial is about as unusual as it gets . ''
The man first buried in the grave probably died from extreme violence — he was almost certainly killed by a blow that cut away part of his face , said osteologist Shirley Curtis-Summers of the University of Bradford in the U.K. '' The attacker would have been facing the victim and delivered the fatal blow across the right-side of the face with a sword large and sharp enough ( such as a broadsword ) to cut through the facial bones , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ email .
The man would have stood at 5 feet 9 inches ( 175 centimeters ) — the tallest of all the ancient skeletons excavated at Portmahomack — and his burial in the center of the parish church suggested he was someone of great importance , she said .
Related : In images : Cut marks from samurai swords and machetes Archaeologists initially thought the remains dated from the 1480s , when the church was the scene of fighting between two Highland clans , the Rosses and the Mackays , Spall said .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ killed by warriors from Clan Ross , and the rest took refuge in the church ; but the Rosses set fire to it , killing everyone inside , she said — a conflict known as the Battle of Tarbat , from the name of the local parish .
But radiocarbon dating shows the people in the grave were buried several generations before the Battle of Tarbat , Spall said , although it 's possible they had family connections to people involved in the later battle .
The church was rebuilt after the fire @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the Tarbat Discovery Center , which displays archaeological artifacts from the site and relates the local history .
The `` six-headed chief '' may have been a local leader who suddenly died a violent death .
In this case , — the burial of the second man in the same spot , possibly up to a generation later , was possibly an attempt to enhance the connections of his family with the first man , she said .
That might also explain why the skulls of the second man 's ancestors were also @ @ @ @ @ @ @ probably made by the second man before his death , she said .
`` It suggests to us that he is going out this way to legitimize his particular succession in taking over the leadership of the community , '' she said .
`` For some reason , they were in a very stressful situation — potentially a time of war or a local dispute , '' she said .
`` Their leader was slain , and they needed to legitimize who followed him . ''
Curtis-Summers said the strange style of burial @ @ @ @ @ @ @ locally important .
`` The fact they went against the usual burial type of the time by adopting this striking mortuary rite separates them out as a special group within their community at Portmahomack , '' she said .

The six skulls of the "Six-Headed Chief" were found in a medieval grave in the Scottish Highland region of Easter Ross. Scientists have discovered most of the skulls came from relatives.
A strange grave found in Scotland holding the medieval remains of what was thought to be a single man surrounded by five skulls — dubbed the "Six-Headed Chief" — is starting to divulge its secrets. A new DNA analysis now suggests the bones and skulls belong to members of the same extended family.
After the burial was discovered in 1997 near the altar of a former parish church at Portmahomack, a fishing village in the Easter Ross region, archaeologists soon realized two people had been buried in the same grave and surrounded by four disembodied skulls.
The latest research reveals the two men were buried between the late 13th and early 15th centuries, and were cousins or an uncle and nephew; and three of the four skulls came from the same family — the grandfather, father and mother of the second man. Another relative, probably the son of the second man, was buried nearby.
Related: 25 grisly archaeological discoveries
The fourth skull dated from between the eighth and 10th centuries, and was originally buried in a nearby monastic cemetery. Archaeologists now think the skull belonged to a Pictish monk, which was removed from the monastic cemetery and kept as a prized family relic.
Placing disembodied skulls beside a body in a grave is "almost unheard of" in Scotland at the time, archaeologist Cecily Spall of FAS Heritage, who leads the fieldwork at the site, told Live Science.
"You can find examples in the Neolithic and the Bronze Age where body parts were used for worship, but this is something completely different," Spall said. "In the medieval period, harvesting the graves of your parents and grandparents for body parts and putting them into a contemporary burial is about as unusual as it gets."
