livescience--2020-10-15--Physicists keep trying to break the rules of gravity but this supermassive black hole just said 'no'

A new test of 's theory of general relativity has proved the iconic physicist right again — this time by re-analyzing the famous , which was released in April 2019 .
That image of the supermassive black hole at the center of galaxy M87 was the first direct observation of a black hole 's shadow — the imprint of the event horizon , a sphere around the black hole 's singularity from which no light can escape .
Einstein 's theory predicts the size of the event horizon based on the mass of the black hole ; and in April @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the shadow fits general relativity 's prediction pretty well .
But now , using a new technique to analyze the image , the researchers who made the picture showed just how well the shadow fits the theory .
The answer : 500 times better than any test of relativity done in our .
That result , in turn , puts tighter limits on any theory that would seek to reconcile general relativity , which describes the behavior of massive celestial objects , with quantum mechanics , which predicts the behavior of very small @ @ @ @ @ @ @ was to describe how operates in the universe : how it pulls objects toward each other ; how it warps ; and how it forms black holes .
To test general relativity , scientists use the theory to predict how gravity will act in a certain situation .
Then , they observe what actually happens .
If the prediction matches the observation , general relativity has passed its test .
But no test is perfect .
Watch how the sun 's gravity tugs Mercury along its orbit , and you can measure general @ @ @ @ @ @ @ n't measure the movement of Mercury down to the nanometer .
And other forces — the tug of Jupiter 's gravity , and Earth 's gravity and the force solar wind , to name just a few — impact Mercury 's movement in ways that are difficult to separate from the effects of relativity .
So the result of every test is an approximation and Einstein 's theory is only proven more or less .
Related : 8 ways you can see Einstein 's Theory of Relativity in real life The size of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ less '' factor — is important .
When scientists test general relativity over and over , they are putting constraints on Einstein 's idea .
The reason this work is important is that even though general relativity keeps passing tests , physicists do expect it to eventually fail .
General relativity must be incomplete , physicists believe , because it contradicts quantum mechanics .
Physicists believe that discrepancy signals the presence in our universe of some larger , all-encompassing mechanism describing both gravity and the quantum world that they have yet to uncover @ @ @ @ @ @ @ they hope , might turn up clues to help them find that complete theory .
`` We expect a complete theory of gravity to be different from general relativity , but there are many ways one can modify it , '' University of Arizona astrophysicist Dimitrios Psaltis .
Psaltis is lead author of a paper published Oct. 1 in the journal describing this new test , and is part of the Event Horizon Telescope ( EHT ) team , responsible for imaging the M87 black hole 's shadow .
In this new test @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to generate artificial images of the M87 black hole based on a modified version of gravity , where the force of gravity is weaker or stronger at the event horizon .
With that weakened-gravity scenario , they asked , how large or small would that black hole 's event horizon be ?
What about with stronger gravity ?
Then , they checked how many of those possible modifications produced event horizons with sizes that matched that of the image EHT actually captured of M87 .
Some did , their slight variances from general @ @ @ @ @ @ @ show up in the admittedly fuzzy snap of the black hole .
But the vast majority did not .
Related : The 12 strangest objects in the universe '' Using the gauge we developed , we showed that the measured size of the black hole shadow in M87 tightens the wiggle room for modifications to Einstein 's theory of general relativity by almost a factor of 500 , compared to previous tests in the solar system , '' University of Arizona astrophysicist Feryal Özel , another study co-author and EHT scientist , said @ @ @ @ @ @ @ that gravity might work that they considered — theories that violate Einstein 's general relativity — do n't fit within this newly narrowed wiggle room .
In the future , the EHT researchers said , they might be able to tighten that wiggle room even further .
The EHT is a network of radio telescopes all over the world that work together to produce the sharpest possible images of supermassive black holes — objects that , while large , are much too small and dim for any one telescope to resolve on its @ @ @ @ @ @ @ has just published one image of one black hole , in M87 .
But there 's another , smaller black hole in our own neighborhood that the collaboration should be able to image : Sagittarius A* , the supermassive at the center of the Milky Way .
As the EHT has trained its army of radio telescopes on this more nearby target , they 've refined their theoretical technique and added new telescopes to the collaboration .
The next image they produce , they say , should constrain general relativity even further .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ did n't predict at all .

This is the first ever direct image of a black hole, with yellow ring surrounding a black circle. A new analysis of that inner shadow has reaffirmed Einstein's theory of gravity.
A new test of Albert Einstein 's theory of general relativity has proved the iconic physicist right again — this time by re-analyzing the famous first-ever picture of a black hole , which was released in April 2019.
That image of the supermassive black hole at the center of galaxy M87 was the first direct observation of a black hole's shadow — the imprint of the event horizon, a sphere around the black hole's singularity from which no light can escape. Einstein's theory predicts the size of the event horizon based on the mass of the black hole; and in April 2019, it was already clear that the shadow fits general relativity's prediction pretty well.
But now, using a new technique to analyze the image, the researchers who made the picture showed just how well the shadow fits the theory. The answer: 500 times better than any test of relativity done in our solar system . That result, in turn, puts tighter limits on any theory that would seek to reconcile general relativity, which describes the behavior of massive celestial objects, with quantum mechanics, which predicts the behavior of very small things.
General relativity's great accomplishment was to describe how gravity operates in the universe: how it pulls objects toward each other; how it warps space-time ; and how it forms black holes. To test general relativity, scientists use the theory to predict how gravity will act in a certain situation. Then, they observe what actually happens. If the prediction matches the observation, general relativity has passed its test.
But no test is perfect. Watch how the sun's gravity tugs Mercury along its orbit, and you can measure general relativity in action. But telescopes can't measure the movement of Mercury down to the nanometer. And other forces — the tug of Jupiter's gravity, and Earth's gravity and the force solar wind, to name just a few — impact Mercury's movement in ways that are difficult to separate from the effects of relativity. So the result of every test is an approximation and Einstein's theory is only proven more or less.
Related: 8 ways you can see Einstein's Theory of Relativity in real life
The size of that uncertainty — the "more or less" factor — is important. When scientists test general relativity over and over, they are putting constraints on Einstein's idea. The reason this work is important is that even though general relativity keeps passing tests, physicists do expect it to eventually fail.
General relativity must be incomplete, physicists believe, because it contradicts quantum mechanics. Physicists believe that discrepancy signals the presence in our universe of some larger, all-encompassing mechanism describing both gravity and the quantum world that they have yet to uncover. Looking for cracks in relativity, they hope, might turn up clues to help them find that complete theory."We expect a complete theory of gravity to be different from general relativity, but there are many ways one can modify it," University of Arizona astrophysicist Dimitrios Psaltis said in a statement . Psaltis is lead author of a paper published Oct. 1 in the journal Physical Review Letters describing this new test, and is part of the Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) team, responsible for imaging the M87 black hole's shadow.
In this new test, Psaltis and colleagues used a computer to generate artificial images of the M87 black hole based on a modified version of gravity, where the force of gravity is weaker or stronger at the event horizon. With that weakened-gravity scenario, they asked,how large or small would that black hole's event horizon be? What about with stronger gravity? Then, they checked how many of those possible modifications produced event horizons with sizes that matched that of the image EHT actually captured of M87. Some did, their slight variances from general relativity's predictions much too small to show up in the admittedly fuzzy snap of the black hole. But the vast majority did not.
Related: The 12 strangest objects in the universe
"Using the gauge we developed, we showed that the measured size of the black hole shadow in M87 tightens the wiggle room for modifications to Einstein's theory of general relativity by almost a factor of 500, compared to previous tests in the solar system," University of Arizona astrophysicist Feryal Özel, another study co-author and EHT scientist, said in the statement.
Most alternative ways that gravity might work that they considered — theories that violate Einstein's general relativity — don't fit within this newly narrowed wiggle room.
In the future, the EHT researchers said, they might be able to tighten that wiggle room even further.
The EHT is a network of radio telescopes all over the world that work together to produce the sharpest possible images of supermassive black holes — objects that, while large, are much too small and dim for any one telescope to resolve on its own. So far, the EHT has just published one image of one black hole, in M87. But there's another, smaller black hole in our own neighborhood that the collaboration should be able to image: Sagittarius A*, the supermassive at the center of the Milky Way.
As the EHT has trained its army of radio telescopes on this more nearby target, they've refined their theoretical technique and added new telescopes to the collaboration. The next image they produce, they say, should constrain general relativity even further.
Or maybe they'll see something Einstein didn't predict at all.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-10-15--1st of their kind baby tyrannosaur fossils unearthed

