insidescience--2020-02-20--2019: The Year Fracking Earthquakes Turned Deadly

The first fracking-induced earthquake to claim human lives shows why magnitude may underestimate the danger such earthquakes pose .
( Inside Science ) -- On Feb. 25 , 2019 , an earthquake shook the village of Gaoshan in China 's Sichuan Province , leaving 12 people injured and two dead .
New research indicates the earthquake and its two foreshocks were likely triggered by hydraulic fracturing , also called fracking .
If this is true , it would mark the first time in history that a fracking-induced earthquake has killed people .
The study shows why magnitude , the most @ @ @ @ @ @ @ could lead people to underestimate the true threat fracking-induced earthquakes might pose .
The Feb. 25 earthquake was only a magnitude 4.9 , which would not traditionally be considered very dangerous .
But it was able to destroy older and more vulnerable buildings because it was so close to the surface -- only about one kilometer deep according to the new study .
That 's shallow even by fracking standards , but fracking-induced earthquakes do tend to be much shallower than natural ones .
`` The shallower it is , then for the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the shaking , '' said Hongfeng Yang , a seismologist at the Chinese University of Hong Kong and senior author of the study .
The findings are not yet published , but Yang and graduate student Pengcheng Zhou presented them last December at a meeting of the American Geophysical Union in San Francisco .
Fracking involves drilling wells in shale deposits , then pumping in water and other additives at high pressure to break the rock and release trapped oil .
In some regions fracking can trigger earthquakes by causing faults in the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ either because fluids seep into the fault itself , or because the weight or volume of the fluid presses against the fault indirectly , said Thomas Eyre , a seismologist at the University of Calgary in Canada .
Most fracking operations in North America do n't cause earthquakes , and the earthquakes that do occur have generally been small .
Some media reports have attributed damaging earthquakes in Oklahoma to fracking , but experts believe most of those earthquakes were caused by wastewater that oil and gas developers disposed of by injecting it @ @ @ @ @ @ @ included fluids used during the fracking process , but most of it came from ancient underground aquifers , according to Mike Brudzinski , a seismologist at Miami University in Oxford , Ohio .
The oil beneath Oklahoma is naturally mixed with large volumes of water , and developers must filter out the water before they can sell the oil .
Western Canada has experienced a few moderate-sized fracking earthquakes with magnitudes up to about 4.5 , but they mostly occurred in remote locations far from major human settlements .
And even in western @ @ @ @ @ @ @ fracking operations causes earthquakes large enough for a person to feel , said Eyre .
`` In North America at the moment , we have n't had any hydraulic fracturing-induced earthquakes that have actually caused any damage , '' said Eyre .
It 's a different story in China , however .
Several recent studies have shown that the fracking boom that began in about 2014 is triggering destructive earthquakes in formerly tranquil parts of China 's Sichuan basin .
For example , a magnitude 4.7 earthquake on Jan. 28 , 2017 , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 2018 , and a magnitude 5.3 on Jan. 3 , 2019 were all caused by fracking , according to published research .
The 2018 earthquake injured 17 people and damaged more than 390 houses , nine of which collapsed .
The deadly February 2019 event included a magnitude 4.9 main shock and two smaller foreshocks of magnitudes of 4.7 and 4.3 .
Using seismic sensors and satellite data , Yang , Zhou and their colleagues found that the foreshocks occurred on a previously unknown fault located within half a kilometer of a fracking @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and 3 km underground , the same depth where fracking is typically conducted in this region .
The main shock struck about eight hours later , on a different , shallower fault a short distance away .
The findings suggest that the first two earthquakes and the fluid pumped during fracking may have combined to change the pressures in the rock , causing the second fault to slip .
`` It looks to me like some very solid research , '' wrote Art McGarr , a seismologist with the U.S. Geological Survey in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ email , after reviewing a digital copy of the researchers ' poster .
McGarr has studied induced earthquakes extensively , and was one of the researchers who conducted a recent paper attributing prior Sichuan Basin earthquakes to fracking .
The magnitude 4.9 earthquake last February damaged buildings in Gaoshan in part because the buildings were old and not designed for earthquake safety , said Yang .
The location was densely populated and did n't have a history of dangerous earthquakes , so it was highly vulnerable .
But even so , the earthquake @ @ @ @ @ @ @ occurred 5 to 20 km underground , as most natural earthquakes do , according to Brudzinski .
Instead , it occurred about a kilometer underground , with hardly any rock to absorb the shock before it reached the surface .
Most fracking-related earthquakes are less than 5 km deep .
`` We always pin everything on the magnitude , so that can be kind of misleading , '' said Pradeep Talwani , a geophysicist at the University of South Carolina in Columbia .
According to Talwani , people in Gaoshan probably felt more @ @ @ @ @ @ @ than someone in Seattle would feel from a natural magnitude 6.5 earthquake that struck deep beneath their feet .
Magnitude is a measure of the total amount of energy released during an earthquake , and researchers estimate it by calculating the surface area of a fault and the distance it has slipped , said Brudzinski .
What actually matters to a person on the surface is how much the ground they 're standing on shakes and how that affects structures around them -- a concept known as intensity , which researchers estimate using @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in part on the earthquake 's magnitude , but also on its depth , lateral distance away , and the types of rock and soil in the area .
`` Right now , most regulations are still based on the magnitude .
But there 's a recognition now , a growing recognition , that the true risk is related to what kind of structures are there , what kind of soil they 're built on , how shallow those earthquakes might be , '' said Brudzinski .
After the Feb. 25 earthquake that @ @ @ @ @ @ @ local government halted fracking , said Yang .
But in surrounding parts of the Sichuan Basin , fracking continues .
According to online reports by the China Earthquake Administration , several more damaging earthquakes struck the region later in 2019 : • A magnitude 6.0 on June 17 in Changning County that killed at least 13 people and injured 220 • A magnitude 5.4 on Sept. 8 in Weiyuan County that killed one person and injured 63 • A magnitude 5.2 on Dec. 18 in Zizhong County that injured at least nine Yang @ @ @ @ @ @ @ yet analyzed these earthquakes , and according to Zhou , it is not yet clear whether they were fracking-induced .
The Chinese government has denied that the June 17 earthquake that killed 13 people was caused by fracking , according to reporting by Reuters .
A recent study suggested it may have been triggered by a combination of salt mining and a previous fracking-induced quake .
Despite multiple attempts over several weeks , Inside Science has been unable to obtain comment from anyone affiliated with the China Earthquake Administration regarding either the earthquakes @ @ @ @ @ @ @ or the more recent ones that have n't yet been analyzed in detailed studies .
The administration has reported greater depths for Sichuan Province earthquakes than would be expected if they were caused by fracking .
However , those numbers do n't match up with the shallow depth estimates from detailed studies , including Yang and Zhou 's research and several published studies that included China Earthquake Administration researchers as authors .
Yang said he was n't surprised that the depth estimates differ .
He explained that the China Earthquake Administration 's online @ @ @ @ @ @ @ using a network of stationary seismic sensors and a general-purpose model .
He claimed that his own study and other studies that have pinpointed shallower depths are much more accurate .
That 's because they use additional data sources and models that are customized for specific locations , he said .
It 's unlikely that any of the earthquakes highlighted in this story occurred naturally , according to McGarr .
The northeastern edge of the Sichuan basin has long been prone to earthquakes because it is bordered by a large , active fault @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to the south and east , where natural earthquakes are rare .
`` It used to be a very stable region , '' said Yang .
Researchers in the U.S. are taking note .
No fracking-induced earthquakes in North America have exceeded magnitude 5 so far , and they may still be unlikely to do so , given differences in the local geology , said Brudzinski .
But most are quite shallow , only about 2-4 km belowground .
In the past , said Brudzinski , researchers have debated whether there might be @ @ @ @ @ @ @ keeps earthquakes small , ensuring some measure of safety despite the shallow depth .
The recent tragedies in China suggest that people should n't depend on that as a safeguard .
`` To me , that has been sort of the most important aspect of what I 've seen from China , '' said Brudzinski .
`` It suggests that , yes : We can have some larger-size events . ''