Highland warriors
Image 1 of 5 The oldest of the two full burials in the grave was a tall man who was probably killed by a blow from a sword that cut away part of his face. (Image credit: Adrian Evans/University of Bradford) Scientists think the two main burials in the grave date between the late 13th century and the early 15th century; the two men were related, probably cousins or an uncle and nephew. (Image credit: Adrian Evans/University of Bradford) Ancient DNA analysis shows the two burials in the grave and most of the extra skulls came from a single family. Another member of the family was buried next to them. (Image credit: FAS Heritage) The six skulls of the "Six-Headed Chief" were found in a medieval grave in the Scottish Highland region of Easter Ross. Scientists have discovered most of the skulls came from relatives. (Image credit: FAS Heritage) The old Tarbat parish church at Portmahomack where the remains were found was the scene of a violent battle between rival clans in the 15th century; it is now a heritage centre and museum. (Image credit: Jim Bain, Old Tarbat Parish Church / CC BY-SA 2.0)
The man first buried in the grave probably died from extreme violence — he was almost certainly killed by a blow that cut away part of his face, said osteologist Shirley Curtis-Summers of the University of Bradford in the U.K.
"The attacker would have been facing the victim and delivered the fatal blow across the right-side of the face with a sword large and sharp enough (such as a broadsword) to cut through the facial bones," Curtis-Summers told Live Science in an email.
The man would have stood at 5 feet 9 inches (175 centimeters) — the tallest of all the ancient skeletons excavated at Portmahomack — and his burial in the center of the parish church suggested he was someone of great importance, she said.
Related: In images: Cut marks from samurai swords and machetes
Archaeologists initially thought the remains dated from the 1480s, when the church was the scene of fighting between two Highland clans, the Rosses and the Mackays, Spall said.
Several raiders from Clan Mackay had been killed by warriors from Clan Ross, and the rest took refuge in the church; but the Rosses set fire to it, killing everyone inside, she said — a conflict known as the Battle of Tarbat, from the name of the local parish.
But radiocarbon dating shows the people in the grave were buried several generations before the Battle of Tarbat, Spall said, although it's possible they had family connections to people involved in the later battle.
The church was rebuilt after the fire in the 1480s; it now houses the Tarbat Discovery Center, which displays archaeological artifacts from the site and relates the local history.
Ancient DNA analysis shows the two burials in the grave and most of the extra skulls came from a single family. Another member of the family was buried next to them. (Image credit: FAS Heritage)
Strange burial
The "six-headed chief" may have been a local leader who suddenly died a violent death. In this case, — the burial of the second man in the same spot, possibly up to a generation later, was possibly an attempt to enhance the connections of his family with the first man, she said. That might also explain why the skulls of the second man's ancestors were also put into the grave — a decision probably made by the second man before his death, she said.
"It suggests to us that he is going out this way to legitimize his particular succession in taking over the leadership of the community," she said. "For some reason, they were in a very stressful situation — potentially a time of war or a local dispute," she said. "Their leader was slain, and they needed to legitimize who followed him."
Curtis-Summers said the strange style of burial was an indication that the family was locally important.
"The fact they went against the usual burial type of the time by adopting this striking mortuary rite separates them out as a special group within their community at Portmahomack," she said.


livescience--2020-10-28--Astronomers peer into the atmosphere of a rare exoplanet that 'shouldn't exist'

The discovery of the extraordinary exoplanet LTT 9779b was first announced a month ago .
Just 260 light-years away , the planet was immediately pegged as an excellent candidate for follow-up study of its curious atmosphere .
But it turns out we did n't even have to wait too long to learn more .
LTT 9779b is a little bigger than Neptune , orbiting a Sun-like star - fairly normal so far .
But two things are really peculiar .
It 's so close to its star , the planet orbits once every 19 hours ; and , in spite @ @ @ @ @ @ @ subjected to at that proximity , LTT 9779b still has a substantial atmosphere .
Infrared observations collected by the now-retired Spitzer Space Telescope included the planet 's host star , and astronomers have now analysed those data , publishing their results in a couple of studies .
In the first paper , a team led by astronomer Ian Crossfield of the University of Kansas has described LTT 9779b 's temperature profile .
In the second paper , a team led by astronomer Diana Dragomir of the University of New Mexico has characterised the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ first time , we measured the light coming from this planet that should n't exist , '' Crossfield said .
`` This planet is so intensely irradiated by its star that its temperature is over 3,000 degrees Fahrenheit [ 1,650 degrees Celsius ] and its atmosphere could have evaporated entirely .
