physicsworld--2020-09-02--A quantum revolution - Physics World

A quantum revolution - Physics World

What first sparked your interest in quantum physics ?
I had an interest in physics at high school and just before the Chinese New Year in 1998 , our school invited Jian-Wei Pan to give a public science lecture that was held in the largest cinema in Dongyang in Zhejiang province .
At the time Pan was in Anton Zeilinger ’ s group at Innsbruck University in Austria and they had just reported their first quantum-teleportation experiments .
The lecture was intriguing but to some extent it all sounded a little crazy .
But it was fascinating enough for you @ @ @ @ @ @ @ then studied physics at the University of Science and Technology of China ( USTC ) in Hefei and joined Pan ’ s group where I worked on a number of interesting problems such as six-photon entanglement , quantum simulation of anyons and teleportation of quantum-logic gates .
In 2008 I moved to the University of Cambridge in the UK to do a PhD before moving back to USTC in 2011 .
What are you currently working on ?
In the past few years , I have focused on the development of scalable quantum-light @ @ @ @ @ @ @ an intermediate quantum-computing model .
My current research covers a variety of topics from blue-sky research to emerging quantum technologies such as large-scale quantum entanglement , quantum teleportation and quantum computing .
I am still young enough to start exploring new fields such as atom arrays in optical tweezers and superconducting circuits .
In 2015 , you and colleagues were awarded the Physics World Breakthrough of the Year for your work teleporting two quantum properties of a photon .
How has research moved on since then ?
We have made steady progress , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ “ complete ” by carrying out the first experimental demonstration of “ high-dimensional ” teleportation of a quantum spin-1 system ( Phys .
Rev .
Lett .
123 070505 ) .
My colleagues have also achieved teleportation over longer distances by exploiting the Micius satellite .
This has allowed us to go from about 100 km to 1400 km via a ground station to space ( Nature 549 70 ) .
We have also proposed and demonstrated a teleportation-inspired method to efficiently simulate random quantum circuits that redefine the limits of “ quantum @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Lett .
124 080502 ) .
How has COVID-19 affected your work and are you now starting to reopen the labs ?
Students had already returned home for the Chinese New Year when the COVID-19 outbreak emerged .
During the height of the pandemic , people showed a remarkable ability to come together .
Thanks to the selfless dedication of medical workers and the strong measures taken by the Chinese government , COVID-19 was effectively controlled within a short time .
Graduate students have returned to campus cautiously in a step-by-step and organized @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , not a single student or faculty member of USTC was affected by the COVID-19 virus .
As chair of the Quantum 2020 conference in October , what do you hope it will achieve ?
Quantum 2020 aims to bring together the international quantum-science community to learn , share and collaborate on the latest research and emerging areas of interest .
Taking place over four days from 19 to 22 October , it is co-organized by the USTC , the Chinese Physical Society ( CPS ) , the UK ’ s Institute of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Physics World .
The virtual event gathers early-career and established researchers from universities , industry and governments worldwide .
Beyond a high-profile programme of more than 30 invited talks from world-leading figures in the field , Quantum 2020 will also feature two special interactive panel sessions covering industry and worldwide initiatives in quantum technology .
The meeting is now virtual given the COVID-19 pandemic .
How has the organization gone ?
We began to organize the Quantum 2020 event at the end of last year .
The original plan was to hold the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
But because of the COVID-19 situation , in March I suggested changing it to a virtual conference .
Organizing an online meeting has been a new experience , but it has gone well thanks to the help of the advisory committee and the quantum-science community .
The virtual format delivers several benefits in terms of time and efficiency and we have seen a real appetite from invited speakers and panellists to get involved .
We are very excited by the calibre and diversity of the scientific programme .
Have there been any @ @ @ @ @ @ @ believe that virtual conferences will remain an important part of the scientific community beyond the current COVID-19 situation .
We anticipate that the online format will have several benefits for participants including improved accessibility , reduced cost and personal disruption , as well as an overall reduction in carbon footprints from travel .
Are there any benefits of this conference to wider society ?
In partnership with the CPS , we plan to translate some of the plenary and invited talks to raise the awareness of quantum physics and quantum technology in China @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to establish new international awards to promote and encourage early-career researchers in quantum technologies .
These will run alongside other high-profile awards in the field such as the Micius Quantum Prize awarded by the Micius Foundation , the biennial International Quantum Communication Award given out at the QCMC conference and the Rolf Landauer and Charles H Bennett award in quantum computing by the American Physical Society .
Quantum computing has accelerated recently .
How do you see its development ?
Scientists are gaining exquisite control at a fundamental level and pushing the physical @ @ @ @ @ @ @ deepen our understanding of physics but also unlock unbelievable potential for new technology .
In the not-too-distant future , they will become a reality to control and entangle thousands or even millions of quantum bits at will .
Quantum simulators and computers will become first useful for physicists , chemists and engineers for applications of material and drug design .
Many more surprises will emerge but , of course , they are hard to predict .
What excites you about the future of quantum technologies ?
We are now beginning the second quantum @ @ @ @ @ @ @ offers a radical new way to transform our technologies from communication and computation to metrology .
Comparing quantum computers with their classical counterparts is like comparing lasers to light bulbs .
I believe that the development of quantum computers will follow a similar trajectory as lasers – first as a useful tool inside the laboratories then finding applications in many different areas .
Inspired by what we know about the history of the laser , I believe what we have already discovered – for example , quantum key distribution , and quantum algorithms @ @ @ @ @ @ @ iceberg of what is to come .
With many countries pushing the implementation of quantum technologies , is is it driven more by co-operation or competition ?
Quantum technology has a long way to go before it can be widely used .
So , international co-operation and open exchanges are imperative .
Just like how we all need to work closely together to confront the COVID-19 pandemic .
Likewise , quantum technology is for all and not just a single country .
The potential outcome from quantum research , such as solving energy @ @ @ @ @ @ @ medicine , will too benefit all people .
Diseases have no borders and neither should research .

Physics World China Briefing. You can enjoy the full issue Taken from the 2020. You can enjoy the full issue via the Physics World app
Chaoyang Lu from the University of Science and Technology of China in Hefei talks to Michael Banks about planning Quantum 2020 – a major online conference – and the future of quantum technologies
Bright future Chaoyang Lu says that many of the technologies today such as quantum key distribution and quantum algorithms are just the tip of the iceberg of what is to come. (Courtesy: H-T Guo and L Yu)
What first sparked your interest in quantum physics?
I had an interest in physics at high school and just before the Chinese New Year in 1998, our school invited Jian-Wei Pan to give a public science lecture that was held in the largest cinema in Dongyang in Zhejiang province. At the time Pan was in Anton Zeilinger’s group at Innsbruck University in Austria and they had just reported their first quantum-teleportation experiments. The lecture was intriguing but to some extent it all sounded a little crazy.
But it was fascinating enough for you to study physics?
Yes. I then studied physics at the University of Science and Technology of China (USTC) in Hefei and joined Pan’s group where I worked on a number of interesting problems such as six-photon entanglement, quantum simulation of anyons and teleportation of quantum-logic gates. In 2008 I moved to the University of Cambridge in the UK to do a PhD before moving back to USTC in 2011.
What are you currently working on?
In the past few years, I have focused on the development of scalable quantum-light sources for “boson sampling” – an intermediate quantum-computing model. My current research covers a variety of topics from blue-sky research to emerging quantum technologies such as large-scale quantum entanglement, quantum teleportation and quantum computing. I am still young enough to start exploring new fields such as atom arrays in optical tweezers and superconducting circuits.
In 2015, you and colleagues were awarded the Physics World Breakthrough of the Year for your work teleporting two quantum properties of a photon. How has research moved on since then?
We have made steady progress, for example, making quantum teleportation more “complete” by carrying out the first experimental demonstration of “high-dimensional” teleportation of a quantum spin-1 system (Phys. Rev. Lett. 123 070505). My colleagues have also achieved teleportation over longer distances by exploiting the Micius satellite. This has allowed us to go from about 100 km to 1400 km via a ground station to space (Nature 549 70). We have also proposed and demonstrated a teleportation-inspired method to efficiently simulate random quantum circuits that redefine the limits of “quantum advantage” (Phys. Rev. Lett. 124 080502).
How has COVID-19 affected your work and are you now starting to reopen the labs?
Students had already returned home for the Chinese New Year when the COVID-19 outbreak emerged. During the height of the pandemic, people showed a remarkable ability to come together. Thanks to the selfless dedication of medical workers and the strong measures taken by the Chinese government, COVID-19 was effectively controlled within a short time. Graduate students have returned to campus cautiously in a step-by-step and organized way. As far as I know, not a single student or faculty member of USTC was affected by the COVID-19 virus.
As chair of the Quantum 2020 conference in October, what do you hope it will achieve?
Quantum 2020 aims to bring together the international quantum-science community to learn, share and collaborate on the latest research and emerging areas of interest. Taking place over four days from 19 to 22 October, it is co-organized by the USTC, the Chinese Physical Society (CPS), the UK’s Institute of Physics and IOP Publishing, which publishes Physics World.
The virtual event gathers early-career and established researchers from universities, industry and governments worldwide. Beyond a high-profile programme of more than 30 invited talks from world-leading figures in the field, Quantum 2020 will also feature two special interactive panel sessions covering industry and worldwide initiatives in quantum technology.
The meeting is now virtual given the COVID-19 pandemic. How has the organization gone?
We began to organize the Quantum 2020 event at the end of last year. The original plan was to hold the conference at USTC’s Shanghai campus. But because of the COVID-19 situation, in March I suggested changing it to a virtual conference. Organizing an online meeting has been a new experience, but it has gone well thanks to the help of the advisory committee and the quantum-science community. The virtual format delivers several benefits in terms of time and efficiency and we have seen a real appetite from invited speakers and panellists to get involved. We are very excited by the calibre and diversity of the scientific programme.
Have there been any benefits of it going online?
I believe that virtual conferences will remain an important part of the scientific community beyond the current COVID-19 situation. We anticipate that the online format will have several benefits for participants including improved accessibility, reduced cost and personal disruption, as well as an overall reduction in carbon footprints from travel.
Are there any benefits of this conference to wider society?
In partnership with the CPS, we plan to translate some of the plenary and invited talks to raise the awareness of quantum physics and quantum technology in China. In addition, Quantum 2020 plans to establish new international awards to promote and encourage early-career researchers in quantum technologies. These will run alongside other high-profile awards in the field such as the Micius Quantum Prize awarded by the Micius Foundation, the biennial International Quantum Communication Award given out at the QCMC conference and the Rolf Landauer and Charles H Bennett award in quantum computing by the American Physical Society.
Quantum computing has accelerated recently. How do you see its development?
Scientists are gaining exquisite control at a fundamental level and pushing the physical boundaries. Such efforts will not only deepen our understanding of physics but also unlock unbelievable potential for new technology. In the not-too-distant future, they will become a reality to control and entangle thousands or even millions of quantum bits at will. Quantum simulators and computers will become first useful for physicists, chemists and engineers for applications of material and drug design. Many more surprises will emerge but, of course, they are hard to predict.
What excites you about the future of quantum technologies?
We are now beginning the second quantum revolution. Exploiting quantum superposition and entanglement offers a radical new way to transform our technologies from communication and computation to metrology. Comparing quantum computers with their classical counterparts is like comparing lasers to light bulbs. I believe that the development of quantum computers will follow a similar trajectory as lasers – first as a useful tool inside the laboratories then finding applications in many different areas. Inspired by what we know about the history of the laser, I believe what we have already discovered – for example, quantum key distribution, and quantum algorithms – is just the tip of the iceberg of what is to come.
With many countries pushing the implementation of quantum technologies, is is it driven more by co-operation or competition?
Quantum technology has a long way to go before it can be widely used. So, international co-operation and open exchanges are imperative. Just like how we all need to work closely together to confront the COVID-19 pandemic. Likewise, quantum technology is for all and not just a single country. The potential outcome from quantum research, such as solving energy problems, new materials, and new medicine, will too benefit all people. Diseases have no borders and neither should research.


