thescientist--2020-10-19--Baby Bottles Can Shed Millions of Microplastic Particles: Study

Plastic has long been a major source of pollution in landfills and in oceans , especially as they degrade into pieces smaller than 5 millimeters , termed “ microplastics.
” Experimental studies have shown that these particles and the cocktail of chemicals they carry can wreak havoc on physiology , reproduction , development , and behavior in a number of nonhuman species .
Scientists have found evidence that humans also drink , eat , and inhale tens of thousands of microplastics each year , and a study published today ( October 19 ) in Nature Food estimates that babies may @ @ @ @ @ @ @ particles per liter of baby formula prepared using a polypropylene bottle .
The researchers followed the World Health Organization ’ s protocol for preparing baby formula by sterilizing polypropylene baby bottles , air-drying them , and then pouring in water heated to 70°C .
After shaking the bottles for a minute , they filtered the liquid and analyzed it under a microscope , finding millions of microplastic particles , whether they used actual baby formula , deionized water , or tap water .
The authors of the study note that there are no @ @ @ @ @ @ @ humans , but they recommend that parents use an alternate procedure to minimize the number of microplastics their babies ingest .
The Scientist spoke with John Boland , a chemist at Trinity College Dublin and an author of the new study , about the result ’ s most pressing takeaways .
The Scientist : How did you come to study microplastics in baby bottles ?
John Boland : This project began with a study that was led by one of my colleagues , Jing Jing Wang , who was trying to develop a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ filter was supposed to capture pathogens and bacteria like E. coli .
He started this project , he built his filters , and lo and behold he found microplastics .
He analyzed and traced it back to some of the plasticware he was using .
And then we realized that polypropylene , which is very common in plasticware , was the source of the microplastics .
We saw it in kettles , in general lab plastic , in noodle cups , and in the snap-on containers that people use to store food .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ property of polypropylene .
We looked around to see [ which products polypropylene was used in most ] .
We basically stumbled upon baby bottles because polypropylene baby bottles are 82 or 83 percent of the total baby bottle market , which is a large fraction of that market .
[ More importantly , ] it turns out that a small number of manufacturers covered about 70 percent of the market .
We could just look at a small number of bottles and do a deep dive into their behavior , and we @ @ @ @ @ @ @ what the release levels were .
From the data we have on sales linked to these baby bottles , we could also do a global mapping of what [ microplastics in baby bottles ] look like .
TS : Can you tell me more about polypropylene ?
JB : Polypropylene is a polymer—it ’ s made up of single chain molecules , but lots of them , and they form kind of a spaghetti mix .
Polymers are wonderful materials , they ’ re very robust , they ’ re formable into any @ @ @ @ @ @ @ re lightweight and have enormous strength properties .
They ’ re a part of modern life .
Polypropylene accounts for 23 percent of the entire production of polymers .
There are hundreds of polymers , but polypropylene is one of the big daddies , and so it ’ s used in all food storage and food preparation polymer applications .
TS : How does your study add to our understanding of microplastics , as we create and use more and more plastic each year ?
JB : We ’ ve been talking about @ @ @ @ @ @ @ but it ’ s only the past decade or so where the public consciousness of microplastics has actually been raised .
Most people , when they think of microplastics , think about the degradation of plastic waste , where the degradation results in spillage into waterways , then streams and rivers that feed into the ocean , then these plastics are eaten by fish , and then suddenly you buy from your grocery store a fish and you find it contains plastics .
What makes our study so important is that ’ s @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a microplastic ends up on your plate , but in our example , the microplastics are generated by the utensils you ’ re using during the food preparation process .
There ’ s an immediacy to the presence of microplastics , and that ’ s a first .
There was an earlier study that looked at tea bags and found that a nylon and [ polyethylene terephthalate ] bag released a lot of particles when you make your tea .
But what we ’ re saying here is that polypropylene , which is @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
[ undergoes a ] physical degradation process that happens very easily in contact with hot water .
TS : What do we know about how microplastics can impact human health ?
JB : We don ’ t want to unduly alarm parents .
We have no idea what the implications are for microplastics in terms of human health .
What we do know is that when people study human feces , they do find microplastics , and in fact the dominant microplastic they find is polypropylene , which is 68 or 69 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ But what we ’ re saying is , based on our study , there are certain things you can do that , based on the precautionary principle , change how you go about preparing formula and sterilizing bottles in a way that we know will dramatically reduce the levels of microplastics .
Food isn ’ t perfect .
There ’ s always unintended particles that can get incorporated in food .
We know that most of these particles are excreted , and we have evidence already that polypropylene is excreted , so the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ We don ’ t know .
What we do know is that in addition to the millions of microplastic particles we found , we ’ ve also found trillions of nanoplastic particles , and the fate that those particles are much less well-defined .
People have looked at nanoparticles and how they can actually go into the body and be absorbed into the bloodstream , and it does happen .
TS : What are the recommendations your team proposes to minimize the amount of plastics in the formula ?
JB : The first @ @ @ @ @ @ @ do need to sterilize your bottles .
That requires rinsing them in boiling water , and after the sterilization process is finished you need to let them dry and cool down .
You also need to prepare sterilized water separately in a glass container or Pyrex bowl .
You can heat it any way you want , but get it to at least 70 degrees , and then in that bowl , mix your dry formula to make your baby formula .
When it cools down , transfer the formula into the cool @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , and do not adversely shake the bottle—you ’ ve already mixed it , so no need to mix it again—and then just provide it to the baby .
Mechanical shaking , even at room temperature , will release hundreds of thousands of microplastics , particularly if your bottle has been sterilized , so that there ’ s a coating of loose microplastic flakes on the surface , and you haven ’ t calved off those flakes by using cold sterilized water to remove them .
Never use a microwave to heat or @ @ @ @ @ @ @ And for parents that are breastfeeding children , it ’ s important to realize that most breastfeeding implements are also made of polypropylene .
[ We recommend sterilizing ] those as well , but then you should then rinse them with the cold [ deionized ] water in the same way .
D. Li et al.
, “ Microplastic release from the degradation of polypropylene feeding bottles during infant formula preparation , ” Nature Food , doi:10.1038/s43016-020-00171-y , 2020 .
Editor ’ s note : The interview was edited for brevity .