A fossil of what may be a tyrannosaur embryo shows that the gigantic apex predator started out with a skull the size of a mouse .
That conclusion came after the study authors found a toe claw from a baby tyrannosaur in Alberta , Canada in 2017 — which prompted them to analyze a previously known baby tyrannosaur jawbone , found in Montana in 1983 .
Because the jawbone was too delicate to be removed from the surrounding rock , it had never been properly studied .
But now , an analysis of both fossils is revealing all kinds of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ These are incredibly rare finds — the first of their kind in the world , '' lead researcher Gregory Funston , a paleontologist at the University of Edinburgh in Scotland , told Live Science in an email .
`` Juvenile tyrannosaurs of any kind are exceedingly rare , and we 've never found any bones that we suspected might be embryos , until now . ''
The research , which is not yet published in a peer-reviewed journal , was presented online Tuesday ( Oct. 13 ) at the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology @ @ @ @ @ @ @ this year due to the COVID-19 .
The teensy , 1.1-inch-long ( 2.9 centimeters ) tyrannosaur jawbone still sports eight little teeth .
Because it was stuck in the surrounding rock , the researchers scanned the jawbone with a particle accelerator , which let them image the fossil without excavating it .
Despite the jawbone 's miniature size , `` it looks surprisingly like other juvenile tyrannosaurid jaws , '' Funston said .
`` It has a deep groove on the inside and a distinct chin , which are both features that distinguish @ @ @ @ @ @ @ features helped convince other paleontologists that the jawbone truly is from a tyrannosaur — `` we can know that these features can be used to identify tyrannosaurs no matter how immature they are , '' Christopher Griffin , a postdoctoral associate in the Department of Earth & Planetary Sciences at Yale University , who was n't involved with the research but attended the presentation at the conference , told Live Science .
The teeth on the jawbone are n't fully developed , and one tooth in particular offers clues that this fossil might @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the tiny tyrannosaur would have died before it had hatched .
`` In one of the tooth sockets , a replacement tooth is being developed , but in an unusual way : Typically , replacement teeth lie directly below the older tooth , and they eat away at the root to release the older tooth , '' Funston said .
`` In our case , the replacement tooth is beside the older tooth , and there 's no evidence of root disintegration .
This style of replacement has recently been found in the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . ''
It 's a mystery which genus of tyrannosaur these fossils are from , but a few well-known predators from this group include , Gorgosaurus and Albertosaurus .
But even without knowing the genus , `` finding the remains of extremely young tyrannosaurs is very exciting , '' said Kat Schroeder , a doctoral student of biology at the University of New Mexico , who was n't involved with the research but attended the conference presentation .
Embryonic fossils are rare , she told Live Science in an email , because `` @ @ @ @ @ @ @ would have been under threat of predation from egg-stealing mammals , and had this baby tyrannosaur hatched , it likely would have had to avoid being eaten by dromaeosaurs ( -like dinosaurs ) , older tyrannosaurs , and possibly even . ''
More is known about tyrannosaurs older than 2 years — for instance , for a study published in June in the journal , a paleontologist exhaustively analyzed T. rex 's growth from .
Other tyrannosaurs also have extreme growth patterns , `` hatching out not much heavier than a house cat @ @ @ @ @ @ @ an elephant over 15 years or so , '' Schroeder said .
Funston noted that researchers have yet to find any tyrannosaur eggshells , so perhaps these dinosaur kings laid soft-shelled eggs , which do n't fossilize well .
This would n't be without precedent : Earlier this year , published in the journal Nature offered evidence that the Triceratops-like dinosaur Protoceratops and the long-necked sauropodomorph Mussaurus likely laid , as did the marine reptile Mosasaurus .
`` We do n't have any direct evidence of these soft-shelled eggs yet , but these @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , '' Funston said .

Researchers have found a toe claw (shown in yellow, second from left) and jawbone (shown in blue, third from left) of baby tyrannosaurs that lived between 75 million and 70 million years ago in North America. For scale, here are reconstructions of the tyrannosaur babies compared with an adult Albertosaurus tyrannosaur (left) and lead researcher Gregory Funston.
A fossil of what may be a tyrannosaur embryo shows that the gigantic apex predator started out with a skull the size of a mouse.
That conclusion came after the study authors found a toe claw from a baby tyrannosaur in Alberta, Canada in 2017 — which prompted them to analyze a previously known baby tyrannosaur jawbone, found in Montana in 1983. Because the jawbone was too delicate to be removed from the surrounding rock, it had never been properly studied. But now, an analysis of both fossils is revealing all kinds of secrets about these baby beasts.
"These are incredibly rare finds — the first of their kind in the world," lead researcher Gregory Funston, a paleontologist at the University of Edinburgh in Scotland, told Live Science in an email. "Juvenile tyrannosaurs of any kind are exceedingly rare, and we've never found any bones that we suspected might be embryos, until now."
Related: Gory guts: Photos of a T. rex autopsy
The research, which is not yet published in a peer-reviewed journal, was presented online Tuesday (Oct. 13) at the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology's annual conference, which is virtual this year due to the COVID-19 pandemic .
The teensy, 1.1-inch-long (2.9 centimeters) tyrannosaur jawbone still sports eight little teeth. Because it was stuck in the surrounding rock, the researchers scanned the jawbone with a particle accelerator, which let them image the fossil without excavating it. Despite the jawbone's miniature size, "it looks surprisingly like other juvenile tyrannosaurid jaws," Funston said. "It has a deep groove on the inside and a distinct chin, which are both features that distinguish tyrannosaurs from other meat-eating dinosaurs ."
These features helped convince other paleontologists that the jawbone truly is from a tyrannosaur — "we can know that these features can be used to identify tyrannosaurs no matter how immature they are," Christopher Griffin, a postdoctoral associate in the Department of Earth & Planetary Sciences at Yale University, who wasn't involved with the research but attended the presentation at the conference, told Live Science.
A hypothetical cranial reconstruction based on the newly analyzed jawbone (blue), next to other hypothetical reconstructions from other datasets (left and right), indicates that embryonic tyrannosaurs had heads about the size of a modern mouse. (Image credit: Gregory Funston 2020)
The teeth on the jawbone aren't fully developed, and one tooth in particular offers clues that this fossil might belong to an embryonic tyrannosaur, meaning the tiny tyrannosaur would have died before it had hatched.
"In one of the tooth sockets, a replacement tooth is being developed, but in an unusual way: Typically, replacement teeth lie directly below the older tooth, and they eat away at the root to release the older tooth," Funston said. "In our case, the replacement tooth is beside the older tooth, and there's no evidence of root disintegration. This style of replacement has recently been found in the first generation of teeth in reptile embryos."
(The toe-claw fossil might also be from an embryo because one surface wasn't fully formed, Funston noted.)
The newly studied tyrannosaur jawbone (third from top, but magnified at the bottom) is tiny compared with the jaws of a young Gorgosaurus tyrannosaur (top) and a juvenile Daspletosaurus (second from top). (Image credit: Gregory Funston 2020)
Embryonic mysteries
It's a mystery which genus of tyrannosaur these fossils are from, but a few well-known predators from this group include Tyrannosaurus rex , Gorgosaurus and Albertosaurus. But even without knowing the genus, "finding the remains of extremely young tyrannosaurs is very exciting," said Kat Schroeder, a doctoral student of biology at the University of New Mexico, who wasn't involved with the research but attended the conference presentation. Embryonic fossils are rare, she told Live Science in an email, because "even before they were born, dinosaurs would have been under threat of predation from egg-stealing mammals, and had this baby tyrannosaur hatched, it likely would have had to avoid being eaten by dromaeosaurs ( Velociraptor -like dinosaurs), older tyrannosaurs, crocodilians and possibly even giant pterosaurs ."
Related: Photos: Fossilized dino embryo is new oviraptorosaur species
More is known about tyrannosaurs older than 2 years — for instance, for a study published in June in the journal PeerJ , a paleontologist exhaustively analyzed T. rex's growth from tiny tot to hulking adult . Other tyrannosaurs also have extreme growth patterns, "hatching out not much heavier than a house cat, and growing to the size of an elephant over 15 years or so," Schroeder said.
Funston noted that researchers have yet to find any tyrannosaur eggshells, so perhaps these dinosaur kings laid soft-shelled eggs, which don't fossilize well. This wouldn't be without precedent: Earlier this year, two studies published in the journal Nature offered evidence that the Triceratops-like dinosaur Protoceratops and the long-necked sauropodomorph Mussaurus likely laid soft-shelled eggs , as did the marine reptile Mosasaurus.
"We don't have any direct evidence of these soft-shelled eggs yet, but these clues tell us we should start looking," Funston said.
Editor's note: After its presentation at the October 2020 Society of Vertebrate Paleontology conference, this research was published online Jan. 25, 2021 in the Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-10-16--Coronavirus outbreak: Live updates