physicsworld--2020-09-03--Moth-eye nanostructures make good anti-icing coatings - Physics World

Researchers in Vietnam have developed a transparent nanostructure with anti-icing properties that could keep objects such as aircraft wings and wind turbines ice-free in cold , damp conditions .
The material , which is inspired by the structure of moth eyes , consists of a quartz substrate coated with a monolayer of nano-sized polystyrene beads .
The ensemble is then covered with a flat , insulating layer of paraffin .
On cold days and at high altitudes , water vapour in the air transforms directly into solid ice , forming a thin coating on exposed surfaces .
This coating reduces @ @ @ @ @ @ @ moving parts in ships and turbines , and sometimes causes serious motor vehicle accidents as well as damage to infrastructure such as electricity transmission systems .
There are two main approaches to improving the anti-icing properties of surfaces in these conditions .
The first , active approach is to remove the ice using an external source of energy , such as heat .
The second , passive approach uses physiochemical methods to modify the surface – with superhydrophobic materials , for example – so that it repels water .
More recently , a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ emerged : applying a coating to icing-prone objects that forms a defect-free liquid interface with the ice .
Such coatings are known as slippery liquid-infused porous surfaces ( SLIPs ) , and one way of making them is to cover a porous structure with a low-surface-tension lubricant that is immiscible in water , resists humidity and self-heals after ice treatment .
While the SLIPS studied to date have produced some good anti-icing results , none of them can prevent icing permanently because their lubricant layer degrades through evaporation and during de-icing .
Physicists @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and Nguyen Thanh Binh of Thai Nguyen University of Education sought to avoid this problem by creating a SLIP based on a nanostructure that mimics the structure of moth eyes , which are inherently ice-phobic .
In their experiments , Ba Duc and Thanh Binh used a plasma etching process to deposit polystyrene nanobeads onto a quartz substrate .
This process produced a uniform structure of protrusions shaped like truncated cones with heights of 500 nm and top diameters of around 70 nm , as revealed in scanning electron microscopy measurements .
The @ @ @ @ @ @ @ n-hexane solution and coated the top of their nanostructure with the mixture .
As a control experiment , they also applied the same thickness of paraffin wax/n-hexane coating to a bare quartz substrate .
Next , the researchers attached their samples to a thermoelectric cooling module and gently placed a 5 μl droplet of deionized water onto the sample surface .
After cooling the system down to -20°C , they used a load cell to measure how strongly an ice drop adhered to the freezing surface .
They did this by moving the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , which slowly pushed the ice droplet sideways until it detached completely .
The force exerted on the cell could then be computed , and the researchers took the maximum force recorded to be the droplet ’ s adhesive strength .
Ba Duc and Thanh Binh also used a high-speed camera to record the icing process and determine the time it took for the entire water droplet to freeze solid .
Another camera monitored changes to the interface between the water droplet and the surface .
Finally , the researchers performed a “ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ sprayed cold water droplets ( maintained at temperatures of 0.5°C ) ranging from 5 μl to 50 μl in size onto surfaces at 0°C , -5°C , -10°C and -15°C .
The results for the nanostructured surface confirmed its outstanding anti-icing performance relative to the control surface .
The researchers also say that the hydrophobic nature of the paraffin layer proved key to the performance of the new structure in both the static ( water droplet ) and dynamic ( freezing rain ) experiments .
The researchers chose paraffin as their coating material @ @ @ @ @ @ @ low thermal conductivity .
When the paraffin coats the top of the nanostructured quartz substrate , the substrate becomes isolated from its environment , preventing heat from being transferred away .
Air pockets trapped inside the nanostructure contribute to delayed heat transfer too , Ba Duc and Thanh Binh explain , adding that this extra insulation also increases the freezing time of any attached water droplets .
As well as anti-icing applications in industry and transport , the superhydrophobic nanostructured coated paraffin material might be suitable for applications such as eye glasses , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ it is highly transparent and has anti-reflective properties , just like moth eyes .
The researchers also report that the material is mechanically stable , and the paraffin-coated layer can easily be recovered after tests simply by heating it .
The new anti-icing structure is detailed in AIP Advances .

Freezing test. Credit: Nguyen Ba Duc
Researchers in Vietnam have developed a transparent nanostructure with anti-icing properties that could keep objects such as aircraft wings and wind turbines ice-free in cold, damp conditions. The material, which is inspired by the structure of moth eyes, consists of a quartz substrate coated with a monolayer of nano-sized polystyrene beads. The ensemble is then covered with a flat, insulating layer of paraffin.
On cold days and at high altitudes, water vapour in the air transforms directly into solid ice, forming a thin coating on exposed surfaces. This coating reduces the lift of aircraft wings, blocks moving parts in ships and turbines, and sometimes causes serious motor vehicle accidents as well as damage to infrastructure such as electricity transmission systems.
There are two main approaches to improving the anti-icing properties of surfaces in these conditions. The first, active approach is to remove the ice using an external source of energy, such as heat. The second, passive approach uses physiochemical methods to modify the surface – with superhydrophobic materials, for example – so that it repels water.
SLIPs: an advanced anti-icing strategy
More recently, a new variant of the passive strategy has emerged: applying a coating to icing-prone objects that forms a defect-free liquid interface with the ice. Such coatings are known as slippery liquid-infused porous surfaces (SLIPs), and one way of making them is to cover a porous structure with a low-surface-tension lubricant that is immiscible in water, resists humidity and self-heals after ice treatment.
While the SLIPS studied to date have produced some good anti-icing results, none of them can prevent icing permanently because their lubricant layer degrades through evaporation and during de-icing. Physicists Nguyen Ba Duc of Tan Trao University and Nguyen Thanh Binh of Thai Nguyen University of Education sought to avoid this problem by creating a SLIP based on a nanostructure that mimics the structure of moth eyes, which are inherently ice-phobic.
In their experiments, Ba Duc and Thanh Binh used a plasma etching process to deposit polystyrene nanobeads onto a quartz substrate. This process produced a uniform structure of protrusions shaped like truncated cones with heights of 500 nm and top diameters of around 70 nm, as revealed in scanning electron microscopy measurements. The researchers then added paraffin wax to an n-hexane solution and coated the top of their nanostructure with the mixture. As a control experiment, they also applied the same thickness of paraffin wax/n-hexane coating to a bare quartz substrate.
Measuring adhesion forces
Next, the researchers attached their samples to a thermoelectric cooling module and gently placed a 5 μl droplet of deionized water onto the sample surface. After cooling the system down to -20°C, they used a load cell to measure how strongly an ice drop adhered to the freezing surface. They did this by moving the cell at a speed of 50 μm/s, which slowly pushed the ice droplet sideways until it detached completely. The force exerted on the cell could then be computed, and the researchers took the maximum force recorded to be the droplet’s adhesive strength.
Ba Duc and Thanh Binh also used a high-speed camera to record the icing process and determine the time it took for the entire water droplet to freeze solid. Another camera monitored changes to the interface between the water droplet and the surface. Finally, the researchers performed a “freezing rain” test in which they sprayed cold water droplets (maintained at temperatures of 0.5°C) ranging from 5 μl to 50 μl in size onto surfaces at 0°C, -5°C, -10°C and -15°C.
The results for the nanostructured surface confirmed its outstanding anti-icing performance relative to the control surface. The researchers also say that the hydrophobic nature of the paraffin layer proved key to the performance of the new structure in both the static (water droplet) and dynamic (freezing rain) experiments.
Delayed heat transfer
The researchers chose paraffin as their coating material because it is water-repellent and has a low thermal conductivity. When the paraffin coats the top of the nanostructured quartz substrate, the substrate becomes isolated from its environment, preventing heat from being transferred away. Air pockets trapped inside the nanostructure contribute to delayed heat transfer too, Ba Duc and Thanh Binh explain, adding that this extra insulation also increases the freezing time of any attached water droplets.
As well as anti-icing applications in industry and transport, the superhydrophobic nanostructured coated paraffin material might be suitable for applications such as eye glasses, Ba Duc says. This is because it is highly transparent and has anti-reflective properties, just like moth eyes. The researchers also report that the material is mechanically stable, and the paraffin-coated layer can easily be recovered after tests simply by heating it.
The new anti-icing structure is detailed in AIP Advances.