ABOVE: © ISTOCK.COM
DELMAINE DONSON
Plastic has long been a major source of pollution in landfills and in oceans, especially as it degrades into pieces smaller than 5 millimeters, termed “microplastics.” Experimental studies have shown that these particles and the cocktail of chemicals they carry can wreak havoc on physiology, reproduction, development, and behavior in a number of nonhuman species.
Scientists have found evidence that humans also drink, eat, and inhale tens of thousands of microplastics each year, and a study published today (October 19) in Nature Food estimates that babies may be ingesting up to 16 million microplastic particles per liter of baby formula prepared using a polypropylene bottle.
In our example, the microplastics are generated by the utensils you’re using during the food preparation process. There’s an immediacy to the presence of microplastics, and that’s a first. —John Boland, Trinity College Dublin
The researchers followed the World Health Organization’s protocol for preparing baby formula by sterilizing polypropylene baby bottles, air-drying them, and then pouring in water heated to 70°C. After shaking the bottles for a minute, they filtered the liquid and analyzed it under a microscope, finding millions of microplastic particles, whether they used actual baby formula, deionized water, or tap water.
The authors of the study note that there are no known adverse health effects of microplastics in humans, but they recommend that parents use an alternate procedure to minimize the number of microplastics their babies ingest.
The Scientist spoke with John Boland, a chemist at Trinity College Dublin and an author of the new study, about the result’s most pressing takeaways.
The Scientist: How did you come to study microplastics in baby bottles?
John Boland: This project began with a study that was led by one of my colleagues, Jing Jing Wang, who was trying to develop a [water] filter, and the filter was supposed to capture pathogens and bacteria like E. coli. He started this project, he built his filters, and lo and behold he found microplastics. He analyzed and traced it back to some of the plasticware he was using. And then we realized that polypropylene, which is very common in plasticware, was the source of the microplastics. We saw it in kettles, in general lab plastic, in noodle cups, and in the snap-on containers that people use to store food. [Shedding microplastics is] a pervasive property of polypropylene.
John Boland DETAILDESIGN & AMBER, TRINITY COLLEGE DUBLIN
We looked around to see [which products polypropylene was used in most]. We basically stumbled upon baby bottles because polypropylene baby bottles are 82 or 83 percent of the total baby bottle market, which is a large fraction of that market. [More importantly,] it turns out that a small number of manufacturers covered about 70 percent of the market. We could just look at a small number of bottles and do a deep dive into their behavior, and we would have a very good sense of what the release levels were. From the data we have on sales linked to these baby bottles, we could also do a global mapping of what [microplastics in baby bottles] look like.
TS: Can you tell me more about polypropylene?
JB: Polypropylene is a polymer—it’s made up of single chain molecules, but lots of them, and they form kind of a spaghetti mix. Polymers are wonderful materials, they’re very robust, they’re formable into any kind of shape, and they’re lightweight and have enormous strength properties. They’re a part of modern life. Polypropylene accounts for 23 percent of the entire production of polymers. There are hundreds of polymers, but polypropylene is one of the big daddies, and so it’s used in all food storage and food preparation polymer applications.
TS: How does your study add to our understanding of microplastics, as we create and use more and more plastic each year?
JB: We’ve been talking about microplastics for what seems like forever, but it’s only the past decade or so where the public consciousness of microplastics has actually been raised. Most people, when they think of microplastics, think about the degradation of plastic waste, where the degradation results in spillage into waterways, then streams and rivers that feed into the ocean, then these plastics are eaten by fish, and then suddenly you buy from your grocery store a fish and you find it contains plastics.
What makes our study so important is that’s a very indirect chain as to how a microplastic ends up on your plate, but in our example, the microplastics are generated by the utensils you’re using during the food preparation process. There’s an immediacy to the presence of microplastics, and that’s a first.
There was an earlier study that looked at tea bags and found that a nylon and [polyethylene terephthalate] bag released a lot of particles when you make your tea. But what we’re saying here is that polypropylene, which is a much more common plastic . . . [undergoes a] physical degradation process that happens very easily in contact with hot water.
TS: What do we know about how microplastics can impact human health?
JB: We don’t want to unduly alarm parents. We have no idea what the implications are for microplastics in terms of human health. What we do know is that when people study human feces, they do find microplastics, and in fact the dominant microplastic they find is polypropylene, which is 68 or 69 percent of the plastics they find.
But what we’re saying is, based on our study, there are certain things you can do that, based on the precautionary principle, change how you go about preparing formula and sterilizing bottles in a way that we know will dramatically reduce the levels of microplastics.
Food isn’t perfect. There’s always unintended particles that can get incorporated in food. We know that most of these particles are excreted, and we have evidence already that polypropylene is excreted, so the question is: Is everything excreted? We don’t know.
What we do know is that in addition to the millions of microplastic particles we found, we’ve also found trillions of nanoplastic particles, and the fate that those particles are much less well-defined. People have looked at nanoparticles and how they can actually go into the body and be absorbed into the bloodstream, and it does happen.
TS: What are the recommendations your team proposes to minimize the amount of plastics in the formula?
JB: The first step is around sterilization, and you do need to sterilize your bottles. That requires rinsing them in boiling water, and after the sterilization process is finished you need to let them dry and cool down.
You also need to prepare sterilized water separately in a glass container or Pyrex bowl. You can heat it any way you want, but get it to at least 70 degrees, and then in that bowl, mix your dry formula to make your baby formula. When it cools down, transfer the formula into the cool, sterilized bottle. Transfer it slowly, and do not adversely shake the bottle—you’ve already mixed it, so no need to mix it again—and then just provide it to the baby.
Mechanical shaking, even at room temperature, will release hundreds of thousands of microplastics, particularly if your bottle has been sterilized, so that there’s a coating of loose microplastic flakes on the surface, and you haven’t calved off those flakes by using cold sterilized water to remove them.
Never use a microwave to heat or reheat any kind of baby formula. And for parents that are breastfeeding children, it’s important to realize that most breastfeeding implements are also made of polypropylene. [We recommend sterilizing] those as well, but then you should then rinse them with the cold [deionized] water in the same way.
D. Li et al., “Microplastic release from the degradation of polypropylene feeding bottles during infant formula preparation,” Nature Food, doi:10.1038/s43016-020-00171-y, 2020.
Editor’s note: The interview was edited for brevity.


thescientist--2020-10-19--The Booming Call of De-extinction

The Booming Call of De-extinction

Questions about the lives of extinct birds now perched in natural history museums have persisted long after their passing : What did they sound like ?
What did they look like in flight ?
What ecological niche did they inhabit ?
While efforts are underway to bring back extinct mammals , such as the woolly mammoth and quagga , through cloning , artificial insemination , and a breeding process that aims to revert domesticated species to phenotypes that closely resemble their wild ancestors , birds ’ reproductive systems are not as amenable to these techniques .
So scientists are turning @ @ @ @ @ @ @ promising technique that has been used to propagate gene-edited domesticated chickens for more than a decade .
The idea is that genes from extinct birds could be replicated and introduced into host embryos ’ germlines .
While the technique works well in chickens , current cell culture media do not support wild bird primordial germ cells ( PGCs ) , the precursors to sperm and egg .
PGCs ferry genetic sequences into a host so they can be passed down through generations .
Revive & Restore , an organization weaving biotechnologies into wildlife @ @ @ @ @ @ @ into de-extinction , has made it a priority to develop such media .
It would enable the large-scale amplification of wild bird PGCs , perhaps including those of endangered birds , and offer a platform for gene modification that could help return extinct species to life .
“ Culturing is tough , ” says Marie-Cecile Van de Lavoir , the vice president of operations at Ligand Pharmaceuticals , who , in a 2006 study , advanced the technique in chickens by developing the first cultures of modified PGCs that did not differentiate away @ @ @ @ @ @ @ germline transmission .
She has several related patents in the field , and provided initial feasibility studies to Revive & Restore for its avian de-extinction effort .
“ So far I have not seen a culture system in any other species ” besides chickens that shows the desired efficacy , she says .
“ Every bird species has a different kind of culture requirement .
And we don ’ t quite yet know what those requirements are.
” Rosemary Walzem , a nutritional biochemist at Texas A & M University , along with @ @ @ @ @ @ @ researchers , is trying to fix that .
“ We ’ re starting from a place where there is at least a viable technology , and then we ’ re stepping out biologically ” to a relative of the chicken , the pinnated grouse ( Tympanuchus cupido pinnatus ) , says Walzem .
And once the cultured germ cell technique is stabilized in the pinnated grouse , the strategy would then be extended to a closely related , extinct subspecies of the grouse .
Inhabiting the East Coast scrublands and sandplains of North @ @ @ @ @ @ @ cupido cupido ) was a large grouse and a food staple until the mid-nineteenth century .
So common was the bird that naturalist Thomas Nuttall reported in 1832 that “ servants stipulated with their employers not to have heath hen brought to the table oftener than a few times a week.
” Overhunting , disease , and other pressures led to a precipitous decline in heath hen numbers .
By 1870 , only remnant populations remained on coastal islands , including at the heath hen ’ s last stand on Martha ’ s @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of a cause célèbre .
Marking an early attempt at conservation , the Heath Hen Reserve was established in 1908 ; here bird enthusiasts gathered near mating habitats called leks , or booming grounds , to witness the extravagant courtship dances of males .
The birds would stamp their feet , extend two hornlike feathers just above large , colorful air sacs on their necks , and send forth a cascade of booming sounds .
The last heath hen , known to locals as Booming Ben , was seen in 1932 .
A @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Walzem a grant from Revive & Restore to work toward de-extinction for the species .
The first step in Walzem ’ s attempt to bring back the heath hen was establishing a breeding population of pinnated grouse at Texas A & M .
The pinnated grouse has much the same morphology as its smaller , extinct cousin , and though it ’ s disappeared from much of its pre-Columbian range , it can still be found in 10 states .
After a successful transfer from a breeder to their new enclosure at Texas @ @ @ @ @ @ @ eight birds produced 66 eggs during the last mating season in 2020 .
The next step to “ propel the project forward , is to get conditions where we can grow primordial germ cells in culture , reliably , ” says Walzem .
Toward that end , PGCs are extracted from pinnated grouse donor embryos and cultured in vitro where they can be replicated .
In this state , the PGCs are readily accessible for manipulation , including genome editing that might in the future introduce genetic sequences copied from extinct species .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ a developing surrogate chicken embryo , where they migrate to the sex organs .
When the surrogate hatches and eventually reproduces , the sperm and egg of its offspring harbor the genome of the donor grouse embryo , along with any genetic edits introduced by scientists .
Walzem ’ s initial attempts at propagating and expanding pinnated grouse PGCs harvested from embryos were not successful in two different types of media .
“ There could be hundreds of molecules that need to be involved in programming a cell , ” Walzem explains .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ and to develop the best recipe for supporting them in vitro , Walzem is casting a wide net to experiment with available media conditions .
She is planning on employing analytical platforms such as metabolomics and cytokine arrays to understand why germ cells thrive and amplify in some media batches and not others .
By tracking signaling molecules called cytokines , Walzem will look for indications of the developmental stages of the cells in media to nail down at what point they continue to develop or stall out .
Together with the metabolite @ @ @ @ @ @ @ required ingredients for the optimal PGC medium .
Or , conversely , what her team might discover is what stops germ cells from thriving in the media in the first place .
“ And that may be the biggest step forward , ” to identify and remove any impediments , says Walzem .
Should the Texas A & M team succeed in culturing pinnated grouse germ cells , the next step in germline transmission is to inject these cells into the bloodstream of a host chicken embryo during a precise time window that @ @ @ @ @ @ @ on and occupy the embryo ’ s gonads , then develop normally as sperm or eggs .
But the host chicken embryo also has its own germ cells , “ and basically there ’ s a dog fight between who owns ” reproduction , says Walzem .
“ And you have to imagine that the recipient ’ s own PGCs have a home court advantage.
” For that reason , the success rate of germline transmission in chickens is only 5–8 percent , says Eszter Patakiné Várkonyi in an email to The Scientist @ @ @ @ @ @ @ National Centre for Biodiversity and Gene Conservation , Institute for Farm Animal Gene Conservation , in Hungary , she has focused her work on preserving rare chicken breeds , which are popular on small farms in Hungary and are more resistant to disease and parasites than birds in industrial poultry farming .
To boost the primordial germ cell transmission rate , Várkonyi suggests using chemically sterilized chicken embryos : Without competing native germ cells , germline transmission success rockets to as high as 99.5 percent .
Using sterilized chicken embryos to host pinnated @ @ @ @ @ @ @ is considering .
Should this cultured germ cell transmission maneuver prove successful , and the surrogate chicken reproduces with another chicken also bearing the grouse germline , its offspring will be pinnated grouse .
Walzem plans to continue collaborating with her colleagues in the field to further identify the differences between the heath hen and pinnated grouse genomes , a process already advanced by Revive & Restore through its funding of the genome sequencing of the Tympanuchus grouse genus .
When the genes specific to the heath hen are identified in sum , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ & M Institute for Genomic Medicine to join the effort and edit the corresponding genes in the pinnated grouse germ cells to confer heath hen attributes .
If what ultimately hatches in Walzem ’ s lab truly replicates the heath hen remains to be seen .
Epigenetics and the environment will also play critical roles in its conditioning and survival .
And to make any conservation effort stick , humans must be better stewards of the bird ’ s habitat .
To this end , Revive & Restore intends to maintain flocks of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the species to the protected sandplains of Massachusetts islands for continued study .
If the endeavor to de-extinct the heath hen makes it to that point , such a milestone could be 10 or more years away .