Coronavirus outbreak: Live updates

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90-year-old woman in the UK receives first dose of Pfizer vaccine, FDA review confirms vaccine is safe and effective A 90-year-old woman (who will turn 91 next week) became the first in the world to be given Pfizer's coronavirus vaccine outside of clinical trials, according to the BBC. Margaret Keenan, who is originally from Northern Ireland, was given the vaccine at the University Hospital in Coventry, England. She received the first of 800,000 doses expected to be administered in the U.K. in the coming weeks, according to the BBC. "I feel so privileged to be the first person vaccinated against Covid-19," Keenan said, according to the BBC."It's the best early birthday present I could wish for because it means I can finally look forward to spending time with my family and friends in the new year after being on my own for most of the year." "My advice to anyone offered the vaccine is to take it. If I can have it at 90, then you can have it too," she added. Up to four million doses of Pfizer's vaccine is expected to be given to people in the U.K. by the end of the month. Meanwhile, a 53-page Food and Drug Administration (FDA) review published Tuesday (Dec. 8) confirmed that Pfizer's vaccine is safe and effective, according to The Washington Post.
Pfizer's COVID-19 vaccine starts to work just 10 days after 1st dose Pfizer's new COVID-19 vaccine starts to protect people from the novel coronavirus just 10 days after the first dose, according to new documents from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The documents were released on Tuesday (Dec. 8), two days before a meeting of the FDA's vaccine advisory panel, which will vote on whether to recommend authorization of the vaccine in the U.S, Live Science reported . The FDA analyzed data from Pfizer's phase 3 clinical trial, which included some 44,000 people in the United States, Brazil, Argentina, Germany and Turkey, about half of whom received the vaccine while the other half received a placebo. Both groups received two shots, 21 days apart. About 10 days after the first dose, there was a noticeable drop-off in new COVID-19 cases in the vaccine group compared with the placebo group, indicating that even one dose provides some protection, the report said. However, scientists don't know how long the protection from a single dose will last, so it will still be important for people to receive two shots, according to The New York Times . Overall, the vaccine was 52% effective after the first dose and 95% effective after the second dose, the report said.
People with significant allergies should avoid Pfizer vaccine, UK warns The U.K.'s Regulatory Agency is advising people with a history of "significant" allergic reactions to avoid Pfizer's coronavirus vaccine, after two National Health Service members developed severe allergic reactions to it on Tuesday (Dec. 8), Live Science reported. "As is common with new vaccines the MHRA (Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency) have advised on a precautionary basis that people with a significant history of allergic reactions do not receive this vaccination after two people with a history of significant allergic reactions responded adversely yesterday," Stephen Powis, the national medical director for England's National Health Service said in a statement on Wednesday (Dec. 9). Both workers have a history of severe allergies and carry adrenaline auto injectors (such as EpiPens) around with them, according to The Guardian. Shortly after receiving the vaccine, both NHS workers developed anaphylaxis-like symptoms, or severe allergic reactions, but have recovered after receiving treatment. The MHRA will investigate further and Pfizer and BioNTech will support their investigation, according to Reuters. "Allergic reaction occurs with quite a number of vaccines, and perhaps even more frequently with drugs. So it is not unexpected," Stephen Evans, a professor of pharmacoepidemiology at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine said in remarks to journalists published by Britain's Science Media Center. “What would be wise, as the MHRA have already advised, would be for anyone who has known severe allergic reaction such that they need to carry an EpiPen, to delay having a vaccination until the reason for the allergic reaction has been clarified," he said. For the general population this does not mean that they would need to be anxious about receiving the vaccination, he added. "One has to remember that even things like marmite [a quintessential British food spread] can cause unexpected severe allergic reactions.”
Canada approves Pfizer's COVID-19 vaccine Canada has authorized Pfizer's new COVID-19 vaccine, with the first doses expected to be administered there as early as next week. Health Canada, the country's health regulatory agency, said in a statement on Wednesday (Dec. 9) that it had determined that the vaccine "meets the Department's stringent safety, efficacy and quality requirements for use in Canada," according to CTV News . "We expect vaccines to arrive maybe as early as Monday [Dec. 14]. It takes time to prepare the vaccine," said Maj.-Gen. Dany Fortin, the top military general leading the vaccine rollout for the Public Health Agency of Canada, according to CTV News. The first doses could be administered by the middle of next week, he said. Canada is the third country in the world to authorize the Pfizer vaccine, following the United Kingdom and Bahrain. The country should receive up to 249,000 doses of the vaccine by the end of December, and has purchased 20 million doses total, with the option to purchase more, CTV News reported.
Daily COVID-19 death toll in the U.S. reaches record-high, surpassed 9/11 On Wednesday (Dec. 9), the U.S. recorded 3,124 new COVID-19 deaths, the highest daily death toll to date, according to CNN . In comparison, 2,977 people were killed in the 9/11 attacks. The U.S. has now recorded 280,488 deaths related to the virus, according to The COVID Tracking Project . A forecast from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention predicts that the total death toll can increase to between 332,000 and 362,000 by January 2, according to CNN. There are currently 106,671 people hospitalized with the virus in the U.S.; 20,903 of them are currently in the ICU and 7,621 are currently on a ventilator, according to the COVID Tracking Project. On Thursday (Dec. 10), the Vaccines and Related Biological Products Advisory Committee is set to meet to discuss an emergency use authorization for the Pfizer-BioNTech coronavirus vaccine.
FDA panel recommends authorization of Pfizer's COVID-19 vaccine A panel of experts for the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has recommended that the agency authorize Pfizer's new COVID-19 vaccine in the United States. On Thursday (Dec. 10), the panel voted 17 to 4 to recommend that the vaccine receive emergency use authorization (EUA) for people ages 16 and older, according to The New York Times . The FDA typically follows the advice of its panels, and so today's vote is an important step towards the vaccine's authorization. It is anticipated that the agency will officially authorize the vaccine on Saturday (Dec. 12), the Times reported. Several countries have already authorized Pfizer's vaccine, including Canada, the United Kingdom and Bahrain.
Vaccine approval could come this weekend, as U.S. continues to record high daily death tolls On Thursday (Dec. 10), the U.S. recorded another 2,902 COVID-19 deaths, a day after the country set a record of 3,253 deaths, according to Reuters . “Probably for the next 60 to 90 days, we’re going to have more deaths per day than we had on 9/11 or we had at Pearl Harbor,” Dr. Robert Redfield, the director of the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, told the Council on Foreign Relations on Thursday, according to Reuters. "The reality is the vaccine approval this week is not going to really impact that, I think, to any degree for the next 60 days." On Thursday, the Vaccines and Related Biological Products Advisory Committee discussed, voted and recommended that the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) should grant an emergency use authorization for Pfizer's coronavirus vaccine. The Pfizer vaccine has already been approved in the U.K. and in Canada, and FDA approval for use in the U.S. could come this weekend.
Australia abandons local COVID-19 vaccine after it caused false-positive HIV tests An Australian COVID-19 vaccine that had shown promising results in early trials is being abandoned after researchers found that the shot caused false-positive results on HIV tests. On Friday (Dec. 11), Australian officials said they had canceled an order for some 51 million doses of the vaccine, which was being developed by The University of Queensland and CSL Ltd., a local biotech company, according to The New York Times . In an early trial with 216 participants, the vaccine appeared to be safe and to produce a robust immune response against COVID-19, according to a statement from CSL . But some volunteers falsely tested positive for HIV, which officials feared would undermine trust in the vaccine, the Times reported. The vaccine contained small fragments of an HIV protein, which helped stabilize the vaccine. Some of the participants developed antibodies against these fragments, and these antibodies triggered false positive results on some HIV tests. It's important to note that there is no way for the vaccine to cause an HIV infection, because it contains harmless fragments of the virus.
ICU nurse in New York becomes first person in the US to receive a coronavirus vaccine outside of clinical trials New York, the worst-hit state at the start of the pandemic, just became the first to administer a coronavirus vaccine outside of clinical trials, kicking off a long, massive effort to vaccinate the American people, Live Science reported. Around 9 a.m. E.T. on Monday (Dec. 14), the very first dose of Pfizer and BioNTech's coronavirus vaccine was given to Sandra Lindsay, an intensive care nurse in Long Island Jewish Medical Center in Queens, New York, according to The New York Times. This comes as the U.S. continues to battle a massive wave of the virus that has more than 109,000 people currently hospitalized, according to The COVID Tracking Project. Since the start of the pandemic, New York has recorded more than 780,000 cases of COVID-19 and more than 35,100 deaths, according to The Times. "This vaccine is exciting because I believe this is the weapon that will end the war," Gov. Andrew Cuomo said during a live broadcast of the first vaccination. "It's the beginning of the last chapter of the book, but now we just have to do it."
FDA analysis confirms Moderna's vaccine is safe and effective, emergency authorization is likely to come Friday A new briefing document from the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) released on Tuesday (Dec. 15) confirmed that Moderna's COVID-19 vaccine is safe and effective, according to NPR . Moderna's COVID-19 vaccine is 94% effective and has "a favorable safety profile," according to the document. A panel of experts is set to meet on Thursday (Dec. 17) to discuss the effectiveness and safety of the vaccine and vote on whether or not the FDA should grant emergency approval to the vaccine. Last week, the same panel voted that the FDA should grant emergency approval to Pfizer's coronavirus vaccine; the authorization came a day late and the first doses were given on Monday (Dec. 15). The FDA will likely approve Moderna's vaccine for emergency use on Friday (Dec. 18), according to The New York Times .
FDA authorizes first over-the-counter COVID-19 test The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has authorized the first over-the-counter COVID-19 test, which can be done at home and does not need a prescription. The test, made by the Australia-based company Ellume, provides results in as little as 20 minutes, according to a statement from the FDA . It is a "lateral flow antigen test," meaning it works in a similar way to a home pregnancy test, by running a "liquid sample along a surface with reactive molecules," the FDA said. The test works in conjunction with a smartphone app. Users take a nasal swab and place their sample in an analyzer, which communicates to the smartphone app via Bluetooth. The results are delivered through the app, and also reported to public health authorities (based on a user's zip code) through a secure cloud connection, the company said . Ellume is ramping up production of its test, and expects to produce three million tests in January 2021, and 20 million within the first half of 2021.
A wild mink tested positive for the coronavirus, it may be the first wild animal to have a confirmed case A wild mink in Utah may be the first "free-ranging, native wild animal" confirmed to be infected with SARS-CoV-2, according to the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), Live Science reported. The mink was found near a mink farm and likely picked up the infection from the farmed mink. There's no evidence that the virus spread to other minks or wild animals; but if the virus does begin circulating in wild animals, it could pick up mutations that COVID-19 vaccines may not protect well against if it spreads back to humans, according to the report. "If it does [establish a reservoir], then we've got a long-term issue here, where this virus has the potential to be with us for millennia," Sarah Olson, associate director of the health program at the Wildlife Conservation Society, told Vox. The U.S. Department of Agriculture's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service has screened other animal species for the virus near mink farms in Utah, Michigan and Wisconsin, but all of them have tested negative so far, according to a statement.
An FDA advisory panel will meet today to vote on whether to recommend Moderna's coronavirus vaccine for emergency approval On Thursday (Dec. 17), a Food and Drug Administration (FDA) advisory committee will meet to determine whether to recommend that Moderna’s coronavirus vaccine for emergency approval, according to The New York Times . This panel, composed of independent experts, will vote on whether to recommend the vaccine after hearing from the company, FDA scientists and the public, according to The Times. Last week, the same panel of experts met to discuss Pfizer’s coronavirus vaccine and voted to recommend emergency authorization; the authorization came the next day. There have now been more than 16.9 million cases of COVID-19 in the U.S. and more than 307,000 deaths, according to the Johns Hopkins dashboard . There are currently 113,090 people hospitalized across the country with more than 21,900 of them in the ICU and 7,778 on a ventilator, according to The COVID Tracking Project .
California becomes new epicenter of COVID-19 in U.S. California, once praised for its early pandemic response, is now the new U.S. hotspot for COVID-19 infections. The state has reported an alarming surge in cases, breaking previous records for daily cases. On Thursday (Dec. 17), the state reported some 50,000 COVID-19 infections in 24 hours, and nearly 100,000 in 48 hours, according to The Washington Post . That's more than the daily cases reported in many countries, including India, Germany and Britain, the Post reported. The state also set a record for daily deaths on Thursday, with 379 fatalities reported, up from the previous high of 293. Capacity in intensive care units has also dropped dramatically, with hospitals in Southern California reporting zero percent capacity on Thursday. "I want to be very clear: Our hospitals are under siege, and our model shows no end in sight," said Christina Ghaly, director of Los Angeles County's Department of Health Services, the Post reported.
FDA expected to authorize Moderna's vaccine on Friday The U.S. Food and Drug Administration is expected to authorize Moderna's COVID-19 vaccine on Friday (Dec. 18). Once authorized, it will be the second coronavirus vaccine to get the green light from the agency in just a week, with Pfizer's vaccine gaining authorization on Dec. 11. Moderna is expected to begin shipping 5.9 million doses of its vaccine on Sunday (Dec. 20), with the first deliveries arriving Monday (Dec. 21), according to The New York Times . Unlike the Pfizer vaccine, Moderna's vaccine does not require storage in extremely cold temperatures, and states are hoping to distribute the vaccine to rural hospitals and community health centers, the Times reported.
COVID-19 cases continue to surge across the U.S. There have now been more than 17 million cases of COVID-19 in the U.S. and more than 300,000 deaths, according to The COVID Tracking Project . There are currently 114,237 people hospitalized across the country and 21,900 people in the ICU. California is facing a massive surge in cases; the state reported 41,012 new COVID-19 cases and 300 new deaths on Thursday (Dec. 17), according to the state's COVID-19 dashboard . By comparison, at the start of November, California was reporting a seven-day average of 4,183 cases, compared to an average of 38,774 on Thursday, according to CNN . "We're experiencing an explosive and very deadly surge," Dr. Barbara Ferrer, Los Angeles County Public Health Director said, according to CNN. Intensive care unit beds are rapidly filling up across the state; there are only 1,234 ICU beds left available in California, according to the dashboard. Current closures across California are impacting around 98% of the state's population, according to CNN.
London and southeast England are under an emergency lockdown Following concerns of a new version of the coronavirus that might be more transmissible, London and most of southeast England are now under an emergency lockdown, according to The New York Times . Prime Minister Boris Johnson announced the lockdown on Saturday (Dec. 19) citing concerns that the mutated virus — which was detected a couple of weeks ago in southeast England — may be as much as 70% more transmissible than previous versions, according to the Times. The new version of the coronavirus is detected in more than 60% of new infections in London and have also been detected in several other countries, according to the Times. But it's not yet clear if this coronavirus version is any more infectious than the last and thorough analyses will need to be conducted before conclusions are made, scientists cautioned. In South Africa, a similar version of the virus has been found in up to 90% of new cases detected since mid-November, according to The Times . It's common for viruses to mutate, and this particular coronavirus has mutated many times since the start of the pandemic. But experts told The Times that it would take years for the virus to mutate enough such that it would make the current vaccines developed to fight COVID-19 ineffective.
Biden gets Pfizer's COVID-19 vaccine President-elect Joe Biden received a dose of Pfizer's new COVID-19 vaccine on Monday (Dec. 21), according to The New York Times . He received the shot on camera at the Christiana Hospital in Newark, Delaware. "I'm doing this to demonstrate that people should be prepared when it's available to take the vaccine. There's nothing to worry about," Biden said.
Antarctica has its 1st COVID-19 outbreak The first COVID-19 cases have been reported in Antarctica , meaning the disease has now spread to every continent in the world. On Tuesday (Dec. 22), Chilean officials reported an outbreak of 36 COVID-19 cases at the Chilean research base General Bernardo O'Higgins Riquelme on the Antarctic Peninsula, according to the BBC . Of these, 26 cases were military personnel and 10 were maintenance workers, the BBC reported. All of these cases have been evacuated from Antarctica to Punta Arenas, Chile, according to The Guardian . Antarctica had been COVID-19 free up until the current outbreak. The continent has no permanent residents, but about 1,000 people, including scientists and other workers, stayed there this past winter, The Guardian reported.
Live updates will continue in 2021!