Yet , our Spitzer observations show us its atmosphere via the infrared light the planet emits . ''
He and his team studied the exoplanet 's phase curve in infrared light .
Here 's what that means : Because thermal energy is @ @ @ @ @ @ @ this wavelength can tell us the temperature of cosmic objects many light-years away .
The system is oriented in such a way that the planet passes between us and the star , giving us clear broadside views of both the planet 's night and day sides .
Thus , to calculate the exoplanet 's temperature , astronomers can use the changing light of the overall system as LTT 9779b orbits .
Interestingly , the hottest time of day for LTT 9779b is just about bang on noon , when its sun is directly @ @ @ @ @ @ @ time of day is actually a few hours after noon , because heat enters Earth 's atmosphere faster than it is radiated back out into space .
In turn , this allows for some educated guesses about the atmosphere of LTT 9779b .
`` The planet is much cooler than we expected , which suggests that it is reflecting away much of the incident starlight that hits it , presumably due to dayside clouds , '' said astronomer Nicolas Cowan of the Institute for Research on Exoplanets ( iREx ) and McGill University @ @ @ @ @ @ @ does n't transport much heat to its nightside , but we think we understand that : The starlight that is absorbed is likely absorbed high in the atmosphere , from whence the energy is quickly radiated back to space . ''
To further probe the atmosphere of LTT 9779b , Dragomir and her colleagues focused on secondary eclipses , when the planet passes behind the star .
This results in a fainter dimming of the system 's light than when the planet passes in front of the star - known as a transit @ @ @ @ @ @ @ us understand the thermal structure of an exoplanet 's atmosphere .
`` Hot Neptunes are rare , and one in such an extreme environment as this one is difficult to explain because its mass is n't large enough to hold on to an atmosphere for very long , '' Dragomir said .
`` So how did it manage ?
LTT 9779b had us scratching our heads , but the fact that it has an atmosphere gives us a rare way to investigate this type of planet , so we decided to probe it @ @ @ @ @ @ @ combined Spitzer secondary eclipse data with data from NASA 's exoplanet-hunting space telescope TESS .
This allowed them to obtain an emission spectrum from LTT 9779b 's atmosphere ; that is , the wavelengths of light absorbed and amplified by elements therein .
They found that some wavelengths were being absorbed by molecules - probably carbon monoxide .
This is not unexpected for such a hot planet .
Carbon monoxide has been detected in hot Jupiters - gas giants that also orbit their stars at scorchingly close proximity .
But gas giants are @ @ @ @ @ @ @ use their much higher gravity to retain their atmospheres .
It was thought that Neptune-sized planets should not be massive enough to do so .
Finding carbon monoxide in the atmosphere of a hot Neptune could help us understand how this planet formed , and why it still has its atmosphere .
So , while we know more about LTT 9779b than we did , there 's still work to be done .
Future observations could help us answer these questions and others , such as what else is the atmosphere made of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ much larger , and is currently in the process of rapidly shrinking .
Research like this will give us an excellent toolkit and experience for probing the atmospheres of potentially habitable worlds , too .
`` If anyone is going to believe what astronomers say about finding signs of life or oxygen on other worlds , we 're going to have to show we can actually do it right on the easy stuff first , '' Crossfield said .
`` In that sense these bigger , hotter planets like LTT 9779b act like @ @ @ @ @ @ @ know what we 're doing and can get everything right . ''
The two papers have been published in The Astrophysical Journal Letters , here and here .
This article was originally published by ScienceAlert .
Read the original article here .

The discovery of the extraordinary exoplanet LTT 9779b was first announced a month ago. Just 260 light-years away, the planet was immediately pegged as an excellent candidate for follow-up study of its curious atmosphere. But it turns out we didn't even have to wait too long to learn more.
LTT 9779b is a little bigger than Neptune, orbiting a Sun-like star - fairly normal so far. But two things are really peculiar. It's so close to its star, the planet orbits once every 19 hours; and, in spite of the scorching heat it must be subjected to at that proximity, LTT 9779b still has a substantial atmosphere.
Infrared observations collected by the now-retired Spitzer Space Telescope included the planet's host star, and astronomers have now analysed those data, publishing their results in a couple of studies.