physicsworld--2020-09-03--Why that massive black-hole merger is important, battling quantum decoherence on two fronts - Physic

Why that massive black-hole merger is important, battling quantum decoherence on two fronts - Physics World

This week the LIGO-Virgo collaboration announced the detection of gravitational waves from the most massive black-hole merger ever seen .
@ @ @ @ @ with LIGO–Virgo member and University of Portsmouth astrophysicist Laura Nuttall , who explains why scientists @ @ @ @ @ of one of the black holes involved in the merger .
She also looks forward @ @ @ @ @ of the LIGO–Virgo detectors and what astrophysical events they might capture .
The podcast also @ @ @ @ @ is new in physics this week , including two very different ways of dealing with @ @ @ @ @ a new way of using X-rays to personalize the treatment of a serious eye disease @ @ @ @ @ understanding of how bubbles pop .

This week the LIGO-Virgo collaboration announced the detection of gravitational waves from the most massive black-hole merger ever seen. This podcast features an interview with LIGO–Virgo member and University of Portsmouth astrophysicist Laura Nuttall, who explains why scientists are puzzling over the origin of one of the black holes involved in the merger. She also looks forward to the next observing run of the LIGO–Virgo detectors and what astrophysical events they might capture.
The podcast also includes a round-up of what is new in physics this week, including two very different ways of dealing with decoherence in quantum computers, a new way of using X-rays to personalize the treatment of a serious eye disease and a breakthrough in our understanding of how bubbles pop.


physicsworld--2020-09-03--A brief history of the Doomsday Clock: from nuclear risk to pandemics and climate change - Physics W

A brief history of the Doomsday Clock: from nuclear risk to pandemics and climate change - Physics World

We ’ re just 100 seconds from midnight on the Doomsday Clock – a metaphor created by the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists in 1947 .
The clock indicates how near we are to a humanity-ending catastrophe .
We ’ ve never been this close to midnight before .
And what ’ s more , the last time the clock was set on 23rd January 2020 , before the COVID-19 outbreak became a global pandemic .
With the year we ’ ve had so far , who would bet against the clock ticking even closer to midnight in 2021 ?
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ how is its time determined ?
The clock emerged from the concerns of the physics community immediately after the Second World War .
Many scientists and engineers had taken part in the Manhattan Project , which developed the atomic bombs that the United States dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 .
Just a few months after the war finished , two University of Chicago physicists – Eugene Rabinowitch and Hyman Goldsmith – launched the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists .
This journal aimed to encourage scientists to engage in political issues @ @ @ @ @ @ @ clear that even theoretical physics is no longer an abstract intellectual exercise , somehow divorced from the real-world .
Part of the journal ’ s remit was to consider future dangers .
Or as Rabinowitch poetically put it : “ to manage the dangerous presents of Pandora ’ s box of modern science ” .
It was a desire to communicate these risks to the public that led to the Doomsday Clock being set up in 1947 .
The idea emerged from the cover of the June edition that year , an artwork @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the first clock at seven minutes to midnight for purely aesthetic reasons , but its subsequent positions were set by Rabinowitch .
When he died in 1973 , a science and security board took over that responsibility , in consultation with the journal ’ s board of sponsors .
Over the years , the clock hands ticked further or closer to midnight depending on prevailing nuclear concerns .
Prior to this year , the closest the Doomsday Clock had been to midnight was in 1953 .
Then , it was set to 11:58 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Union carried out hydrogen-bomb tests the previous year .
Its furthest distance from midnight came in 1991 when the clock was moved back to 11:43 .
That optimism followed the end of the Cold War and the signing of the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty , which led to deep cuts in US and Soviet nuclear-weapon arsenals .
Another key change occurred in 2007 when the Doomsday Clock started factoring in the risk of climate change .
Since then it has also started considering new disruptive technologies , including artificial intelligence and gene editing @ @ @ @ @ @ @ s panel of experts meet in Chicago in November to vigorously debate whether the time should be reset – with the decision confirmed and announced in January .
The decision to set the 2020 clock so close to midnight was based on a combination of factors .
They included the continuing existence of nuclear arsenals coupled with the lapse of several major arms-control treaties , and America ’ s decision to quit the Iran nuclear deal .
Given the clock ’ s gloomy connotations , it ’ s not surprising that it has @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Commentators have accused the Bulletin of everything from inconsistency , historical pessimism , lack of clarity around its methodology , and political bias .
Though it should be noted that the clock has moved forward and back during both Democratic and Republican administrations in the US .
Whatever people think of the clock , it has consistently met its goal of triggering public debate about the role of science in society .
There ’ s no doubt the COVID-19 pandemic will play into 2021 decision .
Progress towards vaccines will surely be crucial @ @ @ @ @ @ @ US presidential elections in November .
Find out more about the Doomsday clock in the September 2020 issue of Physics World .

Video transcript
We’re just 100 seconds from midnight on the Doomsday Clock – a metaphor created by the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists in 1947.
The clock indicates how near we are to a humanity-ending catastrophe. We’ve never been this close to midnight before.
And what’s more, the last time the clock was set on 23rd January 2020, before the COVID-19 outbreak became a global pandemic. With the year we’ve had so far, who would bet against the clock ticking even closer to midnight in 2021?
But what is the Doomsday Clock and how is its time determined?
The clock emerged from the concerns of the physics community immediately after the Second World War.
Many scientists and engineers had taken part in the Manhattan Project, which developed the atomic bombs that the United States dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945.
Just a few months after the war finished, two University of Chicago physicists – Eugene Rabinowitch and Hyman Goldsmith – launched the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.
This journal aimed to encourage scientists to engage in political issues. The war had made it painfully clear that even theoretical physics is no longer an abstract intellectual exercise, somehow divorced from the real-world.
Part of the journal’s remit was to consider future dangers. Or as Rabinowitch poetically put it: “to manage the dangerous presents of Pandora’s box of modern science”.
It was a desire to communicate these risks to the public that led to the Doomsday Clock being set up in 1947.
The idea emerged from the cover of the June edition that year, an artwork created by Martyl Langsdorf. Langsdorf placed the first clock at seven minutes to midnight for purely aesthetic reasons, but its subsequent positions were set by Rabinowitch.
When he died in 1973, a science and security board took over that responsibility, in consultation with the journal’s board of sponsors.
Over the years, the clock hands ticked further or closer to midnight depending on prevailing nuclear concerns.
Prior to this year, the closest the Doomsday Clock had been to midnight was in 1953. Then, it was set to 11:58 after both the US and the Soviet Union carried out hydrogen-bomb tests the previous year.
Its furthest distance from midnight came in 1991 when the clock was moved back to 11:43. That optimism followed the end of the Cold War and the signing of the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty, which led to deep cuts in US and Soviet nuclear-weapon arsenals.
Another key change occurred in 2007 when the Doomsday Clock started factoring in the risk of climate change. Since then it has also started considering new disruptive technologies, including artificial intelligence and gene editing.
Each year, the Bulletin’s panel of experts meet in Chicago in November to vigorously debate whether the time should be reset – with the decision confirmed and announced in January.
The decision to set the 2020 clock so close to midnight was based on a combination of factors.
They included the continuing existence of nuclear arsenals coupled with the lapse of several major arms-control treaties, and America’s decision to quit the Iran nuclear deal.
Given the clock’s gloomy connotations, it’s not surprising that it has attracted some criticism over the years.
Commentators have accused the Bulletin of everything from inconsistency, historical pessimism, lack of clarity around its methodology, and political bias. Though it should be noted that the clock has moved forward and back during both Democratic and Republican administrations in the US.
Whatever people think of the clock, it has consistently met its goal of triggering public debate about the role of science in society.
There’s no doubt the COVID-19 pandemic will play into 2021 decision. Progress towards vaccines will surely be crucial, as might the tensions surrounding the US presidential elections in November.
Find out more about the Doomsday clock in the September 2020 issue of Physics World.


