evolutionnewsandviews--2020-07-22--For Mankind, the Leap from Copper to Iron Was a Landmark Advance

Editor ’ s note : We are pleased to present a series adapted from biologist Michael Denton ’ s book , Fire-Maker : How Humans Were Designed to Harness Fire and Transform Our Planet , from Discovery Institute Press .
Find the whole series here .
Dr. Denton ’ s forthcoming book , The Miracle of the Cell , will be published in September .
Copper smelting requires temperatures between 1,150° and 1,250° C,1 but the smelting of iron requires even higher temperatures,2 more reducing conditions,3 and a “ greater blast of air.
” 4 This required more advanced kilns @ @ @ @ @ @ @ only mastered later , around 1200 BC,6 providing mankind access to the most useful and important of all metals , iron , thus initiating the Iron Age.7 This was a landmark advance .
Because of the ready availability of iron ores throughout the world and the great utility of iron and its alloys ( including steel ) for the manufacture of all manner of strong and durable tools , from ploughshares to needles , the use of metal tools and knowledge of iron metallurgy spread throughout the old world .
The importance of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ importance of the discovery of metallurgy can hardly be exaggerated .
Of course , metallurgy was only one of a host of fire-assisted technologies which followed the mastery of fire , for as Stephen Pyne comments in his Vestal Fire : But while ceramics , glassmaking , chemistry , and the host of other fire-enabled technologies were all of great importance in drawing man from the Paleolithic to the 21st century , the birth of metallurgy overshadows all others in importance .
The mastery of fire and the subsequent development of metallurgy and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ metal artifacts prepared the stage for the coming of the industrial revolution and the invention over the past five centuries of all manner of complex artifacts and machines , from telescopes and microscopes , to the building of the first artificially powered locomotives .
Inventions followed thick and fast : dynamos and electric motors ushered in the modern electric age , the internal combustion engine , the first airplanes , jet engines , and the development of the electronic computer during World War II .
Tomorrow , “ Combustion Is Anything but Ordinary.
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ Emergence of Iron Smelting and Blacksmithing : 900 B.C .
to the Early Roman Empire , ” Roman History , Coins , and Technology Back Pages , 2006 , accessed May 17 , 2016 , http : //www.jaysromanhistory.com/romeweb/glossary/timeln/t10.htm .
• The extraction of metals from their ores requires not only heat but reducing conditions to draw the oxygen from the metal .
See “ Smelting , ” Wikipedia , https : //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smelting ; From the article : “ Reduction is the final , high-temperature step in smelting .
It is here that the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ reducing environment ( often provided by carbon monoxide , made by incomplete combustion , produced in an air-starved furnace ) pulls the final oxygen atoms from the raw metal.
” That the reaction C + O in the kiln not only produces heat but at the same time the highly reducing CO ( essential for iron extraction ) is an intriguing element of fitness in nature for metallurgy .
• King : “ The techniques developed by the copper workers did not generate enough heat to cause iron ore to give up its @ @ @ @ @ @ @ carbon monoxide [ which generates reducing condition in a kiln ] had to be much greater than required for copper .
Not only does iron melt at a higher temperature than copper , but iron oxide holds its oxygen atoms much more tenaciously than copper oxide does….The answer was to first make a high quality charcoal from hardwoods….The iron ore would be totally surrounded by charcoal and the furnace had to be more enclosed , having only a chimney to exhaust the fumes and inlets for the bellows supplying the air .
Charcoal @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , followed by the iron ore and more charcoal .
The fires were lit , and the bellows operators pumped furiously to generate heat capable of adding enough energy to the iron oxide to make it loosen its grip on the oxygen atoms.
” • Stephen J. Pyne , Vestal Fire : An Environmental History , Told through Fire , of Europe and Europe ’ s Encounter with the World ( Seattle : University of Washington Press , 1997 ) , 42-43 .