ABOVE: © ISTOCK.COM, RODIMOVA
Questions about the lives of extinct birds now perched in natural history museums have persisted long after their passing: What did they sound like? What did they look like in flight? What ecological niche did they inhabit?
While efforts are underway to bring back extinct mammals, such as the woolly mammoth and quagga, through cloning, artificial insemination, and a breeding process that aims to revert domesticated species to phenotypes that closely resemble their wild ancestors, birds’ reproductive systems are not as amenable to these techniques.
So scientists are turning to cultured germ cell transmission, a promising technique that has been used to propagate gene-edited domesticated chickens for more than a decade. The idea is that genes from extinct birds could be replicated and introduced into host embryos’ germlines.
We’re starting from a place where there is at least a viable technology, and then we’re stepping out biologically. —Rosemary Walzem, Texas A&M University
While the technique works well in chickens, current cell culture media do not support wild bird primordial germ cells (PGCs), the precursors to sperm and egg. PGCs ferry genetic sequences into a host so they can be passed down through generations. Revive & Restore, an organization weaving biotechnologies into wildlife conservation and backing much of the research into de-extinction, has made it a priority to develop such media. It would enable the large-scale amplification of wild bird PGCs, perhaps including those of endangered birds, and offer a platform for gene modification that could help return extinct species to life.
“Culturing is tough,” says Marie-Cecile Van de Lavoir, the vice president of operations at Ligand Pharmaceuticals, who, in a 2006 study, advanced the technique in chickens by developing the first cultures of modified PGCs that did not differentiate away from their phenotype and stayed dedicated to germline transmission. She has several related patents in the field, and provided initial feasibility studies to Revive & Restore for its avian de-extinction effort. “So far I have not seen a culture system in any other species” besides chickens that shows the desired efficacy, she says. “Every bird species has a different kind of culture requirement. And we don’t quite yet know what those requirements are.”
Rosemary Walzem, a nutritional biochemist at Texas A&M University, along with a small team of students and postdoctoral researchers, is trying to fix that.
“We’re starting from a place where there is at least a viable technology, and then we’re stepping out biologically” to a relative of the chicken, the pinnated grouse (Tympanuchus cupido pinnatus), says Walzem. And once the cultured germ cell technique is stabilized in the pinnated grouse, the strategy would then be extended to a closely related, extinct subspecies of the grouse.
Enter—or, rather, exit—the heath hen.
A heath hen specimen from 1896 at the University of California, Berkeley W. Roberts | Bird Collection, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley
Inhabiting the East Coast scrublands and sandplains of North America, the heath hen (T. cupido cupido) was a large grouse and a food staple until the mid-nineteenth century. So common was the bird that naturalist Thomas Nuttall reported in 1832 that “servants stipulated with their employers not to have heath hen brought to the table oftener than a few times a week.”
Overhunting, disease, and other pressures led to a precipitous decline in heath hen numbers. By 1870, only remnant populations remained on coastal islands, including at the heath hen’s last stand on Martha’s Vineyard, where the bird became somewhat of a cause célèbre. Marking an early attempt at conservation, the Heath Hen Reserve was established in 1908; here bird enthusiasts gathered near mating habitats called leks, or booming grounds, to witness the extravagant courtship dances of males. The birds would stamp their feet, extend two hornlike feathers just above large, colorful air sacs on their necks, and send forth a cascade of booming sounds. The last heath hen, known to locals as Booming Ben, was seen in 1932.
A mutual interest in modifying bird genomes landed Walzem a grant from Revive & Restore to work toward de-extinction for the species. The first step in Walzem’s attempt to bring back the heath hen was establishing a breeding population of pinnated grouse at Texas A&M. The pinnated grouse has much the same morphology as its smaller, extinct cousin, and though it’s disappeared from much of its pre-Columbian range, it can still be found in 10 states. After a successful transfer from a breeder to their new enclosure at Texas A&M, a flock of eight birds produced 66 eggs during the last mating season in 2020.
The next step to “propel the project forward, is to get conditions where we can grow primordial germ cells in culture, reliably,” says Walzem. Toward that end, PGCs are extracted from pinnated grouse donor embryos and cultured in vitro where they can be replicated. In this state, the PGCs are readily accessible for manipulation, including genome editing that might in the future introduce genetic sequences copied from extinct species. Next, the cells are injected into a developing surrogate chicken embryo, where they migrate to the sex organs. When the surrogate hatches and eventually reproduces, the sperm and egg of its offspring harbor the genome of the donor grouse embryo, along with any genetic edits introduced by scientists.
In the cultured germ cell transmission technique, PGCs are extracted from a donor and cultured in a medium where they may also be gene edited. The PGCs are then injected into recipient embryos that grow into germline chimeras. When the chimeras reproduce, the donor genomes are passed down to the offspring. Revive & Restore
Walzem’s initial attempts at propagating and expanding pinnated grouse PGCs harvested from embryos were not successful in two different types of media.
“There could be hundreds of molecules that need to be involved in programming a cell,” Walzem explains. To understand the nutritional requirements of PGCs and to develop the best recipe for supporting them in vitro, Walzem is casting a wide net to experiment with available media conditions. She is planning on employing analytical platforms such as metabolomics and cytokine arrays to understand why germ cells thrive and amplify in some media batches and not others.
By tracking signaling molecules called cytokines, Walzem will look for indications of the developmental stages of the cells in media to nail down at what point they continue to develop or stall out. Together with the metabolite profile, cytokines could further pinpoint the required ingredients for the optimal PGC medium. Or, conversely, what her team might discover is what stops germ cells from thriving in the media in the first place. “And that may be the biggest step forward,” to identify and remove any impediments, says Walzem.
Should the Texas A&M team succeed in culturing pinnated grouse germ cells, the next step in germline transmission is to inject these cells into the bloodstream of a host chicken embryo during a precise time window that would enable the cells to home in on and occupy the embryo’s gonads, then develop normally as sperm or eggs.
But the host chicken embryo also has its own germ cells, “and basically there’s a dog fight between who owns” reproduction, says Walzem. “And you have to imagine that the recipient’s own PGCs have a home court advantage.”
For that reason, the success rate of germline transmission in chickens is only 5–8 percent, says Eszter Patakiné Várkonyi in an email to The Scientist. As a senior fellow at the National Centre for Biodiversity and Gene Conservation, Institute for Farm Animal Gene Conservation, in Hungary, she has focused her work on preserving rare chicken breeds, which are popular on small farms in Hungary and are more resistant to disease and parasites than birds in industrial poultry farming. To boost the primordial germ cell transmission rate, Várkonyi suggests using chemically sterilized chicken embryos: Without competing native germ cells, germline transmission success rockets to as high as 99.5 percent. Using sterilized chicken embryos to host pinnated grouse germ cells is a tactic Walzem is considering.
Should this cultured germ cell transmission maneuver prove successful, and the surrogate chicken reproduces with another chicken also bearing the grouse germline, its offspring will be pinnated grouse.
Walzem plans to continue collaborating with her colleagues in the field to further identify the differences between the heath hen and pinnated grouse genomes, a process already advanced by Revive & Restore through its funding of the genome sequencing of the Tympanuchus grouse genus. When the genes specific to the heath hen are identified in sum, she is looking to the Texas A&M Institute for Genomic Medicine to join the effort and edit the corresponding genes in the pinnated grouse germ cells to confer heath hen attributes.
If what ultimately hatches in Walzem’s lab truly replicates the heath hen remains to be seen. Epigenetics and the environment will also play critical roles in its conditioning and survival. And to make any conservation effort stick, humans must be better stewards of the bird’s habitat. To this end, Revive & Restore intends to maintain flocks of chimeras and surrogate heath hens while reintroducing the species to the protected sandplains of Massachusetts islands for continued study. If the endeavor to de-extinct the heath hen makes it to that point, such a milestone could be 10 or more years away.


