wattsupwiththat--2020-11-26--Historical bias overlooks genes related to COVID-19

Genes studied based on ease of experimentation rather than relevance to disease Based on genome-wide experiments , the human body has 2,064 genes relevant to COVID-19 .
So why are researchers only studying 611 of them ?
A historical bias — which has long dictated which human genes are studied — is now affecting how biomedical researchers study COVID-19 , according to new Northwestern University research .
Although biomedical researchers know that many overlooked human genes play a role in COVID-19 , they currently do not study them .
Instead , researchers that study COVID-19 continue to focus on human @ @ @ @ @ @ @ independent of coronaviruses .
“ For understandable reasons , researchers tend to build upon existing knowledge and research tools .
They appear to select genes to study based on the ease of experimentation rather than their ultimate relevance to a disease , ” said Northwestern ’ s Thomas Stoeger , who co-led the research .
“ This means that research into COVID-19 concentrates only on a small subset of the human genes involved in the response to the virus .
Consequently , many aspects of the response of human cells toward COVID-19 remain @ @ @ @ @ @ @ genes related to COVID-19 , but we don ’ t know what they are doing in the context of COVID-19 , ” added Northwestern ’ s Luís Amaral , who co-led the study with Stoeger .
“ We didn ’ t study these genes before the pandemic , and COVID-19 does not seem to be an incentive to investigate them.
” The research will be published on Nov. 24 in the journal eLife .
Stoeger is a data science scholar at the Northwestern Institute on Complex Systems ( NICO ) and the Center @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Pathway to Independence ” award from the National Institute of Aging , Stoeger is starting a research laboratory dedicated to uncovering unstudied genes with important contributions to aging and age-related diseases .
Amaral is the Erastus O .
Haven Professor of Chemical and Biological Engineering in Northwestern ’ s McCormick School of Engineering .
Stoeger and Amaral are both members of Successful Clinical Response in Pneumonia Therapy ( SCRIPT ) Systems Biology Center.Pinpointing a historical bias This study builds on Stoeger and Amaral ’ s 2018 research , which was the first to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ popular to study than others .
In that work , they found that 30 % of all genes have never been studied and less than 20 % of genes are the subject of more than 90 % of published papers .
Despite the increasing availability of new techniques to study and characterize genes , researchers continue to study a small group of genes that scientists have studied since the 1980s .
Historically , these genes have been easier to investigate experimentally .
If an animal model has a similar gene to humans , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to study that gene .
The Northwestern team also discovered that postdoctoral fellows and Ph.D. students who focus on poorly characterized genes have a 50 % reduced chance of becoming an independent researcher .
Although the Human Genome Project — the identification and mapping of all human genes , completed in 2003 — aimed to expand the scope of scientific study beyond this small subset of genes , it has yet to fulfill this aim .
“ The bias to study the exact same human genes is very high , ” Amaral said @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the very purpose of the agencies and scientific knowledge , which is to broaden the set of things we study and understand .
We need to make a concerted effort to incentivize the study of other genes important to human health.
” Bias continues into COVID-era For the new study , Stoeger and Amaral turned to LitCOVID , a collection of research publications related to COVID-19 , curated by the National Library of Medicine .
LitCOVID tags genes mentioned in the titles , abstracts or results sections of individual publications .
Northwestern researchers @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the collection .
Then , they integrated them into a custom database along with more than 100 different biological and bibliometric databases in an effort to survey and measure all aspects of biomedical research .
Finally , they compared genes mentioned in the COVID-19 papers to COVID-19-related genes as identified by four genome-wide studies .
Stoeger and Amaral also tracked the occurrence of genes appearing in COVID-19 literature over time .
Surprisingly , they observed that studies of COVID-19 genes are becoming not more but less expansive since the onset of the pandemic @ @ @ @ @ @ @ other researchers to be aware of past biases and to explore unstudied genes .
“ Our findings have a direct implication on the long-term planning of scientific policymakers , ” Stoeger said .
“ We can point researchers toward human genes that are important for the cellular response against viruses but risk being ignored due to historically acquired biases , which are culturally reinforced.
” The study , “ Meta-Research : COVID-19 research risks ignoring important host genes due to preestablished research patterns , ” was supported by the SCRIPT Systems Biology Center @ @ @ @ @ @ @ National Science Foundation ( award number NSF 1956338 ) ; the Northwestern University Quantitative Biology Center ( award number NSF/Simons DMS-1764421 ) ; the Air Force Office of Scientific Research ( award number FA9550-19-1-0354 ) ; and the National Institute of Health ( award number NIH 1K99AG068544 ) .

Genes studied based on ease of experimentation rather than relevance to disease
NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY
Research News
Based on genome-wide experiments, the human body has 2,064 genes relevant to COVID-19. So why are researchers only studying 611 of them?
A historical bias — which has long dictated which human genes are studied — is now affecting how biomedical researchers study COVID-19, according to new Northwestern University research.
Although biomedical researchers know that many overlooked human genes play a role in COVID-19, they currently do not study them. Instead, researchers that study COVID-19 continue to focus on human genes that have already been heavily investigated independent of coronaviruses.
“For understandable reasons, researchers tend to build upon existing knowledge and research tools. They appear to select genes to study based on the ease of experimentation rather than their ultimate relevance to a disease,” said Northwestern’s Thomas Stoeger, who co-led the research. “This means that research into COVID-19 concentrates only on a small subset of the human genes involved in the response to the virus. Consequently, many aspects of the response of human cells toward COVID-19 remain not understood.”
“There are many genes related to COVID-19, but we don’t know what they are doing in the context of COVID-19,” added Northwestern’s Luís Amaral, who co-led the study with Stoeger. “We didn’t study these genes before the pandemic, and COVID-19 does not seem to be an incentive to investigate them.”
The research will be published on Nov. 24 in the journal eLife.
Stoeger is a data science scholar at the Northwestern Institute on Complex Systems (NICO) and the Center for Genetic Medicine. Through a “Pathway to Independence” award from the National Institute of Aging, Stoeger is starting a research laboratory dedicated to uncovering unstudied genes with important contributions to aging and age-related diseases. Amaral is the Erastus O. Haven Professor of Chemical and Biological Engineering in Northwestern’s McCormick School of Engineering. Stoeger and Amaral are both members of Successful Clinical Response in Pneumonia Therapy (SCRIPT) Systems Biology Center.Pinpointing a historical bias
This study builds on Stoeger and Amaral’s 2018 research, which was the first to explain why some human genes are more popular to study than others. In that work, they found that 30% of all genes have never been studied and less than 20% of genes are the subject of more than 90% of published papers.
Despite the increasing availability of new techniques to study and characterize genes, researchers continue to study a small group of genes that scientists have studied since the 1980s. Historically, these genes have been easier to investigate experimentally. If an animal model has a similar gene to humans, for example, researchers are more likely to study that gene. The Northwestern team also discovered that postdoctoral fellows and Ph.D. students who focus on poorly characterized genes have a 50% reduced chance of becoming an independent researcher.
Although the Human Genome Project — the identification and mapping of all human genes, completed in 2003 — aimed to expand the scope of scientific study beyond this small subset of genes, it has yet to fulfill this aim.
“The bias to study the exact same human genes is very high,” Amaral said. “The entire system is fighting the very purpose of the agencies and scientific knowledge, which is to broaden the set of things we study and understand. We need to make a concerted effort to incentivize the study of other genes important to human health.”Bias continues into COVID-era
For the new study, Stoeger and Amaral turned to LitCOVID, a collection of research publications related to COVID-19, curated by the National Library of Medicine. LitCOVID tags genes mentioned in the titles, abstracts or results sections of individual publications.
Northwestern researchers analyzed 10,395 published papers and pre-prints from the collection. Then, they integrated them into a custom database along with more than 100 different biological and bibliometric databases in an effort to survey and measure all aspects of biomedical research. Finally, they compared genes mentioned in the COVID-19 papers to COVID-19-related genes as identified by four genome-wide studies.
Stoeger and Amaral also tracked the occurrence of genes appearing in COVID-19 literature over time. Surprisingly, they observed that studies of COVID-19 genes are becoming not more but less expansive since the onset of the pandemic.
The team hopes its study inspires other researchers to be aware of past biases and to explore unstudied genes.
“Our findings have a direct implication on the long-term planning of scientific policymakers,” Stoeger said. “We can point researchers toward human genes that are important for the cellular response against viruses but risk being ignored due to historically acquired biases, which are culturally reinforced.”
###
The study, “Meta-Research: COVID-19 research risks ignoring important host genes due to preestablished research patterns,” was supported by the SCRIPT Systems Biology Center (award number U19AI135964); the National Science Foundation (award number NSF 1956338); the Northwestern University Quantitative Biology Center (award number NSF/Simons DMS-1764421); the Air Force Office of Scientific Research (award number FA9550-19-1-0354); and the National Institute of Health (award number NIH 1K99AG068544).
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wattsupwiththat--2020-11-26--Animal instincts could be inherited expert knowledge