Photo: Decorative ironwork, Notre Dame Cathedral, Paris, by Jebulon / CC0, via Wikimedia Commons.
Editor’s note: We are pleased to present a series adapted from biologist Michael Denton’s book, Fire-Maker: How Humans Were Designed to Harness Fire and Transform Our Planet, from Discovery Institute Press. Find the whole series here. Dr. Denton’s forthcoming book, The Miracle of the Cell, will be published in September.
Copper smelting requires temperatures between 1,150° and 1,250° C,1 but the smelting of iron requires even higher temperatures,2 more reducing conditions,3 and a “greater blast of air.”4 This required more advanced kilns and more sophisticated techniques.5 Iron smelting was only mastered later, around 1200 BC,6 providing mankind access to the most useful and important of all metals, iron, thus initiating the Iron Age.7
A Leap for Mankind
This was a landmark advance. Because of the ready availability of iron ores throughout the world and the great utility of iron and its alloys (including steel) for the manufacture of all manner of strong and durable tools, from ploughshares to needles, the use of metal tools and knowledge of iron metallurgy spread throughout the old world. The importance of metals, particularly iron, and the importance of the discovery of metallurgy can hardly be exaggerated.
Of course, metallurgy was only one of a host of fire-assisted technologies which followed the mastery of fire, for as Stephen Pyne comments in his Vestal Fire:
In fact almost no device or pursuit has lacked an element of combustion technology… Fire distilled seawater into salt, wood into tar, resin into pitch and turpentine, grain and grape into alcohol; it transformed wood into ash and then into soap, and cooked calcitic rock into lime. Plaster and cement, in turn, encouraged new construction.8
But while ceramics, glassmaking, chemistry, and the host of other fire-enabled technologies were all of great importance in drawing man from the Paleolithic to the 21st century, the birth of metallurgy overshadows all others in importance.
The mastery of fire and the subsequent development of metallurgy and our ability to make and shape complex metal artifacts prepared the stage for the coming of the industrial revolution and the invention over the past five centuries of all manner of complex artifacts and machines, from telescopes and microscopes, to the building of the first artificially powered locomotives. Inventions followed thick and fast: dynamos and electric motors ushered in the modern electric age, the internal combustion engine, the first airplanes, jet engines, and the development of the electronic computer during World War II.
Tomorrow, “Combustion Is Anything but Ordinary.”
Notes


evolutionnewsandviews--2020-07-23--How Darwin Shaped the Young Joseph Stalin

Michael Egnor points out that “ Totalitarianism Is Darwinism Applied to Politics , ” citing Hannah Arendt ’ s famous book , The Origins of Totalitarianism , which draws the connection .
The Nazis , as well as Marx and Engels , all drew from Darwin ’ s well .
Jonathan Wells notes that another figure in the totalitarian tradition was influenced by evolution from a very early age .
As a boy , Joseph Stalin talked about books all the time .
If he coveted a volume , he was happy to steal it from another schoolboy and run @ @ @ @ @ @ @ about thirteen , Lado Ketskhoveli took him to a little bookshop in Gori where he paid a five kopeck subscription and borrowed a book that was probably Darwin ’ s Origin of Species .
Stalin read it all night , forgetting to sleep , until Keke [ his mother ] found him .
‘ Time to go to bed , ” she said .
“ Go to sleep — dawn is breaking.
” “ I loved the book so much , Mummy , I couldn ’ t stop reading.
” As his reading @ @ @ @ @ @ @ day Soso [ Stalin ] and some friends , including Grisha Glurjidze , lay on the grass in town talking about the injustice of there being rich and poor when he amazed all of them by suddenly saying , “ God ’ s not unjust , he doesn ’ t actually exist .
We ’ ve been deceived .
If God existed , he ’ d have made the world more just.
” “ Soso , how can you say such things ?
” exclaimed Grisha .
“ I ’ ll lend you @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ” He presented Glurjidze with a copy of Darwin .
The idea of an organic “ movement ” in history , sketched by Darwin , leads to thinking that seeks to seize control of society and forcibly direct that movement .
Arendt needed a thick book to explain why .
The case of Stalin , influential reading by a 13-year-old , is much more direct .