thescientist--2020-10-19--Best Practices for Environmental Detection and Monitoring of Airborne Viruses

Research suggests that SARS-CoV-2 remains viable in aerosols for at least three hours and on some surfaces for days ; @ @ @ @ @ monitoring of human pathogens is increasingly important .
In enclosed facilities such as hospitals , @ @ @ @ @ and restaurants , air samplers can be useful tools for detecting airborne viral particles .
@ @ @ @ @ require large amounts of air and time-consuming workflows that can compromise the integrity of trapped @ @ @ @ @ .
Download this white paper from Bertin to discover • None Best practices for airborne @ @ @ @ @ s Coriolis® micro air sampler • None How scientists use Bertin ’ s air samplers @ @ @ @ @ of environments - Evidence of swine influenza airborne transmission - Airborne virus detection in hospital @

Research suggests that SARS-CoV-2 remains viable in aerosols for at least three hours and on some surfaces for days; therefore, environmental detection and monitoring of human pathogens is increasingly important. In enclosed facilities such as hospitals, office buildings, schools, and restaurants, air samplers can be useful tools for detecting airborne viral particles. Yet, many air samplers require large amounts of air and time-consuming workflows that can compromise the integrity of trapped pathogens and produce unreliable results.
Download this white paper from Bertin to discover


thescientist--2020-10-19--Wheat Blast Arrives in Zambia, First Time in Africa

ABOVE : Symptoms of wheat blast were first seen in experimental plots and small-scale farms in the Mpika district of Muchinga province in northern Zambia during the 2018 rainy season .
BATISEBA TEMBO It could have been blown in by wind or transported by infected crop residue and maybe seeds—the exact mode of introduction remains debated .
But the evidence for the presence of wheat blast is indisputable : the devastating fungal pathogen is now in Zambia , its first appearance in Africa .
“ The detection of the disease in Africa is alarming , ” Tarekegn Terefe , a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Agriculture Research Council - Small Grain Institute , tells The Scientist .
The disease is so deadly it can cause yield losses of more than 70 percent on susceptible cultivars , he says .
“ The detection of the disease in Zambia puts southern African wheat-producing countries—South Africa , Zimbabwe , and Malawi—at high risk , ” Terefe explains .
Previous studies have documented the occurrence of similar wheat fungal diseases in Zambia , Zimbabwe , and South Africa , “ indicating the possibility of inoculum exchange between these countries.
” It was @ @ @ @ @ @ @ occurs from November to March , when symptoms of wheat blast first appeared in experimental plots and small-scale farms in the Mpika district of Muchinga province in northern Zambia .
Farmers observed that the infected wheat heads , or spikes , failed to produce grain or yielded stunted grain .
Some diseased leaves had gray or tan necrotic lesions with dark borders that often looked similar to lesions caused by other plant diseases .
Scientists were certain it could not have been Fusarium head blight ( FHB ) , which already exists in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ tips—are very different , says Batiseba Tembo , a wheat breeder at the Mt .
Makulu Central Research Station , run by Zambia Agriculture Research Institute ( ZARI ) .
“ This triggered the suspicion of involvement of pathogens other than Fusarium graminearum , ” she adds .
Tembo ’ s team collected samples for further investigation at ZARI ’ s laboratory .
“ We had to make sure what it was , ” she says .
Now , Tembo and her colleagues are certain .
Through pathological and molecular tests in Zambia @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , they confirmed that wheat blast , caused by the fungus Magnaporthe oryzae pathotype Triticum ( MoT ) , is now a disease in Africa .
They published their results in PLOS ONE on September 21 .
Research is now underway to determine how the fungus came to Zambia and how it might make its way to other African countries in the near future .
Wheat blast was first reported in Parana , Brazil , in 1985 .
The disease gradually spread to other South American countries including Bolivia in 1996 , Paraguay @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
It later surfaced in Bangladesh in 2016 where it affected 15,000 hectares of wheat and destroyed 90 percent of the yields .
The Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute ( BARI ) collaborated with the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center ( CIMMYT ) and researchers from nearly a dozen institutions worldwide to develop a long-term , sustainable solution .
In 2017 , they released BARI Gom 33 , a blast-resistant , high-yielding , zinc-fortified wheat variety .
“ It is encouraging a resistant cultivar was found and being adopted in Bangladesh , but @ @ @ @ @ @ @ cultivars will not bring a lasting solution because the blast pathogen is variable , ” says Terefe .
Already , a highly aggressive isolate of MoT , called B-71 , collected in 2012 from Okinawa , Bolivia , can bypass the resistance of BARI Gom 33 , which is conferred by a gene called 2NS , Terefe says , citing a recent study chronicling the evolution of wheat blast .
Searching for new resistance sources and using them in breeding is a continuous process , he adds .
This year , Bangladesh released @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 3 , which also relies upon 2NS for wheat blast resistance .
To increase the durability of resistant cultivars , says Terefe , a combination of two or more resistant genes in one cultivar is recommended .
Areas where wheat production is done in warm and humid conditions , such as Zambia and Ethiopia , Africa ’ s main wheat producer , are vulnerable to wheat blast , says Pawan Singh , a coauthor of the study and a senior scientist and the head of wheat pathology at CIMMYT .
“ Several varieties @ @ @ @ @ @ @ with similar wheat growing conditions as Zambia can be a possible temporary solution , but local testing of germplasm needs to be performed to identify the best-bet variety , ” he tells The Scientist .
He adds that other strategies are also available .
Wheat blast occurs during warm and humid weather , so “ if you change the date of planting your crops , heading time may not be at the same time when maximum vulnerability for wheat blast exists , ” says Singh .
For crop rotation , if farmers switch @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , such as wheat , barley , and triticale ( a hybrid of wheat and rye ) , then inoculum build-up will continue , but if they cycle between wheat and invulnerable crops , such as chickpea and rice , they can help manage the disease development , Singh says .
Bateno Kabeto Leramo , crop production expert at the United Nation ’ s Food and Agriculture Organization in Ethiopia , says there have not been any reports of wheat blast in east Africa , including in Ethiopia .
“ This is a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ immediate brainstorming meeting with wheat stakeholders to identify long-term and sustainable control measures to alleviate the blast problem , ” says Tembo .
B. Tembo et al.
, “ Detection and characterization of fungus ( Magnaporthe oryzae pathotype Triticum ) causing wheat blast disease on rain-fed grown wheat ( Triticum aestivum L. ) in Zambia , ” PLOS ONE , doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0238724 , 2020 .