The first fracking-induced earthquake to claim human lives shows why magnitude may underestimate the danger such earthquakes pose.
Nala Rogers, Staff Writer
(Inside Science) -- On Feb. 25, 2019, an earthquake shook the village of Gaoshan in China's Sichuan Province, leaving 12 people injured and two dead. New research indicates the earthquake and its two foreshocks were likely triggered by hydraulic fracturing, also called fracking. If this is true, it would mark the first time in history that a fracking-induced earthquake has killed people.
The study shows why magnitude, the most common way of reporting earthquake size, could lead people to underestimate the true threat fracking-induced earthquakes might pose. The Feb. 25 earthquake was only a magnitude 4.9, which would not traditionally be considered very dangerous. But it was able to destroy older and more vulnerable buildings because it was so close to the surface -- only about one kilometer deep according to the new study. That's shallow even by fracking standards, but fracking-induced earthquakes do tend to be much shallower than natural ones.
"The shallower it is, then for the same magnitude of earthquake, the stronger the shaking," said Hongfeng Yang, a seismologist at the Chinese University of Hong Kong and senior author of the study. The findings are not yet published, but Yang and graduate student Pengcheng Zhou presented them last December at a meeting of the American Geophysical Union in San Francisco.
How it happened
Fracking involves drilling wells in shale deposits, then pumping in water and other additives at high pressure to break the rock and release trapped oil. In some regions fracking can trigger earthquakes by causing faults in the rock to slip. The slipping happens either because fluids seep into the fault itself, or because the weight or volume of the fluid presses against the fault indirectly, said Thomas Eyre, a seismologist at the University of Calgary in Canada.
Most fracking operations in North America don't cause earthquakes, and the earthquakes that do occur have generally been small. Some media reports have attributed damaging earthquakes in Oklahoma to fracking, but experts believe most of those earthquakes were caused by wastewater that oil and gas developers disposed of by injecting it deep underground. Some of the wastewater included fluids used during the fracking process, but most of it came from ancient underground aquifers, according to Mike Brudzinski, a seismologist at Miami University in Oxford, Ohio. The oil beneath Oklahoma is naturally mixed with large volumes of water, and developers must filter out the water before they can sell the oil.
Western Canada has experienced a few moderate-sized fracking earthquakes with magnitudes up to about 4.5, but they mostly occurred in remote locations far from major human settlements. And even in western Canada, only about one in 300 fracking operations causes earthquakes large enough for a person to feel, said Eyre.
"In North America at the moment, we haven't had any hydraulic fracturing-induced earthquakes that have actually caused any damage," said Eyre.
It's a different story in China, however. Several recent studies have shown that the fracking boom that began in about 2014 is triggering destructive earthquakes in formerly tranquil parts of China's Sichuan basin. For example, a magnitude 4.7 earthquake on Jan. 28, 2017, a magnitude 5.7 on Dec. 16, 2018, and a magnitude 5.3 on Jan. 3, 2019 were all caused by fracking, according to published research. The 2018 earthquake injured 17 people and damaged more than 390 houses, nine of which collapsed.
The deadly February 2019 event included a magnitude 4.9 main shock and two smaller foreshocks of magnitudes of 4.7 and 4.3. Using seismic sensors and satellite data, Yang, Zhou and their colleagues found that the foreshocks occurred on a previously unknown fault located within half a kilometer of a fracking well. The foreshocks were between 2.5 and 3 km underground, the same depth where fracking is typically conducted in this region. The main shock struck about eight hours later, on a different, shallower fault a short distance away. The findings suggest that the first two earthquakes and the fluid pumped during fracking may have combined to change the pressures in the rock, causing the second fault to slip.
"It looks to me like some very solid research," wrote Art McGarr, a seismologist with the U.S. Geological Survey in Menlo Park, California, in an email, after reviewing a digital copy of the researchers' poster. McGarr has studied induced earthquakes extensively, and was one of the researchers who conducted a recent paper attributing prior Sichuan Basin earthquakes to fracking.
Shallow depth increases danger
The magnitude 4.9 earthquake last February damaged buildings in Gaoshan in part because the buildings were old and not designed for earthquake safety, said Yang. The location was densely populated and didn't have a history of dangerous earthquakes, so it was highly vulnerable.
But even so, the earthquake would have been less damaging had it occurred 5 to 20 km underground, as most natural earthquakes do, according to Brudzinski. Instead, it occurred about a kilometer underground, with hardly any rock to absorb the shock before it reached the surface. Most fracking-related earthquakes are less than 5 km deep.
"We always pin everything on the magnitude, so that can be kind of misleading," said Pradeep Talwani, a geophysicist at the University of South Carolina in Columbia. According to Talwani, people in Gaoshan probably felt more shaking from the shallow magnitude 4.9 quake than someone in Seattle would feel from a natural magnitude 6.5 earthquake that struck deep beneath their feet.
Magnitude is a measure of the total amount of energy released during an earthquake, and researchers estimate it by calculating the surface area of a fault and the distance it has slipped, said Brudzinski. What actually matters to a person on the surface is how much the ground they're standing on shakes and how that affects structures around them -- a concept known as intensity, which researchers estimate using a variety of scales. Intensity depends in part on the earthquake's magnitude, but also on its depth, lateral distance away, and the types of rock and soil in the area.
"Right now, most regulations are still based on the magnitude. But there's a recognition now, a growing recognition, that the true risk is related to what kind of structures are there, what kind of soil they're built on, how shallow those earthquakes might be," said Brudzinski.
Deadly earthquakes continue
After the Feb. 25 earthquake that killed two people in Gaoshan, the local government halted fracking, said Yang. But in surrounding parts of the Sichuan Basin, fracking continues. According to online reports by the China Earthquake Administration, several more damaging earthquakes struck the region later in 2019:
• A magnitude 6.0 on June 17 in Changning County that killed at least 13 people and injured 220
• A magnitude 5.4 on Sept. 8 in Weiyuan County that killed one person and injured 63
• A magnitude 5.2 on Dec. 18 in Zizhong County that injured at least nine
Yang, Zhou and their colleagues have not yet analyzed these earthquakes, and according to Zhou, it is not yet clear whether they were fracking-induced. The Chinese government has denied that the June 17 earthquake that killed 13 people was caused by fracking, according to reporting by Reuters. A recent study suggested it may have been triggered by a combination of salt mining and a previous fracking-induced quake.
Despite multiple attempts over several weeks, Inside Science has been unable to obtain comment from anyone affiliated with the China Earthquake Administration regarding either the earthquakes in 2017, 2018 and early 2019 or the more recent ones that haven't yet been analyzed in detailed studies. The administration has reported greater depths for Sichuan Province earthquakes than would be expected if they were caused by fracking. However, those numbers don't match up with the shallow depth estimates from detailed studies, including Yang and Zhou's research and several published studies that included China Earthquake Administration researchers as authors.
Yang said he wasn't surprised that the depth estimates differ. He explained that the China Earthquake Administration's online reports use estimates that are generated automatically using a network of stationary seismic sensors and a general-purpose model. He claimed that his own study and other studies that have pinpointed shallower depths are much more accurate. That's because they use additional data sources and models that are customized for specific locations, he said.
It's unlikely that any of the earthquakes highlighted in this story occurred naturally, according to McGarr. The northeastern edge of the Sichuan basin has long been prone to earthquakes because it is bordered by a large, active fault. But the fracking is happening further to the south and east, where natural earthquakes are rare.
"It used to be a very stable region," said Yang.
Researchers in the U.S. are taking note. No fracking-induced earthquakes in North America have exceeded magnitude 5 so far, and they may still be unlikely to do so, given differences in the local geology, said Brudzinski. But most are quite shallow, only about 2-4 km belowground.
In the past, said Brudzinski, researchers have debated whether there might be something about the fracking process itself that keeps earthquakes small, ensuring some measure of safety despite the shallow depth. The recent tragedies in China suggest that people shouldn't depend on that as a safeguard.
"To me, that has been sort of the most important aspect of what I've seen from China," said Brudzinski. "It suggests that, yes: We can have some larger-size events."
Editor’s Note: Yuen Yiu contributed additional reporting to this story.


insidescience--2020-02-13--The Mystery of Superbolt Lightning

The Mystery of Superbolt Lightning

( Inside Science ) -- While studying space plasma physics , Robert Holzworth , from the University of Washington , @ @ @ @ @ keep track of lightning strikes around the world and built the World Wide Lightning Location @ @ @ @ @ about 100 lightning detection stations located around the world from Antarctica to Finland .
While @ @ @ @ @ lightning data , they discovered some intense lightning strikes -- called superbolts -- which are @ @ @ @ @ .
Holzworth explains what a superbolt is and when they happen .

Superbolts unleash a thousand times more energy than typical lightning.
Inside Science Television
(Inside Science) -- While studying space plasma physics, Robert Holzworth, from the University of Washington, and his team needed to keep track of lightning strikes around the world and built the World Wide Lightning Location Network. This network has about 100 lightning detection stations located around the world from Antarctica to Finland. While the researchers were looking at lightning data, they discovered some intense lightning strikes -- called superbolts -- which are not your ordinary lightning flashes. Holzworth explains what a superbolt is and when they happen.


insidescience--2020-02-04--Geologists Dig Into the Origins of Plate Tectonics

Geologists Dig Into the Origins of Plate Tectonics Researchers examined some of the oldest rocks in western Greenland to probe the beginnings of today ’ s continents .
( Inside Science ) -- Scientists believe the way the Earth ’ s tectonic plates began shifting and crashing into each other billions of years ago played a huge role in how our planet evolved and life developed .
Similar processes may also play out on other planets .
For Earth , the problem is , the remaining bits of the earliest continents that would solve that primeval jigsaw puzzle lie more @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a team of earth scientists has accessed some of the oldest rocks in the core of a continent centered on the western part of Greenland .
If others confirm their findings in other parts of the world , their research would imply that tectonic processes began pushing and pulling plates in ways that resemble today 's continental movements around 3 billion years ago .
`` With early Earth geology , you ’ re trying to piece together very fragmentary pieces of evidence about what the planet may have looked like -- and that @ @ @ @ @ @ @ '' said Nicholas Gardiner , an earth scientist at the University of St. Andrews in Scotland who led the research .
He and his colleagues are publishing their results in an upcoming issue of the journal Earth and Planetary Science Letters .
The story ’ s built upon what are called cratons .
These ancient hearts of today ’ s continents resist buckling or deforming and see little of the drama of rising mountains and yawning valleys in the continents ’ outer regions .
The North Atlantic Craton , for example , stretches @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , including the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean .
The Earth ’ s cratons likely played some role in the onset of plate tectonics on the young Earth , when the plates took shape and at times collided with one another .
Cratons have marks of the Earth ’ s geological history written in them .
They have incredibly deep roots or keels that extend deep into the Earth ’ s crust and into the upper mantle .
Within them lie relics of the past and possible hints of the beginnings of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ’ s not currently possible to drill down through so many layers of rock to reach the primordial cratons .
`` You can ’ t sample the craton unless nature does it for you , '' Gardiner said .
So , Gardiner and his colleagues traveled a couple hundred miles north of Nuuk , Greenland 's capital , and found outcrops of rocks known as kimberlites .
When volcanic processes bring pieces of the mantle from deep underground and through the Earth 's crust , kimberlites crystalize and emerge on the surface , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ these mottled volcanic rocks have more valuable crystals , called zircons , embedded in them .
`` I think the interesting part of the paper is the use of the zircons , '' said Michael Brown , a geologist at the University of Maryland in College Park .
These stubby crystals about 100 microns in size , narrower than the width of a human hair , would otherwise be inaccessible , because without the kimberlites , they ’ d still be buried beneath the crust .
By spotting them and studying their chemistry @ @ @ @ @ @ @ team is showing that they indeed recovered a few pieces of the Earth ’ s crust that date back more than 3 billion years .
The different forms of the atoms of uranium , lead and hafnium within the crystals reveal not just the ages of parts of the North Atlantic Craton but also how it formed .
It could have grown either by building up layers vertically or by horizontal forces squishing and stacking up slices of the crust .
The kimberlites look like they ’ ve picked up bits from overlapping @ @ @ @ @ @ @ at least in this region .
It suggests that the craton formed from continental plates pushing against each other : that is , from the process of plate tectonics .
Some form of plate tectonics might have begun from this North Atlantic Craton between 2.5 billion and 4 billion years ago , Gardiner said , and then spread from there .
Or these findings at least indicate subduction , where plates overlap and one edge gets forced beneath the other .
They ’ ll need similar studies on other cratons to shed more @ @ @ @ @ @ @ s also relevant to the origins of life .
When plate tectonics gets going , it very slowly recycles the crust , including ocean water , into the atmosphere , and keeps the atmosphere stable with plenty of oxygen .
The atmosphere stabilized around 2.4 billion years ago and probably coincided with the beginning of microbial life , said Joann Stock , a geophysicist at Caltech in Pasadena .
She points out that there are areas on Venus like these old cratons , and other planets likely have them , too .
“ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of the planets are in the habitable zone and which might be hospitable for Earth beings to live on -- that will depend on what kind of atmosphere they have , and that ’ s also where plate tectonics is really important , ” Stock said .

