livescience--2020-10-16--Remdesivir has 'no meaningful impact' on COVID-19 survival, huge study finds

The antiviral drug remdesivir does not reduce deaths among COVID-19 patients , as compared with standard care , according to the results of a large , international trial .
The Food and Drug Administration , in May , authorized remdesivir to be used in an emergency to treat COVID-19 , after a large clinical trial suggested that the drug reduces the time it takes for COVID-19 patients to be discharged from the hospital , as compared with a placebo treatment , .
As of August , the drug has been authorized for use in all patients hospitalized with COVID-19 , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
Thousands of U.S. patients have received the treatment , including the president .
But now , an enormous trial sponsored by the World Health Organization suggests that remdesivir does n't reduce the risk of patients dying from COVID-19 in the month following treatment .
The study was posted Oct. 15 to the preprint database and has not yet been peer-reviewed ; it included more than 11,200 people from 30 countries , .
Related : 20 of the worst epidemics and pandemics in history About 4,100 of those patients served as a comparison @ @ @ @ @ @ @ while the rest received one of four drugs , or a combination of several medications .
These drugs included remdesivir , , an antiviral called lopinavir and an immune-stimulating molecule called Interferon-β1a .
About 650 patients received the interferon and lopinavir , together .
Ultimately , the study results suggest that no single drug or drug combination significantly reduced deaths among patients , as compared with the no-drug group .
In addition , the drugs did not reduce the chances that treated patients would be placed on a ventilator , nor did the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ hospital .
`` The unpromising overall findings from the regimens tested suffice to refute early hopes '' that the medications would reduce mortality among COVID-19 patients , the study authors wrote .
Earlier trials already indicated that hydroxychloroquine and lopinavir do n't reduce mortality , but the data on remdesivir offers new insight on whether the drug really works , according to The Associated Press .
Related : Treatments for COVID-19 : Drugs being tested against the coronavirus '' The big story is the finding that remdesivir produces no meaningful impact on survival @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of medicine and epidemiology at Oxford University , said in a statement , according to The Associated Press .
However , Dr. Peter Chin-Hong , an infectious diseases expert at the University of California , San Francisco , told The New York Times that the trial results might be somewhat skewed .
The trial participants were treated at 405 different hospitals around the world , each with their own treatment protocols , so factors beyond remdesivir may have impacted patient survival , he noted .
In addition , remdesivir may still offer benefit @ @ @ @ @ @ @ course of their illness , but that was n't specifically addressed by the new study , Dr. Maricar Malinis , an infectious diseases physician at Yale University , told the Times .
But even if remdesivir helps some patients , it 's still expensive and hard to administer , Landray said in a statement , according to the AP .
`` This is a drug that has to be given by intravenous infusion for five to 10 days , '' he said , noting it costs about $ 2,550 per treatment course .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ for U.S. patients with private insurance , The Times reported . )
`` COVID affects millions of people and their families around the world .
We need scalable , affordable and equitable treatments , '' Landray said .

The antiviral drug remdesivir does not reduce deaths among COVID-19 patients, as compared with standard care, according to the results of a large, international trial.
The Food and Drug Administration, in May, authorized remdesivir to be used in an emergency to treat COVID-19, after a large clinical trial suggested that the drug reduces the time it takes for COVID-19 patients to be discharged from the hospital, as compared with a placebo treatment, Live Science previously reported . As of August, the drug has been authorized for use in all patients hospitalized with COVID-19, not only those on supplemental oxygen, The New York Times reported . Thousands of U.S. patients have received the treatment, including the president.
But now, an enormous trial sponsored by the World Health Organization suggests that remdesivir doesn't reduce the risk of patients dying from COVID-19 in the month following treatment. The study was posted Oct. 15 to the preprint database medRxiv and has not yet been peer-reviewed; it included more than 11,200 people from 30 countries, The Times reported .
Related: 20 of the worst epidemics and pandemics in history
About 4,100 of those patients served as a comparison group and received no drug treatments, while the rest received one of four drugs, or a combination of several medications. These drugs included remdesivir, hydroxychloroquine , an antiviral called lopinavir and an immune-stimulating molecule called Interferon-β1a. About 650 patients received the interferon and lopinavir, together.
Ultimately, the study results suggest that no single drug or drug combination significantly reduced deaths among patients, as compared with the no-drug group. In addition, the drugs did not reduce the chances that treated patients would be placed on a ventilator, nor did the drugs reduce patients' time in the hospital.
"The unpromising overall findings from the regimens tested suffice to refute early hopes" that the medications would reduce mortality among COVID-19 patients, the study authors wrote. Earlier trials already indicated that hydroxychloroquine and lopinavir don't reduce mortality, but the data on remdesivir offers new insight on whether the drug really works, according to The Associated Press .
Related: Treatments for COVID-19: Drugs being tested against the coronavirus
"The big story is the finding that remdesivir produces no meaningful impact on survival," Martin Landray, a professor of medicine and epidemiology at Oxford University, said in a statement, according to The Associated Press. However, Dr. Peter Chin-Hong, an infectious diseases expert at the University of California, San Francisco, told The New York Times that the trial results might be somewhat skewed.
The trial participants were treated at 405 different hospitals around the world, each with their own treatment protocols, so factors beyond remdesivir may have impacted patient survival, he noted. In addition, remdesivir may still offer benefit to patients if given early in the course of their illness, but that wasn't specifically addressed by the new study, Dr. Maricar Malinis, an infectious diseases physician at Yale University, told the Times.
But even if remdesivir helps some patients, it's still expensive and hard to administer, Landray said in a statement, according to the AP. "This is a drug that has to be given by intravenous infusion for five to 10 days," he said, noting it costs about $2,550 per treatment course. (The treatment course costs $3,120 for U.S. patients with private insurance, The Times reported.)
"COVID affects millions of people and their families around the world. We need scalable, affordable and equitable treatments," Landray said.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-10-16--Adorable tardigrades fight UV rays with glowing shield

Scientists have discovered yet another reason to be impressed with ; some of these microscopic , nearly indestructible creatures wear a glowing `` shield '' that protects them from radiation .
Tubby tardigrades — also called moss piglets or water bears — are known for their toughness , able to withstand extreme heat , cold and pressure , as well as the vacuum of space .
They can also survive exposure to levels of that would kill many other life-forms .
Now , scientists have uncovered new clues about tardigrades ' radiation resistance .
Experiments with tardigrades in the Paramacrobiotus @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a layer of sunscreen , transforming damaging rays into harmless blue light , according to a new study .
Biofluorescence bathes diverse creatures in an eerie radiance .
It differs from bioluminescence , which sparks light through a chemical reaction between compounds in the animal 's body ; think of the bioluminescent glimmer produced by fireflies , for example .
In fluorescent animals , their glow — usually red or green — is n't the result of a chemical reaction .
Rather , these animals fluoresce when molecules inside their cells absorb light @ @ @ @ @ @ @ UV rays and emit lower-energy light in a longer wavelength .
There are with fluorescent shells and heads , and and with fluorescent bones .
glow with fluorescent light , as do , parrots , nematodes and yes — tardigrades , said lead study author Sandeep M. Eswarappa , an assistant professor in the Department of Biochemistry at the Indian Institute of Science in Bangalore , India .
Yet little is known about how most fluorescent species use their glow .
For the new study , the authors questioned if fluorescence in tardigrades @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ' radiation tolerance .
The scientists tested Paramacrobiotus tardigrades ' UV resistance by exposing them to 15 minutes of radiation at levels high enough to kill most microorganisms .
All of the Paramacrobiotus tardigrades were still alive 30 days later , while Hypsibius exemplaris tardigrades that were UV-sensitive all died within 24 hours of radiation exposure , according to the study .
`` There was no difference in the survival of these two tardigrade species when they were not treated with UV radiation , '' Eswarappa told Live Science in an email .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ to UV light .
However , when the researchers extracted fluorescent components from Paramacrobiotus tardigrades and applied them to both H. exemplaris and the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans — which also is non-fluorescent and sensitive to UV — the two species `` showed partial tolerance to UV radiation , '' the researchers reported .
`` It was natural to think that both phenomena were connected , '' Eswarappa said .
Prior studies hint that biofluorescence may offer UV protection in certain corals , and researchers hunting for extraterrestrial life suggest that biofluorescence could help @ @ @ @ @ @ @ orbiting red dwarf stars — which have a higher UV output than our sun — potentially populating planets with many varieties of luminous creatures , .
For glowing Earthbound tardigrades , fluorescence could increase their chances of surviving in habitats where the water bears are often exposed to the sun , Eswarappa said .
`` UV resistance provides these tardigrades with an ability to thrive in environments with a high UV index .
For example , in tropical regions , '' he said .
The findings were published online Oct. 13 in the @ @