ABOVE: Symptoms of wheat blast were first seen in experimental plots and small-scale farms in the Mpika district of Muchinga province in northern Zambia during the 2018 rainy season.
BATISEBA TEMBO
It could have been blown in by wind or transported by infected crop residue and maybe seeds—the exact mode of introduction remains debated. But the evidence for the presence of wheat blast is indisputable: the devastating fungal pathogen is now in Zambia, its first appearance in Africa.
“The detection of the disease in Africa is alarming,” Tarekegn Terefe, a wheat pathologist at South Africa’s Agriculture Research Council - Small Grain Institute, tells The Scientist. The disease is so deadly it can cause yield losses of more than 70 percent on susceptible cultivars, he says.
“The detection of the disease in Zambia puts southern African wheat-producing countries—South Africa, Zimbabwe, and Malawi—at high risk,” Terefe explains. Previous studies have documented the occurrence of similar wheat fungal diseases in Zambia, Zimbabwe, and South Africa, “indicating the possibility of inoculum exchange between these countries.”
It was during the 2018 rainy season, which occurs from November to March, when symptoms of wheat blast first appeared in experimental plots and small-scale farms in the Mpika district of Muchinga province in northern Zambia. Farmers observed that the infected wheat heads, or spikes, failed to produce grain or yielded stunted grain. Some diseased leaves had gray or tan necrotic lesions with dark borders that often looked similar to lesions caused by other plant diseases.
Scientists were certain it could not have been Fusarium head blight (FHB), which already exists in Zambia and whose symptoms—bleached spikes with green tips—are very different, says Batiseba Tembo, a wheat breeder at the Mt. Makulu Central Research Station, run by Zambia Agriculture Research Institute (ZARI). “This triggered the suspicion of involvement of pathogens other than Fusarium graminearum,” she adds.
Tembo’s team collected samples for further investigation at ZARI’s laboratory. “We had to make sure what it was,” she says.
Now, Tembo and her colleagues are certain. Through pathological and molecular tests in Zambia and at the US Department of Agriculture, they confirmed that wheat blast, caused by the fungus Magnaporthe oryzae pathotype Triticum (MoT), is now a disease in Africa. They published their results in PLOS ONE on September 21.
Research is now underway to determine how the fungus came to Zambia and how it might make its way to other African countries in the near future.
Batiseba Tembo (foreground), assisted by an intern, evaluates wheat blast occurrence in an experimental field in Mpika when the disease first hit Zambia. batiseba tembo
Africa’s vulnerability
Wheat blast was first reported in Parana, Brazil, in 1985. The disease gradually spread to other South American countries including Bolivia in 1996, Paraguay in 2002, and Argentina in 2007. It later surfaced in Bangladesh in 2016 where it affected 15,000 hectares of wheat and destroyed 90 percent of the yields.
The Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI) collaborated with the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) and researchers from nearly a dozen institutions worldwide to develop a long-term, sustainable solution. In 2017, they released BARI Gom 33, a blast-resistant, high-yielding, zinc-fortified wheat variety.
“It is encouraging a resistant cultivar was found and being adopted in Bangladesh, but, finding one or a few resistant cultivars will not bring a lasting solution because the blast pathogen is variable,” says Terefe. Already, a highly aggressive isolate of MoT, called B-71, collected in 2012 from Okinawa, Bolivia, can bypass the resistance of BARI Gom 33, which is conferred by a gene called 2NS, Terefe says, citing a recent study chronicling the evolution of wheat blast. Searching for new resistance sources and using them in breeding is a continuous process, he adds.
This year, Bangladesh released another wheat blast–resistant variety, WMRI Gom 3, which also relies upon 2NS for wheat blast resistance. To increase the durability of resistant cultivars, says Terefe, a combination of two or more resistant genes in one cultivar is recommended.
Areas where wheat production is done in warm and humid conditions, such as Zambia and Ethiopia, Africa’s main wheat producer, are vulnerable to wheat blast, says Pawan Singh, a coauthor of the study and a senior scientist and the head of wheat pathology at CIMMYT.
See “Putting Up Resistance”
“Several varieties with wheat blast resistance developed in countries with similar wheat growing conditions as Zambia can be a possible temporary solution, but local testing of germplasm needs to be performed to identify the best-bet variety,” he tells The Scientist.
He adds that other strategies are also available. Wheat blast occurs during warm and humid weather, so “if you change the date of planting your crops, heading time may not be at the same time when maximum vulnerability for wheat blast exists,” says Singh.
For crop rotation, if farmers switch between plants that are host to MoT, such as wheat, barley, and triticale (a hybrid of wheat and rye), then inoculum build-up will continue, but if they cycle between wheat and invulnerable crops, such as chickpea and rice, they can help manage the disease development, Singh says.
Bateno Kabeto Leramo, crop production expert at the United Nation’s Food and Agriculture Organization in Ethiopia, says there have not been any reports of wheat blast in east Africa, including in Ethiopia.
“This is a new disease and it calls for an immediate brainstorming meeting with wheat stakeholders to identify long-term and sustainable control measures to alleviate the blast problem,” says Tembo.
B. Tembo et al., “Detection and characterization of fungus (Magnaporthe oryzae pathotype Triticum) causing wheat blast disease on rain-fed grown wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in Zambia,” PLOS ONE, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0238724, 2020.


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thescientist--2020-10-19--Is Your PCR Reaction Healthy?

Is Your PCR Reaction Healthy?

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PCR is a beneficial laboratory tool; however, its efficiency is only as robust as the reaction parts, including the nucleic acid template. The most common methods for nucleic acid isolation use silica spin columns or magnetic silica beads. These methods are convenient because of commercially available kits, and researchers perform them safely without a fume hood. However, they involve tedious binding and washing steps, error-prone tube handling, and cross contamination risks.
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thescientist--2020-10-20--How to Reintroduce a Long-Lost Species