Photo: Paining of Stalin in the Joseph Stalin Museum, by Andrew Milligan sumo, via Flick (cropped).
Michael Egnor points out that “Totalitarianism Is Darwinism Applied to Politics,” citing Hannah Arendt’s famous book, The Origins of Totalitarianism, which draws the connection. The Nazis, as well as Marx and Engels, all drew from Darwin’s well.
Jonathan Wells notes that another figure in the totalitarian tradition was influenced by evolution from a very early age. As a boy, Joseph Stalin
talked about books all the time. If he coveted a volume, he was happy to steal it from another schoolboy and run home with it. When he was about thirteen, Lado Ketskhoveli took him to a little bookshop in Gori where he paid a five kopeck subscription and borrowed a book that was probably Darwin’s Origin of Species. Stalin read it all night, forgetting to sleep, until Keke [his mother] found him. ‘Time to go to bed,” she said. “Go to sleep — dawn is breaking.” “I loved the book so much, Mummy, I couldn’t stop reading.” As his reading intensified, his piety wavered. One day Soso [Stalin] and some friends, including Grisha Glurjidze, lay on the grass in town talking about the injustice of there being rich and poor when he amazed all of them by suddenly saying, “God’s not unjust, he doesn’t actually exist. We’ve been deceived. If God existed, he’d have made the world more just.” “Soso, how can you say such things?” exclaimed Grisha. “I’ll lend you a book and you’ll see.” He presented Glurjidze with a copy of Darwin. Simon Sebag Montefiore, Young Stalin (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2007), p, 49.
The idea of an organic “movement” in history, sketched by Darwin, leads to thinking that seeks to seize control of society and forcibly direct that movement. Arendt needed a thick book to explain why. The case of Stalin, influential reading by a 13-year-old, is much more direct.


evolutionnewsandviews--2020-07-23--In Carbon Isotope Excursions, Darwinists Lose Another Excuse for the Cambrian Explosion