Scientists have discovered yet another reason to be impressed with tardigrades ; some of these microscopic, nearly indestructible creatures wear a glowing "shield" that protects them from ultraviolet radiation.
Tubby tardigrades — also called moss piglets or water bears — are known for their toughness, able to withstand extreme heat, cold and pressure, as well as the vacuum of space. They can also survive exposure to levels of radiation that would kill many other life-forms.
Now, scientists have uncovered new clues about tardigrades' radiation resistance. Experiments with tardigrades in the Paramacrobiotus genus revealed that fluorescence protects them like a layer of sunscreen, transforming damaging UV rays into harmless blue light, according to a new study.
Related: 8 reasons why we love tardigrades
Biofluorescence bathes diverse creatures in an eerie radiance. It differs from bioluminescence, which sparks light through a chemical reaction between compounds in the animal's body; think of the bioluminescent glimmer produced by fireflies, for example.
In fluorescent animals, their glow — usually red or green — isn't the result of a chemical reaction. Rather, these animals fluoresce when molecules inside their cells absorb light particles, or photons, from invisible UV rays and emit lower-energy light in a longer wavelength. There are sea turtles with fluorescent shells and heads, and tiny orange frogs and chameleons with fluorescent bones. Jellyfish glow with fluorescent light, as do scorpions , parrots, nematodes and yes — tardigrades, said lead study author Sandeep M. Eswarappa, an assistant professor in the Department of Biochemistry at the Indian Institute of Science in Bangalore, India.
Yet little is known about how most fluorescent species use their glow. For the new study, the authors questioned if fluorescence in tardigrades might be linked to the water bears' radiation tolerance.
Exposure to ultraviolet radiation for 15 minutes was enough to kill UV-sensitive tardigrades within 24 hours, but Paramacrobiotus tardigrades were still alive and healthy 30 days later. (Image credit: Harikumar R. Suma and Sandeep M. Eswarappa)
"Both phenomena were connected"
The scientists tested Paramacrobiotus tardigrades' UV resistance by exposing them to 15 minutes of radiation at levels high enough to kill most microorganisms. All of the Paramacrobiotus tardigrades were still alive 30 days later, while Hypsibius exemplaris tardigrades that were UV-sensitive all died within 24 hours of radiation exposure, according to the study.
"There was no difference in the survival of these two tardigrade species when they were not treated with UV radiation," Eswarappa told Live Science in an email.
Paramacrobiotus tardigrades also glowed brightly when exposed to UV light. However, when the researchers extracted fluorescent components from Paramacrobiotus tardigrades and applied them to both H. exemplaris and the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans — which also is non-fluorescent and sensitive to UV — the two species "showed partial tolerance to UV radiation," the researchers reported.
"It was natural to think that both phenomena were connected," Eswarappa said.
Prior studies hint that biofluorescence may offer UV protection in certain corals, and researchers hunting for extraterrestrial life suggest that biofluorescence could help organisms evolve and survive on distant worlds orbiting red dwarf stars — which have a higher UV output than our sun — potentially populating planets with many varieties of luminous creatures, Live Science previously reported .
For glowing Earthbound tardigrades, fluorescence could increase their chances of surviving in habitats where the water bears are often exposed to the sun, Eswarappa said.
"UV resistance provides these tardigrades with an ability to thrive in environments with a high UV index. For example, in tropical regions," he said.
The findings were published online Oct. 13 in the journal Biology Letters .
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-10-16--Bird flies 7,500 miles nonstop, breaking world record

An international traveler just broke the world 's record for longest nonstop flight .
Among birds that is .
A bar-tailed godwit ( Limosa lapponica ) just flew for 11 days straight from Alaska to New Zealand , traversing a distance of 7,500 miles ( 12,000 kilometers ) without stopping , breaking the longest nonstop flight among birds known to scientists , .
Bar-tailed godwits are `` big , noisy and cinnamon-colored , '' according to the National Audubon Society .
And they are known to undertake impressive migrations between Alaska and New Zealand , flying thousands of miles without @ @ @ @ @ @ @ driven by easterly winds that prolonged his journey , flew longer than any of his kind known to date .
The scientists tracked this particular male godwit — known as `` 4BBRW '' for the colored identification rings on its legs , stacked blue , blue , red and then white — through its onboard satellite tag .
In 2019 , they caught and tagged 4BBRW along with 19 other bar-tailed godwits in the Firth of Thames , southeast of Auckland .
The endurance flyer set off from southwest Alaska on Sept. 16 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ feeding in Alaska 's mudflats , according to The Guardian .
Though the godwits pack on weight during this time , they are known to shrink their internal organs for their migration in order to travel light , according to The Guardian .
After leaving Alaska , the godwit flew south over the Aleutian Islands and landed in a bay near Auckland in New Zealand 11 days later .
His satellite clocked in at 7,987 miles ( 12,854 km ) , according to The Guardian .
But rounding errors likely mean that the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( 12,200 km ) , according to the scientists .
Sometimes , he flew up to 55 mph ( 89 km/h ) .
Previously , the longest nonstop flight recorded among birds was made by a female bar-tailed godwit that flew around 7,145 miles ( 11,500 km ) in nine days in 2007 , .
These godwits are made for such lengthy journeys .
`` They have an incredibly efficient fuel-to-energy rate , '' Jesse Conklin , who is part of the Global Flyway Network , a group of scientists studying such migrations @ @ @ @ @ @ @ have a lot of things going for them .
They are designed like a jet fighter .
Long , pointed wings and a really sleek design , which gives them a lot of aerodynamic potential . ''
The journey is n't only impressive but holds a cultural significance for people in New Zealand .
To the Maori , the indigenous Polynesian people of New Zealand , godwits , which they call `` kuaka , '' are signs that good fortune is coming ; and the return of the kuaka marks the beginning of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Society .
4BBRW and others of his kind are expected to start their journey back to Alaska in March , but first they will likely take a pitstop near China in the Yellow Sea for about a month to feed .

An international traveler just broke the world's record for longest nonstop flight. Among birds that is.
A bar-tailed godwit (Limosa lapponica) just flew for 11 days straight from Alaska to New Zealand, traversing a distance of 7,500 miles (12,000 kilometers) without stopping, breaking the longest nonstop flight among birds known to scientists, The Guardian reported .
Bar-tailed godwits are "big, noisy and cinnamon-colored," according to the National Audubon Society . And they are known to undertake impressive migrations between Alaska and New Zealand, flying thousands of miles without stopping. But one particular bird, driven by easterly winds that prolonged his journey, flew longer than any of his kind known to date.
The scientists tracked this particular male godwit — known as "4BBRW" for the colored identification rings on its legs, stacked blue, blue, red and then white — through its onboard satellite tag. In 2019, they caught and tagged 4BBRW along with 19 other bar-tailed godwits in the Firth of Thames, southeast of Auckland.
The endurance flyer set off from southwest Alaska on Sept. 16 after having spent a couple of months feeding in Alaska's mudflats, according to The Guardian. Though the godwits pack on weight during this time, they are known to shrink their internal organs for their migration in order to travel light, according to The Guardian.
Related: Photos: birds evolved from dinosaurs, museum exhibit shows
After leaving Alaska, the godwit flew south over the Aleutian Islands and landed in a bay near Auckland in New Zealand 11 days later. His satellite clocked in at 7,987 miles (12,854 km), according to The Guardian. But rounding errors likely mean that the journey actually extended over about 7,581 miles (12,200 km), according to the scientists. Sometimes, he flew up to 55 mph (89 km/h). Previously, the longest nonstop flight recorded among birds was made by a female bar-tailed godwit that flew around 7,145 miles (11,500 km) in nine days in 2007, according to National Geographic .
These godwits are made for such lengthy journeys. "They have an incredibly efficient fuel-to-energy rate," Jesse Conklin, who is part of the Global Flyway Network, a group of scientists studying such migrations, told The Guardian. "They have a lot of things going for them. They are designed like a jet fighter. Long, pointed wings and a really sleek design, which gives them a lot of aerodynamic potential."
The journey isn't only impressive but holds a cultural significance for people in New Zealand.
To the Maori, the indigenous Polynesian people of New Zealand, godwits, which they call "kuaka," are signs that good fortune is coming; and the return of the kuaka marks the beginning of spring, according to the National Audubon Society .
4BBRW and others of his kind are expected to start their journey back to Alaska in March, but first they will likely take a pitstop near China in the Yellow Sea for about a month to feed.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-10-17--Meet the zeptosecond, the shortest unit of time ever measured

Scientists have measured the shortest unit of time ever : the time it takes a light particle to cross a molecule .
That time , for the record , is 247 zeptoseconds .
A zeptosecond is a trillionth of a billionth of a second , or a decimal point followed by 21 zeroes and a 1 .
Previously , researchers had dipped into the realm of zeptoseconds ; in 2016 , researchers reporting in the journal used lasers to measure time in increments down to 850 zeptoseconds .
This accuracy is a huge leap from the 1999 Nobel Prize-winning work @ @ @ @ @ @ @ which are millionths of a billionths of seconds .
It takes femtoseconds for chemical bonds to break and form , but it takes zeptoseconds for light to travel across a single hydrogen molecule ( H2 ) .
To measure this very short trip , physicist Reinhard Dörner of Goethe University in Germany and his colleagues shot from the PETRA III at Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron ( DESY ) , a particle accelerator in Hamburg .
The researchers set the energy of the X-rays so that a single photon , or particle of light , knocked @ @ @ @ @ @ @ molecule .
( A hydrogen molecule consists of two protons and two electrons . )
The photon bounced one electron out of the molecule , and then the other , a bit like a pebble skipping over the top of a pond .
These interactions created a wave pattern called an interference pattern , which Dörner and his colleagues could measure with a tool called a Cold Target Recoil Ion Momentum Spectroscopy ( COLTRIMS ) reaction microscope .
This tool is essentially a very sensitive particle detector that can record extremely fast atomic @ @ @ @ @ @ @ recorded both the interference pattern and the position of the hydrogen molecule throughout the interaction .
`` Since we knew the spatial orientation of the hydrogen molecule , we used the interference of the two electron waves to precisely calculate when the photon reached the first and when it reached the second hydrogen atom , '' Sven Grundmann , a study coauthor at the University of Rostock in Germany , .
That time ?
Two hundred and forty-seven zeptoseconds , with some wiggle room depending on the distance between the hydrogen atoms within @ @ @ @ @ @ @ photon winged by .
The measurement is essentially capturing the speed of light within the molecule .
`` We observed for the first time that the electron shell in a molecule does not react to light everywhere at the same time , '' Dörner said in the statement .
`` The time delay occurs because information within the molecule only spreads at the speed of light . ''
The results were detailed Oct. 16 in the journal .