How to Reintroduce a Long-Lost Species

Earlier this month , an environmental organization announced it had released 26 Tasmanian devils ( Sarcophilus harrisii ) into a sanctuary north of Sydney as part of a project to reintroduce the species to the Australian mainland , where it has not existed in the wild for about 3,000 years .
The Scientist spoke with John Ewen , a conservation biologist at the Zoological Society of London who is not involved in the Tasmanian devil project , about how scientists figure out when reintroducing a species is desirable and feasible , and what factors play into the success of such @ @ @ @ @ @ @ on how to prevent critically endangered species from going extinct , often using conservation translocations as a tool .
The Scientist : How far do you go back when thinking about how an ecosystem is supposed to be , in terms of what species should be there ?
John Ewen : That ’ s a real challenging question .
The way that I would approach it , and I would recommend groups approach it , is to think about what they want to achieve , because there is no defined line that we @ @ @ @ @ @ @ that we want to try and restore to if we ’ re doing restoration .
So I think what we need to be is clear about what state we ’ re aiming to get to .
Often places like Australia .
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and New Zealand might argue that they want to go back to a pre–European colonization state .
But these are all rather arbitrary .
And they all have to then reflect back on what we value , what we want to see in these systems .
TS : Can you @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of values people are looking at when they ’ re making those decisions ?
JE : If we are in a system which is heavily degraded , and we know that it ’ s been degraded , because of our activities in our system , then often there ’ s an attraction to try and restore things to before human impacts caused damage .
And that can be quite difficult in places where humans have been there for a very , very long time .
And so in some oceanic islands—like New Zealand @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a much easier line that you could .
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say we could try and restore things to recover the damage that humans did to the system .
That ’ s one quite common value that people will use when they start talking about restoration .
I am a member of the IUCN ’ s [ International Union for Conservation of Nature ’ s ] conservation translocation specialist group .
And they have a set of formal guidelines which can help practitioners decide whether they should do something and how they can best @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the right choice , and the wording that they use .
And the wording that they tend to use is if you ’ re focusing in on a particular species , and you ’ re talking about reintroduction , then you ’ re going back [ and ] putting a species back into its indigenous range .
And then they have a definition for what indigenous range means , and it ’ s quite broad .
It means that there could be some verbal or written record that the species was once found @ @ @ @ @ @ @ some physical evidence that the species was found in that space sometime in the past .
Even in the absence of all of that , if that space is in close ecological proximity to where the species was known to be , then that could also be justified .
There is no strict timestamp on any of that definition .
See “ Researchers Aim to Reestablish an Ancient Fish in an Ohio River ” TS : What is the furthest back you ’ re aware of one of these reintroductions going , in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ?
JE : I think that that Tassie devil one is a pretty impressive one .
They ’ re saying 3,000 years since there was last evidence of Tasmanian devils on mainland or continental Australia .
That ’ s a long time .
TS : In thinking about whether a species would be successful in a place , do you account for whether the climate has changed since they were last in that area ?
And how do you figure out if they might still be able to live there ?
JE : @ @ @ @ @ @ @ many tricky challenges when it comes to conservation translocation .
When a species is lost from a system , something ’ s gone wrong , and oftentimes , we ’ re not entirely clear what exactly were the key drivers of the past extinction .
Compounding that , the longer the time it ’ s been since that extinction event and when you ’ re trying to put the species back , a whole bunch of other things in that ecosystem could also have changed .
And so there ’ s this significant @ @ @ @ @ @ @ that we ’ re working within .
You have to confront that and try and make the best decisions that you possibly can .
I think that systems like the Australian mainland have changed a lot in 3,000 years .
And I ’ m not sure that we ’ ve got a complete understanding of what caused the Tasmanian devils to be lost in the first place—a lot of environmental change , and then a lot of environmental change and degradation .
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has continued since .
So there ’ s some @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
That said , I think , from what I ’ ve seen , [ that ] they ’ re going about it very carefully , and in a very controlled way .
So I suspect that they ’ ve got the best possible chance of success—at least within the constraints of what they ’ re doing now , which is small fenced areas , where the animals are well-protected and well-provided with food .
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This challenge of climate , as well , is a problem .
And it ’ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ fragmented landscapes or on islands where animals can ’ t move , they ’ re kind of stuck , and so if the climate shifts , or changes such that it ’ s no longer suitable , then their only option is to adapt , or move .
If they can ’ t move , we can move them .
There are some nice examples of where people have modeled future climates and tried to incorporate that into translocation planning .
The species I do most of my work on is in New @ @ @ @ @ @ @ [ Notiomystis cincta ] .
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A PhD student of mine did some work where we modeled the dynamics of the population against fluctuations in temperature and humidity through a 20-year dataset since reintroduction , and then used that to look at how the dynamics of the population were influenced by fluctuations in temperature .
Then we took the future climate scenarios that have been produced and modeled what the fate of our current populations would be , and then also used that to start looking at where suitable habitat might @ @ @ @ @ @ @ was , was suitable in 50 years , in 100 years ’ time .
We showed that there ’ s a southward shift in New Zealand for suitable habitat , and that our current sites were no longer going to be suitable by 2100 .
So we have recommended there to move the birds outside of historic range .
There ’ s another neat example , [ with ] the western swamp tortoise , they did something similar in Western Australia , using species distribution models and climate envelopes , looking at successful @ @ @ @ @ @ @ was a shift .
And so they have actually undertaken translocations of swamp tortoise outside of historic range for that exact reason .
So there ’ s some good examples out there that factor in changing climate .
I ’ d still say that they ’ re few and far between compared to how many conservation translocations are being done , which is a lot .
I think most people ’ s mindsets are on a much shorter time frame .
TS : Can you give me an example of a reintroduction that @ @ @ @ @ @ @ factors you think might have contributed to it being a success ?
JE : There ’ s some fantastic examples of species restoration using some form of conservation translocation .
And I think this is part of the reason why that conservation tool is so attractive for people to use .
Some of the early successes—peregrine falcons are a fantastic example , Arabian oryx , golden lion tamarins , California condor .
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there ’ s bison in the US .
These early iconic reintroduction programs , which were well planned , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ with supportive management , are the poster child , if you like , for reintroduction biology that we all look to , and we look to those successes and try and repeat them in an ever greater frequency .
They ’ re such a popular management tool these days .
TS : What are some other things that people can do in planning and in follow up to make sure that reintroductions succeed ?
JE : How I always engage with groups that are interested in pursuing a conservation translocation is really to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ it is that they ’ re trying to do , because there ’ s lots of different motivations behind why we want to use conservation translocation , and only part of it will be actually the recovery or restoration of the focal species that you ’ re trying to move .
Increasingly , these days , we ’ re talking about a rewilding context , and so it ’ s much more the functional roles that these species are playing .
We also have to realize that we ’ re not the only @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the game .
Conservation biologists bring with them their own set of values , where we are very passionate about biodiversity .
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But there are plenty of other users of the same space that have different motivations , and we should be very careful that we recognize those and combine them into a good plan .
One .
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is recognizing that indigenous peoples , who also live [ on ] and share the land , have their views around resource management and land use , and the classic @ @ @ @ @ @ @ think , forgets about that .
And so we need to be much more holistic in embracing pluralistic values .
The opening of the cage door is just the beginning of a very long journey to recovery .
[ 1 ] Funding is another big one .
I mean , there ’ s this issue that conservation translocations are incredibly attractive things to do , they ’ re very hands on , they ’ re very visible , people love them , and audiences love them .
They ’ re also incredibly challenging @ @ @ @ @ @ @ very expensive .
And the opening of the cage door is just the beginning of a very long journey to recovery .
We ’ ve reviewed literature on case studies of conservation translocations where one of the biggest problems that people faced [ was ] not planning properly around the commitment of resources in the long term for recovery .
So things go very well for the first year , and then resources run out , and you ’ re in all sorts of trouble .
TS : Do people ever reach a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Okay , this species is reintroduced , it ’ s doing well , our role here is done ’ ?
JE : Yeah , and it will be very case-specific .
But there ’ s some fantastic examples ; one that pops into my head immediately are things like red kite in the United Kingdom .
The recovery following the release of birds into the UK has been incredible—there ’ s tens of thousands of those things flying around now , and no management required .
In New Zealand , we ’ ve @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , despite having to have these mainland islands—these big fancy fenced areas of forest where we keep out the invasive alien predators , mammals—a lot of those birds do fantastically well once you ’ ve removed the predators .
Or we can maroon them on islands where we ’ ve removed the predators .
In many cases , there ’ s a key threat and we can manage it , mitigate it , and then the birds or animals do fine .
And then there ’ s lots of other cases where it @ @ @ @ @ @ @ so you need to continue providing management support .
TS : Are there top candidates , or maybe one top candidate , that you ’ d really like to see reintroduced somewhere ?
JE : Right now , I ’ m helping a group in the USA think about returning Guam kingfisher to the wild ; it ’ s an extinct-in-the-wild species .
That story ’ s tragic ; [ the species is ] endemic to Guam and Guam had the invasive brown tree snake arrive shortly after World War Two .
That @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Guam and caused a series of extinctions .
Two species were rescued into captivity , the Guam rail , or ko'ko ' , and then the Guam kingfisher or sihek .
A few years ago , they started releasing the Guam rail [ onto islands near Guam ] .
And recently it ’ s been downlisted on the IUCN from extinct in the wild , which is a fantastic success story .
We want to do the same for the sihek , or the Guam kingfisher .
We ’ re very actively working @ @ @ @ @ @ @ out of the cage from [ the ] continental US back somewhere in the region , and in the wild .
That one is such a challenge that gets into this whole other interesting space , that conservation translocations are not just about restoring something or putting something back where it was .
We ’ re recognizing now that we ’ re damaging the planet quite drastically—we have these challenges of climate change—which means that past range may not be future-suitable range for a given species .
So we actually have to go @ @ @ @ @ @ @ want to restore species or systems in habitats which will be suitable in the future .
[ With ] the Guam kingfisher , it ’ s not climate that ’ s changed , it ’ s [ that ] currently the landscape on Guam makes it unsuitable because of the snake .
Until we can figure out how to control the snake , we might have to find a different home for the kingfisher .
See “ Researchers Look to Sex Pheromones to Trap an Invasive Snake ” That also raises a lot @ @ @ @ @ @ @ If you start putting species outside of historic range , then you ’ ve got to be very careful about what you ’ re doing .
TS : You mean you ’ re looking at other islands near Guam ?
JE : Yeah .
We are , at the moment , looking at other candidate sites—that will be initially an assisted colonization to a new site where they ’ ve never been before , but it will be in the wild so that we can grow bigger populations than what we can in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ we prevent all of those chronic problems of adaptation to captivity and chronic genetic drift and inbreeding , which occur because the population is tiny .
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Remembering that we ’ ve always got that primary dream to reintroduce sihek back to Guam , and back with the local people on Guam .
But that ’ s just a vision that ’ s going to take a long time because we ’ ve got to fix the snake problem first .
Editor ’ s note : The interview was edited for @ @