In addition to studying complex human reasoning , I have been observing complex instinctive reasoning in animals for many years .
Instinctive behavior is often thought of as simple , perhaps even mindless .
I came to a very different conclusion , that an instinct is basically inherited expert knowledge .
Instinctive behavior is often very complex , involving sophisticated concepts , expert knowledge and a lot of decision making .
So I wrote up my observations and hypotheses , in the form of a four year long series of 46 short blog articles .
The blog title is Horse @ @ @ @ @ @ @ many are discussed ) .
It runs around 30,000 words so there is lots of stuff .
My approach is one I call “ robotic analysis ” which means asking what a robot would have to sense , understand , know and decide in order to do what the animal does instinctively .
This does not mean the animal ’ s behavior is robotic , far from it .
Artificial intelligence robotics tries to model intelligent behavior .
For example , developing the self driving car required a lot of study on precisely @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Knowing the difference between a pedestrian , which can move , and a mailbox which can not ( except under extreme circumstances ) .
Here are snapshots of a few of the many blog articles , to give you the flavor of the findings : A small herd of cows and their calves is threatened by dogs .
The cows do not all face the dogs .
Instead they form a defensive ring with each cow facing out .
The calves go to the middle of the ring .
Consider what is required @ @ @ @ @ @ @ threat as calling for a circle .
They have to know how to form that circle , which is far from simple , especially since some are facing away from the dogs .
The calves have to know to go to the center .
A baby bird hides under my riding mower as I approach , planning to mow .
When I sit on the mower it runs out and hides under my truck .
This baby knows when to hide , where to hide and how to hide .
It also knows @ @ @ @ @ @ @ are complex behaviors .
A bird building a nest flies long distances to specific places to get materials .
The bird must know what it wants at that point in construction and it must have already learned where the right stuff was .
Not knowing how to trot .
October 2013 Two legged critters like us can only walk forward one step at a time , but four legged folks can do it a variety of ways .
In horses one of these ways is the trot .
However , most Tennessee Walking @ @ @ @ @ @ @ they are as physically capable as other breeds that do trot , which is most of them .
Walkers lack this instinctive knowledge .
I began this research many years ago when my wife and I , avid backpackers , camped near an active beaver pond .
The beaver pair was still building their dam .
My first career was designing earth dams for the US flood control program , so the dam interested me .
I was amazed to find that it was much more sophisticated than our dams , which are @ @ @ @ @ @ @ The beaver dam was a lattice of sticks , supporting a mud and rock wall on the upstream face .
Building this complex structure is an equally complex process , including felling trees for the wood materials .
I discuss this in the December 2013 article Meet the beaver .
There is also a lot on the robotic analysis research method , as well as on the overall concept of an instinct as an unlearned body of expert knowledge .
When an expert looks at a situation that falls under their domain of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ that non-experts can not do .
In many cases instinctive behavior in animals is just like that .
Animals live complex lives that we do not understand .
Both domestic animal husbandry and wildlife management depend on how well we understand the animals we are caring for or care about .
Robotic analysis is a way to understand a lot more .
David Wojick , Ph.D. is an independent analyst working at the intersection of science , technology and policy .
For origins see For over 100 prior articles for CFACT see Available @ @ @ @ @ @

Reposted from CFACT
By David Wojick |November 24th, 2020|Environment|
In addition to studying complex human reasoning, I have been observing complex instinctive reasoning in animals for many years. Instinctive behavior is often thought of as simple, perhaps even mindless. I came to a very different conclusion, that an instinct is basically inherited expert knowledge. Instinctive behavior is often very complex, involving sophisticated concepts, expert knowledge and a lot of decision making.
So I wrote up my observations and hypotheses, in the form of a four year long series of 46 short blog articles. The blog title is Horse cognition and other critters (of which many are discussed). It runs around 30,000 words so there is lots of stuff.
My approach is one I call “robotic analysis” which means asking what a robot would have to sense, understand, know and decide in order to do what the animal does instinctively.
This does not mean the animal’s behavior is robotic, far from it. Artificial intelligence robotics tries to model intelligent behavior. For example, developing the self driving car required a lot of study on precisely what we do when we drive. Knowing the difference between a pedestrian, which can move, and a mailbox which cannot (except under extreme circumstances).
Here are snapshots of a few of the many blog articles, to give you the flavor of the findings:
The amazing cow circle. June 2015
A small herd of cows and their calves is threatened by dogs. The cows do not all face the dogs. Instead they form a defensive ring with each cow facing out. The calves go to the middle of the ring. Consider what is required. The cows have to recognize the threat as calling for a circle. They have to know how to form that circle, which is far from simple, especially since some are facing away from the dogs. The calves have to know to go to the center.
Baby behavior. May 2016
A baby bird hides under my riding mower as I approach, planning to mow. When I sit on the mower it runs out and hides under my truck. This baby knows when to hide, where to hide and how to hide. It also knows when to change hiding places. These are complex behaviors.
Instinctive learning. April 2016
A bird building a nest flies long distances to specific places to get materials. The bird must know what it wants at that point in construction and it must have already learned where the right stuff was.
Not knowing how to trot. October 2013
Two legged critters like us can only walk forward one step at a time, but four legged folks can do it a variety of ways. In horses one of these ways is the trot. However, most Tennessee Walking Houses cannot trot, even though they are as physically capable as other breeds that do trot, which is most of them. Walkers lack this instinctive knowledge.
I began this research many years ago when my wife and I, avid backpackers, camped near an active beaver pond. The beaver pair was still building their dam. My first career was designing earth dams for the US flood control program, so the dam interested me.
I was amazed to find that it was much more sophisticated than our dams, which are basically carefully prepared piles of dirt. The beaver dam was a lattice of sticks, supporting a mud and rock wall on the upstream face. Building this complex structure is an equally complex process, including felling trees for the wood materials. I discuss this in the December 2013 article Meet the beaver.
There is also a lot on the robotic analysis research method, as well as on the overall concept of an instinct as an unlearned body of expert knowledge.
When an expert looks at a situation that falls under their domain of expertise, they see and think things that non-experts cannot do. In many cases instinctive behavior in animals is just like that.
Animals live complex lives that we do not understand. Both domestic animal husbandry and wildlife management depend on how well we understand the animals we are caring for or care about. Robotic analysis is a way to understand a lot more.
Author
David Wojick, Ph.D. is an independent analyst working at the intersection of science, technology and policy. For origins see
http://www.stemed.info/engineer_tackles_confusion.html
For over 100 prior articles for CFACT see
http://www.cfact.org/author/david-wojick-ph-d/
Available for confidential research and consulting.
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wattsupwiththat--2020-11-27--UVB Activation of AMPs Production in the Skin and the Innate Respiratory Immunity