A particle of light, called a photon (yellow arrow), produces electron waves out of an electron cloud (grey) of a hydrogen molecule (red: nucleus). The result of those interactions is what’s called an interference pattern (violet-white). The interference pattern is slightly skewed to the right, allowing researchers to calculate the time for the photon to get from one atom to the next.
Scientists have measured the shortest unit of time ever: the time it takes a light particle to cross a hydrogen molecule.
That time, for the record, is 247 zeptoseconds. A zeptosecond is a trillionth of a billionth of a second, or a decimal point followed by 20 zeroes and a 1. Previously, researchers had dipped into the realm of zeptoseconds; in 2016, researchers reporting in the journal Nature Physics used lasers to measure time in increments down to 850 zeptoseconds. This accuracy is a huge leap from the 1999 Nobel Prize-winning work that first measured time in femtoseconds, which are millionths of a billionths of seconds.
It takes femtoseconds for chemical bonds to break and form, but it takes zeptoseconds for light to travel across a single hydrogen molecule (H2). To measure this very short trip, physicist Reinhard Dörner of Goethe University in Germany and his colleagues shot X-rays from the PETRA III at Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron (DESY), a particle accelerator in Hamburg.
Related: The mysterious physics of 7 everyday things
The researchers set the energy of the X-rays so that a single photon, or particle of light, knocked the two electrons out of the hydrogen molecule. (A hydrogen molecule consists of two protons and two electrons.) The photon bounced one electron out of the molecule, and then the other, a bit like a pebble skipping over the top of a pond. These interactions created a wave pattern called an interference pattern, which Dörner and his colleagues could measure with a tool called a Cold Target Recoil Ion Momentum Spectroscopy (COLTRIMS) reaction microscope. This tool is essentially a very sensitive particle detector that can record extremely fast atomic and molecular reactions. The COLTRIMS microscope recorded both the interference pattern and the position of the hydrogen molecule throughout the interaction.
"Since we knew the spatial orientation of the hydrogen molecule, we used the interference of the two electron waves to precisely calculate when the photon reached the first and when it reached the second hydrogen atom," Sven Grundmann, a study coauthor at the University of Rostock in Germany, said in a statement .
That time? Two hundred and forty-seven zeptoseconds, with some wiggle room depending on the distance between the hydrogen atoms within the molecule at the precise moment the photon winged by. The measurement is essentially capturing the speed of light within the molecule.
"We observed for the first time that the electron shell in a molecule does not react to light everywhere at the same time," Dörner said in the statement. "The time delay occurs because information within the molecule only spreads at the speed of light."
The results were detailed Oct. 16 in the journal Science .
Editor's note: This story was updated to correct the value of the zeptosecond. It is a decimal point followed by 20 zeros and a 1, not 21 zeros.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-10-17--Why are galaxies different shapes?

Why are galaxies different shapes?

Look into the night sky and you 'll glimpse the stars from hundreds of billions of galaxies .
Some galaxies are swirling blue disks like our own Milky Way , others are red spheres or misshapen , clumpy messes or something in between .
Why the different configurations ?
It turns out that a galaxy 's shape tells us something about the events in that galaxy 's ultra-long life .
At the very basic level there are two classifications for galaxy shapes : disk and elliptical .
A disk galaxy , also called a spiral galaxy , is shaped like @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , theoretical astrophysicist at Caltech .
These galaxies have a more spherical center , like the yolk , surrounded by a disk of gas and stars — the egg white .
The Milky Way and our nearest galaxy neighbor Andromeda fall into this category .
Related : 11 fascinating facts about our Milky Way galaxy In theory , disk galaxies initially form from clouds of hydrogen .
draws the gas particles together .
As the atoms draw closer , the cloud begins to rotate and their collective mass increases , which causes their @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Eventually , the gravity causes the gas to collapse into a swirling disk .
Most of the gas is in the rim , where it feeds star formation .
Edwin Hubble , who confirmed the existence of galaxies beyond our own only a century ago , called disk galaxies late-type galaxies because he suspected their shape meant they formed later in the history of the universe , .
Alternatively , elliptical galaxies — what Hubble called early-type galaxies — appear to be older .
Instead of rotating , like disk galaxies , stars @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , according to Robert Bassett , an observational astrophysicist who studies galaxy evolution at Swinburne University in Melbourne , Australia .
Elliptical galaxies are thought to be a product of a galaxy merger .
When two galaxies of equal mass merge , their stars start to tug on one another with gravity , disrupting the stars ' rotation and creating a more random orbit , Bassett said .
Not every merger results in an elliptical galaxy .
The Milky Way is actually quite old and large , but maintains its disk shape .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ by simply drawing in dwarf galaxies , which are much smaller than our home galaxy , and collecting free gas from the universe .
However , Andromeda , our disk-shaped sister galaxy , is actually headed straight for the Milky Way , Bassett told LiveScience .
So billions of years from now , the two spiraling galaxies could merge and each of the duo 's starry disks will offset the other 's rotation , creating a more random elliptical galaxy .
Related : The 15 weirdest galaxies in our universe These mergers are @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of millions , even billions of years .
In fact , there are ongoing mergers that are moving so slowly — from our perspective — that they appear static .
`` They 've basically been in the exact same state , unchanged for all of human civilization , '' Bassett said .
Hubble gave these galaxies their own classification — irregular galaxies .
To look at them , `` they are usually a mess with multiple components , '' Hummels said .
`` Irregular galaxies just look like a big train wreck , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ less common shape , lenticular galaxies seem to be a mix between an elliptical and a disk galaxy .
It may be , Bassett said , that when a disk galaxy uses up all its gas and ca n't form any new stars the existing stars begin to interact .
Their gravitational tug on one another creates a shape that looks like a lentil — kind of elliptical but still a rotating disk .
What scientists have uncovered so far about galaxies and their 3D shapes has been inferred using thousands of 2D @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , such as galaxy color and motion , to fill in the blanks , Bassett said .
For example , the younger age of disk galaxies is corroborated by their blue color .
Blue stars are generally larger , and they burn faster and hotter ( blue light has a higher frequency and is thus more energetic than red light ) .
Meanwhile , elliptical galaxies are filled with older stars — called r — that are n't burning quite as hot or fast .
Still , despite all we have learned about @ @ @ @ @ @ @ there 's still so much we do n't know , Hummels said .
`` Galaxy formation and evolution is one of the biggest open questions in the field of astronomy and astrophysics , '' Hummels said .

Look into the night sky and you'll glimpse the stars from hundreds of billions of galaxies. Some galaxies are swirling blue disks like our own Milky Way, others are red spheres or misshapen, clumpy messes or something in between. Why the different configurations? It turns out that a galaxy's shape tells us something about the events in that galaxy's ultra-long life.
At the very basic level there are two classifications for galaxy shapes: disk and elliptical. A disk galaxy, also called a spiral galaxy, is shaped like a fried egg, said Cameron Hummels, theoretical astrophysicist at Caltech. These galaxies have a more spherical center, like the yolk, surrounded by a disk of gas and stars — the egg white. The Milky Way and our nearest galaxy neighbor Andromeda fall into this category.
Related: 11 fascinating facts about our Milky Way galaxy
In theory, disk galaxies initially form from clouds of hydrogen. Gravity draws the gas particles together. As the hydrogen atoms draw closer, the cloud begins to rotate and their collective mass increases, which causes their gravitational force to also go up. Eventually, the gravity causes the gas to collapse into a swirling disk. Most of the gas is in the rim, where it feeds star formation. Edwin Hubble, who confirmed the existence of galaxies beyond our own only a century ago, called disk galaxies late-type galaxies because he suspected their shape meant they formed later in the history of the universe, according to NASA .
Alternatively, elliptical galaxies — what Hubble called early-type galaxies — appear to be older. Instead of rotating, like disk galaxies, stars in elliptical galaxies have more random movement, according to Robert Bassett, an observational astrophysicist who studies galaxy evolution at Swinburne University in Melbourne, Australia. Elliptical galaxies are thought to be a product of a galaxy merger. When two galaxies of equal mass merge, their stars start to tug on one another with gravity, disrupting the stars' rotation and creating a more random orbit, Bassett said.
Not every merger results in an elliptical galaxy. The Milky Way is actually quite old and large, but maintains its disk shape. It's been adding to its mass by simply drawing in dwarf galaxies, which are much smaller than our home galaxy, and collecting free gas from the universe. However, Andromeda, our disk-shaped sister galaxy, is actually headed straight for the Milky Way, Bassett told Live Science. So billions of years from now, the two spiraling galaxies could merge and each of the duo's starry disks will offset the other's rotation, creating a more random elliptical galaxy.
Related: The 15 weirdest galaxies in our universe
These mergers are far from instantaneous. They take hundreds of millions, even billions of years. In fact, there are ongoing mergers that are moving so slowly — from our perspective — that they appear static. "They've basically been in the exact same state, unchanged for all of human civilization," Bassett said. Hubble gave these galaxies their own classification — irregular galaxies. To look at them, "they are usually a mess with multiple components," Hummels said. "Irregular galaxies just look like a big train wreck," Bassett added.
This galaxy, known as Mrk 820, is classified as a lenticular galaxy. Surrounding Mrk 820 is a slew of other galaxy types from elliptical to spiral. (Image credit: ESA/Hubble & NASA and N. Grogin (STScI), Acknowledgement: Judy Schmidt)
Finally, a less common shape, lenticular galaxies seem to be a mix between an elliptical and a disk galaxy. It may be, Bassett said, that when a disk galaxy uses up all its gas and can't form any new stars the existing stars begin to interact. Their gravitational tug on one another creates a shape that looks like a lentil — kind of elliptical but still a rotating disk.
What scientists have uncovered so far about galaxies and their 3D shapes has been inferred using thousands of 2D images and by relying on other properties, such as galaxy color and motion, to fill in the blanks, Bassett said.
For example, the younger age of disk galaxies is corroborated by their blue color. Blue stars are generally larger, and they burn faster and hotter (blue light has a higher frequency and is thus more energetic than red light). Meanwhile, elliptical galaxies are filled with older stars — called red dwarfs — that aren't burning quite as hot or fast.
Still, despite all we have learned about the massive celestial structures around us, there's still so much we don't know, Hummels said.
"Galaxy formation and evolution is one of the biggest open questions in the field of astronomy and astrophysics," Hummels said.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-10-18--Elon Musk says SpaceX's 1st Starship trip to Mars could fly in 4 years