Evolution News keeps a lookout for new excuses that pop up to explain away the very un-Darwinian sudden emergence of 17 or more animal body plans in the Cambrian explosion .
Ever since Stephen Meyer published Darwin ’ s Doubt in 2014 , we have seen a gamut of excuses pass by .
One of the strangest was that it was caused by ( or correlated with ) one or more “ carbon isotope excursions ” or CIE ( see here , here , and here ) .
Presumably , the major CIE was also associated with more oxygenated ocean @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of oxygen to drive them to become animals ( see here and here ) .
The dates of those carbon excursions , however , have been uncertain and hard to correlate at different sites around the world .
A new study published in PNAS1 has tried to nail down the dates of the so-called “ Shuram CIE ” to see if it correlates with the Ediacaran or Cambrian fossils .
The authors measured isotopes in northwest Canada , Newfoundland , and Oman — three geographically distinct sites on “ multiple paleocontinents and paleolatitudes @ @ @ @ @ @ @ duration , and ending of the Shuram CIE .
Unfortunately , the earliest Ediacaran fossils appeared well before this excursion .
This undercuts the notion that the CIE somehow facilitated the explosive appearance of multicellular life .
Our understanding of the interactions between animal evolution , biogeochemical cycling , and global tectonics during the Ediacaran Period ( 635 to 541 Ma ) is severely hampered by lack of a robust temporal framework .
The appearance and extinction of the earliest fossil animals are hypothesized to correlate with upheavals in biogeochemical cycles — foremost @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the largest known disturbance to the global carbon cycle .
However , without age constraints on the excursion ’ s timing and duration , its driving mechanisms , global synchroneity , and role in Ediacaran geobiological evolution can not be evaluated .
We provide radioisotopic ages for the onset and termination of the Shuram , evaluate its global synchroneity , and show that it is divorced from the rise of the earliest preserved animal ecosystems .
How any of the alleged “ driving forces ” could create new hierarchical body plans with irreducibly @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
What is it about redox conditions , carbon cycles , or plate motions that possesses such creative power ?
The idea seems absurd , yet paleontologists have little else to reach for in their desperation to explain the Cambrian explosion , and the Ediacaran explosion as well .
The paper reasonably assumes that if the Shuram CIE was global , the beginning and ending dates must reflect the overlapping time ranges measured between the three locales .
Taking that overlap , they date the onset to 574 Ma and the ending to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , however , date to about 598 Ma — almost 25 million years before the Shuram CIE .
The CIE can not account for even a correlation with the Ediacaran explosion , therefore , let alone a causation .
Fossil evidence suggests that the “ these organisms were globally distributed and likely appeared before the Shuram CIE , ” including the characteristic frondose filter-feeders that waved passively like leaves from their holdfasts in the ocean floor .
Those were not animals , however , and were not bilaterian animals like the later Cambrian @ @ @ @ @ @ @ and disappeared mysteriously , having little or nothing to do with the Cambrian explosion .
There ’ s more bad news in the paper : some had theorized that the CIE was caused by the Gaskiers deglaciation , but that event , estimated at ~580 Ma , “ suggests at least 5.2 ± 4.8 My between Gaskiers deglaciation and the onset of the CIE. ” Those two events , therefore , are also “ stratigraphically and geochronologically distinct ” from each other , as are several other hoped-for correlations between geochemistry and biology @ @ @ @ @ @ @ was over before the onset of the Cambrian explosion .
Try as they might , they can not connect animal appearances with geochemistry , as if that would have helped in any event .
Good news never comes .
They have only removed an excuse for the sudden appearance of animals .
This Shuram CIE , “ potentially one of the largest global carbon cycle perturbations in Earth ’ s history , ” does not correlate to the evolution of animals , either Ediacaran or Cambrian .
Their disappointing conclusion is notably understated @ @ @ @ @ @ @ “ burst ” appear in another paper about arthropods .
In the biology preprint server bioRxiv , three scientists attempted a new method of arranging insects and arthropods into a Darwinian tree.2 This time , instead of genomes , they assembled proteomes to see if the major insect orders reflected the genomic phylogeny .
These authors use the word “ burst ” a good 13 times , in phrases like “ arthropodal burst ” and “ sudden burst ” for all the major orders of insects .
Sound familiar ?
“ Arthropodal burst @ @ @ @ @ @ @ tree of arthropods ] : Figures 3 shows the whole-proteome ToAr with CGD values .
It reveals that the “ founders ” ( for definition , see Supplemental information , Fig .
S3 ) of all major groups ( at Subphyla and Order levels ) emerged in a burst within a short evolutionary progression span between CGD [ cumulative genomic divergence ] of 1.6 and 5.8 ( marked by a small red arc ) , near the root of the tree in Figs .
3 , 4 and 5 .
This burst is @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of the founders of all kingdoms of Life in the whole proteome tree of Life .
Something about life likes to burst onto the scene without ancestors .
One thing is for sure ; that is a very un-Darwinian picture .
And building complex organisms — whether Ediacarans , Cambrian body plans , or arthropods — takes more than excursions of carbon and oxygen .
• Rooney et al.
, “ Calibrating the coevolution of Ediacaran life and environment , ” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , 6 July 2020. https @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , and Kim , “ Whole-Proteome Tree of Arthropods : An ‘ alignment-free ’ phylogeny of proteome ‘ books ’ , ” bioRxiv , 14 July 2020. https : //doi.org/10.1101/2020.07.11.198689 .