Researchers examined some of the oldest rocks in western Greenland to probe the beginnings of today’s continents.
Ramin Skibba, Contributor
(Inside Science) -- Scientists believe the way the Earth’s tectonic plates began shifting and crashing into each other billions of years ago played a huge role in how our planet evolved and life developed. Similar processes may also play out on other planets. For Earth, the problem is, the remaining bits of the earliest continents that would solve that primeval jigsaw puzzle lie more than 100 miles below ground.
Now a team of earth scientists has accessed some of the oldest rocks in the core of a continent centered on the western part of Greenland. If others confirm their findings in other parts of the world, their research would imply that tectonic processes began pushing and pulling plates in ways that resemble today's continental movements around 3 billion years ago.
"With early Earth geology, you’re trying to piece together very fragmentary pieces of evidence about what the planet may have looked like -- and that’s very different than today," said Nicholas Gardiner, an earth scientist at the University of St. Andrews in Scotland who led the research. He and his colleagues are publishing their results in an upcoming issue of the journal Earth and Planetary Science Letters.
The story’s built upon what are called cratons. These ancient hearts of today’s continents resist buckling or deforming and see little of the drama of rising mountains and yawning valleys in the continents’ outer regions. The North Atlantic Craton, for example, stretches from northern Scotland through Greenland to Canada, including the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean. The Earth’s cratons likely played some role in the onset of plate tectonics on the young Earth, when the plates took shape and at times collided with one another.
Cratons have marks of the Earth’s geological history written in them. They have incredibly deep roots or keels that extend deep into the Earth’s crust and into the upper mantle. Within them lie relics of the past and possible hints of the beginnings of tectonics. The trouble is, it’s not currently possible to drill down through so many layers of rock to reach the primordial cratons.
"You can’t sample the craton unless nature does it for you," Gardiner said.
So, Gardiner and his colleagues traveled a couple hundred miles north of Nuuk, Greenland's capital, and found outcrops of rocks known as kimberlites. When volcanic processes bring pieces of the mantle from deep underground and through the Earth's crust, kimberlites crystalize and emerge on the surface, often studded with rough diamonds. But these mottled volcanic rocks have more valuable crystals, called zircons, embedded in them.
"I think the interesting part of the paper is the use of the zircons," said Michael Brown, a geologist at the University of Maryland in College Park. These stubby crystals about 100 microns in size, narrower than the width of a human hair, would otherwise be inaccessible, because without the kimberlites, they’d still be buried beneath the crust. By spotting them and studying their chemistry, Brown says, Gardiner’s team is showing that they indeed recovered a few pieces of the Earth’s crust that date back more than 3 billion years.
The different forms of the atoms of uranium, lead and hafnium within the crystals reveal not just the ages of parts of the North Atlantic Craton but also how it formed. It could have grown either by building up layers vertically or by horizontal forces squishing and stacking up slices of the crust. The kimberlites look like they’ve picked up bits from overlapping slices, supporting the latter view, at least in this region. It suggests that the craton formed from continental plates pushing against each other: that is, from the process of plate tectonics.
Some form of plate tectonics might have begun from this North Atlantic Craton between 2.5 billion and 4 billion years ago, Gardiner said, and then spread from there. Or these findings at least indicate subduction, where plates overlap and one edge gets forced beneath the other. They’ll need similar studies on other cratons to shed more light on the question.
It’s also relevant to the origins of life. When plate tectonics gets going, it very slowly recycles the crust, including ocean water, into the atmosphere, and keeps the atmosphere stable with plenty of oxygen. The atmosphere stabilized around 2.4 billion years ago and probably coincided with the beginning of microbial life, said Joann Stock, a geophysicist at Caltech in Pasadena.
She points out that there are areas on Venus like these old cratons, and other planets likely have them, too.
“For exoplanet evolution and for understanding which of the planets are in the habitable zone and which might be hospitable for Earth beings to live on -- that will depend on what kind of atmosphere they have, and that’s also where plate tectonics is really important,” Stock said.


insidescience--2020-01-31--2 Billion-Year-Old Cells, Wildfires, and Ancient Mummy Sounds

( Inside Science ) -- In this monthly science recap , Alistair Jennings from Inside Science sums up some of @ @ @ @ @ the past month , from the floor of the Pacific Ocean , where buried in @ @ @ @ @ a crucial part of the story of how complex life evolved on Earth , to @ @ @ @ @ a recent rapid response review that confirms such fires have become more likely because of @ @ @ @ @ we can likely look forward to double the number of Amazonian wildfires by 2050 .
@ @ @ @ @ talk about sarin gas and how a U.S. Army research team has developed a gene-editing @ @ @ @ @ deadly effects .
Lastly , we get to listen to the sound of a 3,000-year-old @ @ @ @ @ been CT-scanned and re-created with a 3D printer .
Review – wildfires more likely because @ @ @ @ @ likely in the amazon Climate change makes violent crime more likely – warmer weather more @

A month worth of cool science stories, summed up.
Alistair Jennings, Contributor
(Inside Science) -- In this monthly science recap, Alistair Jennings from Inside Science sums up some of the most interesting science from the past month, from the floor of the Pacific Ocean, where buried in the oxygen-poor mud may be a crucial part of the story of how complex life evolved on Earth, to the Australian wildfires -- and a recent rapid response review that confirms such fires have become more likely because of climate change, which means we can likely look forward to double the number of Amazonian wildfires by 2050. Also this month, we talk about sarin gas and how a U.S. Army research team has developed a gene-editing virus that can neutralize its deadly effects. Lastly, we get to listen to the sound of a 3,000-year-old mummy, whose larynx has been CT-scanned and re-created with a 3D printer.
References:
Prometheoarchaea
Real cell super-imaging
Review – wildfires more likely because of Climate Change
Fires more likely in the amazon
Climate change makes violent crime more likely – warmer weather more opportunities
Viruses
Gene-therapy protects against nerve gas
Sound of an ancient mummy