In the first paper, a team led by astronomer Ian Crossfield of the University of Kansas has described LTT 9779b's temperature profile.
In the second paper, a team led by astronomer Diana Dragomir of the University of New Mexico has characterised the exoplanet's atmosphere.
"For the first time, we measured the light coming from this planet that shouldn't exist," Crossfield said.
"This planet is so intensely irradiated by its star that its temperature is over 3,000 degrees Fahrenheit [1,650 degrees Celsius] and its atmosphere could have evaporated entirely. Yet, our Spitzer observations show us its atmosphere via the infrared light the planet emits."
He and his team studied the exoplanet's phase curve in infrared light. Here's what that means: Because thermal energy is emitted as infrared radiation, light in this wavelength can tell us the temperature of cosmic objects many light-years away.
The system is oriented in such a way that the planet passes between us and the star, giving us clear broadside views of both the planet's night and day sides. Thus, to calculate the exoplanet's temperature, astronomers can use the changing light of the overall system as LTT 9779b orbits.
Interestingly, the hottest time of day for LTT 9779b is just about bang on noon, when its sun is directly overhead. On Earth, the hottest time of day is actually a few hours after noon, because heat enters Earth's atmosphere faster than it is radiated back out into space.
In turn, this allows for some educated guesses about the atmosphere of LTT 9779b.
"The planet is much cooler than we expected, which suggests that it is reflecting away much of the incident starlight that hits it, presumably due to dayside clouds," said astronomer Nicolas Cowan of the Institute for Research on Exoplanets (iREx) and McGill University in Canada.
"The planet also doesn't transport much heat to its nightside, but we think we understand that: The starlight that is absorbed is likely absorbed high in the atmosphere, from whence the energy is quickly radiated back to space."
To further probe the atmosphere of LTT 9779b, Dragomir and her colleagues focused on secondary eclipses, when the planet passes behind the star. This results in a fainter dimming of the system's light than when the planet passes in front of the star - known as a transit - but that fainter dimming can help us understand the thermal structure of an exoplanet's atmosphere.
"Hot Neptunes are rare, and one in such an extreme environment as this one is difficult to explain because its mass isn't large enough to hold on to an atmosphere for very long," Dragomir said.
"So how did it manage? LTT 9779b had us scratching our heads, but the fact that it has an atmosphere gives us a rare way to investigate this type of planet, so we decided to probe it with another telescope."
The researchers combined Spitzer secondary eclipse data with data from NASA's exoplanet-hunting space telescope TESS. This allowed them to obtain an emission spectrum from LTT 9779b's atmosphere; that is, the wavelengths of light absorbed and amplified by elements therein. They found that some wavelengths were being absorbed by molecules - probably carbon monoxide.
This is not unexpected for such a hot planet. Carbon monoxide has been detected in hot Jupiters - gas giants that also orbit their stars at scorchingly close proximity. But gas giants are more massive than hot Neptunes, and use their much higher gravity to retain their atmospheres. It was thought that Neptune-sized planets should not be massive enough to do so.
Finding carbon monoxide in the atmosphere of a hot Neptune could help us understand how this planet formed, and why it still has its atmosphere.
So, while we know more about LTT 9779b than we did, there's still work to be done. Future observations could help us answer these questions and others, such as what else is the atmosphere made of, and did the exoplanet start off much larger, and is currently in the process of rapidly shrinking.
Research like this will give us an excellent toolkit and experience for probing the atmospheres of potentially habitable worlds, too.
"If anyone is going to believe what astronomers say about finding signs of life or oxygen on other worlds, we're going to have to show we can actually do it right on the easy stuff first," Crossfield said.
"In that sense these bigger, hotter planets like LTT 9779b act like training wheels and show that we actually know what we're doing and can get everything right."
The two papers have been published in The Astrophysical Journal Letters, here and here.
This article was originally published by ScienceAlert. Read the original article here.


livescience--2020-10-28--Sue the T. rex had a terribly painful infection when she died

Sue , the mighty whose skeleton is one of the most complete ever found , likely suffered from a big toothache due to three tiny , weird-looking teeth .