Acute viral respiratory infections , including COVID-19 , are strongly correlated with vitamin D insufficiency .
They are also strongly seasonal , peaking in the winter , when the availability of the UVB component of sunlight is low .
UVB is known for inducing production of vitamin D in the skin .
However , vitamin D supplementation has shown little or no effect in the prevention of respiratory infections in adults .
Thus , UVB light provides the immune system with essential benefits that are not produced by oral vitamin D supplements .
This paper posits that UVB light stimulates @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( AMPs ) in the skin .
These AMPs are carried by the blood to the respiratory tract and enhance innate respiratory immunity .
AMPs are also referred to as “ natural antibiotics , ” because they protect not only against microbes but also enveloped viruses , including influenza and coronaviruses .
The skin and respiratory tract surfaces play a similar role in the body – acting as a barrier between the body and the external world .
Many of the same AMPs , including cathelicidin , are produced and act in the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the intestines , and some blood cells .
Cathelicidin is carried by the blood .
This paper provides additional evidence that exposure to UVB in sunlight or artificial UVB sources , in safe amounts , depending on skin phototype ( dark skin might need 5-6 times more exposure than light skin ) , is necessary for maintaining normal innate immunity .
Vitamin D supplements can not replace UVB exposure .
Currently ( at the end of November 2020 ) , the increase in COVID-19 infections , in the northern hemisphere , matches seasonality @ @ @ @ @ @ @ among respiratory infections .
Its seasonality has been observed in both hemispheres .
The inverse correlation between sunlight UV and SARS-COV-2 positivity [ 1 ] has been reported .
The increase in COVID cases is happening slightly ahead of the regular flu season .
A significant part of the population has had less than usual sunlight exposure in the previous months , due to COVID-19 precautions .
The seasonal character of influenza has been noted for long time [ 2 ] .
This seasonality is linked to low exposure to the UVB ( @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , which results in insufficient levels of vitamin D. Among other effects , vitamin D is required for AMPs production , so the increase in the respiratory infections in winter was linked to seasonal impairment of the AMPs production [ 3 ] .
In the US , respiratory infections boom in the winter and almost disappear in the summer and the death rate is 25 % higher in the winter than in the summer [ 4 ] .
Many observational studies have shown that moderate UVB exposure led to sharp decrease in respiratory @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ] reports weekly inverse correlation between sunlight and spread of 2009 H1N1 zoonotic influenza virus ( “ swine flu ” ) .
The lack of UVB exposure and low levels of vitamin D are strongly associated with each other and with a susceptibility to respiratory infections .
The hypothesis that UVB exposure can be replaced with vitamin D supplementation , in order to maintain innate respiratory immunity , has somehow become entrenched .
This flawed belief continues to persist despite multiple studies in which oral supplementation with vitamin D has shown no or @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
Although common wisdom in mid latitudes of Europe held that moderate exposure to sunlight is beneficial [ 8 ] , such research has not been encouraged [ 9 ] .
Vitamin D is produced by the skin when it is exposed to UVB light .
It can also be also ingested with the food .
Either way , it is inactive until metabolized in the liver to 25 ( OH ) D ( 25-hydroxy-vitamin D ) .
25 ( OH ) D then further metabolizes to 1,25 ( OH ) D ( @ @ @ @ @ @ @ well as many other organs , including the skin and epithelial cells of the respiratory tract .
The human innate immune system responds to pathogens without the need to recognize them .
This is in contrast to the adaptive immune system , which needs to recognize the particular pathogen , before counteracting it with antigens or T-cells .
This makes AMPs critically important in the defense against novel respiratory viruses , such as SARS-CoV-2 , which are not recognized by the body .
Cathelicidins and other AMPs are the tools of the innate @ @ @ @ @ @ @ microbial membranes , and also alert the rest of the immune system to act [ 10 ] , [ 11 ] .
LL-37 ( having precursor protein hCAP18 ) is the only known human cathelicidin .
In the skin , cathelicidin serves as a chemical shield .
Cathelicidins are produced from keratinocytes [ 17 ] , in many tissues in the skin to epithelial cells of the lungs [ 12 ] .
Some blood cells also produce AMPs .
Cathelicidin production in the skin is induced by UVB ( as explained below ) @ @ @ @ @ @ @ infection [ 10 ] .
For a long time , it has been observed how rarely sunburns ( severely damaging skin and suppressing adaptive immune system ) lead to opportunistic infections .
When the skin is damaged , AMPs are produced .
Their primary role is the local anti-microbial protection of the damaged skin , but they also travel in the blood [ 13 ] and can protect respiratory tract .
LL-37 was shown to directly inhibit the influenza virus in humans [ 14 ] .
In 2005 , Mallibris et al .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ exposed buttocks of eight volunteers to UVB [ 15 ] .
The study summarized the results in the title “ UVB Upregulates the Antimicrobial Protein hCAP18 mRNA in Human Skin.
” One-time exposure of a single buttock to the minimal erythema dose of UVB led to 2.3x increase of hCAP18 level in the exposed skin , within 24 hours .
This amount of UVB can not significantly increase the body ’ s vitamin D levels .
Thus , the production of extra hCAP18 was solely due to the UVB stimulation , not increased @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ] , concluded cautiously that sunlight “ activates an arm of innate immunity within the skin.
” In addition to hCPA18/LL-37 production , Zasloff suggested a few other mechanisms .
Other experiments [ 17 ] with UVB successfully induced defensins and other universal AMPs in keratinocytes .
This lead to the conclusion that UVB exposure increases local production of AMPs and boosts innate immunity [ 18 ] .
In hindsight , it is not that surprising that the skin reacts to ultraviolet irradiation similarly to how it reacts to other stimuli , such @ @ @ @ @ @ @ light might increase production of AMPs in the skin through increased local production of 1.25‐dihydroxyvitamin D from 25 ( OH ) D. Cathelicidin and other AMPs , produced in the skin , travel in the blood to other parts of the body , including the epithelial surfaces of respiratory system , boosting innate respiratory immunity .
It is also possible that UVB activates blood cells , passing through the exposed skin and capable of producing AMPs ( neutrophils , macrophages , lymphocytes , etc . )
, and they produce AMPs in other @ @ @ @ @ @ @ does not noticeably increase LL-37 levels in the blood [ 19 ] , [ 20 ] , even when it significantly increases 25 ( OH ) D levels .
[ 20 ] reported that a subgroup of the experiment subjects had ~20 % increase of LL-37 concentrations , corresponding to 200 % increase in 25 ( OH ) D concentrations in the blood following ergocalciferol supplementation .
This relation is insignificant , and might be explained by their initial deficiency of 25 ( OH ) D and/or sunlight exposure , not known the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ decrease in sickness with supplementation .
The supplementation was Vigantol – vitamin D dissolved in triglyceride .
Multiple studies from 1930s demonstrated significant improvement of respiratory immunity from taking cod liver oil [ 5 ] , which contained not only vitamin D , but also Omega-3 fatty acid , and vitamin A .
The effect of combined vitamin D / Omega-3 supplementation is a promising avenue for research .
A word of caution : some sources say that modern techniques of cod liver and other fish oil preparation remove most vitamin D. [ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ an inverse correlation between sunlight UV and COVID-19 mortality , .
This might be due of the anti-inflammatory effect of vitamin D and is out of the scope of this paper .
Exposure to UVB in sunlight or artificial UVB sources , in proper amounts and adjusted by skin phototype ( dark skin might need 5-6 times more exposure than light skin ) , is necessary for maintaining normal innate immunity .
Vitamin D supplements do not produce the same benefits or immunity as UVB exposure .
UVB stimulates production of cathelicidin and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ blood cells travelling through skin .
These AMPs are carried by the blood to the respiratory tract surfaces and enhance innate respiratory immunity .
No funding was provided for this work .
Thanks to AO for the contribution to this paper .
• None I bent backward in order not to say that the ozone hoax is behind the suppression of the research on the UVB health benefits .
Nevertheless , this article has been rejected by preprints.org .
• None People who wear masks outside further decrease the amount of the beneficial @ @ @ @ @ @ @ is surprisingly rarely mentioned in the discussions of the response to COVID-19 , but it is what protects most people from getting sick when from exposure to SARS-COV-2 .
[ 1 ] Tang L , Liu M , Ren B , Wu Z , Yu X , Peng C , et al .
Sunlight ultraviolet radiation dose is negatively correlated with the percent positive of SARS-CoV-2 and four other common human coronaviruses in the U.S. Sci Total Environ 2021 ; 751:141816. https : //doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141816 .
[ 3 ] Cannell JJ , Zasloff M @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Giovannucci E. On the epidemiology of influenza .
Virol J 2008 ; 5:29. https : //doi.org/10.1186/1743-422X-5-29 .
[ 4 ] Grant WB , Bhattoa HP , Boucher BJ .
Seasonal variations of U.S. mortality rates : Roles of solar ultraviolet-B doses , vitamin D , gene exp ression , and infections .
19th Vitam Workshop 2017 ; 173:5–12 .
https : //doi.org/10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.01.003 .
[ 7 ] Martineau AR , Jolliffe DA , Hooper RL , Greenberg L , Aloia JF , Bergman P , et al .
Vitamin D supplementation to prevent acute @ @ @ @ @ @ @ meta-analysis of individual participant data .
BMJ 2017 ; 356 : i6583 .
https : //doi.org/10.1136/bmj.i6583 .
[ 9 ] Lucas RM , Ponsonby A-L .
Considering the potential benefits as well as adverse effects of sun exposure : Can all the potential benefits be provided by oral vitamin D supplementation ?
UV Expo Guid Balanc Approach Health Risks Health Benefits UV Vitam Proc Int Workshop Int Comm Non-Ioniz Radiat Prot Munich Ger 17-18 Oct 2005 2006 ; 92:140–9 .
https : //doi.org/10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2006.02.019 .
[ 10 ] Schauber J , Gallo RL .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ target for control of the skin ’ s immune response ?
Exp Dermatol 2008 ; 17:633–9 .
https : //doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0625.2008.00768.x .
[ 11 ] Heilborn JD , Nilsson MF , Sørensen O , Ståhle-Bäckdahl M , Kratz G , Weber G , et al .
The Cathelicidin Anti-Microbial Peptide LL-37 is Involved in Re-Epithelialization of Human Skin Wounds and is Lacking in Chronic Ulcer Epithelium .
J Invest Dermatol 2003 ; 120:379–89 .
https : //doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1747.2003.12069.x .
[ 12 ] Bals R , Wang X , Zasloff M , Wilson JM .
The @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of the human lung where it has broad antimicrobial activity at the airway surface .
Proc Natl Acad Sci 1998 ; 95:9541. https : //doi.org/10.1073/pnas.95.16.9541 .
[ 13 ] Zanetti M. The Role of Cathelicidins in the Innate Host Defenses of Mammals .
Curr Issues Mol Biol 2005. https : //doi.org/10.21775/cimb.007.179 .
[ 14 ] Tripathi S , Tecle T , Verma A , Crouch E , White M , Hartshorn KL .
The human cathelicidin LL-37 inhibits influenza A viruses through a mechanism distinct from that of surfactant protein D or defensins @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
https : //doi.org/10.1099/vir.0.045013-0 .
[ 16 ] Zasloff M. Sunlight , Vitamin D , and the Innate Immune Defenses of the Human Skin .
J Invest Dermatol 2005 ; 125 : xvi–xvii .
https : //doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-202X.2005.23924.x .
[ 17 ] Gläser R , Navid F , Schuller W , Jantschitsch C , Harder J , Schröder JM , et al .
UV-B radiation induces the expression of antimicrobial peptides in human keratinocytes in vitro and in vivo .
J Allergy Clin Immunol 2009 ; 123:1117–23 .
https : //doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2009.01.043 .
[ 18 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Sunny Sides of UVR-Induced Immunosuppression : Photoimmunology Revisited .
J Invest Dermatol 2010 ; 130:49–54 .
https : //doi.org/10.1038/jid.2009.217 .
[ 19 ] Bergman P , Norlin A-C , Hansen S , Rekha RS , Agerberth B , Björkhem-Bergman L , et al .
Vitamin D supplementation in patients with frequent respiratory tract infections : a randomised and double-blind intervention study .
BMJ Open 2012 ; 2 : e001663 .
https : //doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2012-001663 .
[ 20 ] Bhan I , Camargo CA , Wenger J , Ricciardi C , Ye J , Borregaard @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of 25-hydroxyvitamin D and human cathelicidin in healthy adults .
J Allergy Clin Immunol 2011 ; 127:1302-1304.e1 .
https : //doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2010.12.1097 .