SpaceX is almost ready to start building a permanent human settlement on Mars with its massive Starship rocket .
The private spaceflight company is on track to launch its first uncrewed mission to Mars in as little as four years from now , SpaceX 's founder and CEO Elon Musk said Friday ( Oct. 16 ) at the International Mars Society Convention .
`` I think we have a fighting chance of making that second Mars transfer window , '' Musk said in a discussion with Mars Society founder Robert Zubrin .
You can watch a replay of the talk @ @ @ @ @ @ @ is a launch opportunity that arises every 26 months for mission to Mars .
NASA , China and the United Arab Emirates all launched missions to mars in July of this year .
The next window opens in 2022 with Musk referring to the 2024 Mars launch opportunity .
The mission will launch to the Red Planet on a SpaceX Starship vehicle , a reusable rocket-and-spacecraft combo that is currently under development at the company 's South Texas facility .
SpaceX is also planning to use Starship for missions to the moon starting @ @ @ @ @ @ @ trips around the Earth .
Musk has long said that humans need to establish a permanent and self-sustaining presence on Mars to ensure `` the continuance of consciousness as we know it '' — just in case planet Earth is left uninhabitable by a something like a nuclear war or an asteroid strike .
But SpaceX does n't have any plans to actually build a Mars base .
As a transportation company , its only goal is to ferry cargo ( and humans ) to and from the Red Planet , facilitating the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
`` SpaceX is taking on the biggest single challenge , which is the transportation system .
There 's all sorts of other systems that are going to be needed , '' Mars Society founder Robert Zubrin said during the convention .
`` My personal hope is that we 're gon na see Starship in the stratosphere before this year 's out , and if Elon is right , reach orbit next year or the year after , '' Zubrin added .
`` This will change people 's minds as to what is @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , we 'll have NASA seeking to fund the remaining pieces of the puzzle or entrepreneurs stepping forward to develop remaining pieces of the puzzle . ''
If Musk 's projections are correct — he is known for offering overly ambitious timelines — SpaceX 's first Mars mission would launch in the same year that NASA astronauts return to the moon under the Artemis program .
SpaceX is also planning to fly space tourists on a Starship mission around the moon in 2023 .
NASA has also picked SpaceX as one of three @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the Artemis program .
Musk said Friday that if it were n't for the orbital mechanics that call for Mars launches every 26 months , SpaceX `` would maybe have a shot of sending or trying send something to Mars in three years , '' Musk said , adding that Earth and Mars wo n't be in the best position .
`` But the window is four years away , because of them being in different parts of the solar system . ''
Musk unveiled plans for SpaceX 's Starship plans in 2016 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 165-foot ( 50 meters ) spacecraft atop a massive booster for deep-space missions to the moon , Mars and elsewhere .
Both the Starship and its Super Heavy booster will be reusable .
This year , SpaceX launched two test flights of Starship prototypes , called SN5 and SN6 , from its Boca Chica test site in Texas .
Those flights reached an altitude of 500 feet ( 150 meters ) .
SpaceX is currently preparing another Starship prototype , called SN8 , for a 12-mile-high ( 20 kilometers ) test flight in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ at hweitering @ space.com or follow her on Twitter @ hannekescience .
Follow us on Twitter @ Spacedotcom and on Facebook .

SpaceX's Starship could launch on its first uncrewed flight to Mars in 2024.
SpaceX is almost ready to start building a permanent human settlement on Mars with its massive Starship rocket.
The private spaceflight company is on track to launch its first uncrewed mission to Mars in as little as four years from now, SpaceX's founder and CEO Elon Musk said Friday (Oct. 16) at the International Mars Society Convention.
"I think we have a fighting chance of making that second Mars transfer window," Musk said in a discussion with Mars Society founder Robert Zubrin. You can watch a replay of the talk here.
That window Musk referred to is a launch opportunity that arises every 26 months for mission to Mars. NASA, China and the United Arab Emirates all launched missions to mars in July of this year. The next window opens in 2022 with Musk referring to the 2024 Mars launch opportunity.
The mission will launch to the Red Planet on a SpaceX Starship vehicle, a reusable rocket-and-spacecraft combo that is currently under development at the company's South Texas facility. SpaceX is also planning to use Starship for missions to the moon starting in 2022, as well as point-to-point trips around the Earth.
Related: Starship and Super Heavy: SpaceX's Mars-colonizing vehicles in images
Musk has long said that humans need to establish a permanent and self-sustaining presence on Mars to ensure "the continuance of consciousness as we know it" — just in case planet Earth is left uninhabitable by a something like a nuclear war or an asteroid strike.
But SpaceX doesn't have any plans to actually build a Mars base. As a transportation company, its only goal is to ferry cargo (and humans) to and from the Red Planet, facilitating the development of someone else's Mars base.
"SpaceX is taking on the biggest single challenge, which is the transportation system. There's all sorts of other systems that are going to be needed," Mars Society founder Robert Zubrin said during the convention.
"My personal hope is that we're gonna see Starship in the stratosphere before this year's out, and if Elon is right, reach orbit next year or the year after," Zubrin added. "This will change people's minds as to what is possible. And then, you know, we'll have NASA seeking to fund the remaining pieces of the puzzle or entrepreneurs stepping forward to develop remaining pieces of the puzzle."
This SpaceX infographic shows how the company aims to use its Starship interstellar spacecraft to transport humans and cargo to and from the Red Planet. (Image credit: SpaceX)
If Musk's projections are correct — he is known for offering overly ambitious timelines — SpaceX's first Mars mission would launch in the same year that NASA astronauts return to the moon under the Artemis program. SpaceX is also planning to fly space tourists on a Starship mission around the moon in 2023. NASA has also picked SpaceX as one of three commercial teams to develop moon landers for the Artemis program.
Musk said Friday that if it weren't for the orbital mechanics that call for Mars launches every 26 months, SpaceX "would maybe have a shot of sending or trying send something to Mars in three years," Musk said, adding that Earth and Mars won't be in the best position. "But the window is four years away, because of them being in different parts of the solar system."
Musk unveiled plans for SpaceX's Starship plans in 2016. The project aims to launch a 165-foot (50 meters) spacecraft atop a massive booster for deep-space missions to the moon, Mars and elsewhere. Both the Starship and its Super Heavy booster will be reusable.
This year, SpaceX launched two test flights of Starship prototypes, called SN5 and SN6, from its Boca Chica test site in Texas. Those flights reached an altitude of 500 feet (150 meters).
SpaceX is currently preparing another Starship prototype, called SN8, for a 12-mile-high (20 kilometers) test flight in the near future.
Email Hanneke Weitering at hweitering@space.com or follow her on Twitter @hannekescience. Follow us on Twitter @Spacedotcom and on Facebook.


livescience--2020-10-18--Was Jesus a magician?

Was Jesus a magician?