Image: An artist imagines a scene from Ediacaran seafloor, by James St. John / CC BY (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0).
Evolution News keeps a lookout for new excuses that pop up to explain away the very un-Darwinian sudden emergence of 17 or more animal body plans in the Cambrian explosion. Ever since Stephen Meyer published Darwin’s Doubt in 2014, we have seen a gamut of excuses pass by. One of the strangest was that it was caused by (or correlated with) one or more “carbon isotope excursions” or CIE (see here, here, and here). Presumably, the major CIE was also associated with more oxygenated ocean water, giving microbes the magic elixir of oxygen to drive them to become animals (see here and here). The dates of those carbon excursions, however, have been uncertain and hard to correlate at different sites around the world.
A new study published in PNAS1 has tried to nail down the dates of the so-called “Shuram CIE” to see if it correlates with the Ediacaran or Cambrian fossils.
The rise of animals occurred during an interval of Earth history that witnessed dynamic marine redox conditions, potentially rapid plate motions, and uniquely large perturbations to global biogeochemical cycles. The largest of these perturbations, the Shuram carbon isotope excursion, has been invoked as a driving mechanism for Ediacaran environmental change, possibly linked with evolutionary innovation or extinction. [Emphasis added.]
The authors measured isotopes in northwest Canada, Newfoundland, and Oman — three geographically distinct sites on “multiple paleocontinents and paleolatitudes” — to bracket the onset, duration, and ending of the Shuram CIE. Unfortunately, the earliest Ediacaran fossils appeared well before this excursion. This undercuts the notion that the CIE somehow facilitated the explosive appearance of multicellular life.
Our understanding of the interactions between animal evolution, biogeochemical cycling, and global tectonics during the Ediacaran Period (635 to 541 Ma) is severely hampered by lack of a robust temporal framework. The appearance and extinction of the earliest fossil animals are hypothesized to correlate with upheavals in biogeochemical cycles — foremost the Shuram carbon isotope excursion, possibly the largest known disturbance to the global carbon cycle. However, without age constraints on the excursion’s timing and duration, its driving mechanisms, global synchroneity, and role in Ediacaran geobiological evolution cannot be evaluated. We provide radioisotopic ages for the onset and termination of the Shuram, evaluate its global synchroneity, and show that it is divorced from the rise of the earliest preserved animal ecosystems.
An Absurd Idea
How any of the alleged “driving forces” could create new hierarchical body plans with irreducibly complex systems and functions is never explained. What is it about redox conditions, carbon cycles, or plate motions that possesses such creative power? The idea seems absurd, yet paleontologists have little else to reach for in their desperation to explain the Cambrian explosion, and the Ediacaran explosion as well.
The paper reasonably assumes that if the Shuram CIE was global, the beginning and ending dates must reflect the overlapping time ranges measured between the three locales. Taking that overlap, they date the onset to 574 Ma and the ending to 562 Ma. The first Ediacaran creatures, however, date to about 598 Ma — almost 25 million years before the Shuram CIE. The CIE cannot account for even a correlation with the Ediacaran explosion, therefore, let alone a causation. Fossil evidence suggests that the “these organisms were globally distributed and likely appeared before the Shuram CIE,” including the characteristic frondose filter-feeders that waved passively like leaves from their holdfasts in the ocean floor. Those were not animals, however, and were not bilaterian animals like the later Cambrian phyla. The Ediacarans appeared suddenly, and disappeared mysteriously, having little or nothing to do with the Cambrian explosion.
More Bad News for Evolutionists
There’s more bad news in the paper: some had theorized that the CIE was caused by the Gaskiers deglaciation, but that event, estimated at ~580 Ma, “suggests at least 5.2 ± 4.8 My between Gaskiers deglaciation and the onset of the CIE.” Those two events, therefore, are also “stratigraphically and geochronologically distinct” from each other, as are several other hoped-for correlations between geochemistry and biology.
Calibration of the Shuram CIE also unexpectedly divorces the stratigraphic and/or evolutionary appearance and disappearance of the Ediacara biota from previously hypothesized environmental drivers.