PREPRINT
Key Words: vitamin D, innate immunity, respiratory infections, COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, sunlight
Summary
Acute viral respiratory infections, including COVID-19, are strongly correlated with vitamin D insufficiency. They are also strongly seasonal, peaking in the winter, when the availability of the UVB component of sunlight is low. UVB is known for inducing production of vitamin D in the skin. However, vitamin D supplementation has shown little or no effect in the prevention of respiratory infections in adults. Thus, UVB light provides the immune system with essential benefits that are not produced by oral vitamin D supplements.
This paper posits that UVB light stimulates production of cathelicidin and other antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) in the skin. These AMPs are carried by the blood to the respiratory tract and enhance innate respiratory immunity. AMPs are also referred to as “natural antibiotics,” because they protect not only against microbes but also enveloped viruses, including influenza and coronaviruses.
The skin and respiratory tract surfaces play a similar role in the body – acting as a barrier between the body and the external world. Many of the same AMPs, including cathelicidin, are produced and act in the skin, the respiratory tract surface, the intestines, and some blood cells. Cathelicidin is carried by the blood.
This paper provides additional evidence that exposure to UVB in sunlight or artificial UVB sources, in safe amounts, depending on skin phototype (dark skin might need 5-6 times more exposure than light skin), is necessary for maintaining normal innate immunity. Vitamin D supplements cannot replace UVB exposure.
Intro
Infection Seasonality
Currently (at the end of November 2020), the increase in COVID-19 infections, in the northern hemisphere, matches seasonality expectations. COVID-19 is not an exception among respiratory infections. Its seasonality has been observed in both hemispheres. The inverse correlation between sunlight UV and SARS-COV-2 positivity [1] has been reported. The increase in COVID cases is happening slightly ahead of the regular flu season. A significant part of the population has had less than usual sunlight exposure in the previous months, due to COVID-19 precautions.
The seasonal character of influenza has been noted for long time [2]. This seasonality is linked to low exposure to the UVB (wavelengths 280-320 nm) component in sunlight, which results in insufficient levels of vitamin D. Among other effects, vitamin D is required for AMPs production, so the increase in the respiratory infections in winter was linked to seasonal impairment of the AMPs production [3]. In the US, respiratory infections boom in the winter and almost disappear in the summer and the death rate is 25% higher in the winter than in the summer [4]. Many observational studies have shown that moderate UVB exposure led to sharp decrease in respiratory infections [5]. [6] reports weekly inverse correlation between sunlight and spread of 2009 H1N1 zoonotic influenza virus (“swine flu”).
The lack of UVB exposure and low levels of vitamin D are strongly associated with each other and with a susceptibility to respiratory infections. The hypothesis that UVB exposure can be replaced with vitamin D supplementation, in order to maintain innate respiratory immunity, has somehow become entrenched. This flawed belief continues to persist despite multiple studies in which oral supplementation with vitamin D has shown no or little respiratory immunity benefits [7].
Although common wisdom in mid latitudes of Europe held that moderate exposure to sunlight is beneficial [8], such research has not been encouraged [9].
Vitamin D
Vitamin D 3 is produced by the skin when it is exposed to UVB light. It can also be also ingested with the food. Either way, it is inactive until metabolized in the liver to 25(OH)D (25-hydroxy-vitamin D). 25(OH)D then further metabolizes to 1,25(OH) 2 D 3 (1.25‐dihydroxyvitamin D 3 ) in the kidneys as well as many other organs, including the skin and epithelial cells of the respiratory tract.
Innate Immune System & AMPs
The human innate immune system responds to pathogens without the need to recognize them. This is in contrast to the adaptive immune system, which needs to recognize the particular pathogen, before counteracting it with antigens or T-cells.
This makes AMPs critically important in the defense against novel respiratory viruses, such as SARS-CoV-2, which are not recognized by the body. Cathelicidins and other AMPs are the tools of the innate immune response. Cathelicidins dissolve viral and microbial membranes, and also alert the rest of the immune system to act [10], [11]. LL-37 (having precursor protein hCAP18) is the only known human cathelicidin. In the skin, cathelicidin serves as a chemical shield. Cathelicidins are produced from keratinocytes [17], in many tissues in the skin to epithelial cells of the lungs [12]. Some blood cells also produce AMPs.
Cathelicidin production in the skin is induced by UVB (as explained below), or by the local injury or infection [10].
Results
For a long time, it has been observed how rarely sunburns (severely damaging skin and suppressing adaptive immune system) lead to opportunistic infections.
When the skin is damaged, AMPs are produced. Their primary role is the local anti-microbial protection of the damaged skin, but they also travel in the blood [13] and can protect respiratory tract. LL-37 was shown to directly inhibit the influenza virus in humans [14].
In 2005, Mallibris et al. conducted a study, in which they exposed buttocks of eight volunteers to UVB [15]. The study summarized the results in the title “UVB Upregulates the Antimicrobial Protein hCAP18 mRNA in Human Skin.” One-time exposure of a single buttock to the minimal erythema dose of UVB led to 2.3x increase of hCAP18 level in the exposed skin, within 24 hours. This amount of UVB cannot significantly increase the body’s vitamin D levels. Thus, the production of extra hCAP18 was solely due to the UVB stimulation, not increased vitamin D levels.
Zasloff [16], concluded cautiously that sunlight “activates an arm of innate immunity within the skin.” In addition to hCPA18/LL-37 production, Zasloff suggested a few other mechanisms.
Other experiments [17] with UVB successfully induced defensins and other universal AMPs in keratinocytes. This lead to the conclusion that UVB exposure increases local production of AMPs and boosts innate immunity [18].
In hindsight, it is not that surprising that the skin reacts to ultraviolet irradiation similarly to how it reacts to other stimuli, such as physical injury or infection.
UVB light might increase production of AMPs in the skin through increased local production of 1.25‐dihydroxyvitamin D from 25(OH)D. Cathelicidin and other AMPs, produced in the skin, travel in the blood to other parts of the body, including the epithelial surfaces of respiratory system, boosting innate respiratory immunity. It is also possible that UVB activates blood cells, passing through the exposed skin and capable of producing AMPs (neutrophils, macrophages, lymphocytes, etc.), and they produce AMPs in other tissues as well.
Vitamin D Supplementation does not noticeably increase LL-37 levels in the blood [19], [20], even when it significantly increases 25(OH)D levels.
Discussion
[20] reported that a subgroup of the experiment subjects had ~20% increase of LL-37 concentrations, corresponding to 200% increase in 25(OH)D concentrations in the blood following ergocalciferol supplementation. This relation is insignificant, and might be explained by their initial deficiency of 25(OH)D and/or sunlight exposure, not known the to researchers
[19] demonstrated a decrease in sickness with supplementation. The supplementation was Vigantol – vitamin D 3 dissolved in triglyceride. Multiple studies from 1930s demonstrated significant improvement of respiratory immunity from taking cod liver oil [5], which contained not only vitamin D, but also Omega-3 fatty acid, and vitamin A. The effect of combined vitamin D / Omega-3 supplementation is a promising avenue for research. A word of caution: some sources say that modern techniques of cod liver and other fish oil preparation remove most vitamin D.
[21] and [22] reported an inverse correlation between sunlight UV and COVID-19 mortality,. This might be due of the anti-inflammatory effect of vitamin D and is out of the scope of this paper.
Conclusions
Exposure to UVB in sunlight or artificial UVB sources, in proper amounts and adjusted by skin phototype (dark skin might need 5-6 times more exposure than light skin), is necessary for maintaining normal innate immunity. Vitamin D supplements do not produce the same benefits or immunity as UVB exposure. UVB stimulates production of cathelicidin and other AMPs in the skin and/or certain blood cells travelling through skin. These AMPs are carried by the blood to the respiratory tract surfaces and enhance innate respiratory immunity.
No Competing Interests
The author declares no competing interest.
No funding was provided for this work.
Acknowledgements
Thanks to AO for the contribution to this paper.
An author's remark
I bent backward in order not to say that the ozone hoax is behind the suppression of the research on the UVB health benefits. Nevertheless, this article has been rejected by preprints.org. People who wear masks outside further decrease the amount of the beneficial UVB. The innate immunity is surprisingly rarely mentioned in the discussions of the response to COVID-19, but it is what protects most people from getting sick when from exposure to SARS-COV-2.
References
[1] Tang L, Liu M, Ren B, Wu Z, Yu X, Peng C, et al. Sunlight ultraviolet radiation dose is negatively correlated with the percent positive of SARS-CoV-2 and four other common human coronaviruses in the U.S. Sci Total Environ 2021;751:141816. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141816.
[2] CANNELL JJ, VIETH R, UMHAU JC, HOLICK MF, GRANT WB, MADRONICH S, et al. Epidemic influenza and vitamin D. Epidemiol Infect 2006;134:1129–40. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0950268806007175.
[3] Cannell JJ, Zasloff M, Garland CF, Scragg R, Giovannucci E. On the epidemiology of influenza. Virol J 2008;5:29. https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-422X-5-29.
[4] Grant WB, Bhattoa HP, Boucher BJ. Seasonal variations of U.S. mortality rates: Roles of solar ultraviolet-B doses, vitamin D, gene exp ression, and infections. 19th Vitam Workshop 2017;173:5–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.01.003.
[5] Umhau J. Vitamin D and Influenza 2008.
[6] Slusky DJG, Zeckhauser RJ. Sunlight and Protection Against Influenza. Econ Hum Biol 2020:100942. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ehb.2020.100942.
[7] Martineau AR, Jolliffe DA, Hooper RL, Greenberg L, Aloia JF, Bergman P, et al. Vitamin D supplementation to prevent acute respiratory tract infections: systematic review and meta-analysis of individual participant data. BMJ 2017;356:i6583. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.i6583.
[8] Goldstein M, Kagan B. Benefits of tanning (Personal Communication) 1980.
[9] Lucas RM, Ponsonby A-L. Considering the potential benefits as well as adverse effects of sun exposure: Can all the potential benefits be provided by oral vitamin D supplementation? UV Expo Guid Balanc Approach Health Risks Health Benefits UV Vitam Proc Int Workshop Int Comm Non-Ioniz Radiat Prot Munich Ger 17-18 Oct 2005 2006;92:140–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2006.02.019.
[10] Schauber J, Gallo RL. The vitamin D pathway: a new target for control of the skin’s immune response? Exp Dermatol 2008;17:633–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0625.2008.00768.x.
[11] Heilborn JD, Nilsson MF, Sørensen O, Ståhle-Bäckdahl M, Kratz G, Weber G, et al. The Cathelicidin Anti-Microbial Peptide LL-37 is Involved in Re-Epithelialization of Human Skin Wounds and is Lacking in Chronic Ulcer Epithelium. J Invest Dermatol 2003;120:379–89. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1747.2003.12069.x.
[12] Bals R, Wang X, Zasloff M, Wilson JM. The peptide antibiotic LL-37/hCAP-18 is expressed in epithelia of the human lung where it has broad antimicrobial activity at the airway surface. Proc Natl Acad Sci 1998;95:9541. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.95.16.9541.
[13] Zanetti M. The Role of Cathelicidins in the Innate Host Defenses of Mammals. Curr Issues Mol Biol 2005. https://doi.org/10.21775/cimb.007.179.
[14] Tripathi S, Tecle T, Verma A, Crouch E, White M, Hartshorn KL. The human cathelicidin LL-37 inhibits influenza A viruses through a mechanism distinct from that of surfactant protein D or defensins. J Gen Virol 2013;94:40–9. https://doi.org/10.1099/vir.0.045013-0.
[15] Mallbris L, Wiegleb Edström D, Sundblad L, Granath F, Ståhle M. UVB Upregulates the Antimicrobial Protein hCAP18 mRNA in Human Skin. J Invest Dermatol 2005;125:1072–4. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-202X.2005.23872.x.
[16] Zasloff M. Sunlight, Vitamin D, and the Innate Immune Defenses of the Human Skin. J Invest Dermatol 2005;125:xvi–xvii. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-202X.2005.23924.x.
[17] Gläser R, Navid F, Schuller W, Jantschitsch C, Harder J, Schröder JM, et al. UV-B radiation induces the expression of antimicrobial peptides in human keratinocytes in vitro and in vivo. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2009;123:1117–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2009.01.043.
[18] Schwarz T. The Dark and the Sunny Sides of UVR-Induced Immunosuppression: Photoimmunology Revisited. J Invest Dermatol 2010;130:49–54. https://doi.org/10.1038/jid.2009.217.
[19] Bergman P, Norlin A-C, Hansen S, Rekha RS, Agerberth B, Björkhem-Bergman L, et al. Vitamin D 3 supplementation in patients with frequent respiratory tract infections: a randomised and double-blind intervention study. BMJ Open 2012;2:e001663. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2012-001663.
[20] Bhan I, Camargo CA, Wenger J, Ricciardi C, Ye J, Borregaard N, et al. Circulating levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D and human cathelicidin in healthy adults. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2011;127:1302-1304.e1. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2010.12.1097.
[21] Lansiaux É, Pébaÿ PP, Picard J-L, Forget J. Covid-19 and vit-d: Disease mortality negatively correlates with sunlight exposure. Spat Spatio-Temporal Epidemiol 2020;35:100362. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sste.2020.100362.
[22] Whittemore PB. COVID-19 fatalities, latitude, sunlight, and vitamin D. Am J Infect Control 2020;48:1042–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajic.2020.06.193.
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wattsupwiththat--2020-11-27--Artemis I Stacks Up