insidescience--2020-01-14--How Viruses Secretly Control the Planet

How Viruses Secretly Control the Planet

Bacteria help drive Earth 's chemical cycles and climate .
Viruses drive the bacteria .
In this microscope image , microbes in ocean water are revealed by fluorescent dye staining their DNA .
The larger green dots are mostly bacteria and archaea .
The tiny dots are viruses .
( Inside Science ) -- Viruses control their hosts like puppets -- and in the process , they may play important roles in Earth ’ s climate .
The hosts in this case are n't people or animals : They are bacteria .
A growing body of research is revealing how @ @ @ @ @ @ @ they guide the chemical reactions that sustain life .
When those changes happen to a lot of bacteria , the cumulative effects could potentially shape the composition and behavior of Earth 's oceans , soil and air .
`` We think that viruses have this huge impact that we just do n't know about , '' said Gary Trubl , a soil virus ecologist at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in California .
`` They can actually impact the environment . ''
The Mysterious Microbes That May Explain What Happened When Life Became Complex @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to Produce Oxygen Viruses are basically genetic material packed in a protein shell .
To reproduce , they attach to a living cell and inject their genetic material .
Some viruses then linger in the cell , often stitching their own DNA into that of the host and being copied along with the host DNA when the cell divides .
At some point in a typical viral life cycle , the virus hijacks the cell 's machinery to build new viruses , eventually causing the cell to burst and spill its infectious contents @ @ @ @ @ @ @ alive , but if they are , they are the most abundant organisms on the planet .
Most are so small it would take 55 million of them to cover the period at the end of this sentence , according to a review by Mya Breitbart and colleagues at the University of South Florida .
But if you strung all the viruses in Earth 's oceans together end to end , they could span the distance to Mars and back 12 trillion times .
`` If you go swimming in the ocean , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ every mouthful of seawater .
And almost all of those are going to be infecting the 20 million bacteria in that same mouthful of seawater , '' said Jennifer Brum , an oceanographer at Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge .
Viral infections are a ubiquitous part of bacterial life .
This is a big deal , since bacteria recycle and transform the chemicals we eat and breathe .
When viruses kill bacteria , they release nutrients back into the environment .
Recently , scientists have been finding that viruses also change what @ @ @ @ @ @ @ `` We live in a bacteria-driven world , '' said Martha Clokie , a microbiologist at the University of Leicester in the U.K. `` Those bacteria are endlessly being subtly manipulated by viruses . ''
In 2003 , Clokie and colleagues at the University of Warwick identified a key photosynthesis gene called psbA in viruses that infect cyanobacteria in the ocean .
Like plants , cyanobacteria use photosynthesis to transform sunlight into usable energy , releasing oxygen as a byproduct .
Follow-up work by the Warwick team and other labs in the U.S. @ @ @ @ @ @ @ gene allows photosynthesis to continue after a cell is infected , even though the bacteria 's own photosynthesis genes are shut down .
In fact , infected cells can photosynthesize even faster than uninfected cells in bright sunlight , according to recent work by Richard Puxty and colleagues at the University of Warwick .
Cyanobacteria are thought to produce one-quarter of all the oxygen in the atmosphere .
Researchers have estimated that half of these bacteria are infected with viruses at any given time , although that number is highly uncertain .
In @ @ @ @ @ @ @ mean that one out of every eight breaths you take is made possible by a virus .
You might think all this virus-driven photosynthesis is good news for the climate , since photosynthesis typically pulls carbon dioxide out of the air and water .
But Puxty and his colleagues have found that viruses in cyanobacteria suppress the steps of photosynthesis that bind up carbon dioxide into organic matter .
That could mean that researchers have overestimated the power of ocean bacteria to clean up carbon dioxide , said Puxty .
Since the discovery @ @ @ @ @ @ @ dozens of other genes in ocean viruses that are similar to metabolic genes in bacteria .
They have not yet examined how viruses use most of these genes , but they have guesses .
For example , some of the genes look like they might help bacteria digest carbohydrates and fats , while others are likely to help bacteria collect scarce nutrients such as phosphate .
Of course , viruses do n't do all this to be nice , said Brum .
They do it to make more viruses .
But some viruses @ @ @ @ @ @ @ long time before they begin producing new viruses .
In the meantime , a virus needs its host alive , so the interests of the parasite and its victim may be temporarily aligned .
`` A cell that has a virus like that , when it 's just living under not very good conditions , will replicate faster ...
It will flourish , '' said Clokie .
`` But then it 's got this molecular time bomb inside it . ''
Most of the evidence of viral puppeteers comes from the ocean , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ same thing on land .
In two 2018 studies , researchers found genes for breaking down plant carbohydrates in viruses living in thawing permafrost soils in Sweden .
That could mean that the viruses are helping their hosts digest carbohydrates such as hemicellulose and starch .
But strangely , the carbohydrates the viral genes targeted are too large to fit inside most bacteria , said Joanne Emerson , a soil viral ecologist at the University of California , Davis and first author of one of the studies .
It 's doubtful whether bacteria @ @ @ @ @ @ @ they had the genes to break them down .
In an alternative scenario , the enzymes for breaking down unwieldy carbs might build up inside bacteria while they 're infected .
When the bacteria burst , they would release the enzymes along with all the new viruses .
The enzymes would then break down carbs in the environment .
The broken-down carbs would provide food for new bacterial hosts infected with the virus 's progeny -- a sort of viral version of parents providing for their offspring .
This idea of viral parental @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Emerson .
Regardless of where the carbs are broken down , some of the simple sugars produced by this process will likely find their way into the wider environment , where many types of microbes can use them .
`` It 's like they 're prepping meals for other organisms , '' said Trubl , who worked on both studies .
In an unpublished study from Matthew Sullivan and Virginia Rich 's labs at Ohio State University in Columbus , scientists have found viral genes for breaking down carbohydrates in numerous environments , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ human guts , and cow rumens ( organs where bacteria help cows digest their food ) .
For instance , many viruses from aquatic environments have a gene for breaking down alginate , which is produced by algae .
And in the human gut , there are viral genes for breaking down starch -- a common carb in human food -- and mucin , which makes up the mucus lining our digestive tracts .
It 's not clear yet how viruses use all these genes , said Lindsey Solden , a microbiologist at @ @ @ @ @ @ @ at the American Geophysical Union meeting in San Francisco last month .
In some cases , viruses might speed up bacteria 's own digestion processes ; in other cases , they might give bacteria the power to use new food sources that they could n't digest on their own .
For example , an uninfected bacterium might just pass through the human gut .
But once a virus gave it genes for digesting mucus and starch , it might stay and become part of the person 's microbiome .
Breaking complex carbohydrates into @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the metabolic processes that produce carbon dioxide and methane , both greenhouse gases that cause climate change .
The implications could be huge .
`` We do n't really know the role that viruses are playing in the global carbon cycle , but there is evidence that they are playing a very important role , '' said Solden .
For example , if viruses are enabling bacteria in a cow 's rumen to use the cow 's mucus as food , that could increase the amount of methane the cow belches out , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the soil could be contributing to greenhouse gas emissions by helping decomposers break down dead plant material .
Indeed , when Solden analyzed genetic data from soils , she found viral genes for breaking down two especially persistent plant carbohydrates , called xyloglucan and arabinogalactan , that most microbes ca n't digest .
Of course , whatever role viruses play in the climate , they have been doing it for millions of years , noted Brum .
It 's not as though they are going to suddenly wreck Earth 's climate now that @ @ @ @ @ @ @ climate change could disrupt the intricate balance between bacteria and viruses , changing how much carbon is released or taken up in ways we ca n't yet predict .
Warmer temperatures and more acidic oceans will likely favor some types of viruses over others and influence how long viruses remain in their hosts before killing them , said Clokie .
`` We have predictions on how things are going to change , '' said Brum .
`` Now we 're finding more and more that we 're going to have to include viruses @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ability to understand what 's going to happen in the future . ''

Bacteria help drive Earth's chemical cycles and climate. Viruses drive the bacteria.
Nala Rogers, Staff Writer
(Inside Science) -- Viruses control their hosts like puppets -- and in the process, they may play important roles in Earth’s climate.
The hosts in this case aren't people or animals: They are bacteria. A growing body of research is revealing how viruses manipulate what bacteria eat and how they guide the chemical reactions that sustain life. When those changes happen to a lot of bacteria, the cumulative effects could potentially shape the composition and behavior of Earth's oceans, soil and air.
"We think that viruses have this huge impact that we just don't know about," said Gary Trubl, a soil virus ecologist at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in California. "They can actually impact the environment."
More mighty microbe stories from Inside Science
Tiny masters of the ocean
Viruses are basically genetic material packed in a protein shell. To reproduce, they attach to a living cell and inject their genetic material. Some viruses then linger in the cell, often stitching their own DNA into that of the host and being copied along with the host DNA when the cell divides. At some point in a typical viral life cycle, the virus hijacks the cell's machinery to build new viruses, eventually causing the cell to burst and spill its infectious contents.
It's debatable whether viruses are alive, but if they are, they are the most abundant organisms on the planet. Most are so small it would take 55 million of them to cover the period at the end of this sentence, according to a review by Mya Breitbart and colleagues at the University of South Florida. But if you strung all the viruses in Earth's oceans together end to end, they could span the distance to Mars and back 12 trillion times.
The vast majority of viruses infect bacteria.
"If you go swimming in the ocean, that's about 200 million viruses per every mouthful of seawater. And almost all of those are going to be infecting the 20 million bacteria in that same mouthful of seawater," said Jennifer Brum, an oceanographer at Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge.
Viral infections are a ubiquitous part of bacterial life. This is a big deal, since bacteria recycle and transform the chemicals we eat and breathe. When viruses kill bacteria, they release nutrients back into the environment. Recently, scientists have been finding that viruses also change what bacteria do while they're alive.
"We live in a bacteria-driven world," said Martha Clokie, a microbiologist at the University of Leicester in the U.K. "Those bacteria are endlessly being subtly manipulated by viruses."
In 2003, Clokie and colleagues at the University of Warwick identified a key photosynthesis gene called psbA in viruses that infect cyanobacteria in the ocean. Like plants, cyanobacteria use photosynthesis to transform sunlight into usable energy, releasing oxygen as a byproduct. Follow-up work by the Warwick team and other labs in the U.S. and Israel showed how the viral psbA gene allows photosynthesis to continue after a cell is infected, even though the bacteria's own photosynthesis genes are shut down. In fact, infected cells can photosynthesize even faster than uninfected cells in bright sunlight, according to recent work by Richard Puxty and colleagues at the University of Warwick.
Image Cyanobacteria like the Prochlorococcus cell pictured above are frequently infected with viruses that manipulate their photosynthesis. Media credits Credits: Luke Thompson from Chisholm Lab and Nikki Watson from Whitehead, MIT via Wikimedia Commons Media rights Rights: CC0 1.0
Cyanobacteria are thought to produce one-quarter of all the oxygen in the atmosphere. Researchers have estimated that half of these bacteria are infected with viruses at any given time, although that number is highly uncertain. In essence, said Clokie, this could mean that one out of every eight breaths you take is made possible by a virus.
You might think all this virus-driven photosynthesis is good news for the climate, since photosynthesis typically pulls carbon dioxide out of the air and water. But Puxty and his colleagues have found that viruses in cyanobacteria suppress the steps of photosynthesis that bind up carbon dioxide into organic matter. That could mean that researchers have overestimated the power of ocean bacteria to clean up carbon dioxide, said Puxty.
Since the discovery of viral psbA, researchers have found dozens of other genes in ocean viruses that are similar to metabolic genes in bacteria. They have not yet examined how viruses use most of these genes, but they have guesses. For example, some of the genes look like they might help bacteria digest carbohydrates and fats, while others are likely to help bacteria collect scarce nutrients such as phosphate.
Of course, viruses don't do all this to be nice, said Brum. They do it to make more viruses. But some viruses can linger in their hosts for a long time before they begin producing new viruses. In the meantime, a virus needs its host alive, so the interests of the parasite and its victim may be temporarily aligned.
"A cell that has a virus like that, when it's just living under not very good conditions, will replicate faster ... It will flourish," said Clokie. "But then it's got this molecular time bomb inside it."
From soils to gut mucus
Most of the evidence of viral puppeteers comes from the ocean, but scientists are starting to find the same thing on land.
In two 2018 studies, researchers found genes for breaking down plant carbohydrates in viruses living in thawing permafrost soils in Sweden. That could mean that the viruses are helping their hosts digest carbohydrates such as hemicellulose and starch.
But strangely, the carbohydrates the viral genes targeted are too large to fit inside most bacteria, said Joanne Emerson, a soil viral ecologist at the University of California, Davis and first author of one of the studies. It's doubtful whether bacteria could handle such large carbs even if they had the genes to break them down.
In an alternative scenario, the enzymes for breaking down unwieldy carbs might build up inside bacteria while they're infected. When the bacteria burst, they would release the enzymes along with all the new viruses. The enzymes would then break down carbs in the environment. The broken-down carbs would provide food for new bacterial hosts infected with the virus's progeny -- a sort of viral version of parents providing for their offspring. This idea of viral parental care is still only speculation, noted Emerson.
Image Researchers Robert Jones and Moira Hough prepare to collect soil samples in Sweden as part of the IsoGenie project in 2014. The object in Hough's hands is the bit for a permafrost corer -- a device that spins like a drill to cut cylinders from frozen earth. Media credits Credits: Gary Trubl Media rights Rights: This image may only be reproduced with this Inside Science article.
Regardless of where the carbs are broken down, some of the simple sugars produced by this process will likely find their way into the wider environment, where many types of microbes can use them.
"It's like they're prepping meals for other organisms," said Trubl, who worked on both studies.
In an unpublished study from Matthew Sullivan and Virginia Rich's labs at Ohio State University in Columbus, scientists have found viral genes for breaking down carbohydrates in numerous environments, including soils, oceans, lakes, human guts, and cow rumens (organs where bacteria help cows digest their food).
For instance, many viruses from aquatic environments have a gene for breaking down alginate, which is produced by algae. And in the human gut, there are viral genes for breaking down starch -- a common carb in human food -- and mucin, which makes up the mucus lining our digestive tracts.
It's not clear yet how viruses use all these genes, said Lindsey Solden, a microbiologist at Ohio State who presented the preliminary findings at the American Geophysical Union meeting in San Francisco last month. In some cases, viruses might speed up bacteria's own digestion processes; in other cases, they might give bacteria the power to use new food sources that they couldn't digest on their own.
For example, an uninfected bacterium might just pass through the human gut. But once a virus gave it genes for digesting mucus and starch, it might stay and become part of the person's microbiome.
Breaking complex carbohydrates into simple ones is the first step in the metabolic processes that produce carbon dioxide and methane, both greenhouse gases that cause climate change. The implications could be huge.
"We don't really know the role that viruses are playing in the global carbon cycle, but there is evidence that they are playing a very important role," said Solden.
For example, if viruses are enabling bacteria in a cow's rumen to use the cow's mucus as food, that could increase the amount of methane the cow belches out, said Solden. Similarly, viruses in the soil could be contributing to greenhouse gas emissions by helping decomposers break down dead plant material. Indeed, when Solden analyzed genetic data from soils, she found viral genes for breaking down two especially persistent plant carbohydrates, called xyloglucan and arabinogalactan, that most microbes can't digest.
Of course, whatever role viruses play in the climate, they have been doing it for millions of years, noted Brum. It's not as though they are going to suddenly wreck Earth's climate now that scientists have discovered them.
But human-caused climate change could disrupt the intricate balance between bacteria and viruses, changing how much carbon is released or taken up in ways we can't yet predict. Warmer temperatures and more acidic oceans will likely favor some types of viruses over others and influence how long viruses remain in their hosts before killing them, said Clokie.
"We have predictions on how things are going to change," said Brum. "Now we're finding more and more that we're going to have to include viruses within those predictive models to increase our ability to understand what's going to happen in the future."