ABOVE: A Tasmanian devil
© ISTOCK.COM, CRAIGRJD
Earlier this month, an environmental organization announced it had released 26 Tasmanian devils (Sarcophilus harrisii) into a sanctuary north of Sydney as part of a project to reintroduce the species to the Australian mainland, where it has not existed in the wild for about 3,000 years. The Scientist spoke with John Ewen, a conservation biologist at the Zoological Society of London who is not involved in the Tasmanian devil project, about how scientists figure out when reintroducing a species is desirable and feasible, and what factors play into the success of such efforts. Ewen’s research focuses on how to prevent critically endangered species from going extinct, often using conservation translocations as a tool.
JOHN EWEN
The Scientist: How far do you go back when thinking about how an ecosystem is supposed to be, in terms of what species should be there?
John Ewen: That’s a real challenging question. The way that I would approach it, and I would recommend groups approach it, is to think about what they want to achieve, because there is no defined line that we would ever state is the best place that we want to try and restore to if we’re doing restoration. So I think what we need to be is clear about what state we’re aiming to get to. Often places like Australia . . . and New Zealand might argue that they want to go back to a pre–European colonization state. But these are all rather arbitrary. And they all have to then reflect back on what we value, what we want to see in these systems.
TS: Can you give me some examples of what kinds of values people are looking at when they’re making those decisions?
JE: If we are in a system which is heavily degraded, and we know that it’s been degraded, because of our activities in our system, then often there’s an attraction to try and restore things to before human impacts caused damage. And that can be quite difficult in places where humans have been there for a very, very long time. And so in some oceanic islands—like New Zealand, for example, or Mauritius—there is a much easier line that you could . . . say we could try and restore things to recover the damage that humans did to the system. That’s one quite common value that people will use when they start talking about restoration.
I am a member of the IUCN’s [International Union for Conservation of Nature’s] conservation translocation specialist group. And they have a set of formal guidelines which can help practitioners decide whether they should do something and how they can best go about determining whether it’s the right choice, and the wording that they use. And the wording that they tend to use is if you’re focusing in on a particular species, and you’re talking about reintroduction, then you’re going back [and] putting a species back into its indigenous range. And then they have a definition for what indigenous range means, and it’s quite broad. It means that there could be some verbal or written record that the species was once found in that space; there could be some physical evidence that the species was found in that space sometime in the past. Even in the absence of all of that, if that space is in close ecological proximity to where the species was known to be, then that could also be justified. There is no strict timestamp on any of that definition.
See “Researchers Aim to Reestablish an Ancient Fish in an Ohio River”
TS: What is the furthest back you’re aware of one of these reintroductions going, in terms when the species was last there?
JE: I think that that Tassie devil one is a pretty impressive one. They’re saying 3,000 years since there was last evidence of Tasmanian devils on mainland or continental Australia. That’s a long time.
TS: In thinking about whether a species would be successful in a place, do you account for whether the climate has changed since they were last in that area? And how do you figure out if they might still be able to live there?
Some of the early successes—peregrine falcons are a fantastic example, Arabian oryx, golden lion tamarins, California condor . . . bison in the US . . . are the poster child, if you like, for reintroduction biology that we all look to. —John Ewen, Zoological Society of London
JE: This is one of the one of many tricky challenges when it comes to conservation translocation. When a species is lost from a system, something’s gone wrong, and oftentimes, we’re not entirely clear what exactly were the key drivers of the past extinction. Compounding that, the longer the time it’s been since that extinction event and when you’re trying to put the species back, a whole bunch of other things in that ecosystem could also have changed. And so there’s this significant challenge of uncertainty and very complex ecosystems that we’re working within. You have to confront that and try and make the best decisions that you possibly can.
I think that systems like the Australian mainland have changed a lot in 3,000 years. And I’m not sure that we’ve got a complete understanding of what caused the Tasmanian devils to be lost in the first place—a lot of environmental change, and then a lot of environmental change and degradation . . . has continued since. So there’s some pretty big challenges ahead in that program. That said, I think, from what I’ve seen, [that] they’re going about it very carefully, and in a very controlled way. So I suspect that they’ve got the best possible chance of success—at least within the constraints of what they’re doing now, which is small fenced areas, where the animals are well-protected and well-provided with food. . . .
This challenge of climate, as well, is a problem. And it’s particularly a problem with either highly fragmented landscapes or on islands where animals can’t move, they’re kind of stuck, and so if the climate shifts, or changes such that it’s no longer suitable, then their only option is to adapt, or move. If they can’t move, we can move them.
A hihi (stitchbird) © ISTOCK.COM, IAINSTYCH
There are some nice examples of where people have modeled future climates and tried to incorporate that into translocation planning. The species I do most of my work on is in New Zealand, it’s the hihi [Notiomystis cincta]. . . . A PhD student of mine [Alienor Chauvenet] did some work where we modeled the dynamics of the population against fluctuations in temperature and humidity through a 20-year dataset since reintroduction, and then used that to look at how the dynamics of the population were influenced by fluctuations in temperature. Then we took the future climate scenarios that have been produced and modeled what the fate of our current populations would be, and then also used that to start looking at where suitable habitat might be. So where that climate envelope was, was suitable in 50 years, in 100 years’ time. We showed that there’s a southward shift in New Zealand for suitable habitat, and that our current sites were no longer going to be suitable by 2100. So we have recommended there to move the birds outside of historic range.
There’s another neat example, [with] the western swamp tortoise, they did something similar in Western Australia, using species distribution models and climate envelopes, looking at successful embryo development, and showing that there was a shift. And so they have actually undertaken translocations of swamp tortoise outside of historic range for that exact reason. So there’s some good examples out there that factor in changing climate. I’d still say that they’re few and far between compared to how many conservation translocations are being done, which is a lot. I think most people’s mindsets are on a much shorter time frame.
TS: Can you give me an example of a reintroduction that has gone really well, and what factors you think might have contributed to it being a success?
JE: There’s some fantastic examples of species restoration using some form of conservation translocation. And I think this is part of the reason why that conservation tool is so attractive for people to use. Some of the early successes—peregrine falcons are a fantastic example, Arabian oryx, golden lion tamarins, California condor . . . there’s bison in the US. These early iconic reintroduction programs, which were well planned, well resourced, and well followed through with supportive management, are the poster child, if you like, for reintroduction biology that we all look to, and we look to those successes and try and repeat them in an ever greater frequency. They’re such a popular management tool these days.
TS: What are some other things that people can do in planning and in follow up to make sure that reintroductions succeed?
JE: How I always engage with groups that are interested in pursuing a conservation translocation is really to get them to think carefully about what it is that they’re trying to do, because there’s lots of different motivations behind why we want to use conservation translocation, and only part of it will be actually the recovery or restoration of the focal species that you’re trying to move. Increasingly, these days, we’re talking about a rewilding context, and so it’s much more the functional roles that these species are playing.
We also have to realize that we’re not the only players or stakeholders that are involved in the game. Conservation biologists bring with them their own set of values, where we are very passionate about biodiversity. . . . But there are plenty of other users of the same space that have different motivations, and we should be very careful that we recognize those and combine them into a good plan. One . . . is recognizing that indigenous peoples, who also live [on] and share the land, have their views around resource management and land use, and the classic Western approach to conservation often, I think, forgets about that. And so we need to be much more holistic in embracing pluralistic values. The opening of the cage door is just the beginning of a very long journey to recovery.
The opening of the cage door is just the beginning of a very long journey to recovery. —John Ewen, Zoological Society of London
Funding is another big one. I mean, there’s this issue that conservation translocations are incredibly attractive things to do, they’re very hands on, they’re very visible, people love them, and audiences love them. They’re also incredibly challenging, incredibly uncertain, and almost always very expensive. And the opening of the cage door is just the beginning of a very long journey to recovery. We’ve reviewed literature on case studies of conservation translocations where one of the biggest problems that people faced [was] not planning properly around the commitment of resources in the long term for recovery. So things go very well for the first year, and then resources run out, and you’re in all sorts of trouble.
TS: Do people ever reach a point where they can go, ‘Okay, this species is reintroduced, it’s doing well, our role here is done’?
JE: Yeah, and it will be very case-specific. But there’s some fantastic examples; one that pops into my head immediately are things like red kite in the United Kingdom. The recovery following the release of birds into the UK has been incredible—there’s thousands of those things flying around now, and no management required. In New Zealand, we’ve got a lot of forest birds which, despite having to have these mainland islands—these big fancy fenced areas of forest where we keep out the invasive alien predators, mammals—a lot of those birds do fantastically well once you’ve removed the predators. Or we can maroon them on islands where we’ve removed the predators. In many cases, there’s a key threat and we can manage it, mitigate it, and then the birds or animals do fine. And then there’s lots of other cases where it’s not that simple, and so you need to continue providing management support.
TS: Are there top candidates, or maybe one top candidate, that you’d really like to see reintroduced somewhere?
A sihek (Guam kingfisher) © istock.com, michael fitzsimmons
JE: Right now, I’m helping a group in the USA think about returning Guam kingfisher to the wild; it’s an extinct-in-the-wild species. That story’s tragic; [the species is] endemic to Guam and Guam had the invasive brown tree snake arrive shortly after World War Two. That tree snake decimated the whole avifauna of Guam and caused a series of extinctions. Two species were rescued into captivity, the Guam rail, or ko'ko', and then the Guam kingfisher or sihek.
A few years ago, they started releasing the Guam rail [onto islands near Guam]. And recently it’s been downlisted on the IUCN from extinct in the wild, which is a fantastic success story. We want to do the same for the sihek, or the Guam kingfisher. We’re very actively working now to try and get birds back out of the cage from [the] continental US back somewhere in the region, and in the wild. That one is such a challenge that gets into this whole other interesting space, that conservation translocations are not just about restoring something or putting something back where it was. We’re recognizing now that we’re damaging the planet quite drastically—we have these challenges of climate change—which means that past range may not be future-suitable range for a given species. So we actually have to go outside of that historic context if we want to restore species or systems in habitats which will be suitable in the future. [With] the Guam kingfisher, it’s not climate that’s changed, it’s [that] currently the landscape on Guam makes it unsuitable because of the snake. Until we can figure out how to control the snake, we might have to find a different home for the kingfisher.
See “Researchers Look to Sex Pheromones to Trap an Invasive Snake”
That also raises a lot of risk and challenge, right? If you start putting species outside of historic range, then you’ve got to be very careful about what you’re doing.
TS: You mean you’re looking at other islands near Guam?
JE: Yeah. We are, at the moment, looking at other candidate sites—that will be initially an assisted colonization to a new site where they’ve never been before, but it will be in the wild so that we can grow bigger populations than what we can in zoos, and, of course, we prevent all of those chronic problems of adaptation to captivity and chronic genetic drift and inbreeding, which occur because the population is tiny. . . . Remembering that we’ve always got that primary dream to reintroduce sihek back to Guam, and back with the local people on Guam. But that’s just a vision that’s going to take a long time because we’ve got to fix the snake problem first.
Editor’s note: The interview was edited for brevity.
Correction (October 21): This article has been amended to state that there are now thousands of red kite in the UK, rather than tens of thousands, and to include Alienor Chauvenet's name.


thescientist--2020-10-20--The Scientist Lab Talk - Episode 2

The Scientist Lab Talk - Episode 2

Welcome to The Scientist ’ s LabTalk , a special edition podcast produced by The Scientist ’ s Creative Services @ @ @ @ @ at the leading edge of innovative research .
In this episode , we explore how @ @ @ @ @ at three cutting edge technologies : CRISPR , stem cell technology , and single-cell sequencing @ @ @ @ @ Scientist ’ s Creative Services team spoke with Martin Kampmann , associate professor at the @ @ @ @ @ , Chan Zuckerberg Biohub investigator , and Paul G. Allen Distinguished Investigator to learn more @ @ @ @ @ to you by 10x Genomics .
10x Genomics builds solutions for interrogating biological systems at @ @ @ @ @ matches the complexity of biology .
Their rapidly expanding suite of products , which includes @ @ @ @ @ software , enables customers to make fundamental discoveries across multiple research areas , including cancer @ @ @ @ @ .