Artemis I Stacks Up

The first of 10 pieces of the twin Space Launch System ( SLS ) rocket boosters for NASA ’ s Artemis I mission was placed on the mobile launcher Saturday , Nov. 21 , 2020 , inside the Vehicle Assembly Building ( VAB ) at NASA ’ s Kennedy Space Center in Florida .
Engineers used one of five overhead cranes to lift the segment from the VAB ’ s High Bay 4 to the newly renovated High Bay 3 .
The component is the bottom section of the booster , known as the aft assembly , which house the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ steering during the rocket ’ s initial ascent .
Over several weeks , the other segments will be stacked one at a time and topped with the forward assembly .
Launching in 2021 , Artemis I will be an uncrewed test of the Orion spacecraft and SLS rocket as an integrated system ahead of crewed flights to the Moon .
Under the Artemis program , NASA aims to land the first woman and the next man on the Moon in 2024 and establish sustainable lunar exploration by the end of the decade .

From NASA
Nov. 24, 2020
The first of 10 pieces of the twin Space Launch System (SLS) rocket boosters for NASA’s Artemis I mission was placed on the mobile launcher Saturday, Nov. 21, 2020, inside the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB) at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Engineers used one of five overhead cranes to lift the segment from the VAB’s High Bay 4 to the newly renovated High Bay 3. The component is the bottom section of the booster, known as the aft assembly, which house the system that controls 70% of the steering during the rocket’s initial ascent. Over several weeks, the other segments will be stacked one at a time and topped with the forward assembly.
Launching in 2021, Artemis I will be an uncrewed test of the Orion spacecraft and SLS rocket as an integrated system ahead of crewed flights to the Moon. Under the Artemis program, NASA aims to land the first woman and the next man on the Moon in 2024 and establish sustainable lunar exploration by the end of the decade.
Image Credit: NASA/Cory HustonLast Updated: Nov. 24, 2020Editor: Yvette Smith
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wattsupwiththat--2020-11-27--An approximation to determine the source of the WOW! Signal

In this paper it is analysed which of the thousands of stars in the WOW !
Signal region could have the highest chance of being the real source of the signal , providing that it came from a star system similar to ours .
A total of 66 G and K-type stars are sampled , but only one of them is identified as a potential Sun-like star considering the available information in the Gaia Archive .
This candidate source , which is named 2MASS 19281982-2640123 , therefore becomes an ideal target to conduct observations in the search for potentially habitable @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( with estimated temperatures between 5,730 and 5,830 K ) are also found in the region , but information about their luminosity and radius is unknown .
Keywords : WOW !
Signal , SETI , Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence , interstellar radio message .
As of October 2020 , the WOW !
Signal remains the strongest candidate SETI signal .
It has been suggested that the signal was produced by hydrogen clouds from Comets 266/P Christensen and P/2008 Y2 ( Paris and Davies , 2015 ) .
However , this hypothesis has been @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the source of the signal remains unknown .
Despite the WOW !
Signal never repeated , the key aspect was its duration .
The signal lasted for 72 seconds , but since this was the maximum amount of time that the Big Ear radio telescope was able to observe , it is likely that the signal would have lasted longer .
The main problem , however , is that the signal never repeated .
Follow-up observations of the area conducted by many observatories during several years never detected another signal ( Gray and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the fact that the signal never repeated , does not necessarily discard that it was produced by extraterrestrial intelligence .
In fact , if we analyse the history of ( the few ) radio signals that humanity have sent to several targets in the hope of contacting a civilization , none of those transmissions had a long duration or were repeatedly sent for a long time .
An extraterrestrial civilization could have opted to behave in a similar manner .
Few attempts have been made to determine the exact location of the WOW @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
Despite it was detected in just one of the two feed horns of the radio telescope , the data was processed in a way that does not allow us to determine which of the feed horns actually received the signal .
The other reason that makes difficult to determine the exact source is the high uncertainly in declination : 20 arcminutes .
The following image shows an approximation of the two sections of the sky that could contain the source of the signal , each of them with thousands of stars .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ : 19h25m31s ± 10s ( for the positive horn ) , 19h28m22s ± 10s ( for the negative horn ) , and DEC : −26°57′ ± 20′ , both in J2000 equinox ( Ehman , 1997 ) .
In this article an attempt is made to create a list of the possible sources of the signal assuming that , if it was produced by an extraterrestrial civilization , their exoplanet is similar to Earth .