insidescience--2020-08-13--200,000 Years Ago, Humans Created Beds of Grass and Ash to Sleep

( Inside Science ) -- A cave in South Africa may hold early evidence of human innovation in sleep technology .
A new paper published today shows how people 200,000 years ago put together grass and ash to make carpet-like structures to keep insects off them while they slept .
The use of ash suggests they could control fire .
Lyn Wadley , an archaeologist at the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg , South Africa , had worked at a different cave previously .
There , she discovered 77,000-year-old bedding made from grass-like plants called sedges .
`` The @ @ @ @ @ @ @ presumably laid there to serve as an insect deterrent , '' Wadley wrote in an email .
`` I was fascinated by the idea that early Homo sapiens would have had such knowledge . ''
Then , while excavating a deep layer of a cave called Border Cave , she saw similar traces of fossilized grass that piqued her interest .
The bedding was found along with stone tools and the debris from making them , so Wadley and her team knew it was made by humans rather than other animals .
Under @ @ @ @ @ @ @ The research was published today in the journal Science .
The researchers took blocks of sediment from the excavation , cast them in a plastic resin , and then sliced them into thin sections that could be examined under a microscope to view the structure of the bedding .
The findings indicated that fireplace ash was raked to form a clean base for the grass bedding and to prevent insects from crawling into it .
The researchers also found charcoal from burned camphor wood and speculated that the medicinal smoke may have been @ @ @ @ @ @ @ that each `` bed '' would have been nearly a foot deep .
She added that the bedding piles were relatively close to the back of the cave , away from wind and mist .
Humans would have lit small fires near them for light , domestic activities and protection from predators .
Birds make nests and some animals sleep on grass , so that alone does not make the discovery special , wrote Wadley .
But she added that the importance of the finding comes from the methods : the people who @ @ @ @ @ @ @ with purpose , laying grass on top of insect-repelling ash , and there is evidence they burned old pest-ridden bedding .
These behaviors indicate an understanding of the medicinal properties of ash , a desire to keep a campsite and the people in it healthy , and a desire to lengthen the potential stay at a campsite through cleansing strategies , Wadley wrote .
`` Importantly , the creation of the ash layers and the burning of the old bedding and the lighting of repeated small fireplaces implies that people could create fire @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to make sparks . ''

Ancient site suggests early humans controlled fire and used plants to ward off insects.
Katharine Gammon, Contributor
(Inside Science) -- A cave in South Africa may hold early evidence of human innovation in sleep technology. A new paper published today shows how people 200,000 years ago put together grass and ash to make carpet-like structures to keep insects off them while they slept. The use of ash suggests they could control fire.
Lyn Wadley, an archaeologist at the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, South Africa, had worked at a different cave previously. There, she discovered 77,000-year-old bedding made from grass-like plants called sedges. "The sedges had medicinal plants on them, presumably laid there to serve as an insect deterrent," Wadley wrote in an email. "I was fascinated by the idea that early Homo sapiens would have had such knowledge."
Then, while excavating a deep layer of a cave called Border Cave, she saw similar traces of fossilized grass that piqued her interest. The bedding was found along with stone tools and the debris from making them, so Wadley and her team knew it was made by humans rather than other animals. Under this bedding were layers of ash. The research was published today in the journal Science.
The researchers took blocks of sediment from the excavation, cast them in a plastic resin, and then sliced them into thin sections that could be examined under a microscope to view the structure of the bedding. The findings indicated that fireplace ash was raked to form a clean base for the grass bedding and to prevent insects from crawling into it. The researchers also found charcoal from burned camphor wood and speculated that the medicinal smoke may have been used to dispel insects.
Wadley estimates that each "bed" would have been nearly a foot deep. She added that the bedding piles were relatively close to the back of the cave, away from wind and mist. Humans would have lit small fires near them for light, domestic activities and protection from predators.
Birds make nests and some animals sleep on grass, so that alone does not make the discovery special, wrote Wadley. But she added that the importance of the finding comes from the methods: the people who lived there appeared to construct the bedding with purpose, laying grass on top of insect-repelling ash, and there is evidence they burned old pest-ridden bedding.
These behaviors indicate an understanding of the medicinal properties of ash, a desire to keep a campsite and the people in it healthy, and a desire to lengthen the potential stay at a campsite through cleansing strategies, Wadley wrote. "Importantly, the creation of the ash layers and the burning of the old bedding and the lighting of repeated small fireplaces implies that people could create fire at will -- perhaps by striking stones to make sparks."


insidescience--2020-08-13--Forecasters Predict A Heavy Hurricane Season

The hurricane season is just getting started and the storms are predicted to have a big impact this year .
@ @ @ @ @ Forecasters at NOAA ’ s Climate Prediction Center predicted in May that 2020 would likely @ @ @ @ @ .
Already this year , the Atlantic basin has produced six named storms , delivering @ @ @ @ @ in the past 50 years .
None of the storms reached hurricane intensity , but @ @ @ @ @ fits with forecasts of a busy season .
A forecast of heavy rains during a @ @ @ @ @ , but what about when the forecast is for a historic storm event and it @ @ @ @ @ big storms to hit in the last few years ?
Will we see one of @ @ @ @ @ ?

The hurricane season is just getting started and the storms are predicted to have a big impact this year.
Emilie Lorditch, Contributor
(Inside Science) -- Forecasters at NOAA’s Climate Prediction Center predicted in May that 2020 would likely be an above-average hurricane season.
Already this year, the Atlantic basin has produced six named storms, delivering some of the earliest activity in the past 50 years. None of the storms reached hurricane intensity, but the total number of them fits with forecasts of a busy season.
A forecast of heavy rains during a hurricane is easy to believe, but what about when the forecast is for a historic storm event and it’s one of several big storms to hit in the last few years? Will we see one of these historic events this year?


insidescience--2020-08-13--Paleontologists Reveal Animal Fossils From Ancient Supercontinent