`` Two of these teeth are actually fused together , '' said study lead researcher Kirstin Brink , an assistant professor in the Department of Geological Sciences at the University of Manitoba in Winnipeg , Canada .
`` One of the teeth has some extra serrations on the side of the tooth , not in the normal place on the front or back edges of the tooth . ''
Her research @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a peer-reviewed journal , was presented online Oct. 13 at the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology annual conference , held online this year due to the coronavirus .
Like other T. rexes , Sue , whose skeleton is on display at the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago , had knifelike serrated teeth , some the size of bananas .
When alive , T. rexes would constantly grow new teeth , likely replacing each tooth every one to two years .
While dental problems were common in theropods , the group of bipedal @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , most of those tooth troubles were likely genetic , Brink said .
In contrast , Sue 's three developing teeth are weirdly misshapen , `` squished and bent with a strange , almost wave-like texture running down the sides , almost as if they were like icing being squeezed through a piping bag , '' Brink said .
Previously , researchers examining strange holes in Sue 's jaw ( also called trichomoniasis ) , an oral infection caused by a parasite , according to a 2009 study published in the journal .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ this condition may have changed the shape of Sue 's teeth ; this would be the first record of an infection causing misshapen teeth in a theropod , she said .
Brink came to that conclusion after looking at digital 3D images from of the teeth .
Because this weird , fused-tooth formation was n't seen elsewhere in Sue 's chompers — `` Sue 's teeth are all normal except for the three odd ones '' — this deformity likely is n't a genetic blip , Brink said .
She noted that when @ @ @ @ @ @ @ dinosaurs , get trichomonosis , `` they grow large , waxy growths in their throats .
The infection can also spread through the skull and through the skin , so a lot of tissues in the head can be affected . ''
Modern birds do n't have teeth , however , so it 's hard to know how this infection would affect teeth .
However , `` my working hypothesis at this point is that the waxy growths got so big or the infection got so bad that normal tooth development was disrupted @ @ @ @ @ @ @ '' of Sue , she said .
This type of tooth malformation is also seen in teeth of the shark , another prehistoric creature that also constantly regrew its teeth , said Ashley Poust , a postdoctoral researcher at the San Diego Natural History Museum , who was n't involved with the research .
T. rexes would n't have minded malformed teeth too much — after all , they were always growing new teeth .
`` If the tissues that grow the teeth were damaged though , then the T. rex might have @ @ @ @ @ @ @ '' Poust told Live Science in an email .
`` An impacted or malformed tooth could have been a source of real misery . ''
Evan Johnson-Ransom , a master 's student at Oklahoma State University specializing in the feeding behavior of theropod dinosaurs , remembers how , when he would give tours as a docent at the Field Museum , `` I always talked about the holes in Sue 's jaw being the result of an infection , and how difficult it was for Sue to eat and drink . ''
`` @ @ @ @ @ @ @ on Sue 's infection , I was both fascinated and terrified at how far the infection could spread and the effect it had on its teeth generation , '' Johnson-Ransom , who was n't involved in the research , but saw the presentation at the conference , told Live Science .
`` Research like this shows us not only how prehistoric animals lived , but also the injuries they sustained and how much … it affected them . ''

Sue, the mighty Tyrannosaurus rex whose skeleton is one of the most complete ever found, likely suffered from a big toothache due to three tiny, weird-looking teeth.
"Two of these teeth are actually fused together," said study lead researcher Kirstin Brink, an assistant professor in the Department of Geological Sciences at the University of Manitoba in Winnipeg, Canada. "One of the teeth has some extra serrations on the side of the tooth, not in the normal place on the front or back edges of the tooth."
Her research, which is not yet published in a peer-reviewed journal, was presented online Oct. 13 at the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology annual conference, held online this year due to the coronavirus pandemic .
Related: Photos: Newfound tyrannosaur had nearly 3-inch-long teeth
Like other T. rexes, Sue, whose skeleton is on display at the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago, had knifelike serrated teeth, some the size of bananas. When alive, T. rexes would constantly grow new teeth, likely replacing each tooth every one to two years.