Alberto Caballero
In this paper it is analysed which of the thousands of stars in the WOW! Signal region could have the highest chance of being the real source of the signal, providing that it came from a star system similar to ours. A total of 66 G and K-type stars are sampled, but only one of them is identified as a potential Sun-like star considering the available information in the Gaia Archive.
This candidate source, which is named 2MASS 19281982-2640123, therefore becomes an ideal target to conduct observations in the search for potentially habitable exoplanets. Another 14 potential Sun-like stars (with estimated temperatures between 5,730 and 5,830 K) are also found in the region, but information about their luminosity and radius is unknown.
Keywords: WOW! Signal, SETI, Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence, interstellar radio message.
Introduction
As of October 2020, the WOW! Signal remains the strongest candidate SETI signal. It has been suggested that the signal was produced by hydrogen clouds from Comets 266/P Christensen and P/2008 Y2 (Paris and Davies, 2015). However, this hypothesis has been dismissed by the scientific community, and the source of the signal remains unknown.
Despite the WOW! Signal never repeated, the key aspect was its duration. The signal lasted for 72 seconds, but since this was the maximum amount of time that the Big Ear radio telescope was able to observe, it is likely that the signal would have lasted longer.
The main problem, however, is that the signal never repeated. Follow-up observations of the area conducted by many observatories during several years never detected another signal (Gray and Ellingsen, 2002). Nonetheless, the fact that the signal never repeated, does not necessarily discard that it was produced by extraterrestrial intelligence.
In fact, if we analyse the history of (the few) radio signals that humanity have sent to several targets in the hope of contacting a civilization, none of those transmissions had a long duration or were repeatedly sent for a long time. An extraterrestrial civilization could have opted to behave in a similar manner.
Few attempts have been made to determine the exact location of the WOW! Signal due to the difficulty involved. Despite it was detected in just one of the two feed horns of the radio telescope, the data was processed in a way that does not allow us to determine which of the feed horns actually received the signal.
The other reason that makes difficult to determine the exact source is the high uncertainly in declination: 20 arcminutes. The following image shows an approximation of the two sections of the sky that could contain the source of the signal, each of them with thousands of stars.
Figure 1: In red, the two regions where the WOW! Signal could have originated
Source: Pan-STARRS/DR1
The coordinates of the signal are RA: 19h25m31s ± 10s (for the positive horn), 19h28m22s ± 10s (for the negative horn), and DEC: −26°57′ ± 20′, both in J2000 equinox (Ehman, 1997). In this article an attempt is made to create a list of the possible sources of the signal assuming that, if it was produced by an extraterrestrial civilization, their exoplanet is similar to Earth.


wattsupwiththat--2020-11-28--Study: Covid-19 Mutations are NOT Helping the Virus Spread

According to study author Professor Francois Balloux , a plausible explanation for why mutant Covid-19 strains are not more infectious than the original is “ we missed the early window when it adapted to humans ” .
Coronavirus mutations do not appear to be helping it spread more rapidly , study says LONDON — A global study of more than 12,000 coronavirus mutations has found that none of them appear to have made the virus that causes Covid-19 spread more rapidly .
Researchers at University College London assessed coronavirus mutations in over 46,000 samples taken from people in 99 different @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to be neutral when it comes to speeding up the virus ’ spread .
The peer-reviewed study , published Wednesday in the Nature Communications journal , identified a total of 12,706 mutations .
Of those , 398 strains of the coronavirus were found to have occurred repeatedly and independently .
“ This raises the question why # SARSCoV2 is so well adapted for transmission in humans .
A plausible answer is that we missed the early window when it adapted to humans , ” Balloux said via Twitter on Wednesday .
The abstract @ @ @ @ @ @ @ increased transmissibility from recurrent mutations in SARS-CoV-2 COVID-19 is caused by the coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 , which jumped into the human population in late 2019 from a currently uncharacterised animal reservoir .
Due to this recent association with humans , SARS-CoV-2 may not yet be fully adapted to its human host .
This has led to speculations that SARS-CoV-2 may be evolving towards higher transmissibility .
The most plausible mutations under putative natural selection are those which have emerged repeatedly and independently ( homoplasies ) .
Here , we formally test whether any homoplasies @ @ @ @ @ @ @ associated with increased viral transmission .
To do so , we develop a phylogenetic index to quantify the relative number of descendants in sister clades with and without a specific allele .
We apply this index to a curated set of recurrent mutations identified within a dataset of 46,723 SARS-CoV-2 genomes isolated from patients worldwide .
We do not identify a single recurrent mutation in this set convincingly associated with increased viral transmission .
Instead , recurrent mutations currently in circulation appear to be evolutionary neutral and primarily induced by the human immune @ @ @ @ @ @ @ being signatures of adaptation .
At this stage we find no evidence for significantly more transmissible lineages of SARS-CoV-2 due to recurrent mutations .
In a way Professor Balloux ’ s hypothesis seems reassuring .
While it can not be ruled out that a more dangerous strain may emerge in the future , the virus has not shown tangible signs of progression into a more dangerous form to date , despite plenty of opportunities .

Coronavirus disease cells, 3D rendering. new 2019 Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) infection outbreak occurs from Wuhan, China
Guest essay by Eric Worrall
According to study author Professor Francois Balloux, a plausible explanation for why mutant Covid-19 strains are not more infectious than the original is “we missed the early window when it adapted to humans”.
Coronavirus mutations do not appear to be helping it spread more rapidly, study says PUBLISHED THU, NOV 26 20208:43 AM EST
Sam Meredith LONDON — A global study of more than 12,000 coronavirus mutations has found that none of them appear to have made the virus that causes Covid-19 spread more rapidly. Researchers at University College London assessed coronavirus mutations in over 46,000 samples taken from people in 99 different countries and concluded the mutations all appeared to be neutral when it comes to speeding up the virus’ spread. The peer-reviewed study, published Wednesday in the Nature Communications journal, identified a total of 12,706 mutations. Of those, 398 strains of the coronavirus were found to have occurred repeatedly and independently. … “This raises the question why #SARSCoV2 is so well adapted for transmission in humans. A plausible answer is that we missed the early window when it adapted to humans,” Balloux said via Twitter on Wednesday. … Read more: https://www.cnbc.com/2020/11/26/covid-mutations-do-not-appear-to-be-helping-the-virus-spread-more-rapidly-study-says.html
The abstract of the study;
No evidence for increased transmissibility from recurrent mutations in SARS-CoV-2 Lucy van Dorp, Damien Richard, Cedric C. S. Tan, Liam P. Shaw, Mislav Acman & François Balloux COVID-19 is caused by the coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, which jumped into the human population in late 2019 from a currently uncharacterised animal reservoir. Due to this recent association with humans, SARS-CoV-2 may not yet be fully adapted to its human host. This has led to speculations that SARS-CoV-2 may be evolving towards higher transmissibility. The most plausible mutations under putative natural selection are those which have emerged repeatedly and independently (homoplasies). Here, we formally test whether any homoplasies observed in SARS-CoV-2 to date are significantly associated with increased viral transmission. To do so, we develop a phylogenetic index to quantify the relative number of descendants in sister clades with and without a specific allele. We apply this index to a curated set of recurrent mutations identified within a dataset of 46,723 SARS-CoV-2 genomes isolated from patients worldwide. We do not identify a single recurrent mutation in this set convincingly associated with increased viral transmission. Instead, recurrent mutations currently in circulation appear to be evolutionary neutral and primarily induced by the human immune system via RNA editing, rather than being signatures of adaptation. At this stage we find no evidence for significantly more transmissible lineages of SARS-CoV-2 due to recurrent mutations. Read more: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-19818-2
In a way Professor Balloux’s hypothesis seems reassuring. While it cannot be ruled out that a more dangerous strain may emerge in the future, the virus has not shown tangible signs of progression into a more dangerous form to date, despite plenty of opportunities.
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wattsupwiththat--2020-11-27--Trudeau Pranked by Fake Greta

Trudeau Pranked by Fake Greta

I remain unconvinced , Rich .
The Prime Minister of Canada has a phone number that is so insecure that Russian pranksters can find out what it is ?
And he doesn ’ t have call display , or a block on all incoming calls except the ones on a list of approved callers ?
Or aides to the Prime Minister are so gullible that they will give out the number to someone claiming to be Greta Thunberg without a diligent investigation of the person asking for the number ?
Or that aides to the Prime Minister were in on @ @ @ @ @ @ @ audiotape of the call , which would of course embarrass the Prime Minister ?
Nah .
And just because reputable news organizations like the BBC went with it does not necessarily support the proposition that the story is true .
I ’ m a Canadian and this is the first I ’ ve heard of it , and I follow the national news every day .
This is such an interesting story that , if it were true , it would have made it onto the news broadcasts of our national broadcaster , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ have picked it up .
But those things didn ’ t happen .
So no , I believe it ’ s a fake .

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wattsupwiththat--2020-11-29--Claim: Climate Change Threatens Sharks

Claim: Climate Change Threatens Sharks

Sharks survived the dinosaur killer , the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event which wiped out 80 % of Earth ’ s species , but apparently our gentle 0.1C / decade global warming is a grave threat to their continued survival .
How will sharks respond to climate change ?
It might depend on where they grew up They may have been around for hundreds of millions of years — long before trees — but today sharks and rays are are among the most threatened animals in the world , largely because of overfishing and habitat loss .
Climate change adds another overarching @ @ @ @ @ @ @ will sharks cope as the ocean heats up ?
In Australia , the grim reality of climate change is already upon us : we ’ re seeing intense marine heat waves and coral bleaching events , the disappearance of entire kelp forests , mangrove forest dieback and the continent-wide shifting of marine life .
The southeast of Australia is a global change hotspot , with water temperatures rising at three to four times the global average .
In addition to rising water temperatures , oceans are becoming more acidic and the amount of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ these factors is cause for concern , but all three may also be acting together .
One may argue sharks have been around for millions of years and survived multiple climate catastrophes , including several global mass extinctions events .
To that , we say life in the anthropocene is characterised by changes in temperature and levels of carbon dioxide on a scale not seen for more than three million years .