Fossils dating more than about 540 million years old are extremely rare .
That 's why a newly discovered ancient deposit is so valuable .
( Inside Science ) -- When the ancient supercontinent Gondwana took shape around the beginning of the Cambrian Explosion 541 million years ago , the kingdom of life known as Animalia burst into a kaleidoscope of new species .
The ancestors of today 's organisms developed blueprints that have subsequently led to our familiar tree of life , and paleontologists have found large deposits of them in fossils , most famously in a deposit in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ But remnants of the mysterious period of time that led up to this explosion of life , known as the Ediacaran , are harder to find in the fossil record .
Over the past few decades , scientists have slowly pieced together pictures of some of the period ’ s enigmatic life forms .
These include the disc-shaped fossils known by their genus as Aspidella , as well as Dickinsonia , the oval-shaped creatures thought to be the first terrestrial animal .
But scientists are still uncertain about how these organisms fit into @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Brazilian paleontologists unveiled a robust collection of fossils from the Ediacaran , all found in southeastern Brazil ’ s Itajai Basin .
They published their findings online in the journal Gondwana Research .
The researchers revealed fossils dated to 563 million years old , including animals from at least three genuses -- Aspidella , Palaeopascichnus and Nimbia -- along with others that have n't been fully identified .
This makes them the oldest Ediacaran fossils found in any landmass that was part of Gondwana -- including Africa , Australia , South America , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Arabian Peninsula -- before the supercontinent broke up about 180 million years ago .
The new fossils from Brazil come from organisms that lived a few million years after the oldest Ediacaran fossils , which were found in present-day Newfoundland about 574 million years ago .
Those older fossils are known as the Avalon assemblage .
The Avalon , together with a pair of somewhat younger assemblages that include some of the same fossils found in the Itajai Basin , provide a glimpse into the environments where these ancient organisms lived and evolved @ @ @ @ @ @ @ important new vantage point of ancient life .
“ This is the most robust and reliable evidence of Ediacaran fossils in South America , ” said Alexander Liu , a paleobiologist at the University of Cambridge who was not involved with the study .
This new research , led by paleobiologist Bruno Becker-Kerber at the Federal University of Sao Carlos in Brazil , confirms that Aspidella and Palaeopascichnus survived at localities all across the ancient Earth and across a range of environments from the deep sea to shallower waters where sunlight could reach @ @ @ @ @ @ @ also been found in the deep-sea environments recorded in the Avalon assemblage .
Finding them in the shallower settings of the Itajai Basin , along with ancient , well-preserved dense communities of small , ocean sediment-dwelling microorganisms called “ microbial mats , ” suggests that they persisted across a significant environmental transition .
These mats have lasted through many environmental changes and are indeed still abundant across the planet .
“ When you look into the classic Avalon assemblage you see that the fossils occur in really deep marine settings and you have @ @ @ @ @ @ @ said Becker-Kerber .
“ In Itajai Basin , the fact that you have [ multiple organisms ] associated with microbial mats means that this could be evidence of some of the first macroscopic life transitioning to shallower settings.
” One Itajai fossil , known as Aspidella , has a complicated history .
This disc-shaped fossil was discovered in 1872 , long before scientists could confirm that it existed prior to the Cambrian Explosion .
For nearly 150 years , scientists have attempted to make sense of their origins .
Some scientists suggested the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ claimed they represent the byproducts of high-pressure gas flowing out from the seafloor .
Recently , the consensus has been that they formed the disc-shaped bases of ancient fronds .
Becker-Kerber and his colleagues found an Aspidella fossil in the Itajai Basin with a “ stalk-like ” structure emanating from it , supporting a biological origin .
But he is still cautious when determining the origin of these disc-shaped organisms .
“ There is always a geologic process that can cause these morphologies , ” he said .
By cutting , polishing and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ his colleagues were able to distinguish between fossilized living organisms versus structures caused by natural processes occurring on the seafloor .
For example , some of the disc-shaped structures had spikes radially emanating from them , which excited the researchers due to their similarity to Cambrian sponges .
But upon further inspection it became clearer and clearer that the chemistry and shape of the structure resembled discs of the mineral pyrite , rather than ancient organisms .
Other mysterious forms perplexed the scientists .
But it is possible that many of them are @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to varying degrees and inconsistently across what may have once been a vast quilt of tiny organisms .
Ediacaran organisms could have thrived within these rich communities and later been preserved under the pyrite “ death masks ” left by decomposed microbes .
“ Becker-Kerber and his colleagues extend the paleogeographic range of some Ediacaran fossils and together this helps us put together a more complete picture of the Ediacaran period , ” said Frances Dunn , a paleontologist at the Oxford Museum of Natural History who was not involved with the research @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in remote locations , the full picture of the Ediacaran has yet to be revealed .
And perhaps one day , scientists will know how these mysterious organisms will fit into the epic story of life .
“ This is a really interesting time as we try to unravel how the assemblages are related and whether or not the changes represent a true evolutionary signal , ” said Dunn .

Fossils dating more than about 540 million years old are extremely rare. That's why a newly discovered ancient deposit is so valuable.
Christian Fogerty, Contributor
(Inside Science) -- When the ancient supercontinent Gondwana took shape around the beginning of the Cambrian Explosion 541 million years ago, the kingdom of life known as Animalia burst into a kaleidoscope of new species. The ancestors of today's organisms developed blueprints that have subsequently led to our familiar tree of life, and paleontologists have found large deposits of them in fossils, most famously in a deposit in Canada known as the Burgess Shale.
But remnants of the mysterious period of time that led up to this explosion of life, known as the Ediacaran, are harder to find in the fossil record. Over the past few decades, scientists have slowly pieced together pictures of some of the period’s enigmatic life forms. These include the disc-shaped fossils known by their genus as Aspidella, as well as Dickinsonia, the oval-shaped creatures thought to be the first terrestrial animal. But scientists are still uncertain about how these organisms fit into evolutionary history.
In new research, Brazilian paleontologists unveiled a robust collection of fossils from the Ediacaran, all found in southeastern Brazil’s Itajai Basin. They published their findings online in the journal Gondwana Research. The researchers revealed fossils dated to 563 million years old, including animals from at least three genuses -- Aspidella, Palaeopascichnus and Nimbia -- along with others that haven't been fully identified. This makes them the oldest Ediacaran fossils found in any landmass that was part of Gondwana -- including Africa, Australia, South America, Antarctica, the Indian subcontinent and the Arabian Peninsula -- before the supercontinent broke up about 180 million years ago.
The new fossils from Brazil come from organisms that lived a few million years after the oldest Ediacaran fossils, which were found in present-day Newfoundland about 574 million years ago. Those older fossils are known as the Avalon assemblage. The Avalon, together with a pair of somewhat younger assemblages that include some of the same fossils found in the Itajai Basin, provide a glimpse into the environments where these ancient organisms lived and evolved. But the Brazilian fossils represent an important new vantage point of ancient life.
“This is the most robust and reliable evidence of Ediacaran fossils in South America,” said Alexander Liu, a paleobiologist at the University of Cambridge who was not involved with the study. This new research, led by paleobiologist Bruno Becker-Kerber at the Federal University of Sao Carlos in Brazil, confirms that Aspidella and Palaeopascichnus survived at localities all across the ancient Earth and across a range of environments from the deep sea to shallower waters where sunlight could reach.
These two unmistakably Ediacaran fossils have also been found in the deep-sea environments recorded in the Avalon assemblage. Finding them in the shallower settings of the Itajai Basin, along with ancient, well-preserved dense communities of small, ocean sediment-dwelling microorganisms called “microbial mats,” suggests that they persisted across a significant environmental transition. These mats have lasted through many environmental changes and are indeed still abundant across the planet.
“When you look into the classic Avalon assemblage you see that the fossils occur in really deep marine settings and you have no evidence of microbial mats,” said Becker-Kerber. “In Itajai Basin, the fact that you have [multiple organisms] associated with microbial mats means that this could be evidence of some of the first macroscopic life transitioning to shallower settings.”
One Itajai fossil, known as Aspidella, has a complicated history. This disc-shaped fossil was discovered in 1872, long before scientists could confirm that it existed prior to the Cambrian Explosion. For nearly 150 years, scientists have attempted to make sense of their origins. Some scientists suggested the discs were jellyfish fossils and others have claimed they represent the byproducts of high-pressure gas flowing out from the seafloor. Recently, the consensus has been that they formed the disc-shaped bases of ancient fronds. Becker-Kerber and his colleagues found an Aspidella fossil in the Itajai Basin with a “stalk-like” structure emanating from it, supporting a biological origin. But he is still cautious when determining the origin of these disc-shaped organisms.
“There is always a geologic process that can cause these morphologies,” he said. By cutting, polishing and analyzing the specimens closely, Becker-Kerber and his colleagues were able to distinguish between fossilized living organisms versus structures caused by natural processes occurring on the seafloor.
For example, some of the disc-shaped structures had spikes radially emanating from them, which excited the researchers due to their similarity to Cambrian sponges. But upon further inspection it became clearer and clearer that the chemistry and shape of the structure resembled discs of the mineral pyrite, rather than ancient organisms.
Other mysterious forms perplexed the scientists. But it is possible that many of them are remnants of microbial mats that were preserved to varying degrees and inconsistently across what may have once been a vast quilt of tiny organisms. Ediacaran organisms could have thrived within these rich communities and later been preserved under the pyrite “death masks” left by decomposed microbes.
“Becker-Kerber and his colleagues extend the paleogeographic range of some Ediacaran fossils and together this helps us put together a more complete picture of the Ediacaran period,” said Frances Dunn, a paleontologist at the Oxford Museum of Natural History who was not involved with the research.
With more fossils potentially hiding away in remote locations, the full picture of the Ediacaran has yet to be revealed. And perhaps one day, scientists will know how these mysterious organisms will fit into the epic story of life. “This is a really interesting time as we try to unravel how the assemblages are related and whether or not the changes represent a true evolutionary signal,” said Dunn.


insidescience--2020-08-19--A Byproduct of Digestion Helps Explain Why Cancer Gets Worse as We Age