Information you provide will be held in confidence and will be shared with the sponsoring vendor(s) of this podcast. We may use the information to contact you about your account and to let you know about related programs and products; you may opt-out at any time. This allows The Scientist to keep these podcasts free of charge for our readers.


thescientist--2020-10-13--Shifting Space and Time: How Harnessing Our Most Powerful Cells Changes Immune Medicine

Immune medicines hold promise as therapies for debilitating disorders such as cancer , infectious diseases , and inflammatory diseases .
@ @ @ @ @ , researchers gain insights into which patients will respond to various immunotherapies .
To accelerate @ @ @ @ @ , scientists use applications that decrease the space and time needed for assays that target @ @ @ @ @ this event brought to you by IsoPlexis , industry and academic leaders will describe how @ @ @ @ @ subsets shift conceptions about how humans mount effective immune responses , including which cells orchestrate @ @ @ @ @ will discuss technological advancements that enable researchers to use functional proteomes to detect powerful , @ @ @ @ @ .
Additionally , the speakers will highlight applications for harnessing these powerful cell subsets to @ @ @ @ @ .
Rong Fan , PhD Associate Professor of Biomedical Engineering School of Engineering and Applied @ @ @

Shifting Space and Time
How harnessing our most powerful cells is changing immune medicine
Immune medicines hold promise as therapies for debilitating disorders such as cancer, infectious diseases, and inflammatory diseases. By studying immune cell subsets, researchers gain insights into which patients will respond to various immunotherapies. To accelerate the timelines for finding cures, scientists use applications that decrease the space and time needed for assays that target single immune cells.
In this event brought to you by IsoPlexis, industry and academic leaders describe how data from small immune cell subsets shift conceptions about how humans mount effective immune responses, including which cells orchestrate a balanced attack. They discuss technological advancements that enable researchers to use functional proteomes to detect powerful, highly active immune cell subsets. Additionally, the speakers highlight applications for harnessing these powerful cell subsets to advance cell and gene therapies.


thescientist--2020-10-21--Nature-branded Journals Announce First Open-Access Deal

Springer Nature , the parent company of the Nature suite of journals , will allow researchers affiliated with around 120 German institutions to publish an estimated 400 open-access papers in these titles annually starting in 2021 .
The deal , announced yesterday ( October 20 ) , will be offered to institutions that currently subscribe to Nature journals .
The first to sign up is the Max Planck Society , an association of 86 research institutes .
The deal will be “ an enormous opportunity for scientists in Germany , ” as well as an opportunity for researchers elsewhere to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Blaum , vice president of the Max Planck Society ’ s Scientific Council for Chemistry , Physics and Technology , says in a statement .
Springer Nature signed a similar agreement—to date , the world ’ s largest transformative agreement , in which publishers and research institutions agree to a contract that contains elements geared towards increasing open access—with a consortium of more than 700 research institutions and libraries in 2019 , though that contract excluded Nature and other Nature-branded titles .
Institutions that sign up will pay a flat fee that covers @ @ @ @ @ @ @ publishing of articles in the 34 journals , as well as access to articles in 21 Nature Reviews titles .
According to the terms of the four-year deal , the fee is calculated on Springer Nature ’ s estimate that the cost of each open-access paper is about €9,500 ( $ 11,200 US ) per article .
Springer Nature says in a statement that its cost per published article is higher than less-selective journals because 60 percent of editors ’ time is spent on assessing articles that they don ’ t publish , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of submissions to Nature and Nature-branded journals .
Some open-access proponents criticized the deal .
“ Agreements that arrange for paying exorbitant amounts for publishing OA in prestigious journals do nothing to improve the accessibility and equitability of the scholarly publishing system , and merely show everything can be had if you just throw enough money at it , ” Jeroen Bosman and Bianca Kramer , two librarians and scholarly communication researchers at Utrecht University in the Netherlands , tell Nature in an email .
Only studies with corresponding authors from eligible institutions @ @ @ @ @ @ @ estimates that about 3.5 percent of articles in its journals will be affected , according to Nature .
Over the last few years , universities and research institutions around the world have been pushing publishers for agreements that advance open access to journals .
Earlier this year , the University of California and Springer Nature announced that they had forged the largest open-access deal in North America to date .

ABOVE: © ISTOCK.COM,
OLLO
Springer Nature, the parent company of the Nature suite of journals, will allow researchers affiliated with around 120 German institutions to publish an estimated 400 open-access papers in these titles annually starting in 2021.
The deal, announced yesterday (October 20), will be offered to institutions that currently subscribe to Nature journals. The first to sign up is the Max Planck Society, an association of 86 research institutes. The deal will be “an enormous opportunity for scientists in Germany,” as well as an opportunity for researchers elsewhere to build on their scientific findings, Klaus Blaum, vice president of the Max Planck Society’s Scientific Council for Chemistry, Physics and Technology, says in a statement.
Springer Nature signed a similar agreement—to date, the world’s largest transformative agreement, in which publishers and research institutions agree to a contract that contains elements geared towards increasing open access—with a consortium of more than 700 research institutions and libraries in 2019, though that contract excluded Nature and other Nature-branded titles.
Institutions that sign up will pay a flat fee that covers the reading and open-access (OA) publishing of articles in the 34 journals, as well as access to articles in 21 Nature Reviews titles. According to the terms of the four-year deal, the fee is calculated on Springer Nature’s estimate that the cost of each open-access paper is about €9,500 ($11,200 US) per article.
Springer Nature says in a statement that its cost per published article is higher than less-selective journals because 60 percent of editors’ time is spent on assessing articles that they don’t publish, with a rejection rate of 92 percent of submissions to Nature and Nature-branded journals.
Some open-access proponents criticized the deal. “Agreements that arrange for paying exorbitant amounts for publishing OA in prestigious journals do nothing to improve the accessibility and equitability of the scholarly publishing system, and merely show everything can be had if you just throw enough money at it,” Jeroen Bosman and Bianca Kramer, two librarians and scholarly communication researchers at Utrecht University in the Netherlands, tell Nature in an email.
Only studies with corresponding authors from eligible institutions will be open access. Springer Nature estimates that about 3.5 percent of articles in its journals will be affected, according to Nature.
Over the last few years, universities and research institutions around the world have been pushing publishers for agreements that advance open access to journals. Earlier this year, the University of California and Springer Nature announced that they had forged the largest open-access deal in North America to date.


thescientist--2020-10-21--Clarifying and Filtering Cells for Protein Purification

Scientists largely use centrifugation and filtration to clarify complex cell cultures when recovering extracellular proteins , such as monoclonal antibodies @ @ @ @ @ , these steps can be time-consuming and costly for labs growing their cultures in 24-well @ @ @ @ @ manual process produces significant variability .
Download this scientific brief from Pall Laboratory to learn @ @ @ @ @ using centrifugation/filtration/flocculation to clarify and sterilize mammalian cell cultures • New 24-well clarification and sterile @ @ @ @ @ 24-well sterilization-only filter plate for recovering proteins present in supernatant

Scientists largely use centrifugation and filtration to clarify complex cell cultures when recovering extracellular proteins, such as monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). However, these steps can be time-consuming and costly for labs growing their cultures in 24-well plates. Furthermore, this manual process produces significant variability.
Download this scientific brief from Pall Laboratory to learn about


thescientist--2020-10-21--Create Multiple Libraries for CRISPR Screening from a Single Oligo Pool

Functional genetic screening using the CRISPR system is a powerful tool for interrogating gene function at scale .
However , @ @ @ @ @ constrain scientists implementing this technology , especially in the context of focused screens targeting specific @ @ @ @ @ Twist Oligo Pools with a simple bioinformatics and wet-lab workflow , scientists can generate multiple @ @ @ @ @ a single oligo pool to facilitate multiple focused CRISPR screens .
Download this application note @ @ @ @ @ how • Scientists use a single Twist Oligo Pool in combination with Custom Library Multiplexed @ @ @ @ @ generate multiple focused custom sgRNA libraries that target small subsets of genes • Twist Oligo @ @ @ @ @ sgRNAs after demultiplexing individual libraries without cross-library contamination

Functional genetic screening using the CRISPR system is a powerful tool for interrogating gene function at scale. However, existing pre-defined CRISPR sgRNA libraries constrain scientists implementing this technology, especially in the context of focused screens targeting specific subsets of genes. Using Twist Oligo Pools with a simple bioinformatics and wet-lab workflow, scientists can generate multiple individual custom sgRNA libraries from a single oligo pool to facilitate multiple focused CRISPR screens.
Download this application note from Twist Biosciences to discover how