physicsworld--2020-09-04--Residual gas analysers: it’s the small details that deliver success in UHV/XHV systems   - Physics W

Residual gas analysers: it’s the small details that deliver success in UHV/XHV systems   - Physics World

Big science , it seems , is often about the small details – and doubly so when it comes to the ultrahigh-vacuum ( UHV ) and extreme-high-vacuum ( XHV ) systems that play a core enabling role in large-scale research facilities such as the Large Hadron Collider ( LHC ) at CERN , the European Spallation Source ( ESS ) in Sweden , and the ITER nuclear fusion reactor in France .
Achieving and maintaining UHV/XHV conditions at scale – broadly the pressure regime from 10−7 mbar through 10−12 mbar and lower – is a complex engineering challenge that would @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , real-time diagnostic capabilities of compact and robust quadrupole mass spectrometers known as residual gas analysers ( RGAs ) .
These workhorse instruments effectively “ police ” the UHV/XHV environment at a granular level – ensuring safe and reliable operation of large-scale research facilities by monitoring vacuum quality ( detecting impurities at the sub-ppm level ) , providing in-situ leak detection and checking the integrity of vacuum seals and feed-throughs .
One of the leading suppliers of RGAs to the big-science community is UK-based manufacturer Hiden Analytical which , as well as the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ high-profile global customers with its RGA offering – among them Brookhaven National Laboratory ( BNL ) , SpaceX and NASA in the US ; the European Space Agency and the European Gravitational Observatory ; as well as the Diamond Light Source and the Culham Centre for Fusion Energy ( CCFE ) in the UK .
“ We have RGAs deployed at all these big-science sites and more , ” says Peter Hatton , managing director of Hiden .
“ Our instruments are used not only for routine UHV/XHV monitoring , but also to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ all large-scale science facilities – whether that ’ s surface analysis via secondary-ion mass spectrometry , UHV thermally programmed desorption studies or all manner of gas analysis applications.
” Hiden , for its part , has more than 35 years experience as a supplier of application-specific quadrupole mass spectrometers , including RGAs .
As such , the company ’ s in-house manufacturing model combines state-of-the-art cleaning , metrology and assembly techniques with the firmware and software needed to give its analysers the sensitivity , stability and dynamic range for diverse research and industry @ @ @ @ @ @ @ our business is a big differentiator , ” Hatton explains .
“ We listen and learn from all our customers , who gain from having personal support from the engineers directly involved in the development , manufacture and test of their product.
” A case study in this regard is the National Synchrotron Light Source II ( NSLS-II ) at BNL in Upton , New York .
Hiden was selected as a preferred supplier for NSLS-II in 2011 after extensive evaluation of its RGA product line for UHV/XHV applications – specifically the HAL @ @ @ @ @ @ @ detectable partial pressure of 5×10−14 mbar .
Since then , it ’ s been a productive relationship in terms of sales and product innovation .
For starters , the scale and complexity of projects under way at NSLS-II necessitate a networked vacuum diagnostics capability and , all told , there are now more than 100 Hiden RGAs integrated with the laboratory ’ s central control systems via EPICS software drivers .
“ Supplying projects like NSLS-II also requires full cognisance of some pretty harsh operating environments , ” adds Hatton .
“ With @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a ‘ radiation-hard ’ RGA ( the HAL 101X ) that can operate with no smart electronics within 100 m of the analyser location – a tough ask given that everything is micro-controlled these days.
” In Europe , meanwhile , Hiden ’ s eagerness to learn from its customers is equally prominent – perhaps most notably CERN ’ s vacuum , surfaces and coatings group .
With operational responsibility for the particle physics laboratory ’ s extensive vacuum infrastructure , this team of more than 60 scientists and engineers also manages a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ site in Geneva – approximately a quarter of those analysers being supplied by Hiden .
There are three main applications for RGAs at CERN : commissioning of UHV/XHV systems in the laboratory ’ s particle accelerators and detectors – monitoring of possible contamination or leaks , for example , between experimental runs of the LHC ; pass/fail acceptance testing of vacuum components and subsystems – collimators , magnets , pumps and the like – prior to deployment in the accelerators and detectors ; and a range of offline R & D activities , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of advanced engineering materials .
“ What we appreciate from Hiden is their responsiveness – we always get a quick answer on any after-sales issues regarding hardware or software , ” explains Sophie Meunier , senior vacuum engineer with responsibility for RGA technologies at CERN .
“ They know their products inside out , ” she adds , “ because they handle all aspects of the manufacturing and software development in-house.
” That forensic product know-how and attention to detail proved to be essential in addressing CERN ’ s stringent outgassing requirements for @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the hydrogen outgassing rate of the RGA ion source ( which must be less than 1×10−8 mbar·l/s two hours after switch-on ) .
“ The outgassing rate of the ion source is a critical success factor in RGAs destined for UHV/XHV applications , ” explains Meunier .
“ In simple terms , we want to measure the partial pressure of our UHV/XHV systems – not the outgassing of the RGA ion source.
” Achieving this figure of merit – and delivering an ion-source solution that meets CERN ’ s RGA specifications for the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ collaborative endeavour between customer and vendor .
The joint testing and optimization effort addressed the ion-source components , enhanced source geometries and evaluation of materials compatible with vacuum-firing to 900 °C .
All of which ultimately enabled Hiden to implement its own custom manufacturing set-up , pretreating RGAs with specialist cleaning , vacuum-firing and bakeout procedures prior to deployment at CERN .
That customer-centric approach also informs Hiden ’ s software development .
Consider the RGA user interface and data visualization .
Meunier and her colleagues at CERN have a requirement for the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ read-out of ion current as the primary measurand ( rather than pressure , which requires a conversion factor ) .
“ When we asked , Hiden delivered , incorporating our request into the latest version of its RGA software MASsoft Professional , ” Meunier notes .
What ’ s more , MASsoft provides additional flexibility for big-science end-users by allowing instrument control via USB 2.0 , RS232 or Ethernet data protocols .
Hardware and software innovation notwithstanding , Hiden ’ s RGAs must also measure up against another unforgiving benchmark – reliability – @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to minimize vacuum downtime and ultimately reduce their operating costs .
“ Reliability and longevity are non-negotiable , ” Hatton concludes .
“ That ’ s why , as well as a three-year warranty , all our products are supported by a lifetime application support guarantee .
Worth noting also that we continue to support the first instruments that we manufactured over 35 years ago.
” Small details , it seems , really do go a long way in big science .