Image 1 of 4 Kirstin Brink photographs Sue's jaws. (Image credit: Christopher McGarrity) Sue's skeleton is on display at the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago. (Image credit: Kirstin Brink)
Sue is one of the most complete T. rex skeletons ever found. (Image credit: Kirstin Brink) Some of Sue's knifelike teeth were the size of bananas. (Image credit: Kirstin Brink)
While dental problems were common in theropods, the group of bipedal, mostly-meat eating dinosaurs that includes T. rex, most of those tooth troubles were likely genetic, Brink said. In contrast, Sue's three developing teeth are weirdly misshapen, "squished and bent with a strange, almost wave-like texture running down the sides, almost as if they were like icing being squeezed through a piping bag," Brink said.
Previously, researchers examining strange holes in Sue's jaw diagnosed the dinosaur king with trichomonosis (also called trichomoniasis), an oral infection caused by a parasite, according to a 2009 study published in the journal PLOS One . Now, Brink's research suggests that this condition may have changed the shape of Sue's teeth; this would be the first record of an infection causing misshapen teeth in a theropod, she said.
Brink came to that conclusion after looking at digital 3D images from CT (computed tomography) scans of the teeth. Because this weird, fused-tooth formation wasn't seen elsewhere in Sue's chompers — "Sue's teeth are all normal except for the three odd ones" — this deformity likely isn't a genetic blip, Brink said.
She noted that when modern birds, the descendants of theropod dinosaurs, get trichomonosis, "they grow large, waxy growths in their throats. The infection can also spread through the skull and through the skin, so a lot of tissues in the head can be affected." Modern birds don't have teeth, however, so it's hard to know how this infection would affect teeth. However, "my working hypothesis at this point is that the waxy growths got so big or the infection got so bad that normal tooth development was disrupted in one spot in the jaw," of Sue, she said.
This type of tooth malformation is also seen in teeth of the megalodon shark, another prehistoric creature that also constantly regrew its teeth, said Ashley Poust, a postdoctoral researcher at the San Diego Natural History Museum, who wasn't involved with the research.
T. rexes wouldn't have minded malformed teeth too much — after all, they were always growing new teeth. "If the tissues that grow the teeth were damaged though, then the T. rex might have been in a world of hurt," Poust told Live Science in an email. "An impacted or malformed tooth could have been a source of real misery."
Evan Johnson-Ransom, a master's student at Oklahoma State University specializing in the feeding behavior of theropod dinosaurs, remembers how, when he would give tours as a docent at the Field Museum, "I always talked about the holes in Sue's jaw being the result of an infection, and how difficult it was for Sue to eat and drink."
"Upon hearing Dr. Kirstin Bink's research on Sue's infection, I was both fascinated and terrified at how far the infection could spread and the effect it had on its teeth generation," Johnson-Ransom, who wasn't involved in the research, but saw the presentation at the conference, told Live Science. "Research like this shows us not only how prehistoric animals lived, but also the injuries they sustained and how much … it affected them."
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-10-28--Astronomers find new way to hunt the elusive Planet 9

Finding may require looking at telescope images in a different light .
Astronomers are vetting a `` shifting and stacking '' technique that could aid the hunt for the putative world , which some researchers think lurks undiscovered in the far outer system , way beyond Pluto 's orbit .
The strategy involves shifting space-telescope images along sets of possible orbital paths , then stacking the photos together to combine their light .
The technique has already been used to discover some moons in our solar system , and it could potentially spot Planet Nine — also known as Planet @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Next — and other extremely farflung objects , researchers said .
Related : The evidence for 'Planet Nine ' in our solar system ( gallery ) '' You really can ’ t see them without using this kind of method , '' Malena Rice , an astronomy Ph.D. student at Yale University in Connecticut , said in a statement .
`` If Planet Nine is out there , it ’ s going to be incredibly dim . ''
Rice is lead author of a new study that put the method into action .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ astronomy professor at Yale , shifted and stacked images captured by NASA 's ( TESS ) , which hunts for alien worlds from Earth orbit .
In a test , the researchers found the faint signals of three known trans-Neptunian objects ( TNOs ) — small bodies that circle the sun beyond Neptune 's orbit — in shifted and stacked TESS images .
The scientists then conducted a blind search of two distant patches of sky , turning up 17 new TNO candidates .