livescience--2020-10-16--Weird venomous caterpillars that look like walking toupées are invading Virginia

A bizarre little insect that looks like a walking toupée and squirts venomous pus from knifelike spines is terrorizing Virginia this year , according to the state 's .
The venomous pus caterpillar is the larval form of the southern flannel moth ( Megalopyge opercularis ) , and if you see one you should stay away from it .
Its `` hairs '' are actually spines that make it among the most venomous caterpillars in the United States .
A woman in New Kent County described the sensation of a `` scorching hot knife passing through the outside of my @ @ @ @ @ @ @ on the door of her car , according to The Daily Progress .
Pus caterpillars have appeared in Virginia before , according to the VDoF .
And they 've been found as far north as New Jersey .
But they 're much more common in Florida and at greatest abundance in west-central Texas , according to the .
Eric Day , manager of Virginia Tech 's Insect Identification Lab , told The Daily Progress that this appears to be `` an outbreak year . ''
has made weather warmer in Virginia , as @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
`` With changes in our climate , we 're seeing some insects change their population , '' Theresa Dellinger , another researcher at the same lab , .
`` But it 's too soon to tell .
Caterpillars , moths and butterflies all have cyclical periods , it 's all about the right time , and the right conditions . ''
CNN reported that the caterpillar 's venom is similar enough to bee stings that people who have bad allergic reactions to bees will likely have bad reactions to the pus caterpillar @ @ @ @ @ @ @ on what to do if `` stung '' by a poisonous caterpillar .
Key steps : Wash the area to get rid of any hairs or harmful substances left over .
Place tape over the area then rip it off to pull out hairs embedded in the skin .
( Do this a few times , but use a fresh piece of tape each time . )
Ice packs and steroid creams will reduce swelling and make the sting less painful .
And anyone who 's had a bad reaction to insects in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the eyes should contact a doctor immediately .
CNN reported that for now the plan is to let the caterpillars ' natural predators shrink their population in the state , but if they continue to spread unchecked the state might begin an eradication program .

This pus caterpillar looks like a harmless little toupee but it's way more dangerous than that.
A bizarre little insect that looks like a walking toupée and squirts venomous pus from knifelike spines is terrorizing Virginia this year, according to the state's Department of Forestry (VDoF) .
The venomous pus caterpillar is the larval form of the southern flannel moth (Megalopyge opercularis), and if you see one you should stay away from it. Its "hairs" are actually spines that make it among the most venomous caterpillars in the United States. A woman in New Kent County described the sensation of a "scorching hot knife passing through the outside of my calf" when she brushed against one on the door of her car, according to The Daily Progress .
Pus caterpillars have appeared in Virginia before, according to the VDoF. And they've been found as far north as New Jersey. But they're much more common in Florida and at greatest abundance in west-central Texas, according to the University of Florida . Eric Day, manager of Virginia Tech's Insect Identification Lab, told The Daily Progress that this appears to be "an outbreak year."
Related: Meet the colorful nocturnal moths of 'Mariposas nocturnas' (photos)
Climate change has made weather warmer in Virginia, as it has across much of the country.
"With changes in our climate, we're seeing some insects change their population," Theresa Dellinger, another researcher at the same lab, told CNN . "But it's too soon to tell. Caterpillars, moths and butterflies all have cyclical periods, it's all about the right time, and the right conditions."
CNN reported that the caterpillar's venom is similar enough to bee stings that people who have bad allergic reactions to bees will likely have bad reactions to the pus caterpillar as well.
Virginia Tech published a document on what to do if "stung" by a poisonous caterpillar. Key steps: Wash the area to get rid of any hairs or harmful substances left over. Place tape over the area then rip it off to pull out hairs embedded in the skin. (Do this a few times, but use a fresh piece of tape each time.) Ice packs and steroid creams will reduce swelling and make the sting less painful. And anyone who's had a bad reaction to insects in the past or who was stung near the eyes should contact a doctor immediately.
CNN reported that for now the plan is to let the caterpillars' natural predators shrink their population in the state, but if they continue to spread unchecked the state might begin an eradication program.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-10-16--10,000-year-old footprints show journey of squirmy toddler and caregiver