Ancient art throughout the catacombs of Rome , painted on the walls and carved into stone coffins , shows as he multiplies loaves of bread , heals the sick and brings the dead back to life .
These images are unified by one surprising element : In each of them , Jesus appears to brandish a wand .
That led scholars to wonder : Did ancient Christians see Jesus as a magician ?
Despite these evocative images , most evidence suggests early Christians did n't see Jesus as a magician .
Magic was considered a purely human pursuit that could @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ' supernatural acts were always seen by believers as miracles performed through a powerful God .
What 's more , the `` wand '' carried by Jesus was in fact not a wand —magicians of the day never carried wands anyway , experts told Live Science .
Still , magic was very much alive during the period of early Christianity .
Between the third and eighth centuries , the years when images of what looks like a `` wand-carrying '' Jesus Christ adorned the burial sites of ancient Romans , Christianity was still @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Judaism as well as Roman gods and goddesses , said Lee Jefferson , the chair of the religion program at Centre College in Danville , Kentucky .
`` Even at the time of some of these images , they do n't have an agreed upon Bible ; they do n't have a canon ; they do n't have an agreed upon understanding about who Jesus is , '' Jefferson told Live Science .
That said , it looked nothing like the magic we see in pop culture today .
Magic centered around spells @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to deal with problems in their everyday lives , from sickness to love .
Patrons of magicians took those spells home to recite , just like we would take medicine home from the doctor .
Recite it wrong , and it would n't work .
In a time of uncertainty , when people had little control over whether their crops survived and sickness was often a death sentence , magic provided a sense of control .
That said , magic was looked down upon by Jews and polytheists alike , Jefferson said .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ was banned in the Roman Empire .
Although people continued to practice it in private , religious leaders saw it as shameful , Jefferson wrote in the book `` The Routledge Handbook of Early Christian Art '' ( Routledge , 2018 ) .
In this context , some people did call Jesus a magician — but as a form of slander .
At the time , polytheist religious leaders saw Christianity as a form of superstition , like magic .
`` I mean , here 's this group that gets together in the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 's blood and eats bread and says it 's flesh , '' Jefferson said .
`` You can probably understand why people thought it was superstitious . ''
The philosopher Celsus , a vocal critic of Christianity , was among those who saw Jesus as a magician .
But followers of Jesus never saw it that way .
Their savior performed miracles , not magic — powerful acts of God that often defied death , very different from the human pursuit of magic , that dealt with small matters .
`` You would @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a magician because it makes them seem less powerful , '' Jefferson said .
Jesus ' ability to defeat death , heal people and produce food and drink elevated him above Roman gods in the eyes of Christians and non-Christians alike , said Felicity Harley-McGowan , an art historian at Yale Divinity School .
They believed Jesus had a particular power over death and would invoke his name as a way of harnessing that power , even as they invoked the names of other gods .
Roman gods could heal and raise the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ directly or with the agency of Jesus .
For example , Asclepius , the god of healing , healed people through dreams ; Jesus healed directly with his hands .
While Asclepius was killed for raising the dead , Jesus was praised for it .
Early Christian art reflects that preoccupation with miracles , and less focus on his story of suffering and redemption .
For instance , though dozens of paintings exist of Jesus carrying what looks like a wand and raising Lazarus from the dead , relatively few early paintings depict @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Jefferson wrote in a 2020 article published in the journal Biblical Archaeology Review .
So why is Jesus depicted carrying an object that looks so much like a magic wand ?
Scholars tend to agree that `` wand '' is n't the best term to describe it .
In fact , the tool probably was n't associated with magic at all — it just appears that way to us , because it 's filtered through the lens of modern conceptions of wizards , such as Harry Potter .
In the earliest years of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
No known artwork from that time period depicts magicians carrying them , Jefferson added .
Instead , many scholars prefer the term `` staff '' to describe the object .
Regardless , the fact that Jesus carried a staff in these images does hold its own significance .
In the earliest years of Christianity , people would have been familiar with Moses — a Jewish prophet and another miracle-worker — but not necessarily with Jesus .
That staff connected Jesus to Moses , who also carried one and in fact performed miracles @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of like a new Moses , '' Jefferson said .
The staff was a symbol of power people could recognize — just as a beard or scroll would have demonstrated learnedness , Harley told Live Science .
`` They see that person holding the object and they can understand , '' Harley said , `` The staff is a sign of his authority . ''

Ancient art throughout the catacombs of Rome, painted on the walls and carved into stone coffins, shows Jesus as he multiplies loaves of bread, heals the sick and brings the dead back to life. These images are unified by one surprising element: In each of them, Jesus appears to brandish a wand. That led scholars to wonder: Did ancient Christians see Jesus as a magician?
Despite these evocative images, most evidence suggests early Christians didn't see Jesus as a magician. Magic was considered a purely human pursuit that could not raise the dead, whereas Jesus' supernatural acts were always seen by believers as miracles performed through a powerful God. What's more, the "wand" carried by Jesus was in fact not a wand —magicians of the day never carried wands anyway, experts told Live Science.
Magic and early Christianity
Still, magic was very much alive during the period of early Christianity. Between the third and eighth centuries, the years when images of what looks like a "wand-carrying" Jesus Christ adorned the burial sites of ancient Romans, Christianity was still in its infancy, existing alongside ancient Judaism as well as Roman gods and goddesses, said Lee Jefferson, the chair of the religion program at Centre College in Danville, Kentucky. "Even at the time of some of these images, they don't have an agreed upon Bible; they don't have a canon; they don't have an agreed upon understanding about who Jesus is," Jefferson told Live Science.
That said, it looked nothing like the magic we see in pop culture today. Magic centered around spells, which people would seek from magicians to deal with problems in their everyday lives, from sickness to love. Patrons of magicians took those spells home to recite, just like we would take medicine home from the doctor. Recite it wrong, and it wouldn't work.
Related: The surprising origin of 9 common superstitions
In a time of uncertainty, when people had little control over whether their crops survived and sickness was often a death sentence, magic provided a sense of control. That said, magic was looked down upon by Jews and polytheists alike, Jefferson said. Magic was seen as superstitious and it was banned in the Roman Empire. Although people continued to practice it in private, religious leaders saw it as shameful, Jefferson wrote in the book "The Routledge Handbook of Early Christian Art" (Routledge, 2018).
The sarcophagus of Marcus Claudianus in Rome (330-340). (Image credit: Lee Jefferson)
In this context, some people did call Jesus a magician — but as a form of slander. At the time, polytheist religious leaders saw Christianity as a form of superstition, like magic. "I mean, here's this group that gets together in the morning and drinks wine and says it's blood and eats bread and says it's flesh," Jefferson said. "You can probably understand why people thought it was superstitious." The philosopher Celsus, a vocal critic of Christianity, was among those who saw Jesus as a magician.
But followers of Jesus never saw it that way. Their savior performed miracles, not magic — powerful acts of God that often defied death, very different from the human pursuit of magic, that dealt with small matters. "You would not want your demigod to be called a magician because it makes them seem less powerful," Jefferson said.
Jesus' ability to defeat death, heal people and produce food and drink elevated him above Roman gods in the eyes of Christians and non-Christians alike, said Felicity Harley-McGowan, an art historian at Yale Divinity School. They believed Jesus had a particular power over death and would invoke his name as a way of harnessing that power, even as they invoked the names of other gods. Roman gods could heal and raise the dead, but none performed these acts directly or with the agency of Jesus. For example, Asclepius, the god of healing, healed people through dreams; Jesus healed directly with his hands. While Asclepius was killed for raising the dead, Jesus was praised for it. Early Christian art reflects that preoccupation with miracles, and less focus on his story of suffering and redemption. For instance, though dozens of paintings exist of Jesus carrying what looks like a wand and raising Lazarus from the dead, relatively few early paintings depict Jesus' last supper or crucifixion, Jefferson wrote in a 2020 article published in the journal Biblical Archaeology Review.
Related: 8 alleged relics of Jesus of Nazareth
So why is Jesus depicted carrying an object that looks so much like a magic wand? Scholars tend to agree that "wand" isn't the best term to describe it. In fact, the tool probably wasn't associated with magic at all — it just appears that way to us, because it's filtered through the lens of modern conceptions of wizards, such as Harry Potter. In the earliest years of Christianity, magic didn't involve wands. No known artwork from that time period depicts magicians carrying them, Jefferson added. Instead, many scholars prefer the term "staff" to describe the object.
Regardless, the fact that Jesus carried a staff in these images does hold its own significance. In the earliest years of Christianity, people would have been familiar with Moses — a Jewish prophet and another miracle-worker — but not necessarily with Jesus. That staff connected Jesus to Moses, who also carried one and in fact performed miracles with it. "He's kind of like a new Moses," Jefferson said.
The staff was a symbol of power people could recognize — just as a beard or scroll would have demonstrated learnedness, Harley-McGowan told Live Science. "They see that person holding the object and they can understand," Harley-McGowan said, "The staff is a sign of his authority."
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-10-19--Severe burn damage from California wildfires seen from space

New satellite imagery of California reveals not just the extent of its wildfire damage , but the depth of the loss .
The maps derived from the satellite data show how far two major fires spread as well as how badly each region burned .
Darker colors represent near-complete loss — charred landscapes with little to no living vegetation left .
Lighter tan regions represent areas where the fire was severe , but some trees and plants still survive .
The satellite data was collected by Landsat 8 on Sept. 26 , during a clear day after weeks of smoke @ @ @ @ @ @ @ We needed a clear view of the land surface to make these measurements , and we were lucky enough to get one after so many smoky days , '' Christopher Potter , a remote-sensing researcher at NASA 's Ames Research Center , told NASA 's Earth Observatory .
`` It was the first satellite image we could use to tell how severe the burn was across a broad area . ''
The imagery captured the CZU Lightning Complex fire near Santa Cruz , and the SCU Lightning Complex fire in the Diablo Mountains @ @ @ @ @ @ @ on Aug. 16 , according to Cal Fire , and burned for 37 days before being contained .
The fire burned 86,509 acres ( 135 square miles , or 350 square kilometers ) .
The SCU Lightning Complex ignited on Aug. 18 and burned 396,624 acres ( 619 square miles , or 1,605 square kilometers ) over the next 44 days , according to Cal Fire .
By comparing and shortwave-infrared wavelength data from Sept. 26 to the same data collected on July 24 , before the fires , Potter and his colleagues @ @ @ @ @ @ @ much vegetation was lost in each fire .
The resulting maps show that the CZU Lightning Complex scar was burned deeply into the land , likely leaving little but charred tree stumps , ash and soot behind .
Most of the SCU Complex fire shows more surviving vegetation .
Green areas on the map show a gain in vegetation , which is probably due to seasonal growth or agriculture outside of fire scars .
According to the Earth Observatory , the CZU Lightning Complex fire devastated coastal forests full of tanoaks , Douglas @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to see how much of the redwood forest was burned , '' Potter said .
`` It is rare that we get more than one large lightning-induced fire in a year in California ; this year , we had 10 lightning complex fires , '' Potter told the Earth Observatory .
`` Some researchers think these lightning storms may be related to .
If means more lightning storms like this in California , then we are in trouble . ''