A Byproduct of Digestion Helps Explain Why Cancer Gets Worse as We Age Cancer cells become super-charged when exposed to methylmalonic acid , a chemical that builds up in older people 's bodies .
( Inside Science ) -- Many forms of cancer become more common and deadlier as we get older .
There are several reasons behind this , including a weakening immune system and an accumulation of potentially dangerous mutations in our genes .
Now a new culprit has been uncovered .
That culprit is methylmalonic acid ( MMA ) , a byproduct of protein and fat digestion @ @ @ @ @ @ @ older people .
A study published today in the journal Nature reports that MMA can induce aggressive metastasis and drug resistance in cancer cells , both in the test tube and in mice .
John Blenis , a cancer biologist at Weill Cornell Medicine in New York , and his colleague Ana Gomes treated human cancer cells with blood serum samples from people who were either under 30 or over 60 .
The cells exposed to older serum showed signs typical of cancer cells that had gained the ability to metastasize and spread @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and showed increased levels of proteins associated with aggressive cancer , as well as resistance to common chemotherapy drugs .
When injected into mice , the cells quickly migrated to the lungs and started new tumors .
When the researchers analyzed the serum used to treat the cancer cells , they found that MMA was elevated in all of the samples that were able to induce metastasis .
And when cancer cells were exposed just to elevated levels of MMA , the same changes were seen -- including the ability to induce new @ @ @ @ @ @ @ analyzed the genetic changes in the cancer cells and found that higher levels of MMA were associated with increased expression of the SOX4 gene , which contributes to tumor progression and is highly active in aggressive cancers .
Blocking the expression of SOX4 stopped MMA from inducing metastasis and drug resistance .
It is not yet clear how exactly all this works , but Blenis said it raises interesting new questions about how aging interacts with cancer , as well as potential new ways to prevent or treat it .
The metabolic pathway @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , is known to be associated with certain fatty acids , so there could be implications for how diet affects cancer risk .
`` This is one of those major observations that opens up a whole new field , '' said Blenis .
`` It ’ s very exciting . ''

Cancer cells become super-charged when exposed to methylmalonic acid, a chemical that builds up in older people's bodies.
Brian Owens, Contributor
(Inside Science) -- Many forms of cancer become more common and deadlier as we get older. There are several reasons behind this, including a weakening immune system and an accumulation of potentially dangerous mutations in our genes. Now a new culprit has been uncovered.
That culprit is methylmalonic acid (MMA), a byproduct of protein and fat digestion that is elevated in the blood of older people. A study published today in the journal Nature reports that MMA can induce aggressive metastasis and drug resistance in cancer cells, both in the test tube and in mice.
John Blenis, a cancer biologist at Weill Cornell Medicine in New York, and his colleague Ana Gomes treated human cancer cells with blood serum samples from people who were either under 30 or over 60. The cells exposed to older serum showed signs typical of cancer cells that had gained the ability to metastasize and spread to other parts of the body, and showed increased levels of proteins associated with aggressive cancer, as well as resistance to common chemotherapy drugs. When injected into mice, the cells quickly migrated to the lungs and started new tumors.
When the researchers analyzed the serum used to treat the cancer cells, they found that MMA was elevated in all of the samples that were able to induce metastasis. And when cancer cells were exposed just to elevated levels of MMA, the same changes were seen -- including the ability to induce new tumors in mice.
The researchers also analyzed the genetic changes in the cancer cells and found that higher levels of MMA were associated with increased expression of the SOX4 gene, which contributes to tumor progression and is highly active in aggressive cancers. Blocking the expression of SOX4 stopped MMA from inducing metastasis and drug resistance.
It is not yet clear how exactly all this works, but Blenis said it raises interesting new questions about how aging interacts with cancer, as well as potential new ways to prevent or treat it. The metabolic pathway that leads to MMA, for example, is known to be associated with certain fatty acids, so there could be implications for how diet affects cancer risk.
"This is one of those major observations that opens up a whole new field," said Blenis. "It’s very exciting."


insidescience--2020-08-27--Better Models, More Computing Power Led to Accurate Hurricane Laura Predictions

Better Models , More Computing Power Led to Accurate Hurricane Laura Predictions The National Hurricane Center is finally seeing their ability to predict a storm ’ s strength catch up to their ability to track it .
( Inside Science ) -- On August 25 , 2020 , the National Hurricane Center classified the tropical storm Laura as a hurricane , and later announced that it might rapidly intensify over the next 24 hours .
On August 26 , 2020 , just 15 hours after that announcement , that forecast came true : Laura was a Category 4 .
In @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 2017 , the tropical cyclone Harvey was upgraded from a tropical depression to a tropical storm .
Just five hours later , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) announced Harvey would likely undergo rapid intensification before hitting land .
This was also an accurate prediction : Harvey was classified a Category 4 hurricane just the next day .
It became one of the most devastating natural disasters to hit the Gulf coast .
But if Laura or Harvey had occurred just a few years earlier , the NHC wouldn ’ t have @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ’ strength at landfall would have taken the U.S. by surprise .
`` When I started my career at the NHC in 2005 , there 's no way we would forecast rapid intensification , '' said John Cangialosi , a researcher at the NHC .
`` It didn ’ t matter what the models suggested ; the confidence in the models was n't there .
Today , our confidence in analyzing the models is much higher .
And if we 've seen that great improvement in 15 years , where will we be @ @ @ @ @ @ @ -- a category of storms that includes tropical storms , tropical depressions , and typhoons and hurricanes -- are massive , extremely complex systems of air and water .
Forecasters ’ ability to predict the path a storm will take has consistently improved over the past few decades , since it depends on large and easy-to-measure variables such as the ocean water temperatures or strong wind currents .
But for predicting a tropical cyclone ’ s intensity , or strength , the little details matter .
`` When it comes to intensity , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the track , '' Cangialosi said .
`` If you 're going to get the intensity right , you have to resolve the storm ’ s structure correctly .
How tight is the eye , or the eye wall ?
Is it circular ?
Is it asymmetrical ?
You ’ ve got to get those details , and it was n't until just this past decade that the models have really turned the corner on that . ''
Rosimar Rios-Berrios , a scientist who develops computer models of tropical cyclones at the National @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Colorado , says predicting intensity is a particularly gnarly problem .
`` Intensity is a more complicated problem that we do not fully understand , '' she said .
`` A storm ’ s strength may be driven by multiple processes , like the amount or organization of clouds at multiple levels , or how the water vapor changes from liquid to ice .
These tiny processes are difficult to capture in our models , and difficult to observe . ''
But over the past decade , tropical cyclone models have drastically improved @ @ @ @ @ @ @ or cell down to 4 km , from 12 km ( some hurricanes can have eyes as small as 10 km in diameter ) .
This increase in resolution is crucial , both Rios-Berrios and Cangialosi said , since accurate intensity predictions hinge so heavily on smaller-scale variables .
This could mean the difference between preparing for a hurricane ’ s rapid intensification and being surprised by it -- a difference that could save lives .
Tropical cyclone models have also grown better at incorporating observational data , which improves intensity predictions .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ statistics , basing forecasts on storms that had happened before .
Modern , dynamical models update their predictions as data comes in .
Modeling at smaller resolutions and incorporating real data are not necessarily brand-new developments in the field of tropical cyclone research , but advancements in computing power have finally started to make them accessible to forecasters .
`` We could have done these things years ago , but it would have taken two days for that model to run , '' Cangialosi said .
`` For forecasting , our timeline has @ @ @ @ @ @ @ best you can give me in a few hours.
’ And now , in a few hours , we can do tenfold better than we could have done 20 years ago . ''
Providing faster and more accurate predictions of rapid intensification can allow coastal cities to better prepare for storms like Laura and Harvey .
As climate change worsens , experts believe the effects will contribute to more frequent and stronger hurricanes and make accurate forecasts even more crucial .

The National Hurricane Center is finally seeing their ability to predict a storm’s strength catch up to their ability to track it.
Meredith Fore, Contributor
(Inside Science) -- On August 25, 2020, the National Hurricane Center classified the tropical storm Laura as a hurricane, and later announced that it might rapidly intensify over the next 24 hours. On August 26, 2020, just 15 hours after that announcement, that forecast came true: Laura was a Category 4.
In the early morning of August 24, 2017, the tropical cyclone Harvey was upgraded from a tropical depression to a tropical storm. Just five hours later, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) announced Harvey would likely undergo rapid intensification before hitting land. This was also an accurate prediction: Harvey was classified a Category 4 hurricane just the next day. It became one of the most devastating natural disasters to hit the Gulf coast.
But if Laura or Harvey had occurred just a few years earlier, the NHC wouldn’t have made those predictions, and the storms’ strength at landfall would have taken the U.S. by surprise.
"When I started my career at the NHC in 2005, there's no way we would forecast rapid intensification," said John Cangialosi, a researcher at the NHC. "It didn’t matter what the models suggested; the confidence in the models wasn't there. Today, our confidence in analyzing the models is much higher. And if we've seen that great improvement in 15 years, where will we be in another 50?"
Tropical cyclones -- a category of storms that includes tropical storms, tropical depressions, and typhoons and hurricanes -- are massive, extremely complex systems of air and water. Forecasters’ ability to predict the path a storm will take has consistently improved over the past few decades, since it depends on large and easy-to-measure variables such as the ocean water temperatures or strong wind currents. But for predicting a tropical cyclone’s intensity, or strength, the little details matter.
"When it comes to intensity, the small things matter way more than the track," Cangialosi said. "If you're going to get the intensity right, you have to resolve the storm’s structure correctly. How tight is the eye, or the eye wall? Is it circular? Is it asymmetrical? You’ve got to get those details, and it wasn't until just this past decade that the models have really turned the corner on that."
Rosimar Rios-Berrios, a scientist who develops computer models of tropical cyclones at the National Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder, Colorado, says predicting intensity is a particularly gnarly problem.
"Intensity is a more complicated problem that we do not fully understand," she said. "A storm’s strength may be driven by multiple processes, like the amount or organization of clouds at multiple levels, or how the water vapor changes from liquid to ice. These tiny processes are difficult to capture in our models, and difficult to observe."
But over the past decade, tropical cyclone models have drastically improved, reducing the size of each pixel or cell down to 4 km, from 12 km (some hurricanes can have eyes as small as 10 km in diameter). This increase in resolution is crucial, both Rios-Berrios and Cangialosi said, since accurate intensity predictions hinge so heavily on smaller-scale variables. This could mean the difference between preparing for a hurricane’s rapid intensification and being surprised by it -- a difference that could save lives.
Tropical cyclone models have also grown better at incorporating observational data, which improves intensity predictions. Early models would rely on nothing but statistics, basing forecasts on storms that had happened before. Modern, dynamical models update their predictions as data comes in.
Modeling at smaller resolutions and incorporating real data are not necessarily brand-new developments in the field of tropical cyclone research, but advancements in computing power have finally started to make them accessible to forecasters.
"We could have done these things years ago, but it would have taken two days for that model to run," Cangialosi said. "For forecasting, our timeline has always been: ‘Give me the best you can give me in a few hours.’ And now, in a few hours, we can do tenfold better than we could have done 20 years ago."
Providing faster and more accurate predictions of rapid intensification can allow coastal cities to better prepare for storms like Laura and Harvey. As climate change worsens, experts believe the effects will contribute to more frequent and stronger hurricanes and make accurate forecasts even more crucial.