More than 10,000 years ago on the playa of what is now New Mexico , a woman on a journey set down the toddler she was carrying on her hip , readjusted , then picked up the child and set off again .
The remnants of this all-too-human moment are preserved in a trackway found in White Sands National Park — the longest late Pleistocene double human trackway found anywhere in the world .
At 0.9 miles ( 1.5 kilometers ) long , the set of tracks preserves an out-and-back journey taken at a fast clip by a single adult @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 2 .
During the journey , the adult — probably a woman , though possibly an adolescent male — came in close proximity to a and a , the trackway reveals .
`` It 's giving us these amazing snapshots in time , '' said Sally Reynolds , a paleontologist at Bournemouth University in the U.K. and the senior author of a new paper on the tracks published online ahead of its print publication in the December issue of the journal .
The trackway was first discovered in 2017 , thanks to National @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a group of scientists — including Reynolds ' husband , Matthew Bennett , a geoscientist at Bournemouth University — to view the site .
Bustos had noticed possible signs of footprints on the flat , arid playa landscape while patrolling the park , then a national monument .
Excavations revealed fossilized footprints just below the loose white gypsum sand .
These tracks were originally made on wet ground .
As the water evaporated , it left behind the minerals dolomite and calcite , which created rocky molds of the footprints .
The tracks @ @ @ @ @ @ @ one direction before disappearing into the dunes .
Next to them are the remains of the return south/southwest return journey , which appears to have been made by the same person , judging by the size of the footprints and the stride length .
Along the way , the adult tracks are sometimes accompanied by the footprints of a child under 3 years old .
Northbound , the adult tracks are a little asymmetrical , evocative of a woman holding a child on one hip .
At times , the child 's footprints @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the adult put the squirmy toddler down .
There are no child footprints on the return southbound journey , suggesting that perhaps the trip was taken in order to drop off the child somewhere .
`` Motivation is something we ca n't really speak to in the fossil record , but it 's something we want to know , '' Reynolds told Live Science .
Reynolds speculated that perhaps the child was ill and needed to be taken to another camp where someone could help him or her .
Whatever the reason for @ @ @ @ @ @ @ : The footprints did n't deviate and the walker did n't dawdle .
The stride length suggests that the person was walking about 5.5 feet ( 1.7 meters ) per second , a brisk pace .
The region was arid , but the journey was near an ancient , now-vanished lake , and the ground was muddy and slippery .
`` We do know the journey was faster than normal speed and over terrain that would have been more tiring than normal , '' Reynolds said .
The journey would have taken the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ such as dire wolves and saber-toothed cats .
Fortunately , the woman and child seem not to have been menaced ; instead , they may have scared some of the animals that encountered their trackway .
After the pair passed north , a set of animal tracks shows that a giant sloth approached their tracks , reared up — perhaps sniffing the air ?
— and then shuffled in a circle before veering away .
The human then stepped on these sloth tracks when returning southbound .
Previous research in the area suggests @ @ @ @ @ @ @ explaining why the sloth footprints reveal signs of nervousness on the part of the animal .
At another point , a mammoth crossed the humans ' northbound trail ( before the southbound return journey ) .
The mammoth showed no signs of slowing or stopping , perhaps suggesting that it did not see the recent presence of a human as a threat .
There was no organic material under or around the footprints that could be analyzed with radiocarbon dating to reveal the age of the trackway , Reynolds said .
Based on @ @ @ @ @ @ @ giant sloths , the tracks must be at least 10,000 years old and possibly as old as 13,000 years , she said .
She and her colleagues plan to publish data next year on the age of seeds found beneath other tracks in the park .
What is clear , Reynolds said , is that the playa at White sands preserves human footprints spanning over thousands of years .
The region was a hub of human activity in the late Pleistocene , she said , and the footprints left there might help reveal @ @ @ @ @ @ @ time period .
( Large megafauna like mammoths and sloths went extinct shortly after humans arrived on the scene , and there is controversy over whether human hunting was to blame . )
There are tracks in White Sands that show humans stalking sloths , Reynolds said , and even tracks left by children splashing in puddles that gathered in animal footprints .
`` It 's safe to say that the whole of White Sands is just one gigantic archive of fossil footprints , '' Reynolds said .

The excavation of a 0.9-mile (1.5 kilometers) trackway showing an out-and-back journey by a Paleolithic caregiver and child more than 10,000 years ago. At the time, the playa abutted a now-dry lake and would have been muddy and pocked with puddles.
More than 10,000 years ago on the playa of what is now New Mexico, a woman on a journey set down the toddler she was carrying on her hip, readjusted, then picked up the child and set off again.
The remnants of this all-too-human moment are preserved in a trackway found in White Sands National Park — the longest late Pleistocene double human trackway found anywhere in the world. At 0.9 miles (1.5 kilometers) long, the set of tracks preserves an out-and-back journey taken at a fast clip by a single adult and a child under the age of 2.
During the journey, the adult — probably a woman, though possibly an adolescent male — came in close proximity to a giant sloth and a woolly mammoth , the trackway reveals.
Related: In photos: Mummified woolly mammoth discovered
"It's giving us these amazing snapshots in time," said Sally Reynolds, a paleontologist at Bournemouth University in the U.K. and the senior author of a new paper on the tracks published online ahead of its print publication in the December issue of the journal Quaternary Science Reviews .
Image 1 of 5 Researchers excavate a section of the prehistoric trackway at White Sands National Park. The middle image shows the clear impression of a toddler’s footprints, perhaps showing where the adult caregiver put the child down to rest or readjust before continuing the journey. (Image credit: M. Bennett, Bournemouth University) The round impressions on the ground in this photograph show mammoth footprints. The mammoth crossed the human’s path after the human passed on his or her northbound journey. Hours later, the human stepped in the mammoth footprints on the southbound trip back. (Image credit: David Bustos) Researchers uncover the prints of a toddler amidst the tracks of an adult on the playa in New Mexico. The adults’ footprints are often asymmetrical on the outbound journey, suggesting that she or he was carrying the child on one hip for most of the trip. However, the toddler’s footprints occasionally appear. (Image credit: David Bustos) The prehistoric journey may have taken place as long as 13,000 years ago. The adult footprints likely belong to a woman, or possibly a teenage boy. The person was traveling at a quick pace in a straight line, and seems to have dropped off the toddler child at the destination before following his or her own footprints back to the origin of the trip. (Image credit: David Bustos) The excavation of a 0.9-mile (1.5 kilometers) trackway showing an out-and-back journey by a Paleolithic caregiver and child more than 10,000 years ago. At the time, the playa abutted a now-dry lake and would have been muddy and pocked with puddles. (Image credit: David Bustos)
Human tracks
The trackway was first discovered in 2017, thanks to National Parks employee David Bustos, who invited a group of scientists — including Reynolds' husband, Matthew Bennett, a geoscientist at Bournemouth University — to view the site. Bustos had noticed possible signs of footprints on the flat, arid playa landscape while patrolling the park, then a national monument.
Excavations revealed fossilized footprints just below the loose white gypsum sand. These tracks were originally made on wet ground. As the water evaporated, it left behind the minerals dolomite and calcite, which created rocky molds of the footprints.
The tracks run north/northwest in a straight line in one direction before disappearing into the dunes. Next to them are the remains of the return south/southwest return journey, which appears to have been made by the same person, judging by the size of the footprints and the stride length.
Along the way, the adult tracks are sometimes accompanied by the footprints of a child under 3 years old. Northbound, the adult tracks are a little asymmetrical, evocative of a woman holding a child on one hip. At times, the child's footprints appear, perhaps during rest breaks when the adult put the squirmy toddler down. There are no child footprints on the return southbound journey, suggesting that perhaps the trip was taken in order to drop off the child somewhere.
Related: Photos: Stone Age human footprints discovered
"Motivation is something we can't really speak to in the fossil record, but it's something we want to know," Reynolds told Live Science. Reynolds speculated that perhaps the child was ill and needed to be taken to another camp where someone could help him or her. Whatever the reason for the journey, it seemed very goal-oriented: The footprints didn't deviate and the walker didn't dawdle. The stride length suggests that the person was walking about 5.5 feet (1.7 meters) per second, a brisk pace. The region was arid, but the journey was near an ancient, now-vanished lake, and the ground was muddy and slippery.
"We do know the journey was faster than normal speed and over terrain that would have been more tiring than normal," Reynolds said.
Animal encounters
The journey would have taken the pair through a landscape prowled by predators such as dire wolves and saber-toothed cats. Fortunately, the woman and child seem not to have been menaced; instead, they may have scared some of the animals that encountered their trackway. After the pair passed north, a set of animal tracks shows that a giant sloth approached their tracks, reared up — perhaps sniffing the air? — and then shuffled in a circle before veering away. The human then stepped on these sloth tracks when returning southbound. Previous research in the area suggests that humans hunted giant sloths, perhaps explaining why the sloth footprints reveal signs of nervousness on the part of the animal.
At another point, a mammoth crossed the humans' northbound trail (before the southbound return journey). The mammoth showed no signs of slowing or stopping, perhaps suggesting that it did not see the recent presence of a human as a threat.
There was no organic material under or around the footprints that could be analyzed with radiocarbon dating to reveal the age of the trackway, Reynolds said. Based on the known extinction dates for mammoths and giant sloths, the tracks must be at least 10,000 years old and possibly as old as 13,000 years, she said. She and her colleagues plan to publish data next year on the age of seeds found beneath other tracks in the park.
What is clear, Reynolds said, is that the playa at White sands preserves human footprints spanning over thousands of years. The region was a hub of human activity in the late Pleistocene, she said, and the footprints left there might help reveal how humans affected animal populations during this time period. (Large megafauna like mammoths and sloths went extinct shortly after humans arrived on the scene, and there is controversy over whether human hunting was to blame.) There are tracks in White Sands that show humans stalking sloths, Reynolds said, and even tracks left by children splashing in puddles that gathered in animal footprints.
"It's safe to say that the whole of White Sands is just one gigantic archive of fossil footprints," Reynolds said.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-10-16--Why some animals have a penis bone shaped like an ice-cream scooper