Hiden Analytical’s residual gas analysers (RGAs) are a fixture in big-science laboratories all over the world. So what are the secrets of success in the ultrahigh-vacuum and extreme-high-vacuum regimes?
Made to measure: Hiden Analytical’s RGAs (centre) provide essential vacuum diagnostics for conditioning the UHV beam lines of CERN’s Large Hadron Collider (LHC), a section of which is shown above. (Courtesy: Eric Page/CERN)
Big science, it seems, is often about the small details – and doubly so when it comes to the ultrahigh-vacuum (UHV) and extreme-high-vacuum (XHV) systems that play a core enabling role in large-scale research facilities such as the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN, the European Spallation Source (ESS) in Sweden, and the ITER nuclear fusion reactor in France.
Achieving and maintaining UHV/XHV conditions at scale – broadly the pressure regime from 10−7 mbar through 10−12 mbar and lower – is a complex engineering challenge that would simply not be possible without the online, real-time diagnostic capabilities of compact and robust quadrupole mass spectrometers known as residual gas analysers (RGAs).
These workhorse instruments effectively “police” the UHV/XHV environment at a granular level – ensuring safe and reliable operation of large-scale research facilities by monitoring vacuum quality (detecting impurities at the sub-ppm level), providing in-situ leak detection and checking the integrity of vacuum seals and feed-throughs.
Vacuum versatility
One of the leading suppliers of RGAs to the big-science community is UK-based manufacturer Hiden Analytical which, as well as the aforementioned facilities, services a posse of high-profile global customers with its RGA offering – among them Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL), SpaceX and NASA in the US; the European Space Agency and the European Gravitational Observatory; as well as the Diamond Light Source and the Culham Centre for Fusion Energy (CCFE) in the UK.
“We have RGAs deployed at all these big-science sites and more,” says Peter Hatton, managing director of Hiden. “Our instruments are used not only for routine UHV/XHV monitoring, but also to support the advanced research projects that underpin all large-scale science facilities – whether that’s surface analysis via secondary-ion mass spectrometry, UHV thermally programmed desorption studies or all manner of gas analysis applications.”
Peter Hatton: “We listen and learn from all of our customers.” (Courtesy: Hiden Analytical)
Hiden, for its part, has more than 35 years experience as a supplier of application-specific quadrupole mass spectrometers, including RGAs. As such, the company’s in-house manufacturing model combines state-of-the-art cleaning, metrology and assembly techniques with the firmware and software needed to give its analysers the sensitivity, stability and dynamic range for diverse research and industry applications.
“The collaborative nature of our business is a big differentiator,” Hatton explains. “We listen and learn from all our customers, who gain from having personal support from the engineers directly involved in the development, manufacture and test of their product.”
A case study in this regard is the National Synchrotron Light Source II (NSLS-II) at BNL in Upton, New York. Hiden was selected as a preferred supplier for NSLS-II in 2011 after extensive evaluation of its RGA product line for UHV/XHV applications – specifically the HAL 201 RC, which offers a minimum detectable partial pressure of 5×10−14 mbar. Since then, it’s been a productive relationship in terms of sales and product innovation. For starters, the scale and complexity of projects under way at NSLS-II necessitate a networked vacuum diagnostics capability and, all told, there are now more than 100 Hiden RGAs integrated with the laboratory’s central control systems via EPICS software drivers.
“Supplying projects like NSLS-II also requires full cognisance of some pretty harsh operating environments,” adds Hatton. “With this in mind, we have developed a ‘radiation-hard’ RGA (the HAL 101X) that can operate with no smart electronics within 100 m of the analyser location – a tough ask given that everything is micro-controlled these days.”
Collaboration equals innovation
In Europe, meanwhile, Hiden’s eagerness to learn from its customers is equally prominent – perhaps most notably CERN’s vacuum, surfaces and coatings group. With operational responsibility for the particle physics laboratory’s extensive vacuum infrastructure, this team of more than 60 scientists and engineers also manages a network of 200+ RGAs across the CERN site in Geneva – approximately a quarter of those analysers being supplied by Hiden.
There are three main applications for RGAs at CERN: commissioning of UHV/XHV systems in the laboratory’s particle accelerators and detectors – monitoring of possible contamination or leaks, for example, between experimental runs of the LHC; pass/fail acceptance testing of vacuum components and subsystems – collimators, magnets, pumps and the like – prior to deployment in the accelerators and detectors; and a range of offline R&D activities, including low-temperature UHV/XHV characterization and desorption studies of advanced engineering materials.
“What we appreciate from Hiden is their responsiveness – we always get a quick answer on any after-sales issues regarding hardware or software,” explains Sophie Meunier, senior vacuum engineer with responsibility for RGA technologies at CERN. “They know their products inside out,” she adds, “because they handle all aspects of the manufacturing and software development in-house.”
That forensic product know-how and attention to detail proved to be essential in addressing CERN’s stringent outgassing requirements for its UHV/XHV systems – and in particular the hydrogen outgassing rate of the RGA ion source (which must be less than 1×10−8 mbar·l/s two hours after switch-on). “The outgassing rate of the ion source is a critical success factor in RGAs destined for UHV/XHV applications,” explains Meunier. “In simple terms, we want to measure the partial pressure of our UHV/XHV systems – not the outgassing of the RGA ion source.”
Achieving this figure of merit – and delivering an ion-source solution that meets CERN’s RGA specifications for the long term – was very much a collaborative endeavour between customer and vendor. The joint testing and optimization effort addressed the ion-source components, enhanced source geometries and evaluation of materials compatible with vacuum-firing to 900 °C. All of which ultimately enabled Hiden to implement its own custom manufacturing set-up, pretreating RGAs with specialist cleaning, vacuum-firing and bakeout procedures prior to deployment at CERN.
That customer-centric approach also informs Hiden’s software development. Consider the RGA user interface and data visualization. Meunier and her colleagues at CERN have a requirement for the laboratory’s RGAs to provide a read-out of ion current as the primary measurand (rather than pressure, which requires a conversion factor). “When we asked, Hiden delivered, incorporating our request into the latest version of its RGA software MASsoft Professional,” Meunier notes. What’s more, MASsoft provides additional flexibility for big-science end-users by allowing instrument control via USB 2.0, RS232 or Ethernet data protocols.
Hardware and software innovation notwithstanding, Hiden’s RGAs must also measure up against another unforgiving benchmark – reliability – if they are to enable big-science facilities to minimize vacuum downtime and ultimately reduce their operating costs. “Reliability and longevity are non-negotiable,” Hatton concludes. “That’s why, as well as a three-year warranty, all our products are supported by a lifetime application support guarantee. Worth noting also that we continue to support the first instruments that we manufactured over 35 years ago.”
Small details, it seems, really do go a long way in big science.


physicsworld--2020-09-04--Hacking a path to innovation - Physics World

Academics are often derided for their lack of entrepreneurial skills .
Partly that ’ s because the curricula and training for undergraduate and postgraduate degrees are generally designed for those continuing in academia .
Most students , however , prefer to explore other , non-academic career paths , in which the learning curve can be steep .
Even students who do PhDs with an industry focus , for example at the UK ’ s centres for doctoral training , will face unusual challenges .
With such limited exposure outside the academic bubble , what else can be done for students @ @ @ @ @ @ @ have to offer ?
What opportunities are there for students to meet and talk with people from industry and other backgrounds ?
One exciting way to address such issues , I ’ ve discovered , is for institutions to run “ hackathons ” .
These were traditionally software-based challenges in which small teams of computer programmers and software developers created software .
Those kinds of hackathons are still going strong , but they are now beginning to be used elsewhere with broader remits .
These hackathons usually run non-stop over a couple of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a variety of backgrounds including science , arts , business and design to form interdisciplinary teams .
In exposing researchers to an entrepreneurial , commercial and business environment in a very short space of time , they allow scientists to apply the skills they have developed during their degree in a different environment .
Hackathons also highlight the importance of teamwork , resilience and communication skills .
Late last year , a group of PhD students from the University of Manchester hosted the first Graphene Hackathon at the Graphene Engineering Innovation Centre .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ interdisciplinary teams , each of between four and six people , designed , prototyped and pitched a commercial product using conductive graphene inks in front of a panel for the chance to win investment and cash prizes .
The event required not only prototyping a technology that was worthy of investment but also developing business cases to outline the value of the products .
In developing the graphene-ink products , the teams faced some unexpected challenges including malfunctioning Raspberry Pis , screen-printing problems and flimsy final prototypes .
During the event , industry @ @ @ @ @ @ @ development managers and patent attorneys were on hand to advise the teams as they worked throughout the night .
The hackathon was a fantastic way for participants to apply what they had learnt and put it into practice .
I was involved with a team that created “ BackUP ” – an array of thin graphene strain sensors that can be printed onto a fabric seat cover for lorry , bus and truck drivers drivers .
It worked by monitoring the pressure on different parts of the seat in real time to indicate @ @ @ @ @ @ @ leaning on one side , for example , then it would send real-time feedback to remind them to improve their posture .
The product , which came second in the competition , was designed to increase the comfort and wellbeing of drivers and reduce the number of days they are forced to take off work due to debilitating back pain .
Events like the Graphene Hackathon foster innovation by challenging participants in a competitive environment , boosting the likelihood of conceptualizing potentially disrupting technologies .
For me , the experience highlighted the importance @ @ @ @ @ @ @ differs from the slower pace of academic research in which projects often run for months and even years .
Fail-fast is often used as a mantra within start-ups as it highlights the importance of determining the long-term viability of a product or strategy .
If something is predicted to fail , it ’ s important to turn to a new idea without wasting more precious time and resources .
Indeed , the experience allowed me to apply the skills I developed from my physics degree to a commercial setting and made me realize @ @ @ @ @ @ @ with a broader horizon .
PhD students are in a unique place to develop their research and find commercial avenues for its applications .
Hackathons can help widen the perspectives of participants , especially scientists who are looking to start spin-out companies .
The skills needed to build a successful business are not too dissimilar from the attributes needed to become a successful scientist as both stand on the foundations of perseverance , problem solving and presentation skills .
I believe hackathons could be run in many other areas of research such as @ @ @ @ @ @ @ using recycled materials , and waste recovery .
A hackathon that marries software and hardware is a particularly innovative way for early-career scientists who want to break out into industry-based roles to gain valuable first-hand experience in an emulated start-up environment .
Here ’ s to more hacks in the future .