The Operational Land Imager on Landsat 8 captured this image on Sept. 26, 2020, showing the extent of the wildfire damage.
New satellite imagery of California reveals not just the extent of its wildfire damage, but the depth of the loss.
The maps derived from the satellite data show how far two major fires spread as well as how badly each region burned. Darker colors represent near-complete loss — charred landscapes with little to no living vegetation left. Lighter tan regions represent areas where the fire was severe, but some trees and plants still survive.
The satellite data was collected by Landsat 8 on Sept. 26, during a clear day after weeks of smoke that blanketed the Bay Area.
"We needed a clear view of the land surface to make these measurements, and we were lucky enough to get one after so many smoky days," Christopher Potter, a remote-sensing researcher at NASA's Ames Research Center, told NASA's Earth Observatory. "It was the first satellite image we could use to tell how severe the burn was across a broad area."
The imagery captured the CZU Lightning Complex fire near Santa Cruz, and the SCU Lightning Complex fire in the Diablo Mountains. The CZU Lightning Complex fire began on Aug. 16, according to Cal Fire, and burned for 37 days before being contained. The fire burned 86,509 acres (135 square miles, or 350 square kilometers). The SCU Lightning Complex ignited on Aug. 18 and burned 396,624 acres (619 square miles, or 1,605 square kilometers) over the next 44 days, according to Cal Fire.
An outburst of dry lightning in August 2020 triggered wildfires across the state of California. (Image credit: NASA Earth Observatory)
By comparing near-infrared and shortwave-infrared wavelength data from Sept. 26 to the same data collected on July 24, before the fires, Potter and his colleagues created a normalized burn ratio showing how much vegetation was lost in each fire. The resulting maps show that the CZU Lightning Complex scar was burned deeply into the land, likely leaving little but charred tree stumps, ash and soot behind. Most of the SCU Complex fire shows more surviving vegetation.
Green areas on the map show a gain in vegetation, which is probably due to seasonal growth or agriculture outside of fire scars.
According to the Earth Observatory, the CZU Lightning Complex fire devastated coastal forests full of tanoaks, Douglas firs and redwoods .
"It is disturbing to see how much of the redwood forest was burned," Potter said.
The SCU Complex fire burned grassland and oak woodlands.
"It is rare that we get more than one large lightning-induced fire in a year in California; this year, we had 10 lightning complex fires," Potter told the Earth Observatory. "Some researchers think these lightning storms may be related to climate change . If global warming means more lightning storms like this in California, then we are in trouble."
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-10-19--The body fires 'blobs of fat' packed with toxic proteins to fight bacteria

The human body uses many tactics to fight invaders .
Scientists just found another weapon in its arsenal : tiny fat blobs packed with toxic that are fired at the enemy .
Complex organisms including fungi , plants and animals are made up of that contain subcellular structures called organelles .
These organelles all work together to keep the cells functioning ; the nucleus , for example , is the brain of the cell and lipid droplets ( LDs ) are teeny blobs of fat that store and provide fuel for the cell when needed .
Lipid droplets are usually @ @ @ @ @ @ @ that generates most of the cell 's energy — and serve as a source of fuel when needed .
Previous research has found that certain parasites , and steal these droplets and also use them to fuel growth .
So until now , scientists thought that these lipid droplets supported infection , the authors wrote in a new study published Oct. 15 in the journal .
`` It was previously thought that bacteria were merely using the lipid droplets to feed on , but we have discovered these fatty droplets are involved in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ cells , '' co-author Robert Parton , head of the cell biology and molecular medicine division of the University of Queensland 's Institute for Molecular Bioscience in Australia , .
Previously , scientists found that exposing fruit flies to a microbe induced formation of lipid droplets with antimicrobial activity , according to an accompanying in the journal Science .
Parton and his team wanted to see whether this strange battle technique also existed in mammalian cells .
They injected mice with lipopolysaccharide , a toxin that 's produced by bacteria .
The toxin @ @ @ @ @ @ @ liver to produce more lipid droplets and increase the size of existing ones , according to the study .
In cells infected with the toxin , threatened cells packed lipid droplets with hundreds of antiviral and antibacterial proteins.The scientists also found that the droplets detached from the mitochondria and moved toward the bacterial toxin .
`` Fat is part of the cell 's arsenal — cells manufacture toxic proteins , package them into the lipid droplets , then fire them at the intruders , '' Parton said .
`` This is a new @ @ @ @ @ @ @ using fats as a covert weapon , and giving us new insights into ways of fighting infection . ''
The researchers also saw a similar response when they exposed human macrophages — a type of white blood cell that helps detect and destroy pathogens and problem cells — to the bacterial toxin in the lab .
Now , Parton and his team hope to figure out how the lipid droplets actually target the bacteria , he said in the statement .
`` By understanding the body 's natural defenses , we can develop @ @ @ @ @ @ @ antibiotics to fight drug-resistant infections . ''
Though scientists are just discovering this defense strategy now , these droplets were first discovered more than 130 years ago , and they are present in all types of eukaryotic cells , according to the commentary .
`` There is great and justifiable excitement regarding the functions of LDs and other membraneless organelles , '' and how they change in many cellular processes , Douglas Green , the chair of the immunology department at St. Jude Children 's Research Hospital in Tennessee , wrote in the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to learn about these drops of oil in cells . ''

The human body uses many tactics to fight invaders. Scientists just found another weapon in its arsenal: tiny fat blobs packed with toxic proteins that are fired at the enemy.
Complex organisms including fungi, plants and animals are made up of eukaryotic cells that contain subcellular structures called organelles. These organelles all work together to keep the cells functioning; the nucleus, for example, is the brain of the cell and lipid droplets (LDs) are teeny blobs of fat that store and provide fuel for the cell when needed.
Lipid droplets are usually attached to the mitochondria — an organelle that generates most of the cell's energy — and serve as a source of fuel when needed. Previous research has found that certain parasites, viruses and bacteria steal these droplets and also use them to fuel growth. So until now, scientists thought that these lipid droplets supported infection, the authors wrote in a new study published Oct. 15 in the journal Science .
Related: 5 ways gut bacteria affect your health
"It was previously thought that bacteria were merely using the lipid droplets to feed on, but we have discovered these fatty droplets are involved in the battle between the pathogens and our cells," co-author Robert Parton, head of the cell biology and molecular medicine division of the University of Queensland's Institute for Molecular Bioscience in Australia, said in a statement . Previously, scientists found that exposing fruit flies to a microbe induced formation of lipid droplets with antimicrobial activity, according to an accompanying commentary in the journal Science.
Parton and his team wanted to see whether this strange battle technique also existed in mammalian cells. They injected mice with lipopolysaccharide, a toxin that's produced by bacteria. The toxin spurred threatened cells in the mice's liver to produce more lipid droplets and increase the size of existing ones, according to the study.
In cells infected with the toxin, threatened cells packed lipid droplets with hundreds of antiviral and antibacterial proteins.The scientists also found that the droplets detached from the mitochondria and moved toward the bacterial toxin.
"Fat is part of the cell's arsenal — cells manufacture toxic proteins, package them into the lipid droplets, then fire them at the intruders," Parton said. "This is a new way that cells are protecting themselves, using fats as a covert weapon, and giving us new insights into ways of fighting infection."
The researchers also saw a similar response when they exposed human macrophages — a type of white blood cell that helps detect and destroy pathogens and problem cells — to the bacterial toxin in the lab. Now, Parton and his team hope to figure out how the lipid droplets actually target the bacteria, he said in the statement. "By understanding the body's natural defenses, we can develop new therapies that don't rely on antibiotics to fight drug-resistant infections."
Though scientists are just discovering this defense strategy now, these droplets were first discovered more than 130 years ago, and they are present in all types of eukaryotic cells, according to the commentary.
"There is great and justifiable excitement regarding the functions of LDs and other membraneless organelles," and how they change in many cellular processes, Douglas Green, the chair of the immunology department at St. Jude Children's Research Hospital in Tennessee, wrote in the accompanying commentary. "We have much to learn about these drops of oil in cells."


livescience--2020-10-19--Ice melt in Alaska threatens to unleash unprecedented 'mega-tsunami,' scientists warn