insidescience--2020-08-25--Bioengineered Soil Microbes May Help Prevent Desertification

Early-stage research points to bioengineering as a promising way to buy time for arid ecosystems .
( Inside Science ) -- By tweaking the genes of microbes in the soil , it may be possible to make arid ecosystems more resilient to climate change and overgrazing , according to a new study .
The research is in early stages , and currently consists of theoretical work using computer models .
But the models suggest that even relatively small changes to key organisms could have profound effects .
Water-scarce regions , known as `` drylands , '' cover roughly 40 % @ @ @ @ @ @ @ home to about 40 % of the human population , according to Ricard Solé , a biophysicist at Pompeu Fabra University in Spain .
Many drylands host productive ecosystems that are adapted to low levels of moisture .
But when such ecosystems are subject to overgrazing or a warming climate , they can collapse and turn into much less hospitable deserts .
These collapses often happen suddenly , after ecosystems pass a `` tipping point . ''
Solé and his colleagues are working to see whether genetic changes to microorganisms could shift these @ @ @ @ @ @ @ may be possible to take photosynthetic bacteria that already live in dryland soils and splice in genes that allow them to store more water or capture more phosphorus , said Solé .
These engineered bacteria could then enrich the soil , allowing plants to grow and create shade , which would then support the growth of more bacteria .
Solé describes such mutually beneficial relationships between species as `` cooperative loops . ''
In one set of models , he and his colleagues simulated the creation of new cooperative loops and observed how @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ecosystem .
In another set of models , they simulated microbes with increased ability to disperse and spread to new areas .
Both types of modifications allowed simulated ecosystems to function under drier conditions .
In theory , engineered microbes might allow dryland ecosystems to survive for several more decades , giving humanity more time to address underlying problems such as climate change , said Solé .
The findings were published today in the journal Royal Society Open Science .
The researchers plan to begin laboratory experiments with real organisms next year .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ lead to `` Jurassic Park '' -type scenarios , noted Solé .
Indeed , extensive testing would be needed to ensure the engineered microbes would n't cause any unintended harm .
But in Solé 's view , the urgent state of the environmental crisis may justify extreme measures .
`` We are doing everything wrong already .
… We are destroying everything , '' said Solé .
`` We need to gain some time . ''

Early-stage research points to bioengineering as a promising way to buy time for arid ecosystems.
Nala Rogers, Staff Writer
(Inside Science) -- By tweaking the genes of microbes in the soil, it may be possible to make arid ecosystems more resilient to climate change and overgrazing, according to a new study. The research is in early stages, and currently consists of theoretical work using computer models. But the models suggest that even relatively small changes to key organisms could have profound effects.
Water-scarce regions, known as "drylands," cover roughly 40% of Earth's land area and are home to about 40% of the human population, according to Ricard Solé, a biophysicist at Pompeu Fabra University in Spain. Many drylands host productive ecosystems that are adapted to low levels of moisture. But when such ecosystems are subject to overgrazing or a warming climate, they can collapse and turn into much less hospitable deserts. These collapses often happen suddenly, after ecosystems pass a "tipping point."
Solé and his colleagues are working to see whether genetic changes to microorganisms could shift these tipping points. For example, it may be possible to take photosynthetic bacteria that already live in dryland soils and splice in genes that allow them to store more water or capture more phosphorus, said Solé. These engineered bacteria could then enrich the soil, allowing plants to grow and create shade, which would then support the growth of more bacteria.
Solé describes such mutually beneficial relationships between species as "cooperative loops." In one set of models, he and his colleagues simulated the creation of new cooperative loops and observed how they affected the rest of the virtual ecosystem. In another set of models, they simulated microbes with increased ability to disperse and spread to new areas.
Both types of modifications allowed simulated ecosystems to function under drier conditions. In theory, engineered microbes might allow dryland ecosystems to survive for several more decades, giving humanity more time to address underlying problems such as climate change, said Solé. The findings were published today in the journal Royal Society Open Science. The researchers plan to begin laboratory experiments with real organisms next year.
People often fear that engineered organisms could lead to "Jurassic Park"-type scenarios, noted Solé. Indeed, extensive testing would be needed to ensure the engineered microbes wouldn't cause any unintended harm. But in Solé's view, the urgent state of the environmental crisis may justify extreme measures.
"We are doing everything wrong already. … We are destroying everything," said Solé. "We need to gain some time."


insidescience--2020-08-31--A Stormy Summer in the Northern Hemisphere

On August 4 , Hurricane Isaias hit landfall in North Carolina .
Unlike more typical tropical storms , the hurricane @ @ @ @ @ strength on land and spawn tornados in its wake .
Two people were killed as @ @ @ @ @ the tornados tearing apart a community of mobile homes in Windsor , North Carolina .
@ @ @ @ @ Sergeant helps a resident gather his dog as part of the National Guard ’ s @ @ @ @ @ by the storm .
( North Carolina National Guard

On August 4, Hurricane Isaias hit landfall in North Carolina. Unlike more typical tropical storms, the hurricane was able to maintain its strength on land and spawn tornados in its wake. Two people were killed as a result of one of the tornados tearing apart a community of mobile homes in Windsor, North Carolina. Here, a U.S. Army Sergeant helps a resident gather his dog as part of the National Guard’s assistance to Windsor civilians affected by the storm. (North Carolina National Guard)


insidescience--2020-09-03--Miniature Stonehenge Lets Scientists Hear the Ancient Monument's Acoustics

Findings suggest sound was not the primary focus of the Stonehenge architects .
( Inside Science ) -- Acoustic engineer Trevor Cox is used to `` Spinal Tap '' jokes whenever photos of his Stonehenge model appear on Twitter .
`` I usually wait for the first mention of Spinal Tap and then tweet back to say , congratulations , you 're the first person today . ''
As the maker of a model 1/12th the size of the ancient monument -- the same size as the tiny Stonehenge arch in 1984 ’ s mockumentary `` This Is Spinal Tap @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to jest .
Using 3D-printed molds and plaster , he built an entire set of 157 standing stones to match how Stonehenge probably looked and sounded more than 4,000 years ago .
`` This scale-modeling technique is well known in architectural acoustics , but it 's not well known in archaeology , '' he said .
`` We wanted to demonstrate you can reconstruct the sound of the past using this method . ''
Research led by Cox at the University of Salford in the U.K. reveals the amplification and reverberation Stonehenge gave @ @ @ @ @ @ @ findings appear in the October issue of the Journal of Archaeological Science .
Archaeologists have long wondered how Neolithic Stonehenge affected sounds , but acoustic studies of the modern ruin and a replica in the state of Washington aren ’ t enough .
The remaining 17 `` sarsen '' stones in the real Stonehenge ’ s outer circle don ’ t reflect soundwaves like its original 30 stones did , Cox said .
And the concrete stones of the replica are almost perfectly rectangular , while the new model is based on laser @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , with some of the surviving stones standing in for those that are now missing .
Cox was especially interested in the smaller `` bluestones '' inside the sarsen circle -- archaeological evidence shows they were often rearranged , and Cox wanted to learn if people did that to change the sound .
But the study found the arrangement of the bluestones did not make much difference .
There ’ s also no evidence that the stones in the outer ring that dominate the acoustics were ever moved , although they could be @ @ @ @ @ @ @ suggests to Cox that the way Stonehenge looked , rather than how it sounded , was the main reason it was built .
`` It does n't look like sound was driving it , '' Cox said .
`` Maybe they thought it sounded nice , but I think it was much more driven by appearance . ''

Findings suggest sound was not the primary focus of the Stonehenge architects.
Tom Metcalfe, Contributor
(Inside Science) -- Acoustic engineer Trevor Cox is used to "Spinal Tap" jokes whenever photos of his Stonehenge model appear on Twitter. "I usually wait for the first mention of Spinal Tap and then tweet back to say, congratulations, you're the first person today."
As the maker of a model 1/12th the size of the ancient monument -- the same size as the tiny Stonehenge arch in 1984’s mockumentary "This Is Spinal Tap" -- Cox has earned the right to jest. Using 3D-printed molds and plaster, he built an entire set of 157 standing stones to match how Stonehenge probably looked and sounded more than 4,000 years ago.
"This scale-modeling technique is well known in architectural acoustics, but it's not well known in archaeology," he said. "We wanted to demonstrate you can reconstruct the sound of the past using this method."
Research led by Cox at the University of Salford in the U.K. reveals the amplification and reverberation Stonehenge gave to ancient speech and music. The findings appear in the October issue of the Journal of Archaeological Science.
Archaeologists have long wondered how Neolithic Stonehenge affected sounds, but acoustic studies of the modern ruin and a replica in the state of Washington aren’t enough. The remaining 17 "sarsen" stones in the real Stonehenge’s outer circle don’t reflect soundwaves like its original 30 stones did, Cox said. And the concrete stones of the replica are almost perfectly rectangular, while the new model is based on laser scans of the ancient handcarved sandstone sarsens, with some of the surviving stones standing in for those that are now missing.
Cox was especially interested in the smaller "bluestones" inside the sarsen circle -- archaeological evidence shows they were often rearranged, and Cox wanted to learn if people did that to change the sound. But the study found the arrangement of the bluestones did not make much difference. There’s also no evidence that the stones in the outer ring that dominate the acoustics were ever moved, although they could be placed better for reflecting sounds. That suggests to Cox that the way Stonehenge looked, rather than how it sounded, was the main reason it was built. "It doesn't look like sound was driving it," Cox said. "Maybe they thought it sounded nice, but I think it was much more driven by appearance."