Physics World. Members of the Institute of Physics can enjoy the full issue Taken from the September 2020 issue of. Members of the Institute of Physics can enjoy the full issue via the Physics World app
Bonnie Tsim says “hackathons” are a great way for scientists to apply their skills to the commercial world
Skilling up Bonnie Tsim and her team creating a final prototype at the Graphene Hackathon in 2019. (Courtesy: Kevin Laitak)
Academics are often derided for their lack of entrepreneurial skills. Partly that’s because the curricula and training for undergraduate and postgraduate degrees are generally designed for those continuing in academia. Most students, however, prefer to explore other, non-academic career paths, in which the learning curve can be steep. Even students who do PhDs with an industry focus, for example at the UK’s centres for doctoral training, will face unusual challenges.
With such limited exposure outside the academic bubble, what else can be done for students who are interested in what industry may have to offer? What opportunities are there for students to meet and talk with people from industry and other backgrounds? One exciting way to address such issues, I’ve discovered, is for institutions to run “hackathons”. These were traditionally software-based challenges in which small teams of computer programmers and software developers created software. Those kinds of hackathons are still going strong, but they are now beginning to be used elsewhere with broader remits.
These hackathons usually run non-stop over a couple of days and can bring together people from a variety of backgrounds including science, arts, business and design to form interdisciplinary teams. In exposing researchers to an entrepreneurial, commercial and business environment in a very short space of time, they allow scientists to apply the skills they have developed during their degree in a different environment. Hackathons also highlight the importance of teamwork, resilience and communication skills.
Late last year, a group of PhD students from the University of Manchester hosted the first Graphene Hackathon at the Graphene Engineering Innovation Centre. It was a 24-hour event where 10 interdisciplinary teams, each of between four and six people, designed, prototyped and pitched a commercial product using conductive graphene inks in front of a panel for the chance to win investment and cash prizes. The event required not only prototyping a technology that was worthy of investment but also developing business cases to outline the value of the products.
In developing the graphene-ink products, the teams faced some unexpected challenges including malfunctioning Raspberry Pis, screen-printing problems and flimsy final prototypes. During the event, industry experts such as strategy consultants, business development managers and patent attorneys were on hand to advise the teams as they worked throughout the night.
The hackathon was a fantastic way for participants to apply what they had learnt and put it into practice. I was involved with a team that created “BackUP” – an array of thin graphene strain sensors that can be printed onto a fabric seat cover for lorry, bus and truck drivers. It worked by monitoring the pressure on different parts of the seat in real time to indicate bad posture. If a driver was leaning on one side, for example, then it would send real-time feedback to remind them to improve their posture. The product, which came second in the competition, was designed to increase the comfort and wellbeing of drivers and reduce the number of days they are forced to take off work due to debilitating back pain.
Innovation and skills
Events like the Graphene Hackathon foster innovation by challenging participants in a competitive environment, boosting the likelihood of conceptualizing potentially disrupting technologies. For me, the experience highlighted the importance of a “fail-fast” approach that differs from the slower pace of academic research in which projects often run for months and even years. Fail-fast is often used as a mantra within start-ups as it highlights the importance of determining the long-term viability of a product or strategy. If something is predicted to fail, it’s important to turn to a new idea without wasting more precious time and resources.
Indeed, the experience allowed me to apply the skills I developed from my physics degree to a commercial setting and made me realize the importance of thinking about fundamental research with a broader horizon. PhD students are in a unique place to develop their research and find commercial avenues for its applications. Hackathons can help widen the perspectives of participants, especially scientists who are looking to start spin-out companies. The skills needed to build a successful business are not too dissimilar from the attributes needed to become a successful scientist as both stand on the foundations of perseverance, problem solving and presentation skills.
I believe hackathons could be run in many other areas of research such as energy harvesting from renewable resources, applications using recycled materials, and waste recovery. A hackathon that marries software and hardware is a particularly innovative way for early-career scientists who want to break out into industry-based roles to gain valuable first-hand experience in an emulated start-up environment. Here’s to more hacks in the future.


physicsworld--2020-09-04--Dust buster for the Moon, curious pattern appears on Canadian beach, borderline collider - Physics W

Dust buster for the Moon, curious pattern appears on Canadian beach, borderline collider - Physics World

The Moon is a dusty place , and this could be a real problem for future colonists .
“ Lunar dust sticks to all kinds of surfaces — spacesuits , solar panels , helmets — and it can damage equipment , ” explains Xu Wang , who is a research associate in the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics at Colorado University Boulder .
To solve this problem , Wang and colleagues in Boulder developed an electron gun that could be used to disperse lunar dust .
Why not simply use a feather duster ?
Moon dust is sticky because @ @ @ @ @ @ @ by radiation from the Sun .
Firing electrons at the dust particles gives them even more charge , causing the particles to repel each other and disperse .
The team tested their lunar “ dust buster ” in a vacuum chamber using dust particles similar to those found on the Moon .
“ It literally jumps off , ” says Benjamin Farr , who completed the work as an undergraduate student in physics at Boulder .
You can read more about the research in CU Boulder Today .
Folks on Lina Island off @ @ @ @ @ @ @ scratching their heads over a strange pattern of crushed seashells that has appeared on a local beach ( see above figure ) .
The white shells form a rectangular lattice on the beach and local councillor Billy Yovanovich says that the pattern is a natural phenomenon .
However , government scientist Richard Thomson disagrees and says that the pattern was made by humans – possibly as a prank .
So , is this a practical joke , or an example of an emergent phenomenon driven by the action of waves and currents ?
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ I ’ m with Yovanovich .
You can read more about these patterns on the CBC website .
In 1977 the Nobel laureate Leon Lederman published a tongue-in-cheek proposal to build a collider using existing subway tunnels in New York City .
The city was suffering a financial crisis and Lederman reckoned physicists could acquire the tunnels for a knock-down price .
Lederman ’ s proposal has inspired Caltech physicist David Hitlin to propose building another collider to address a hot political issue of today – building a wall on the US–Mexican border @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ” , Hitlin describes how long , straight sections of the border between the states of Sonora and Arizona could blocked by a huge linear particle collider .
Hitlin ’ s collider would be 300 km long and could achieve a centre-of-mass energy of 5 TeV .
In contrast the proposed International Linear Collider in Japan is a mere 31 km long with an initial energy of 250 GeV .
What ’ s more , with the addition of a bit or razor wire on top , Hitlin says the structure would meet @ @ @ @ @ @ @ border wall .
And what would Hitlin call the facility ?
The TrumpILC , of course .

Busted: microscope image of simulated lunar dust. (Courtesy: IMPACT lab/CU Boulder)
The Moon is a dusty place, and this could be a real problem for future colonists. “Lunar dust sticks to all kinds of surfaces — spacesuits, solar panels, helmets — and it can damage equipment,” explains Xu Wang, who is a research associate in the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics at Colorado University Boulder.
To solve this problem, Wang and colleagues in Boulder developed an electron gun that could be used to disperse lunar dust. Why not simply use a feather duster? Moon dust is sticky because it acquires electric charge by being bombarded by radiation from the Sun. Firing electrons at the dust particles gives them even more charge, causing the particles to repel each other and disperse.
The team tested their lunar “dust buster” in a vacuum chamber using dust particles similar to those found on the Moon. “It literally jumps off,” says Benjamin Farr, who completed the work as an undergraduate student in physics at Boulder. You can read more about the research in CU Boulder Today.
Folks on Lina Island off the coast of British Columbia have been scratching their heads over a strange pattern of crushed seashells that has appeared on a local beach (see above figure). The white shells form a rectangular lattice on the beach and local councillor Billy Yovanovich says that the pattern is a natural phenomenon. However, government scientist Richard Thomson disagrees and says that the pattern was made by humans – possibly as a prank.
So, is this a practical joke, or an example of an emergent phenomenon driven by the action of waves and currents? I’m no expert, but I’m with Yovanovich. You can read more about these patterns on the CBC website.
In 1977 the Nobel laureate Leon Lederman published a tongue-in-cheek proposal to build a collider using existing subway tunnels in New York City. The city was suffering a financial crisis and Lederman reckoned physicists could acquire the tunnels for a knock-down price.
Hot political issue
Lederman’s proposal has inspired Caltech physicist David Hitlin to propose building another collider to address a hot political issue of today – building a wall on the US–Mexican border. In “The Very Big ILC”, Hitlin describes how long, straight sections of the border between the states of Sonora and Arizona could blocked by a huge linear particle collider.
Hitlin’s collider would be 300 km long and could achieve a centre-of-mass energy of 5 TeV. In contrast the proposed International Linear Collider in Japan is a mere 31 km long with an initial energy of 250 GeV. What’s more, with the addition of a bit or razor wire on top, Hitlin says the structure would meet Donald Trump’s specifications for a border wall.
And what would Hitlin call the facility? The TrumpILC, of course.


physicsworld--2020-09-05--Molecule’s electronic structure is simulated on a quantum computer - Physics World

Simulating chemical processes is one of the most promising applications of quantum computers , but problems with noise have prevented nascent quantum systems from outperforming conventional computers on such tasks .
Now , researchers at Google have taken a major step towards this goal by using the most powerful quantum computer yet built to successfully implement a protocol for calculating the electronic structure of a molecule .
The results may form a blueprint for complex , useful calculations on quantum computers affected by noise .
In October 2019 , Google announced to great fanfare that its 53-qubit Sycamore computer had @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a quantum computer can solve at least one problem much faster than any conventional supercomputer .
However , Google researchers openly acknowledged that the problem Sycamore solved ( sampling the outcome of a random quantum circuit ) is easy for a quantum computer but difficult for a conventional supercomputer — and had little practical use .
What researchers would really like to do is use quantum computers to solve useful problems more effectively than possible with conventional computers : “ Sycamore is extremely programmable and , in principle , you really can run @ @ @ @ @ @ @ it ’ s a universal quantum computer , ” explains team member Ryan Babbush of Google Research , “ However , there ’ s a heavy caveat : there ’ s still noise affecting the device and as a result we ’ re still limited in the size of circuit we can implement.
” Such noise , which results from classical sources such as thermal interference , can destroy the fragile superpositions crucial to quantum computation : “ We can implement a completely universal circuit before the noise catches up and eventually destroys @ @ @ @ @ @ @ In the new research , the team used Sycamore to implement the Hartree-Fock procedure – a well-established method for calculating the electronic structure of molecular systems – and applied it to the isomerization of diazene .
This is significantly more complex than previous simulations on quantum computers , increasing the maximum number of qubits used from six to 12 .
Each successive qubit brings additional potential for noise : “ You need to perform some type of error mitigation , ” says Google Research ’ s Nick Rubin : “ The extreme way @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Google team is building towards – is to build an error corrected quantum computer , which involves turning a quantum computation into a digital quantum computation and correcting any errors that occur along the way ” .
In the absence of this , however , Rubin developed a mathematical error mitigation technique that allowed noise to be identified and discarded .
Using this technique and others , Rubin explains , the researchers could “ lower the error rates of Sycamore through calibration and then apply algorithmic error mitigation to see the – in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ” Their results matched those from a conventional computer .
Ironically , the structures predicted by the simple Hartree-Fock procedure for this molecule do not agree with measurements in the lab , but Babbush explains that the “ notable deficiencies ” of the Hartree-Fock procedure for structure prediction are irrelevant .
“ We certainly do want to build more complex simulations on top of it , ” he says , “ but even those will use the sub-routines we ’ ve developed here as a stepping stone.
” Whether or not , with @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to solve classically intractable problems in quantum chemistry on a so-called “ noisy intermediate-scale quantum computer ” ( NISQ ) using quantum error mitigation remains unknown : “ Error mitigation will only take you so far , ” says Babbush .
“ At some point all you ’ re going to be getting is noise , so it doesn ’ t matter whether you can tell whether it ’ s noise or not .
To get past that point , you really need error correction.
” “ This work pushes the needle in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ quantum chemist and computer scientist Alán Aspuru-Guzik of the University of Toronto in Canada .
“ It shows in an honest way what quantum computers can do today in a device .
Compare this to what they could do a couple of years ago , and the progress is extraordinary .
It is also worth saying that there is still a large open space for hardware improvements and clever algorithmic tricks.
” “ We ’ re in this era of NISQ , ” says quantum information scientist Barry Sanders at Canada ’ s @ @ @ @ @ @ @ what they ’ re doing now , which is to say ‘ let ’ s forget about universal quantum computing and let ’ s just push our technology to answer relevant problems.
” The research is described in Science .