Guest essay by Eric Worrall
Sharks survived the dinosaur killer, the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event which wiped out 80% of Earth’s species, but apparently our gentle 0.1C / decade global warming is a grave threat to their continued survival.
How will sharks respond to climate change? It might depend on where they grew up
November 27, 2020 6.01am AEDT
Culum Brown Professor, Macquarie University
Connor Gervais Connor Gervais
They may have been around for hundreds of millions of years — long before trees — but today sharks and rays are are among the most threatened animals in the world, largely because of overfishing and habitat loss.
Climate change adds another overarching stressor to the mix. So how will sharks cope as the ocean heats up?
…
An existential threat
In Australia, the grim reality of climate change is already upon us: we’re seeing intense marine heat waves and coral bleaching events, the disappearance of entire kelp forests, mangrove forest dieback and the continent-wide shifting of marine life.
The southeast of Australia is a global change hotspot, with water temperatures rising at three to four times the global average. In addition to rising water temperatures, oceans are becoming more acidic and the amount of oxygen is declining.
Any one of these factors is cause for concern, but all three may also be acting together.
One may argue sharks have been around for millions of years and survived multiple climate catastrophes, including several global mass extinctions events.
To that, we say life in the anthropocene is characterised by changes in temperature and levels of carbon dioxide on a scale not seen for more than three million years.
…


wattsupwiththat--2020-11-28--The Guardian: Climate Activists Avoid or Regret Having Children

Imagine kids growing up in a household where the eco-activist parents think their own children are an unacceptable burden on the planet .
Survey of 600 people finds some parents regret having offspring for same reason People worried about the climate crisis are deciding not to have children because of fears that their offspring would have to struggle through a climate apocalypse , according to the first academic study of the issue .
The researchers surveyed 600 people aged 27 to 45 who were already factoring climate concerns into their reproductive choices and found 96 % were very or extremely @ @ @ @ @ @ @ future children in a climate-changed world .
One 27-year-old woman said : “ I feel like I can ’ t in good conscience bring a child into this world and force them to try and survive what may be apocalyptic conditions.
” These views were based on very pessimistic assessments of the impact of global heating on the world , the researchers said .
One respondent , for example , said it would “ rival world war one in its sheer terror ” .
The research also found that some people who were @ @ @ @ @ @ @ children .
Having a child also potentially means that person going on to produce a lifetime of carbon emissions that contribute to the climate emergency , but only 60 % of those surveyed were very concerned about this carbon footprint .
“ The fears about the carbon footprint of having kids tended to be abstract and dry , ” said Matthew Schneider-Mayerson , of Yale-NUS College in Singapore , who led the study .
“ But the fears about the lives of existing or potential children were really deep and emotional .
It @ @ @ @ @ @ @ responses – a lot of people really poured their hearts out.
” The abstract of the study ; Eco-reproductive concerns in the age of climate change Media reports and public polls suggest that young people in many countries are increasingly factoring climate change into their reproductive choices , but empirical evidence about this phenomenon is lacking .
This article reviews the scholarship on this subject and discusses the results of the first empirical study focused on it , a quantitative and qualitative survey of 607 US-Americans between the ages of 27 and 45 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ being “ very ” or “ extremely concerned ” about the carbon footprint of procreation , 96.5 % of respondents were “ very ” or “ extremely concerned ” about the well-being of their existing , expected , or hypothetical children in a climate-changed world .
This was largely due to an overwhelmingly negative expectation of the future with climate change .
Younger respondents were more concerned about the climate impacts their children would experience than older respondents , and there was no statistically significant difference between the eco-reproductive concerns of male and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ are situated within scholarship about growing climate concern in the USA , the concept of the carbon footprint , the carbon footprint of procreation , individual actions in response to climate change , temporal perceptions of climate change , and expectations about the future in the USA .
Potential implications for future research in environmental psychology , environmental sociology , the sociology of reproduction , demography , and climate mitigation are discussed .
On one hand , perhaps we are seeing evolution in action ; if the only people who have kids are @ @ @ @ @ @ @ procreate , expect to see a lot more children in the future .
But my heart goes out to the few kids those radical activists decide to have despite their beliefs , and the psychological trauma some of them must be enduring .
Imagine growing up in a household where the parents literally think their children are planet wrecking wastes of space or worse .
Imagine being taught from the cradle that you are your parents ’ guilty burden on the planet .
How do the children of parents who see their very @ @ @ @ @ @ @ teach them that their inevitable future is misery and a painful fiery death , ever discover a sense of self worth and happiness ?
“ Daddy , daddy , look what I made in art class !
” .
“ That ’ s lovely , but it doesn ’ t really matter , because you ’ ll die a horrible death from global warming before you reach adulthood .
And you ’ re helping to make it happen just by being alive ” .


wattsupwiththat--2020-11-28--Regarding results of GOSAT-2 data analysis and the start of their public release

Column-averaged dry-air mole fractions of carbon dioxide , methane and carbon monoxide retrieved from satellite data Greenhouse gasses Observing SATellite-2 “ IBUKI-2 ” ( GOSAT-2 ) is a joint project promoted by the Ministry of the Environment of Japan ( MOE ) , the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency ( JAXA ) and the National Institute for Environmental Studies ( NIES ) ( hereinafter , collectively , the “ Three Parties ” ) as the successor to Greenhouse gasses Observing SATellite “ IBUKI ” ( GOSAT ) , which was launched in 2009 and is still in operation .
GOSAT-2 was @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the JAXA Tanegashima Space Center with the H-IIA Launch Vehicle No .
40 ( H-IIA F40 ) .
Later , GOSAT-2 collected the first light data with the onboard instruments : first on November 5-6 , 2018 , images with the Thermal And Near infrared Sensor for carbon Observation – Cloud and Aerosol Imager-2 ( CAI-2 ) , and on December 12-14 , 2018 , data with the Thermal And Near infrared Sensor for carbon Observation – Fourier Transform Spectrometer-2 ( FTS-2 ) , confirming that the onboard instruments were operating normally .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ , GOSAT-2 shifted its operation mode to nominal and started global observations by CAI-2 and FTS-2 .
Note that the spectral radiance data observed by CAI-2 and FTS-2 have been distributed to the public as GOSAT-2 Level 1B Product from the following website since August 5 , 2019 : Subsequently , on July 5 , 2019 , NIES released the first retrieval results of methane ( CH4 ) and carbon monoxide ( CO ) by a proxy-method ( see http : //www.nies.go.jp/whatsnew/20190705/20190705-e.html ) .
This press release provides an overview of the retrieval @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , CH4 and CO by a full physics method .
As for CO2 retrieval results , this is the first report from the GOSAT-2 observation .
The full physics method is designed to calculate light propagation in the atmosphere based on a physical model , and used for GOSAT-2 to simultaneously retrieve column-averaged dry-air mole fractions of CO2 , CH4 and CO .
Among the greenhouse-gas-monitoring satellites currently in operation , GOSAT-2 is the only satellite capable of simultaneously estimating column-averaged concentrations of these three gas species .
Figure 1 shows the global @ @ @ @ @ @ @ CO2 , CH4 and CO ( denoted by XCO2 , XCH4 and XCO , respectively ) retrieved from GOSAT-2 FTS-2 data in May 2019 using the full physics method .
As seen from the whole-atmosphere monthly mean CO2 concentration based on GOSAT observation in May 2019 that hits the record high of 409.4 ppm at that time ( see http : //www.gosat.nies.go.jp/en/recent-global-co2.html ) , the photosynthesis of mid- and high-latitude forests in the Northern Hemisphere is not fully activated as of May 2019 and the CO2 concentrations in Russia and Canada remain high @ @ @ @ @ @ @ it appears to be high in southeastern China , northern India , northern Europe/Africa and eastern North America while the concentration of CO , a gas species newly added for GOSAT-2 observation , seems high in the region from India through northern Southeast Asia to China , Central Africa , and Mexico and its leeward side .
The high CO concentrations observed are considered to be attributable to the use of fossil fuels and biofuels ( incl .
charcoal ) in the region from India to China , and to forest fires in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ shows the global distributions of column-averaged dry-air mole fractions of CO2 and CH4 retrieved from GOSAT FTS data in May 2019 using the full physics method .
As seen from the figures , the areas , where GOSAT-2 data are available , have increased significantly compared to the areas with GOSAT data , including oceans and tropical regions with frequent cloud cover .
The number of observed data from which CO2 and other gas species are successfully retrieved is 11,000 for GOSAT and 25,000 for GOSAT-2 , which is 2.3 times the number @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to the two technical improvements : the intelligent pointing mechanism–a new function introduced to FTS-2 that discriminates cloudy areas in real time using the camera installed inside the FTS-2 and automatically changes the observation point to a cloud-free area ; and the extended range of possible pointing angle in the flight ( along-track ) direction in relation to sun glint observations over the ocean .
The retrieval results of CO2 and other gases based on GOSAT-2 FTS-2 data using the full physics method have been validated with the ground-based observation data of the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ) .
By comparing FTS-2 data ( land area ) from March to May 2019 with ground-based data collected at 23 TCCON sites ( Figure 3 ) , a difference between these two data was found to be 4.1 ± 3.8 ppm ( 1.0 ± 0.9 % ) for CO2 , 5.5 ± 17.4 ppb ( 0.3 ± 0.9 % ) for CH4 , and 21.2 ± 9.0 ppb ( 22.7 ± 9.7 % ) for CO. ( All these data from GOSAT-2 are higher than the TCCON data . )
Although these @ @ @ @ @ @ @ years after its launch , they have not reached the quality level of the latest data products from GOSAT FTS ( V2.90 , -0.35 ± 2.19 ppm ( -0.1 ± 0.6 % ) for CO2 , 2.2 ± 13.4 ppb ( 0.1 ± 0.7 % ) for CH4 ) .
Further improvement in the data products from GOSAT-2 is needed .
This result by the full physics method reported in this press release has been provided together with the result by the proxy method as GOSAT-2 Level 2 Product , to researchers whose @ @ @ @ @ @ @ GOSAT Series Research Announcements ( 1st and 2nd RAs ) and research organizations that have signed collaboration agreements with MOE , JAXA , and/or NIES .
Once the related documents including validation results are ready , all these data products will be newly released to the general public from GOSAT-2 Product Archive .
We will work on further improvement in retrieval accuracy and increase in the number of retrieved data .
Furthermore , we plan to proceed with inversion analysis of net fluxes , generation of Level 4 products , and estimation of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ’ s results in a progressive manner .