`` If even one of these candidate objects is @ @ @ @ @ @ @ understand the dynamics of the outer solar system and the likely properties of Planet Nine , '' Rice said .
`` It ’ s compelling new information . ''
The researchers are currently working to confirm the 17 candidate TNOs , using imagery captured by ground-based telescopes .
TNOs are bread crumbs that could lead to the way to Planet Nine .
Researchers have inferred the hypothetical world 's existence from the odd orbits of some TNOs , which they say are clustered in a way that strongly suggests sculpting by a big @ @ @ @ @ @ @ data indicate a planet five to 10 times more massive than Earth , orbiting the sun hundreds of times farther away than our world does .
Not everyone is on board with this interpretation , however .
Some scientists think the TNOs ' odd clustering arises from the combined gravitational influence of their many minuscule neighbors , not a single big object .
The new study has been accepted by The Planetary Science Journal .
Rice presented the results today ( Oct. 27 ) at the annual meeting of the American Astronomical Society @ @ @ @ @ @ @ which is being held virtually this year .
Editor 's note : This story was updated at 4:20 p.m. EDT to clarify that Rice , not Laughlin , is lead author of the new study .
Mike Wall is the author of `` Out There '' ( Grand Central Publishing , 2018 ; illustrated by Karl Tate ) , a book about the search for alien life .
Follow him on Twitter @ michaeldwall .
Follow us on Twitter @ Spacedotcom or Facebook .

Artist's illustration of Planet Nine, a world about 10 times more massive than Earth that may lie undiscovered in the far outer solar system.
Finding Planet Nine may require looking at telescope images in a different light.
Astronomers are vetting a "shifting and stacking" technique that could aid the hunt for the putative world, which some researchers think lurks undiscovered in the far outer system , way beyond Pluto's orbit.
The strategy involves shifting space-telescope images along sets of possible orbital paths, then stacking the photos together to combine their light. The technique has already been used to discover some moons in our solar system, and it could potentially spot Planet Nine — also known as Planet X, Giant Planet Five or Planet Next — and other extremely farflung objects, researchers said.
Related: The evidence for 'Planet Nine' in our solar system (gallery)
"You really can’t see them without using this kind of method," Malena Rice, an astronomy Ph.D. student at Yale University in Connecticut, said in a statement. "If Planet Nine is out there, it’s going to be incredibly dim."
Rice is lead author of a new study that put the method into action. She and co-author Greg Laughlin, an astronomy professor at Yale, shifted and stacked images captured by NASA's Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS), which hunts for alien worlds from Earth orbit.
In a test, the researchers found the faint signals of three known trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs) — small bodies that circle the sun beyond Neptune's orbit — in shifted and stacked TESS images. The scientists then conducted a blind search of two distant patches of sky, turning up 17 new TNO candidates.
"If even one of these candidate objects is real, it would help us to understand the dynamics of the outer solar system and the likely properties of Planet Nine," Rice said. "It’s compelling new information."
The researchers are currently working to confirm the 17 candidate TNOs, using imagery captured by ground-based telescopes.
TNOs are bread crumbs that could lead to the way to Planet Nine. Researchers have inferred the hypothetical world's existence from the odd orbits of some TNOs, which they say are clustered in a way that strongly suggests sculpting by a big, farflung "perturber." The data indicate a planet five to 10 times more massive than Earth, orbiting the sun hundreds of times farther away than our world does.
Not everyone is on board with this interpretation, however. Some scientists think the TNOs' odd clustering arises from the combined gravitational influence of their many minuscule neighbors , not a single big object.
The new study has been accepted by The Planetary Science Journal. Rice presented the results today (Oct. 27) at the annual meeting of the American Astronomical Society’s Division for Planetary Sciences, which is being held virtually this year.
Editor's note: This story was updated at 4:20 p.m. EDT to clarify that Rice, not Laughlin, is lead author of the new study.
Mike Wall is the author of "Out There" (Grand Central Publishing, 2018; illustrated by Karl Tate), a book about the search for alien life. Follow him on Twitter @michaeldwall. Follow us on Twitter @Spacedotcom or Facebook.