The `` penis bone , '' or the baculum , is one of the most mysterious structures in mammal biology .
To this day , no one really knows what it does or why it 's gone missing in humans , horses , elephants and a few other species .
A 3D analysis of 82 penis bones from different animals has now found some of the most oddly-shaped bacula could very well prolong sex , induce ovulation in the female , or shovel out sperm from other romantic encounters .
The penis bone in the male honey badger , for @ @ @ @ @ @ @ appearances .
It 's shaped almost like an ice-cream scoop , and this development might have evolved to fend off competition and ensure a male 's offspring are actually his .
In the study , complex shapes were n't related to the size of an animal 's testes , but they were weakly correlated with longer bouts of copulation and induced ovulation , which suggests these bones help to reduce sexual competition .
While prior studies have shown the width of penis bones is somehow tied to more offspring in the house mouse @ @ @ @ @ @ @ that is .
The theory that these male penis bones somehow prolong intercourse and beat out competition has been brought up before , but the results have been mixed .
Maybe because we 've been overlooking one of the most important features .
`` The reason natural historians are so fascinated by bacula is because they have lots of unusual features : odd ridges and grooves , strange curvature and bizarre-shaped tips , '' lead author and biologist Charlotte Brassey from Manchester Metropolitan University said in 2018 about the team 's previous study @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in taking a 3D approach to understanding the evolution of the penis bone .
However , all of the previous attempts to study the baculum have simplified the bone into very basic measurements of length and width , and have ignored all this important shape information . ''
While penis bones vary dramatically in size and shape depending on the species , the findings of Brassey and team 's current analysis suggest the most 'complex ' penis bones , including those with elaborate tips , hooks , scoops and urethral grooves , are @ @ @ @ @ @ @ enough , monogamous species .
Unlike other penis bones that come to a blunt and abrupt end , it 's thought that animals with more elaborate tips evolved under stronger sexual competition .
`` Yet , contrary to our expectations , 'socially monogamous ' species are found to possess high values for optimal baculum complexity , '' the authors write .
At first , this does n't make sense ; monogamous partners would surely face less sexual competition after copulation than those species who mate with multiple males .
Still , the authors @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to genetic monogamy .
The African wild dog , for instance , is classified as monogamous , but there 's evidence of communal breeding happening on the sly anyway .
While group-living carnivores appear to be evolving toward a more simplified , rod-like baculum , the authors found the penis bones of socially monogamous species are evolving toward a highly complex shape .
Polygamous seals and sea lions , on the other hand , face far less sexual competition because they live in harems where one male mates with multiple females .
Interestingly @ @ @ @ @ @ @ simple tip , while the penis bone of wolves and dogs show deep urethral grooves and evidence of bulbus glans attachments .
The current study , which was based on X-rays of modern museum samples , is one of the most rigorous analyses of penis bones among carnivores .
Unfortunately , however , the three-dimensional nature of female genitals has been historically overlooked and is much less understood .
As such , we ca n't say for sure how the penile bones actually work during sex , so in the future , the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ within the female 's reproductive tract .
Such research could allow us to better understand the function of the baculum during sex , although we might be putting too much emphasis on the bone itself .
After all , analyzing one single , ossified element says little about the complexity of the glands or the cartilage that sits on top .
`` This element is currently absent from most museum specimens and hence from our analysis , '' the authors admit .
`` Likewise , our analysis implicitly assumes baculum complexity to be @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . ''
Future research also needs to incorporate soft tissue from the penis , so we can better understand how and why the baculum evolved the way it did among different species - and why some species , like ourselves , are lacking one .
`` As mammals , and as apes more specifically , it is unusual that humans do not have a penis bone , '' says Brassey .
`` By studying the role of the baculum during mating , we also hope to shine further light on why some mammals @ @ @ @ @ @ @ be so successful at reproducing without a baculum . ''
The study was published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society B .
This article was originally published by ScienceAlert .
Read the original article here .

The "penis bone," or the baculum, is one of the most mysterious structures in mammal biology. To this day, no one really knows what it does or why it's gone missing in humans, horses, elephants and a few other species.
A 3D analysis of 82 penis bones from different animals has now found some of the most oddly-shaped bacula could very well prolong sex, induce ovulation in the female, or shovel out sperm from other romantic encounters.
The penis bone in the male honey badger, for instance, has one of the wackiest appearances. It's shaped almost like an ice-cream scoop, and this development might have evolved to fend off competition and ensure a male's offspring are actually his.
In the study, complex shapes weren't related to the size of an animal's testes, but they were weakly correlated with longer bouts of copulation and induced ovulation, which suggests these bones help to reduce sexual competition.
While prior studies have shown the width of penis bones is somehow tied to more offspring in the house mouse, we still don't know why that is. The theory that these male penis bones somehow prolong intercourse and beat out competition has been brought up before, but the results have been mixed.
Maybe because we've been overlooking one of the most important features.
"The reason natural historians are so fascinated by bacula is because they have lots of unusual features: odd ridges and grooves, strange curvature and bizarre-shaped tips," lead author and biologist Charlotte Brassey from Manchester Metropolitan University said in 2018 about the team's previous study.
"Our study is particularly novel in taking a 3D approach to understanding the evolution of the penis bone. However, all of the previous attempts to study the baculum have simplified the bone into very basic measurements of length and width, and have ignored all this important shape information."
While penis bones vary dramatically in size and shape depending on the species, the findings of Brassey and team's current analysis suggest the most 'complex' penis bones, including those with elaborate tips, hooks, scoops and urethral grooves, are commonly found among carnivores and, strangely enough, monogamous species.
Unlike other penis bones that come to a blunt and abrupt end, it's thought that animals with more elaborate tips evolved under stronger sexual competition.
"Yet, contrary to our expectations, 'socially monogamous' species are found to possess high values for optimal baculum complexity," the authors write.
At first, this doesn't make sense; monogamous partners would surely face less sexual competition after copulation than those species who mate with multiple males.
Still, the authors explain, social monogamy is not equivalent to genetic monogamy. The African wild dog, for instance, is classified as monogamous, but there's evidence of communal breeding happening on the sly anyway.
While group-living carnivores appear to be evolving toward a more simplified, rod-like baculum, the authors found the penis bones of socially monogamous species are evolving toward a highly complex shape.
Polygamous seals and sea lions, on the other hand, face far less sexual competition because they live in harems where one male mates with multiple females. Interestingly, pinniped bacula end in a relatively simple tip, while the penis bone of wolves and dogs show deep urethral grooves and evidence of bulbus glans attachments.
The current study, which was based on X-rays of modern museum samples, is one of the most rigorous analyses of penis bones among carnivores. Unfortunately, however, the three-dimensional nature of female genitals has been historically overlooked and is much less understood.
As such, we can't say for sure how the penile bones actually work during sex, so in the future, the team hopes to analyze these structures from within the female's reproductive tract.
Such research could allow us to better understand the function of the baculum during sex, although we might be putting too much emphasis on the bone itself. After all, analyzing one single, ossified element says little about the complexity of the glands or the cartilage that sits on top.
"This element is currently absent from most museum specimens and hence from our analysis," the authors admit.
"Likewise, our analysis implicitly assumes baculum complexity to be an accurate proxy for penile shape complexity."
Future research also needs to incorporate soft tissue from the penis, so we can better understand how and why the baculum evolved the way it did among different species - and why some species, like ourselves, are lacking one.
"As mammals, and as apes more specifically, it is unusual that humans do not have a penis bone," says Brassey.
"By studying the role of the baculum during mating, we also hope to shine further light on why some mammals, including humans and hyenas, can be so successful at reproducing without a baculum."
The study was published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society B.
This article was originally published by ScienceAlert. Read the original article here.


livescience--2020-10-16--Only two northern white rhinos remain. And they're both female.

There were fewer than 100 southern white rhinoceroses ( Ceratotherium simum simum ) a century ago .
Today , there are over 20,000 .
Sadly , this success story only stretches as far as the southern subspecies of the white rhino .
With the death of the last male in 2018 , the northern white rhinoceros ( Ceratotherium simum cottoni ) has passed the point where it can be saved naturally .
With only two females remaining , the subspecies is now classed as functionally extinct .
This is a poignant , but not entirely hopeless , situation .
New @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( commonly known as IVF ) , enable us to bypass normal reproduction to produce new northern white rhino babies .
Sperm samples from deceased males that are preserved in bio-banks solve one side of the equation , but there aren ’ t frozen stores of northern white rhino eggs that we can rely on as easily .
We established the Rhino Fertility Project at the University of Oxford to help solve this problem .
By using ovary tissue from deceased female rhinos to grow lots of eggs for fertilisation in a lab @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a way to save the northern white rhinoceros – and potentially , other endangered species – from extinction .
A team led by Professor Thomas Hildebrandt from the Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research in Germany had a breakthrough in 2019 when they managed to collect eggs from the last remaining northern white rhinoceros females .
After treating the females with hormones the immature eggs were collected , transferred to a lab where they were matured and then fertilised with frozen sperm .
To date , a handful of northern white rhinoceros @ @ @ @ @ @ @ They ’ re frozen and awaiting implantation in a surrogate female southern white rhinoceros .
Transferring embryos into surrogates to produce baby animals is a process that ’ s been well established for lots of species , including horses and cows , though it ’ s still in the development phase for rhinos .
But the biggest constraint on this approach is that hormonal stimulation of female rhinos produces just a few eggs per cycle .
Not all of these eggs will fertilise and not all will develop into an embryo .
After @ @ @ @ @ @ @ will complete their development and become baby rhinos .
As you might imagine , with only two remaining rhinos to gather these precious eggs from , this limits our ability to revive entire populations .
So what if we had the means to produce more eggs ?
While eggs collected from female rhinos are in short supply , generating eggs from ovarian tissue from deceased rhinos could fill the gap .
Read more : Coral sex : how reproducing species in the lab could be key to restoring reefs in the wild As @ @ @ @ @ @ @ born with thousands , if not millions , of immature ovarian follicles .
At the centre of each of these sits an immature egg , also known as an oocyte .
The follicle grows over months until it ’ s ready to ovulate .
At this point , these contain fluid and secrete hormones which influence the menstrual cycle .
Ovaries contain lots of these immature follicles that are just waiting to be activated – in fact , far more follicles than are actually needed .
As follicles grow and some are selected @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Rhinos don ’ t undergo the menopause and so the ovaries of older animals still contain small follicles .
Our goal is to grow these from the ovarian tissue of a deceased rhinoceros in the lab .
We ’ re experimenting with techniques that maximise the number of follicles we can grow in a culture dish .
By harnessing the full potential of rhino ovaries , we aim to grow as many eggs as possible .
We ’ re developing our method using ovarian tissue from different rhino species , including the southern @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Since all rhino species are either threatened or endangered , this technology could help more species than just the northern white , including the rare Javan and Sumatran rhinos .
But as you can imagine , there aren ’ t many rhinoceros ovaries available for laboratory research in the UK .
Shipping tissue from threatened or endangered species in Africa to the UK in a timely manner is impossible , with many legal hurdles and mountains of paperwork .
Collaboration between zoos , wildlife parks and research institutes is of the utmost importance @ @ @ @ @ @ @ this precious ovarian tissue .
The experience and knowledge we ’ re gaining by developing this technique could even be useful in conservation efforts for other species .
By freezing ovarian tissue and sperm from other endangered species and developing methods to cultivate follicles in labs , we could prevent further losses of some of Earth ’ s most iconic wildlife and revive ecosystems rich in biodiversity .
This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license .
Read the original article .