Column-averaged dry-air mole fractions of carbon dioxide, methane and carbon monoxide retrieved from satellite data
NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
Science Business Announcement
IMAGE: GLOBAL DISTRIBUTIONS OF XCO2 (UPPER LEFT), XCH4 (UPPER RIGHT) AND XCO (LOWER LEFT) RETRIEVED FROM GOSAT-2 FTS-2 DATA IN MAY 2019 USING THE FULL PHYSICS METHOD (IN 2.5-DEGREE MESH)…. view more CREDIT: NIES/JAXA/MOE
Greenhouse gasses Observing SATellite-2 “IBUKI-2” (GOSAT-2) is a joint project promoted by the Ministry of the Environment of Japan (MOE), the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) and the National Institute for Environmental Studies (NIES) (hereinafter, collectively, the “Three Parties”) as the successor to Greenhouse gasses Observing SATellite “IBUKI” (GOSAT), which was launched in 2009 and is still in operation.
GOSAT-2 was launched on October 29, 2018 from the JAXA Tanegashima Space Center with the H-IIA Launch Vehicle No. 40 (H-IIA F40). Later, GOSAT-2 collected the first light data with the onboard instruments: first on November 5-6, 2018, images with the Thermal And Near infrared Sensor for carbon Observation – Cloud and Aerosol Imager-2 (CAI-2), and on December 12-14, 2018, data with the Thermal And Near infrared Sensor for carbon Observation – Fourier Transform Spectrometer-2 (FTS-2), confirming that the onboard instruments were operating normally. Further, on February 1, 2019, GOSAT-2 shifted its operation mode to nominal and started global observations by CAI-2 and FTS-2. Note that the spectral radiance data observed by CAI-2 and FTS-2 have been distributed to the public as GOSAT-2 Level 1B Product from the following website since August 5, 2019:
GOSAT-2 Product Archive, National Institute for Environmental Studies
Subsequently, on July 5, 2019, NIES released the first retrieval results of methane (CH4) and carbon monoxide (CO) by a proxy-method (see http://www.nies.go.jp/whatsnew/20190705/20190705-e.html).
This press release provides an overview of the retrieval results of carbon dioxide (CO2), CH4 and CO by a full physics method. As for CO2 retrieval results, this is the first report from the GOSAT-2 observation. The full physics method is designed to calculate light propagation in the atmosphere based on a physical model, and used for GOSAT-2 to simultaneously retrieve column-averaged dry-air mole fractions of CO2, CH4 and CO. Among the greenhouse-gas-monitoring satellites currently in operation, GOSAT-2 is the only satellite capable of simultaneously estimating column-averaged concentrations of these three gas species.
Figure 1 shows the global distributions of column-averaged dry-air mole fractions of CO2, CH4 and CO (denoted by XCO2, XCH4 and XCO, respectively) retrieved from GOSAT-2 FTS-2 data in May 2019 using the full physics method.
As seen from the whole-atmosphere monthly mean CO2 concentration based on GOSAT observation in May 2019 that hits the record high of 409.4 ppm at that time (see http://www.gosat.nies.go.jp/en/recent-global-co2.html), the photosynthesis of mid- and high-latitude forests in the Northern Hemisphere is not fully activated as of May 2019 and the CO2 concentrations in Russia and Canada remain high. In terms of CH4 concentration, it appears to be high in southeastern China, northern India, northern Europe/Africa and eastern North America while the concentration of CO, a gas species newly added for GOSAT-2 observation, seems high in the region from India through northern Southeast Asia to China, Central Africa, and Mexico and its leeward side. The high CO concentrations observed are considered to be attributable to the use of fossil fuels and biofuels (incl. charcoal) in the region from India to China, and to forest fires in Central Africa and Mexico.
Figure 2 shows the global distributions of column-averaged dry-air mole fractions of CO2 and CH4 retrieved from GOSAT FTS data in May 2019 using the full physics method. As seen from the figures, the areas, where GOSAT-2 data are available, have increased significantly compared to the areas with GOSAT data, including oceans and tropical regions with frequent cloud cover. The number of observed data from which CO2 and other gas species are successfully retrieved is 11,000 for GOSAT and 25,000 for GOSAT-2, which is 2.3 times the number of GOSAT. This increase owes mainly to the two technical improvements: the intelligent pointing mechanism–a new function introduced to FTS-2 that discriminates cloudy areas in real time using the camera installed inside the FTS-2 and automatically changes the observation point to a cloud-free area; and the extended range of possible pointing angle in the flight (along-track) direction in relation to sun glint observations over the ocean.
The retrieval results of CO2 and other gases based on GOSAT-2 FTS-2 data using the full physics method have been validated with the ground-based observation data of the Total Carbon Column Observing Network (TCCON). By comparing FTS-2 data (land area) from March to May 2019 with ground-based data collected at 23 TCCON sites (Figure 3), a difference between these two data was found to be 4.1 ± 3.8 ppm (1.0 ± 0.9%) for CO2, 5.5 ± 17.4 ppb (0.3 ± 0.9%) for CH4, and 21.2 ± 9.0 ppb (22.7 ± 9.7%) for CO. (All these data from GOSAT-2 are higher than the TCCON data.) Although these values are better than GOSAT data two years after its launch, they have not reached the quality level of the latest data products from GOSAT FTS (V2.90, -0.35 ± 2.19 ppm (-0.1 ± 0.6%) for CO2, 2.2 ± 13.4 ppb (0.1 ± 0.7%) for CH4). Further improvement in the data products from GOSAT-2 is needed.
This result by the full physics method reported in this press release has been provided together with the result by the proxy method as GOSAT-2 Level 2 Product, to researchers whose research proposals have been adopted on the GOSAT Series Research Announcements (1st and 2nd RAs) and research organizations that have signed collaboration agreements with MOE, JAXA, and/or NIES. Once the related documents including validation results are ready, all these data products will be newly released to the general public from GOSAT-2 Product Archive.
We will work on further improvement in retrieval accuracy and increase in the number of retrieved data. Furthermore, we plan to proceed with inversion analysis of net fluxes, generation of Level 4 products, and estimation of anthropogenic emissions, and succeed to GOSAT’s results in a progressive manner.
###
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wattsupwiththat--2020-11-28--ESA to Launch Space Junk Claw

ESA to Launch Space Junk Claw

The European Space Agency has announced plans to launch a space claw , which latches on to pieces of space junk , then drags the junk into a fiery death in Earth ’ s atmosphere .
My question – what is the difference between something which can destroy space junk , and a satellite killer ?
European Space Agency will launch giant claw that drags space junk to its doom No , really .
It ’ s signed a contract to make this happen in the year 2025 The European Space Agency has formalised its plan to dispose of space @ @ @ @ @ @ @ grab an old bit of rocket before dragging both the claw and the junk to a fiery doom .
The agency announced the plan in late 2019 when it revealed it had asked Swiss startup ClearSpace to fully scope the mission .
The paperwork was due in March and found favour with the ESA ’ s Ministerial Council , which has approved funding for an €86 million contract to fund the mission .
The goal remains the same : fly ClearSpace ’ s junk-grabbing claw to intercept a VESPA ( Vega Secondary Payload @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a 2013 launch of an ESA Vega rocket .

Guest essay by Eric Worrall
The European Space Agency has announced plans to launch a space claw, which latches on to pieces of space junk, then drags the junk into a fiery death in Earth’s atmosphere. My question – what is the difference between something which can destroy space junk, and a satellite killer?
European Space Agency will launch giant claw that drags space junk to its doom
No, really. It’s signed a contract to make this happen in the year 2025
Simon Sharwood, APAC Editor Fri 27 Nov 2020 // 04:01 UTC
The European Space Agency has formalised its plan to dispose of space junk by using an orbiting claw to grab an old bit of rocket before dragging both the claw and the junk to a fiery doom.
The agency announced the plan in late 2019 when it revealed it had asked Swiss startup ClearSpace to fully scope the mission.
The paperwork was due in March and found favour with the ESA’s Ministerial Council, which has approved funding for an €86 million contract to fund the mission.
The goal remains the same: fly ClearSpace’s junk-grabbing claw to intercept a VESPA (Vega Secondary Payload Adapter) that’s orbited since a 2013 launch of an ESA Vega rocket.
…