Zooming in: Google’s Sycamore processor. (Courtesy: Erik Lucero/Google)
Simulating chemical processes is one of the most promising applications of quantum computers, but problems with noise have prevented nascent quantum systems from outperforming conventional computers on such tasks. Now, researchers at Google have taken a major step towards this goal by using the most powerful quantum computer yet built to successfully implement a protocol for calculating the electronic structure of a molecule. The results may form a blueprint for complex, useful calculations on quantum computers affected by noise.
In October 2019, Google announced to great fanfare that its 53-qubit Sycamore computer had achieved quantum advantage. This means that a quantum computer can solve at least one problem much faster than any conventional supercomputer. However, Google researchers openly acknowledged that the problem Sycamore solved (sampling the outcome of a random quantum circuit) is easy for a quantum computer but difficult for a conventional supercomputer — and had little practical use.
What researchers would really like to do is use quantum computers to solve useful problems more effectively than possible with conventional computers: “Sycamore is extremely programmable and, in principle, you really can run any algorithm on it…In this sense, it’s a universal quantum computer,” explains team member Ryan Babbush of Google Research, “However, there’s a heavy caveat: there’s still noise affecting the device and as a result we’re still limited in the size of circuit we can implement.” Such noise, which results from classical sources such as thermal interference, can destroy the fragile superpositions crucial to quantum computation: “We can implement a completely universal circuit before the noise catches up and eventually destroys the computation,” says Babbush.
Hartree-Fock procedure
In the new research, the team used Sycamore to implement the Hartree-Fock procedure – a well-established method for calculating the electronic structure of molecular systems – and applied it to the isomerization of diazene. This is significantly more complex than previous simulations on quantum computers, increasing the maximum number of qubits used from six to 12.
Each successive qubit brings additional potential for noise: “You need to perform some type of error mitigation,” says Google Research’s Nick Rubin: “The extreme way – and this is something that the Google team is building towards – is to build an error corrected quantum computer, which involves turning a quantum computation into a digital quantum computation and correcting any errors that occur along the way”.
In the absence of this, however, Rubin developed a mathematical error mitigation technique that allowed noise to be identified and discarded. Using this technique and others, Rubin explains, the researchers could “lower the error rates of Sycamore through calibration and then apply algorithmic error mitigation to see the – in this case – chemistry at high fidelity.” Their results matched those from a conventional computer.
More complex simulations
Ironically, the structures predicted by the simple Hartree-Fock procedure for this molecule do not agree with measurements in the lab, but Babbush explains that the “notable deficiencies” of the Hartree-Fock procedure for structure prediction are irrelevant. “We certainly do want to build more complex simulations on top of it,” he says, “but even those will use the sub-routines we’ve developed here as a stepping stone.” Whether or not, with further improvements, it will prove possible to solve classically intractable problems in quantum chemistry on a so-called “noisy intermediate-scale quantum computer” (NISQ) using quantum error mitigation remains unknown: “Error mitigation will only take you so far,” says Babbush. “At some point all you’re going to be getting is noise, so it doesn’t matter whether you can tell whether it’s noise or not. To get past that point, you really need error correction.”
“This work pushes the needle in quantum computing for chemistry,” says quantum chemist and computer scientist Alán Aspuru-Guzik of the University of Toronto in Canada. “It shows in an honest way what quantum computers can do today in a device. Compare this to what they could do a couple of years ago, and the progress is extraordinary. It is also worth saying that there is still a large open space for hardware improvements and clever algorithmic tricks.”
“We’re in this era of NISQ,” says quantum information scientist Barry Sanders at Canada’s University of Calgary. “I appreciate what they’re doing now, which is to say ‘let’s forget about universal quantum computing and let’s just push our technology to answer relevant problems.”
The research is described in Science.


physicsworld--2020-09-07--Swarming locusts inspire new collision detector - Physics World

A new collision detector that mimics the neurological mechanisms that stops swarming locusts from crashing into each other has been developed by Saptarshi Das at Pennsylvania State University and colleagues .
The team ’ s compact , low-power device could lead to a boost in efficiency for collision detection mechanisms in robots and autonomous vehicles .
Today ’ s most advanced robots can safely navigate through unfamiliar environments using algorithms that allow them to avoid collisions with surrounding objects .
These algorithms can be used for general , non-specific purposes , but this makes them computationally expensive – meaning their @ @ @ @ @ @ @ footprints .
In their study , Das ’ team investigated whether navigation could be achieved using more task-specific algorithms .
The researchers turn to the tried-and-tested method of seeking inspiration from nature .
In this case , they considered swarms of locusts , which are best known for the widespread devastation they can unleash on crops .
The insects fly in dense groups containing millions of individuals , but very rarely collide with each other .
This requires individual locusts to carry out complex mathematical calculations in real time , despite their extremely @ @ @ @ @ @ @ for their lack of brain power with a single specialized neuron named the “ lobula giant movement detector ” ( LGMD ) , which operates using two visual stimuli : the angular sizes and relative angular velocities of approaching insects .
The resulting firing frequency of the neuron peaks immediately before collision , driving the locust to change direction .
To mimic this behaviour , Das ’ team started from an equation linking the stimuli with the LGMD ’ s time-varying firing rate .
They then incorporated this mathematics into a device containing @ @ @ @ @ @ @ top of a programable memory architecture .
While the photoconductor increased the device ’ s current as objects approached , introducing an “ excitatory ” signal , the architecture underneath decreased its current when no visual stimuli were present – creating an “ inhibitory ” signal .
The signals competed with each other , with the excitatory signal winning out immediately before a collision – creating a signal spike .
Like the LGMD , the team ’ s device consumes a tiny amount of energy ( just a few nanojoules ) and occupies @ @ @ @ @ @ @ µm .
At the same time , it can identify potential collisions from a variety of objects , approaching at a range of different speeds with an efficiency that is lacking in current general-purpose devices .
Das and colleagues now hope to extend the responses of their device beyond head-on collisions , and to incorporate multi-pixel detectors for predicting collisions in 3D .
Through these improvements , their technology could be an important step towards safe , affordable autonomous vehicles , and robotics applications including manufacturing and medical surgery .
The detector is @ @ @ @ @

Collision avoidance: mimicking a neuron in locusts has allowed researchers to create a new collision avoidance system. (Courtesy: Jennifer M McCann/Penn State)
A new collision detector that mimics the neurological mechanisms that stops swarming locusts from crashing into each other has been developed by Saptarshi Das at Pennsylvania State University and colleagues. The team’s compact, low-power device could lead to a boost in efficiency for collision detection mechanisms in robots and autonomous vehicles.
Today’s most advanced robots can safely navigate through unfamiliar environments using algorithms that allow them to avoid collisions with surrounding objects. These algorithms can be used for general, non-specific purposes, but this makes them computationally expensive – meaning their hardware requires large energy budgets and spatial footprints. In their study, Das’ team investigated whether navigation could be achieved using more task-specific algorithms.
The researchers turn to the tried-and-tested method of seeking inspiration from nature. In this case, they considered swarms of locusts, which are best known for the widespread devastation they can unleash on crops. The insects fly in dense groups containing millions of individuals, but very rarely collide with each other. This requires individual locusts to carry out complex mathematical calculations in real time, despite their extremely limited brain sizes.
Specialized neuron
Locusts make up for their lack of brain power with a single specialized neuron named the “lobula giant movement detector” (LGMD), which operates using two visual stimuli: the angular sizes and relative angular velocities of approaching insects. The resulting firing frequency of the neuron peaks immediately before collision, driving the locust to change direction.
To mimic this behaviour, Das’ team started from an equation linking the stimuli with the LGMD’s time-varying firing rate. They then incorporated this mathematics into a device containing a molybdenum disulphide monolayer, stacked on top of a programable memory architecture. While the photoconductor increased the device’s current as objects approached, introducing an “excitatory” signal, the architecture underneath decreased its current when no visual stimuli were present – creating an “inhibitory” signal. The signals competed with each other, with the excitatory signal winning out immediately before a collision – creating a signal spike.
Like the LGMD, the team’s device consumes a tiny amount of energy (just a few nanojoules) and occupies a modest spatial footprint of just 1×5 µm. At the same time, it can identify potential collisions from a variety of objects, approaching at a range of different speeds with an efficiency that is lacking in current general-purpose devices.
Das and colleagues now hope to extend the responses of their device beyond head-on collisions, and to incorporate multi-pixel detectors for predicting collisions in 3D. Through these improvements, their technology could be an important step towards safe, affordable autonomous vehicles, and robotics applications including manufacturing and medical surgery.
The detector is described in Nature Electronics.