There were fewer than 100 southern white rhinoceroses (Ceratotherium simum simum) a century ago. Today, there are over 20,000. Sadly, this success story only stretches as far as the southern subspecies of the white rhino. With the death of the last male in 2018, the northern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum cottoni) has passed the point where it can be saved naturally. With only two females remaining, the subspecies is now classed as functionally extinct.
This is a poignant, but not entirely hopeless, situation. New techniques, such as in vitro fertilisation (commonly known as IVF), enable us to bypass normal reproduction to produce new northern white rhino babies. Sperm samples from deceased males that are preserved in bio-banks solve one side of the equation, but there aren’t frozen stores of northern white rhino eggs that we can rely on as easily.
We established the Rhino Fertility Project at the University of Oxford to help solve this problem. By using ovary tissue from deceased female rhinos to grow lots of eggs for fertilisation in a lab, we think we may have found a way to save the northern white rhinoceros – and potentially, other endangered species – from extinction.
The first breakthroughs
A team led by Professor Thomas Hildebrandt from the Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research in Germany had a breakthrough in 2019 when they managed to collect eggs from the last remaining northern white rhinoceros females. After treating the females with hormones the immature eggs were collected, transferred to a lab where they were matured and then fertilised with frozen sperm.
To date, a handful of northern white rhinoceros embryos have been created this way. They’re frozen and awaiting implantation in a surrogate female southern white rhinoceros. Transferring embryos into surrogates to produce baby animals is a process that’s been well established for lots of species, including horses and cows, though it’s still in the development phase for rhinos.
But the biggest constraint on this approach is that hormonal stimulation of female rhinos produces just a few eggs per cycle. Not all of these eggs will fertilise and not all will develop into an embryo. After transfer to a surrogate, only some will complete their development and become baby rhinos. As you might imagine, with only two remaining rhinos to gather these precious eggs from, this limits our ability to revive entire populations.
So what if we had the means to produce more eggs? While eggs collected from female rhinos are in short supply, generating eggs from ovarian tissue from deceased rhinos could fill the gap.
Read more: Coral sex: how reproducing species in the lab could be key to restoring reefs in the wild
Petri dish rhinos
As in humans, every female rhinoceros is born with thousands, if not millions, of immature ovarian follicles. At the centre of each of these sits an immature egg, also known as an oocyte. The follicle grows over months until it’s ready to ovulate. At this point, these contain fluid and secrete hormones which influence the menstrual cycle. Ovaries contain lots of these immature follicles that are just waiting to be activated – in fact, far more follicles than are actually needed. As follicles grow and some are selected for ovulation, many are lost.
A follicle situated in the ovarian tissue of a southern white rhinoceros. (Image credit: Ruth Appeltant, Author provided)
Rhinos don’t undergo the menopause and so the ovaries of older animals still contain small follicles. Our goal is to grow these from the ovarian tissue of a deceased rhinoceros in the lab. We’re experimenting with techniques that maximise the number of follicles we can grow in a culture dish.
By harnessing the full potential of rhino ovaries, we aim to grow as many eggs as possible. We’re developing our method using ovarian tissue from different rhino species, including the southern white, Indian and black rhinoceros. Since all rhino species are either threatened or endangered, this technology could help more species than just the northern white, including the rare Javan and Sumatran rhinos.
How oocytes in follicles can develop into offspring by using in vitro ovarian tissue culture. (Image credit: Ruth Appeltant, Author provided)
But as you can imagine, there aren’t many rhinoceros ovaries available for laboratory research in the UK. Shipping tissue from threatened or endangered species in Africa to the UK in a timely manner is impossible, with many legal hurdles and mountains of paperwork. Collaboration between zoos, wildlife parks and research institutes is of the utmost importance here, to allow us to obtain this precious ovarian tissue.
The experience and knowledge we’re gaining by developing this technique could even be useful in conservation efforts for other species. By freezing ovarian tissue and sperm from other endangered species and developing methods to cultivate follicles in labs, we could prevent further losses of some of Earth’s most iconic wildlife and revive ecosystems rich in biodiversity.
This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.


livescience--2020-10-16--Cosmonaut snaps amazing photos of Soyuz rocket launch from space

A cosmonaut in orbit caught stunning photos of three astronauts launching on a record-setting jaunt to the .
Russian cosmonaut Ivan Vagner has been in orbit since April , one of three astronauts living and working on the orbiting laboratory for the past six months .
But now , he and his colleagues have company : two more cosmonauts and a NASA astronaut , on a Russian Soyuz rocket from Kazakhstan Wednesday ( Oct. 14 ) at 1:45 a.m. EDT ( 0545 GMT ; 10:45 a.m. local time ) .
The Soyuz arrived at the station just over three hours @ @ @ @ @ @ @ fastest crewed trip to the orbiting lab .
`` Congratulations on the successful launch ! ''
Vagner shortly after the launch .
`` The flight seen from space looks even cooler than from the Earth ! ''
Astronauts on the space station are often able to photograph their colleagues ' launches because these liftoffs are carefully timed with the to ensure that the new vehicle can catch up to the behemoth station .
In the case of today 's launch , that timing was a new variation on the theme : For the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the International Space Station after just two orbits of Earth , compared to the usual four or more .
The speedy path meant that the new crew set a record , docking at the space station just 3 hours and 3 minutes after launch , according to another .
With that flight , NASA astronaut Kate Rubins and Russian cosmonauts Sergey Ryzhikov and Sergey Kud-Sverchkov began their six-month stay in orbit , joining NASA astronaut and Russian cosmonauts Vagner and Anatoly Ivanishin .
The latter three will wrap up their stint in orbit @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Oct. 21 .
Email Meghan Bartels at mbartels @ space.com or follow her on Twitter @ meghanbartels .
Follow us on Twitter @ Spacedotcom and on Facebook .

Russian cosmonaut Ivan Vagner photographed a Soyuz rocket launching three colleagues to space on Oct. 14, 2020. (Image credit: Roscosmos)
A cosmonaut in orbit caught stunning photos of three astronauts launching on a record-setting jaunt to the International Space Station .
Russian cosmonaut Ivan Vagner has been in orbit since April, one of three astronauts living and working on the orbiting laboratory for the past six months. But now, he and his colleagues have company: two more cosmonauts and a NASA astronaut, who launched on a Russian Soyuz rocket from Kazakhstan Wednesday (Oct. 14) at 1:45 a.m. EDT (0545 GMT; 10:45 a.m. local time). The Soyuz arrived at the station just over three hours later, a new record for the fastest crewed trip to the orbiting lab.
"Congratulations on the successful launch!" Vagner wrote on Twitter shortly after the launch. "The flight seen from space looks even cooler than from the Earth!"
Related: International Space Station at 20: A photo tour
Astronauts on the space station are often able to photograph their colleagues' launches because these liftoffs are carefully timed with the space station's orbit to ensure that the new vehicle can catch up to the behemoth station.
In the case of today's launch, that timing was a new variation on the theme: For the first time, a crew arrived at the International Space Station after just two orbits of Earth, compared to the usual four or more. The speedy path meant that the new crew set a record, docking at the space station just 3 hours and 3 minutes after launch, according to another tweet from Vagner .
Russian cosmonaut Ivan Vagner photographed a Soyuz rocket launching three colleagues to space on Oct. 14, 2020. (Image credit: Roscosmos)
With that flight, NASA astronaut Kate Rubins and Russian cosmonauts Sergey Ryzhikov and Sergey Kud-Sverchkov began their six-month stay in orbit, joining NASA astronaut Chris Cassidy and Russian cosmonauts Vagner and Anatoly Ivanishin. The latter three will wrap up their stint in orbit later this month, returning to Earth Oct. 21.
‘Favor’ crew, congratulations on the successful launch! The flight seen from space looks even cooler than from the Earth! Getting ready to welcome #SoyuzMS17 in just 2.5 hours! pic.twitter.com/Lg5f0zKG1pOctober 14, 2020 See more
Email Meghan Bartels at mbartels@space.com or follow her on Twitter @meghanbartels. Follow us on Twitter @Spacedotcom and on Facebook.