A giant , catastrophic tsunami in Alaska triggered by a landslide of rock left unstable after glacier melting is likely to occur in the next two decades , scientists fear - and it could happen within the next 12 months .
A group of scientists warned of the prospects of this impending disaster in Prince William Sound in an open letter to the Alaska Department of Natural Resources ( ADNR ) in May .
While the potential risks of such a landslide are very serious , there remain a lot of unknowns about just how or when this calamity could @ @ @ @ @ @ @ that glacier retreat in Prince William Sound , along the south coast of Alaska , does seem to be having an impact on mountain slopes above Barry Arm , about 97 kilometers ( 60 miles ) east of Anchorage .
Analysis of satellite imagery suggests that as Barry Glacier retreats from Barry Arm due to ongoing melting , a large rocky scar called a scarp is emerging on the face of the mountain above it .
This indicates an incremental , slow-moving landslide is already taking place above the fjord , but if @ @ @ @ @ @ @ way , the consequences could be dire .
Although it 's remote , this is an area that 's frequented by commercial and recreational boats , including cruise ships .
`` It was hard to believe the numbers at first , '' one of the researchers , geophysicist Chunli Dai from the Ohio State University told NASA 's Earth Observatory .
`` Based on the elevation of the deposit above the water , the volume of land that was slipping , and the angle of the slope , we calculated that a collapse @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 11 times more energy than Alaska 's 1958 Lituya Bay landslide and mega-tsunami . ''
If the team 's calculations are correct , such a result borders on the unthinkable , because the 1958 episode – likened by eyewitnesses to the explosion of an atomic bomb – is often thought to be the tallest tsunami wave in modern times , reaching a maximum elevation of 524 meters ( 1,720 feet ) .
A much more recent slope failure event in 2015 in Taan Fiord to the east produced a tsunami reaching as high @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , and the researchers say these failures can be brought about by numerous causes .
`` Slopes like this can change from slow creeping to a fast-moving landslide due to a number of possible triggers , '' the May report explains .
`` Often , heavy or prolonged rain is a factor .
Earthquakes commonly trigger failures .
Hot weather that drives thawing of permafrost , snow , or glacier ice can also be a trigger . ''
Since the report 's release earlier in the year , subsequent landslide analysis has suggested @ @ @ @ @ @ @ on the slope , although in itself that does n't tell us much , since research shows that the rock face has been shifting since at least 50 years ago , at some points speeding up , while slowing down at others .
While these kinds of subtle variations are still being investigated , the overall view is that the speed of glacier retreat increases the probability of more dramatic slope failures .
`` When the climate changes , the landscape takes time to adjust , '' co-author of the letter and geologist @ @ @ @ @ @ @ told The Guardian .
`` If a glacier retreats really quickly it can catch the surrounding slopes by surprise – they might fail catastrophically instead of gradually adjusting . ''
Ongoing monitoring by numerous organizations – including ADNR , the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , and the US Geological Survey – is keeping tabs on developments at Prince William Sound , to track movements above the Barry Glacier , and to refine predictions of what the fallout from a mega-tsunami would be .
Preliminary modeling from the May report , which has @ @ @ @ @ @ @ tsunami reaching hundreds of feet in elevation along the shoreline would result from a sudden massive failure , propagating throughout Prince William Sound , and into bays and fjords far from the source .
Perhaps the bigger takeaway is that the impacts of relatively rapid glacier retreats in the era of climate change could pose similar kinds of landslide and tsunami threats in many other places around the world , not just in Alaska .
`` It 's really pretty terrifying , '' Higman told Columbia University 's GlacierHub blog in May , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ something that humanity has understood to be a dangerous , unpredictable geohazard for much , much longer .
`` Maybe we 're entering a time now where we need to look at glaciated landscapes with the same kind of glasses . ''
The findings are available on the ADNR website .
This article was originally published by ScienceAlert .
Read the original article here .

A giant, catastrophic tsunami in Alaska triggered by a landslide of rock left unstable after glacier melting is likely to occur in the next two decades, scientists fear - and it could happen within the next 12 months.
A group of scientists warned of the prospects of this impending disaster in Prince William Sound in an open letter to the Alaska Department of Natural Resources (ADNR) in May.
While the potential risks of such a landslide are very serious, there remain a lot of unknowns about just how or when this calamity could take place.
What is clear is that glacier retreat in Prince William Sound, along the south coast of Alaska, does seem to be having an impact on mountain slopes above Barry Arm, about 97 kilometers (60 miles) east of Anchorage.
Analysis of satellite imagery suggests that as Barry Glacier retreats from Barry Arm due to ongoing melting, a large rocky scar called a scarp is emerging on the face of the mountain above it.
This indicates an incremental, slow-moving landslide is already taking place above the fjord, but if the rock face were to suddenly give way, the consequences could be dire.
Although it's remote, this is an area that's frequented by commercial and recreational boats, including cruise ships.
Barry Glacier, seen in September 2013. (Image credit: Lauren Dauphin/NASA Earth Observatory/USGS)
"It was hard to believe the numbers at first," one of the researchers, geophysicist Chunli Dai from the Ohio State University told NASA's Earth Observatory.
"Based on the elevation of the deposit above the water, the volume of land that was slipping, and the angle of the slope, we calculated that a collapse would release 16 times more debris and 11 times more energy than Alaska's 1958 Lituya Bay landslide and mega-tsunami."
If the team's calculations are correct, such a result borders on the unthinkable, because the 1958 episode – likened by eyewitnesses to the explosion of an atomic bomb – is often thought to be the tallest tsunami wave in modern times, reaching a maximum elevation of 524 meters (1,720 feet).
A much more recent slope failure event in 2015 in Taan Fiord to the east produced a tsunami reaching as high as 193 meters (633 ft), and the researchers say these failures can be brought about by numerous causes.
"Slopes like this can change from slow creeping to a fast-moving landslide due to a number of possible triggers," the May report explains.
"Often, heavy or prolonged rain is a factor. Earthquakes commonly trigger failures. Hot weather that drives thawing of permafrost, snow, or glacier ice can also be a trigger."
Barry Glacier, seen in August 2019. (Image credit: Lauren Dauphin/NASA Earth Observatory/USGS)
Since the report's release earlier in the year, subsequent landslide analysis has suggested little or no movement of land masses on the slope, although in itself that doesn't tell us much, since research shows that the rock face has been shifting since at least 50 years ago, at some points speeding up, while slowing down at others.
While these kinds of subtle variations are still being investigated, the overall view is that the speed of glacier retreat increases the probability of more dramatic slope failures.
"When the climate changes, the landscape takes time to adjust," co-author of the letter and geologist Bretwood Higman from nonprofit Ground Truth Alaska told The Guardian.
"If a glacier retreats really quickly it can catch the surrounding slopes by surprise – they might fail catastrophically instead of gradually adjusting."
Ongoing monitoring by numerous organizations – including ADNR, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and the US Geological Survey – is keeping tabs on developments at Prince William Sound, to track movements above the Barry Glacier, and to refine predictions of what the fallout from a mega-tsunami would be.
Preliminary modeling from the May report, which hasn't yet been peer-reviewed, suggests a tsunami reaching hundreds of feet in elevation along the shoreline would result from a sudden massive failure, propagating throughout Prince William Sound, and into bays and fjords far from the source.
Perhaps the bigger takeaway is that the impacts of relatively rapid glacier retreats in the era of climate change could pose similar kinds of landslide and tsunami threats in many other places around the world, not just in Alaska.
"It's really pretty terrifying," Higman told Columbia University's GlacierHub blog in May, likening the environmental risks to volcanoes – something that humanity has understood to be a dangerous, unpredictable geohazard for much, much longer.
"Maybe we're entering a time now where we need to look at glaciated landscapes with the same kind of glasses."
The findings are available on the ADNR website.
This article was originally published by ScienceAlert. Read the original article here.


livescience--2020-10-19--Researchers capture elusive particle trios at room temperature

Researchers have found a way to trap and study elusive trios called trions at room temperature .
Previously , trions could be studied only in super-cooled conditions .
These trios consist of either two electrons and an electron hole ( a space in the electronic structure that an electron could fill , but where there is no electron ) , or two holes and one .
They 're bound together only weakly , meaning they fall apart quickly —— not a boon for researchers trying to study them for applications in quantum computing and electronics .
Now , scientists led @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the University of Maryland , have found a way to stabilize trions at room temperature .
`` This work makes synthesizing trions very efficient and provides a method for manipulating them in ways we have n't been able to before , '' Wang .
`` With the ability to stabilize and trap trions , we have the potential to build a very clean system for studying the processes governing light-emitting diodes and photovoltaics and for developing quantum information technologies . ''
To trap the trions , the researchers started with single-walled carbon nanotubes @ @ @ @ @ @ @ create tiny defects in the tube walls .
These defects trap charged particles .
To create those charged particles , the researchers directed photons , or light particles , at the nanotubes .
These photons excited electrons in the nanotubes out of their lowest energy state , known as the ground state , leaving an electron hole behind .
The combination of the electron and the hole is called an exciton .
The excitons then became trapped — alongside free electrons ( the ones that had popped out of their ground states ) @ @ @ @ @ @ @ walls , binding together into trions of two electrons and one hole .
The photons also allowed the researchers to observe these trapped trions .
When the trapped trions decay , or fall apart , they release a photon , creating a flash of luminescence at a tell-tale wavelength that researchers could detect and identify .
The experiment resulted in trions seven times brighter and 100 times longer-lived than trions observed in super-cooled experiments .
The energy level of the trion is controlled by the well in the nanotube wall , and the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ well , Wang said .
That means they can also control the energy and stability of the trions , altering atomic properties like charge and electron spin .
This , in turn , could be used in applications such as photovoltaics , or the conversion of light into energy .

In this image, trapped trions and excitons can be seen as bright red spots against the dark blue background emissions from the host nanotube. This new work makes it possible to manipulate trions and study their fundamental properties in ways that have never been possible before.
Researchers have found a way to trap and study elusive particle trios called trions at room temperature.
Previously, trions could be studied only in super-cooled conditions. These trios consist of either two electrons and an electron hole (a space in the electronic structure that an electron could fill, but where there is no electron), or two holes and one electron . They're bound together only weakly, meaning they fall apart quickly —— not a boon for researchers trying to study them for applications in quantum computing and electronics.
Now, scientists led by YuHuang Wang, a chemist at the University of Maryland, have found a way to stabilize trions at room temperature.
"This work makes synthesizing trions very efficient and provides a method for manipulating them in ways we haven't been able to before," Wang said in a statement . "With the ability to stabilize and trap trions, we have the potential to build a very clean system for studying the processes governing light-emitting diodes and photovoltaics and for developing quantum information technologies."
Related: The 18 biggest unsolved mysteries in physics
To trap the trions, the researchers started with single-walled carbon nanotubes, then used a chemical reaction to create tiny defects in the tube walls. These defects trap charged particles. To create those charged particles, the researchers directed photons, or light particles, at the nanotubes. These photons excited electrons in the nanotubes out of their lowest energy state, known as the ground state, leaving an electron hole behind. The combination of the electron and the hole is called an exciton. The excitons then became trapped — alongside free electrons (the ones that had popped out of their ground states) — in the defects on the tube walls, binding together into trions of two electrons and one hole.
The photons also allowed the researchers to observe these trapped trions. When the trapped trions decay, or fall apart, they release a photon, creating a flash of luminescence at a tell-tale wavelength that researchers could detect and identify. The experiment resulted in trions seven times brighter and 100 times longer-lived than trions observed in super-cooled experiments.
The energy level of the trion is controlled by the well in the nanotube wall, and the researchers can manipulate the characteristics of the well, Wang said. That means they can also control the energy and stability of the trions, altering atomic properties like charge and electron spin. This, in turn, could be used in applications such as photovoltaics, or the conversion of light into energy.
Originally published on Live Science.