physicsworld--2020-09-07--Clinical experience with the Mercury 4.0 Phantom for CT protocol optimization, including automatic e

Clinical experience with the Mercury 4.0 Phantom for CT protocol optimization, including automatic exposure control - Physics World

Task Group 233 provides new guidance for CT performance assessment and addresses the challenges inherent in established CT imaging quality metrics .
The Mercury 4.0 Phantom , designed by Dr Ehsan Samei at Duke University and commercialized by Gammex , now Sun Nuclear Corporation , assists with evaluations outlined in TG-233 .
During this webinar , Timothy Szczykutowicz , PhD , DABR , of the University of Wisconsin-Madision , Department of Medical Physics , will present on how his department uses the Mercury 4.0 Phantom for common clinical CT tasks .
You will hear about how the Mercury 4.0 Phantom @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and tube current modulation .
This webinar will enable you to understand how this new phantom lets the user check patient size for protocol optimization and proper dose management .
Timothy Szczykutowicz is an associate professor in the University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health Departments of Radiology , Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering .
His clinical and research activities include : optimizing CT scan protocols , monitoring patient dose , developing new metrics to define image quality in the clinical setting , developing protocol management methodologies , fluence field modulated @ @ @ @ @ @ @ radiology department workflow and quality metrics .
Timothy is also the author of the book The CT Handbook : Optimizing protocols for today ’ s feature-rich scanners .
He is an associate/section editor or on the board for multiple journals including : Medical Physics , Radiographics , Contemporary Diagnostic Radiology , and the Journal of Computer Assisted Tomography .

Available to watch now, Sun Nuclear Corporation explores how the Mercury 4.0 Phantom is used for common clinical CT tasks
Want to learn more on this subject? Watch now
Task Group 233 provides new guidance for CT performance assessment and addresses the challenges inherent in established CT imaging quality metrics. The Mercury 4.0 Phantom, designed by Dr Ehsan Samei at Duke University and commercialized by Gammex, now Sun Nuclear Corporation, assists with evaluations outlined in TG-233.
During this webinar, Timothy Szczykutowicz, PhD, DABR, of the University of Wisconsin-Madision, Department of Medical Physics, will present on how his department uses the Mercury 4.0 Phantom for common clinical CT tasks. You will hear about how the Mercury 4.0 Phantom addresses advanced features including automatic exposure control and tube current modulation. This webinar will enable you to understand how this new phantom lets the user check patient size for protocol optimization and proper dose management.
Want to learn more on this subject? Watch now
Timothy Szczykutowicz is an associate professor in the University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health Departments of Radiology, Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering. His clinical and research activities include: optimizing CT scan protocols, monitoring patient dose, developing new metrics to define image quality in the clinical setting, developing protocol management methodologies, fluence field modulated CT, dual energy CT, and radiology department workflow and quality metrics.
Timothy is also the author of the book The CT Handbook: Optimizing protocols for today’s feature-rich scanners. He is an associate/section editor or on the board for multiple journals including: Medical Physics, Radiographics, Contemporary Diagnostic Radiology, and the Journal of Computer Assisted Tomography.


physicsworld--2020-09-07--Nobel laureates endorse Joe Biden for US president - Physics World

Over 80 US Nobel laurates have issued an open letter endorsing Democrat presidential candidate Joe Biden in the US election scheduled for 3 November .
Biden — the vice president under Barack Obama from 2009 to 2017 — will go up against president Donald Trump , who is seeking a second four-year term .
The signatories of the open letter include 26 physics laureates , 31 medicine and physiology awardees and 24 chemistry Nobel winners .
The letter – signed by 81 laureates who received their Nobel prize between 1975 and 2019 — focuses on Biden ’ s attitude to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ our nation ’ s history has there been a greater need for our leaders to appreciate the value of science in formulating public policy , ” the letter states .
“ During his long record of public service , Joe Biden has consistently demonstrated his willingness to listen to experts , his understanding of the value of international collaboration in research , and his respect for the contribution that immigrants make to the intellectual life of our country.
” One of those to sign the letter is Barry Barish , who shared the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the LIGO detector .
“ I support Joe Biden because of his long record of making policy , informed by science , to deal with large , complicated issues like cancer , climate change and nuclear proliferation , ” Barish , who is at the California Institute of Technology , told CNN , adding that “ we absolutely must elect Joe with his science-based approach to successfully lead us out of the Covid-19 pandemic ” .
Nobel laureates ’ support of Democratic presidential candidates isn ’ t new .
Hillary Clinton received 70 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Barack Obama received the support of 76 in 2008 .
Carol Greider , who shared the 2009 prize in physiology or medicine for discovering the enzyme telomerase , asserted that elected leaders “ should be making decisions based on facts and science , ” adding that she “ strongly endorses ” Biden , in particular because of his “ commitment to putting public health professionals , not politicians , back in charge ” .
Democratic Representative Bill Foster of Illinois , the only physicist in Congress , organized the open letter saying it @ @ @ @ @ @ @ for the Biden campaign .
He says that “ a core group ” of laureates decided on which issues to raise in the letter .
Foster , who received the endorsement of 31 laureates when he ran for Congress in 2007 , says that when he started calling the laureates to back the intiative , “ it was like pushing at an open door ” .
He adds that “ there was a lot of enthusiasm because of the difference [ the laureates ] perceive in the scientific understanding ” between the two @ @ @ @ @ @ @ reflects the view of much of the US scientific community .
“ They recognize the harm being done by ignoring science in public policy , ” he says .
“ And it ’ s not only science ; it ’ s logic and integrity .
The scientific community wants to get to a situation in which they trust people ’ s word.
” Foster sees the COVID-19 pandemic as a factor in refocusing voters on the importance of science .
“ The only reason we ’ re in a position to develop vaccines @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ” he says .
“ This may be an opportunity for the scientific community to remind everyone about long-term investment in science .
”

Chosen one: 81 Nobel laureates have voiced their support for Joe Biden in this year’s US presidential election on 3 November. (Courtesy: Michael Stokes/CC BY 2.0)
Over 80 US Nobel laurates have issued an open letter endorsing Democrat presidential candidate Joe Biden in the US election scheduled for 3 November. Biden – the vice-president under Barack Obama from 2009 to 2017 – will go up against president Donald Trump, who is seeking a second four-year term. The signatories of the open letter include 26 physics laureates, 31 medicine and physiology awardees and 24 chemistry Nobel winners.
The letter – signed by 81 laureates who received their Nobel prizes between 1975 and 2019 – focuses on Biden’s attitude to science. “At no time in our nation’s history has there been a greater need for our leaders to appreciate the value of science in formulating public policy,” the letter states. “During his long record of public service, Joe Biden has consistently demonstrated his willingness to listen to experts, his understanding of the value of international collaboration in research, and his respect for the contribution that immigrants make to the intellectual life of our country.”
They recognize the harm being done by ignoring science in public policy Bill Foster
One of those to sign the letter is Barry Barish, who shared the 2017 physics prize for his contributions to the LIGO detector. “I support Joe Biden because of his long record of making policy, informed by science, to deal with large, complicated issues like cancer, climate change and nuclear proliferation,” Barish, who is at the California Institute of Technology, told CNN, adding that “we absolutely must elect Joe with his science-based approach to successfully lead us out of the COVID-19 pandemic”.
Facts and science
Nobel laureates’ support of Democratic presidential candidates isn’t new. Hillary Clinton received 70 such endorsements in 2016, while former president Barack Obama received the support of 76 in 2008. Carol Greider, who shared the 2009 prize in physiology or medicine for discovering the enzyme telomerase, asserted that elected leaders “should be making decisions based on facts and science,” adding that she “strongly endorses” Biden, in particular because of his “commitment to putting public health professionals, not politicians, back in charge”.
Democratic Representative Bill Foster of Illinois, the only physicist in Congress, organized the open letter saying it would be an “important” development for the Biden campaign. He says that “a core group” of laureates decided on which issues to raise in the letter. Foster, who received the endorsement of 31 laureates when he ran for Congress in 2007, says that when he started calling the laureates to back the intiative, “it was like pushing at an open door”. He adds that “there was a lot of enthusiasm because of the difference [the laureates] perceive in the scientific understanding” between the two candidates.
Foster believes that the letter reflects the view of much of the US scientific community. “They recognize the harm being done by ignoring science in public policy,” he says. “And it’s not only science; it’s logic and integrity. The scientific community wants to get to a situation in which they trust people’s word.” Foster sees the COVID-19 pandemic as a factor in refocusing voters on the importance of science. “The only reason we’re in a position to develop vaccines rapidly is decades of scientific research,” he says. “This may be an opportunity for the scientific community to remind everyone about long-term investment in science.”