livescience--2020-10-16--Warm pasta helps hot, angry neutron stars cool down

Neutron stars are the angry ghosts of giant stars : hot , whirling cores of exotic left behind after supernovas .
Like thermoses filled with hot noodle soup , it takes eons for them to cool down .
But now , researchers think they know how these stars do it : with a giant helping of pasta .
No , these ultradense stellar corpses are n't filled with spaghetti .
Instead , neutron stars cool down by releasing ethereal particles known as .
And the new study shows they accomplish that task thanks to an in-between type of matter known @ @ @ @ @ @ @ coiled material in which atoms almost , but do n't quite , mush together .
This nuclear pasta structure creates low-density regions inside the stars , allowing neutrinos , and heat , a way out .
Related : 8 ways you can see Einstein 's Theory of Relativity in real life A teaspoon of matter scraped off a neutron star 's surface would weigh billions of tons , more than every human being on Earth combined .
That density helps them trap heat extremely well .
And while our sun , which is @ @ @ @ @ @ @ most of its heat in the form of light , light particles produced inside a neutron star rarely make it to the surface to escape .
Still , these raging undead stars — each about the size of an American city — do eventually calm down , mostly by emitting neutrinos .
To understand how they cool down , the researchers of a new study , published Oct. 6 in the journal , took a closer look at the matter inside neutron stars .
Ordinary stars are made up of conventional matter , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ neutrons surrounded by relatively huge whirling clouds of electrons .
The interiors of neutron stars , meanwhile , are so dense that atomic structure breaks down , creating a vast ocean of so-called nuclear matter .
Outside of neutron stars , nuclear matter refers to the stuff within atomic nuclei , dense balls of protons and neutrons .
And it is governed by complex rules that scientists still do n't fully understand Pasta is what lies between conventional matter and nuclear matter .
`` Pasta is something intermediate between nuclear matter and conventional @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Horowitz , a physicist at Illinois State University `` If you start squeezing matter really , really hard in a neutron star , the nuclei get closer and closer together and eventually they start to touch , '' Horowitz told Live Science .
`` And when they start to touch , weird things happen . ''
At some point , pressures rise high enough that conventional matter 's structure collapses entirely into undifferentiated nuclear broth .
But just before that happens , there 's a region of pasta .
In the pasta zone @ @ @ @ @ @ @ pushes charged particles apart ) and nuclear attraction ( the force that binds protons and neutrons together at very short distances ) start to act against one another .
In regions where the nuclei touch but atomic structure has n't broken down entirely , matter contorts into complicated shapes , termed `` pasta . ''
Scientists have words for the different varieties of this stuff : gnocchi , waffle , lasagna and anti-spaghetti .
`` The shapes really do look like pasta shapes , '' Horowitz said .
Scientists have known for most @ @ @ @ @ @ @ lies inside neutron stars , just beneath their crusts in the region where conventional matter transitions into bizarre , poorly-understood nuclear stuff .
And they also knew that neutrino emissions help cool neutron stars .
The new study shows how the pasta helps free neutrinos .
Study lead author Zidu Lin , a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Arizona , designed a series of vast computer simulations that showed how neutrinos might emerge in this uncanny environment , Horowitz said .
The basic formula for producing a neutrino in a neutron star @ @ @ @ @ @ @ transforming into a slightly-lighter , low-energy proton and an ultralight neutrino .
It 's a simple process known to occur elsewhere in space , including in our sun .
( Right this second , a vast stream of solar neutrinos is streaming through your body . )
Related : The 12 strangest objects in the universe But conditions have to be right for this recipe to work .
And in a neutron star , conditions look wrong .
Neutron stars , as the name implies , have plenty of neutrons , all zipping @ @ @ @ @ @ @ momentum .
But the neutrino recipe requires producing a low-energy proton with almost no momentum .
Momentum ca n't just disappear though .
It 's always conserved .
That 's .
( It 's also why if your car stops suddenly and you 're not wearing a seatbelt you go flying out the window . )
Featherweight neutrinos ca n't take on all the momentum of relatively bulky decaying neutrons .
So the only other place for momentum to go is out into the surrounding environment .
Dense , rigid nuclear matter is @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
It 's like driving a sports car at high speed into a thick slab of granite ; the rock will hardly move and the car will pancake as that momentum has nowhere else to go .
Simple models of neutron star emissions struggle to explain how nuclear matter could absorb enough momentum for neutrinos to escape .
Lin 's model showed that nuclear pasta solves much of this problem .
Those coiled , layered shapes have low-density regions .
And the pasta can compress , absorbing momentum in a rippling motion .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ were mounted on a spring that compressed upon the car 's impact .
The researchers showed that neutrino emissions from nuclear pasta are likely vastly more efficient than neutrino emissions at a neutron star 's core .
That means pasta is likely responsible for much of the cooling .
This research , Horowitz said , does suggest that neutron stars cool more slowly than expected .
That means they live longer .
Histories of will have to be tweaked , he said , to account for their uncanny persistence at extreme heat across @ @

Neutron stars are the angry ghosts of giant stars: hot, whirling cores of exotic matter left behind after supernovas. Like thermoses filled with hot noodle soup, it takes eons for them to cool down. But now, researchers think they know how these stars do it: with a giant helping of pasta.
No, these ultradense stellar corpses aren't filled with spaghetti. Instead, neutron stars cool down by releasing ethereal particles known as neutrinos . And the new study shows they accomplish that task thanks to an in-between type of matter known as nuclear pasta, a ripply, coiled material in which atoms almost, but don't quite, mush together. This nuclear pasta structure creates low-density regions inside the stars, allowing neutrinos, and heat, a way out.
Related: 8 ways you can see Einstein's Theory of Relativity in real life
Trapped heat
A teaspoon of matter scraped off a neutron star's surface would weigh billions of tons, more than every human being on Earth combined. That density helps them trap heat extremely well. And while our sun, which is considered a yellow dwarf star, releases most of its heat in the form of light, light particles produced inside a neutron star rarely make it to the surface to escape. Still, these raging undead stars — each about the size of an American city — do eventually calm down, mostly by emitting neutrinos.
To understand how they cool down, the researchers of a new study, published Oct. 6 in the journal Physical Review C , took a closer look at the matter inside neutron stars.
Ordinary stars are made up of conventional matter, or atoms : tiny balls of protons and neutrons surrounded by relatively huge whirling clouds of electrons. The interiors of neutron stars, meanwhile, are so dense that atomic structure breaks down, creating a vast ocean of so-called nuclear matter. Outside of neutron stars, nuclear matter refers to the stuff within atomic nuclei, dense balls of protons and neutrons. And it is governed by complex rules that scientists still don't fully understand
Pasta is what lies between conventional matter and nuclear matter.
"Pasta is something intermediate between nuclear matter and conventional matter," said study co-author Charles Horowitz, a physicist at Illinois State University "If you start squeezing matter really, really hard in a neutron star, the nuclei get closer and closer together and eventually they start to touch," Horowitz told Live Science. "And when they start to touch, weird things happen."
At some point, pressures rise high enough that conventional matter's structure collapses entirely into undifferentiated nuclear broth. But just before that happens, there's a region of pasta.
In the pasta zone, Coulomb repulsion (the force that pushes charged particles apart) and nuclear attraction (the force that binds protons and neutrons together at very short distances) start to act against one another. In regions where the nuclei touch but atomic structure hasn't broken down entirely, matter contorts into complicated shapes, termed "pasta." Scientists have words for the different varieties of this stuff: gnocchi, waffle, lasagna and anti-spaghetti.
"The shapes really do look like pasta shapes," Horowitz said.
A computer-generated image shows stacked layers of nuclear pasta. (Image credit: Z. Lin et al. [)
Scientists have known for most of the last decade that this pasta lies inside neutron stars, just beneath their crusts in the region where conventional matter transitions into bizarre, poorly-understood nuclear stuff. And they also knew that neutrino emissions help cool neutron stars. The new study shows how the pasta helps free neutrinos.
Study lead author Zidu Lin, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Arizona, designed a series of vast computer simulations that showed how neutrinos might emerge in this uncanny environment, Horowitz said.
The basic formula for producing a neutrino in a neutron star is straightforward: A neutron decays, transforming into a slightly-lighter, low-energy proton and an ultralight neutrino. It's a simple process known to occur elsewhere in space, including in our sun. (Right this second, a vast stream of solar neutrinos is streaming through your body.)
Related: The 12 strangest objects in the universe
But conditions have to be right for this recipe to work. And in a neutron star, conditions look wrong.
Neutron stars, as the name implies, have plenty of neutrons, all zipping around at high energies with lots of momentum. But the neutrino recipe requires producing a low-energy proton with almost no momentum. Momentum can't just disappear though. It's always conserved. That's Isaac Newton's First Law of Motion . (It's also why if your car stops suddenly and you're not wearing a seatbelt you go flying out the window.)
Featherweight neutrinos can't take on all the momentum of relatively bulky decaying neutrons. So the only other place for momentum to go is out into the surrounding environment.
Dense, rigid nuclear matter is a terrible place for dumping momentum though. It's like driving a sports car at high speed into a thick slab of granite; the rock will hardly move and the car will pancake as that momentum has nowhere else to go. Simple models of neutron star emissions struggle to explain how nuclear matter could absorb enough momentum for neutrinos to escape.
Lin's model showed that nuclear pasta solves much of this problem. Those coiled, layered shapes have low-density regions. And the pasta can compress, absorbing momentum in a rippling motion. It's as if that granite wall were mounted on a spring that compressed upon the car's impact.
The researchers showed that neutrino emissions from nuclear pasta are likely vastly more efficient than neutrino emissions at a neutron star's core. That means pasta is likely responsible for much of the cooling.
This research, Horowitz said, does suggest that neutron stars cool more slowly than expected. That means they live longer. Histories of space-time will have to be tweaked, he said, to account for their uncanny persistence at extreme heat across eons.
Originally published on Live Science.