livescience--2020-10-19--Anglo-Saxon warlord unearthed by metal detector hobbyists

Archaeologists have unearthed the rich burial of a sixth-century man thought to be an Anglo-Saxon warlord in southern England , after it was first discovered by metal detectorists .
The skeleton of the man , dubbed the `` Marlow Warlord '' after the Berkshire town near where the remains were found , was buried with several weapons , including a sword in a decorated scabbard .
He would have stood at about 6 feet ( 1.8 meters ) tall at a time when the average male height in Britain was about 5 feet 7 inches ( 1.7 m ) .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ Reading in the U.K. , who led the excavations at the site overlooking the central Thames Valley , said the burial shed new light on the politics of the region , which was thought until now to be a `` borderland '' between large Anglo-Saxon communities around London and Oxford , only decades after the collapse of Roman rule in Britain .
The new discovery suggests instead that the region was then more important than historians had suspected , with powerful Anglo-Saxon groups of its own that were ruled by high-status individuals , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Photos : Stunning treasures from the burial of an Anglo-Saxon prince The prominent burial site and the rich grave goods of the Marlow Warlord are evidence of his prestige , he said .
`` They 're making a clear statement about this individual 's leadership of this local tribe that lives in the area . ''
Two amateur metal detectorists from the area , Sue and Mike Washington , discovered the ancient grave in 2018 .
They 'd made three trips to the site , with their equipment initially showing what appeared to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ probably a fairly recent agricultural tool of little interest .
On their last visit , however , they unearthed two bronze bowls , — and , realizing the significance of the find , registered their discovery with the Portable Antiquities Scheme ( PAS ) run by the British Museum and the National Museum of Wales , which records amateur archaeological finds .
A PAS archaeologist then investigated , recovering the bronze bowls and a pair of iron spearheads that suggested the site was likely to be an Anglo-Saxon grave .
Those objects will @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Museum in Aylesbury .
After that investigation , Thomas led a full excavation in August that revealed the remains of the Marlow Warlord , alongside the sword and other grave goods .
The sword is made of iron and is held in a decorated scabbard made of bronze , leather and wood .
Some of the leather has survived many centuries in the ground because it was protected by the corrosion of the iron blade — organic material like leather usually quickly rots away in the earth , so this is a rare @ @ @ @ @ @ @ any remaining genetic material , he said .
The scabbard also had a bronze fitting called a `` chape '' at the end , which showed a cut-mark where it might have been damaged by a warrior on foot who struck the wearer of the scabbard seated on horseback .
This suggested the sword was a working weapon , rather than just for show , he said .
`` It 's quite an interesting piece of evidence that this person saw active combat . ''
Several other items buried with the Marlow Warlord @ @ @ @ @ @ @ were imported to Britain from what is now Belgium or France , which suggested he had far-reaching connections , Thomas said .
The glass vessel was also a very rare find from the period — glass was relatively common under Roman rule , but it is seldom found at early Anglo-Saxon sites — while the sword itself must have been made by an expert craftsman .
Related : The 25 most mysterious archaeological finds on Earth '' He 's clearly able to acquire special and important objects that he used in life , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the grave , '' he said .
The styles of the bowls and the glass vessels suggest the grave dates to the sixth century — less than a century after the end of Roman rule in Britain and a time of great change .
Thomas and the University of Reading are now to carry out chemical and genetic tests on the objects in the Marlow Warlord 's grave — that could more firmly date its age .
`` In the sixth century , you start to get [ Anglo-Saxon ] kingdoms emerging , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ where we are talking about , you 've got the kingdom of Wessex , which develops into probably the strongest kingdom of post-Roman England . ''
`` You 've also got kingdoms downriver , including the kingdom of Kent , that start muscling-in and trying to acquire territory . ''
`` What is clear that you 've got a local autonomous tribe here , with war leaders — it does n't take off into a kingdom like Wessex and Kent , but that 's probably an historical accident , '' he said .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ take off in that direction . ''

The skeletal remains of the Marlow Warlord, as he's been dubbed, show he was very tall for the time – about 6 feet, when the average height was about 5 feet 7 inches.
Archaeologists have unearthed the rich burial of a sixth-century man thought to be an Anglo-Saxon warlord in southern England, after it was first discovered by metal detectorists.
The skeleton of the man, dubbed the "Marlow Warlord" after the Berkshire town near where the remains were found, was buried with several weapons, including a sword in a decorated scabbard. He would have stood at about 6 feet (1.8 meters) tall at a time when the average male height in Britain was about 5 feet 7 inches (1.7 m). Archaeologist Gabor Thomas of the University of Reading in the U.K., who led the excavations at the site overlooking the central Thames Valley, said the burial shed new light on the politics of the region, which was thought until now to be a "borderland" between large Anglo-Saxon communities around London and Oxford, only decades after the collapse of Roman rule in Britain.
The new discovery suggests instead that the region was then more important than historians had suspected, with powerful Anglo-Saxon groups of its own that were ruled by high-status individuals, Thomas told Live Science.
Related: Photos: Stunning treasures from the burial of an Anglo-Saxon prince
The prominent burial site and the rich grave goods of the Marlow Warlord are evidence of his prestige, he said. "They're making a clear statement about this individual's leadership of this local tribe that lives in the area."
Image 1 of 6 The ancient grave, thought to be that of a an Anglo-Saxon warlord who lived in the 6th century, was discovered at a site overlooking the central Thames Valley in southern England. (Image credit: University of Reading)
The skeletal remains of the Marlow Warlord, as he's been dubbed, show he was very tall for the time – about 6 feet, when the average height was about 5 feet 7 inches. (Image credit: University of Reading) Archaeologists think the Marlow Warlord was the ruler of an early Anglo-Saxon tribe situated between the large Anglo-Saxon communities around Oxford and London. (Image credit: University of Reading) The finds shed new light on the early Anglo-Saxon politics of the region, a few decades after the collapse of Roman rule in Britain and a time of great change. (Image credit: University of Reading) An iron sword in a decorated scabbard of bronze, leather, and wood was found in the grave. Damage to the scabbard suggests the sword was used in warfare. (Image credit: University of Reading) Grave goods buried with the Marlow Warlord indicate he was a high-status individual and probably a local ruler. They included bronze bowls imported to Britain from Belgium or France. (Image credit: Portable Antiquities Scheme/University of Reading)
Ancient sword
Two amateur metal detectorists from the area, Sue and Mike Washington, discovered the ancient grave in 2018.
They'd made three trips to the site, with their equipment initially showing what appeared to be buried iron — something they thought was probably a fairly recent agricultural tool of little interest.
On their last visit, however, they unearthed two bronze bowls, — and, realizing the significance of the find, registered their discovery with the Portable Antiquities Scheme (PAS) run by the British Museum and the National Museum of Wales, which records amateur archaeological finds.
A PAS archaeologist then investigated, recovering the bronze bowls and a pair of iron spearheads that suggested the site was likely to be an Anglo-Saxon grave. Those objects will soon go on display at the Buckinghamshire Museum in Aylesbury.
An iron sword in a decorated scabbard of bronze, leather and wood was found in the grave. Damage to the scabbard suggests the sword was used in warfare. (Image credit: University of Reading)
After that investigation, Thomas led a full excavation in August that revealed the skeletal remains of the Marlow Warlord, alongside the sword and other grave goods. The sword is made of iron and is held in a decorated scabbard made of bronze, leather and wood. Some of the leather has survived many centuries in the ground because it was protected by the corrosion of the iron blade — organic material like leather usually quickly rots away in the earth, so this is a rare find that can now be tested for any remaining genetic material, he said.
Related: The 22 weirdest military weapons
The scabbard also had a bronze fitting called a "chape" at the end, which showed a cut-mark where it might have been damaged by a warrior on foot who struck the wearer of the scabbard seated on horseback.
This suggested the sword was a working weapon, rather than just for show, he said. "It's quite an interesting piece of evidence that this person saw active combat."
Anglo-Saxon kingdoms
Several other items buried with the Marlow Warlord indicate his importance.
The bronze bowls were imported to Britain from what is now Belgium or France, which suggested he had far-reaching connections, Thomas said. The glass vessel was also a very rare find from the period — glass was relatively common under Roman rule, but it is seldom found at early Anglo-Saxon sites — while the sword itself must have been made by an expert craftsman.
Related: The 25 most mysterious archaeological finds on Earth
"He's clearly able to acquire special and important objects that he used in life, and which were taken with him to the grave," he said.
The styles of the bowls and the glass vessels suggest the grave dates to the sixth century — less than a century after the end of Roman rule in Britain and a time of great change.
Thomas and the University of Reading are now running a crowdfunding campaign to carry out chemical and genetic tests on the objects in the Marlow Warlord's grave — that could more firmly date its age.
"In the sixth century, you start to get [Anglo-Saxon] kingdoms emerging," Thomas said. "Upstream of where we are talking about, you've got the kingdom of Wessex, which develops into probably the strongest kingdom of post-Roman England."
"You've also got kingdoms downriver, including the kingdom of Kent, that start muscling-in and trying to acquire territory."
"What is clear that you've got a local autonomous tribe here, with war leaders — it doesn't take off into a kingdom like Wessex and Kent, but that's probably an historical accident," he said. "Clearly it had the conditions to take off in that direction."
Originally published on Live Science.