In addition, the Shuram CIE was over before the onset of the Cambrian explosion. Try as they might, they cannot connect animal appearances with geochemistry, as if that would have helped in any event.
There are still important nuances to consider in connecting the Shuram CIE with records of animal evolution, including preservational controls on the appearance of fossils and long-enduring questions of the permissible temporal lag between environmental change and biotic response. However, our temporal framework for the terminal Proterozoic suggests that evolutionary dynamics in the Ediacaran Period were, at face value, potentially decoupled from dramatic environmental changes. This finding highlights the importance of a robust geochronological framework for linking Proterozoic environmental change with the fossil record.
Good news never comes. They have only removed an excuse for the sudden appearance of animals. This Shuram CIE, “potentially one of the largest global carbon cycle perturbations in Earth’s history,” does not correlate to the evolution of animals, either Ediacaran or Cambrian. Their disappointing conclusion is notably understated:
This emerging chronology provides essential context for evaluating the mechanisms capable of driving an extraordinarily negative and extended CIE and assessing its impact on the habitats and evolution of early animals.
Another Explosion
The words “explosion” and “burst” appear in another paper about arthropods. In the biology preprint server bioRxiv, three scientists attempted a new method of arranging insects and arthropods into a Darwinian tree.2 This time, instead of genomes, they assembled proteomes to see if the major insect orders reflected the genomic phylogeny.
Results: An alignment-free whole-proteome tree of the arthropods shows that (a) the demographic grouping-pattern is similar to those in the gene trees, but there are notable differences in the branching orders of the groups and the sisterhood relationships between pairs of the groups; and (b) almost all the founders of the groups have emerged in an explosive burst near the root of the tree.
These authors use the word “burst” a good 13 times, in phrases like “arthropodal burst” and “sudden burst” for all the major orders of insects. Sound familiar?
“Arthropodal burst” near the root of ToAr [tree of arthropods]: Figures 3 shows the whole-proteome ToAr with CGD values. It reveals that the “founders” (for definition, see Supplemental information, Fig. S3) of all major groups (at Subphyla and Order levels) emerged in a burst within a short evolutionary progression span between CGD [cumulative genomic divergence] of 1.6 and 5.8 (marked by a small red arc), near the root of the tree in Figs. 3, 4 and 5. This burst is reminiscent of the “deep burst” of the founders of all kingdoms of Life in the whole proteome tree of Life.
Something about life likes to burst onto the scene without ancestors. One thing is for sure; that is a very un-Darwinian picture. And building complex organisms — whether Ediacarans, Cambrian body plans, or arthropods — takes more than excursions of carbon and oxygen.
Notes


evolutionnewsandviews--2020-07-23--Combustion Is Anything but Ordinary

Combustion Is Anything but Ordinary

Editor ’ s note : We are pleased to present a series adapted from biologist Michael Denton ’ s book , Fire-Maker : How Humans Were Designed to Harness Fire and Transform Our Planet , from Discovery Institute Press .
Find the whole series here .
Dr. Denton ’ s forthcoming book , The Miracle of the Cell , will be published in September .
Of course , human determination , inventiveness , and sheer genius played a major role in the development of technology .
But this is only part of the story .
On even the most cursory @ @ @ @ @ @ @ from the Stone Age to Curiosity was only possible because of what would appear to be an outrageously fortuitous set of environmental conditions , without which , despite our genius , we would still be hunter-gatherers and , as Alfred Russell Wallace noted a century ago , no advance beyond the most primitive stone tools would have been possible.1 In short , in the development of technology , nature lent a hand .
The combustion of wood or coal may seem so familiar as to be unworthy of any comment .
But combustion @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in wood , coal , or charcoal ) and oxygen — is anything but ordinary .
On the contrary , it is a unique chemical reaction , providing enormous energy and heat to perform many useful tasks while at the same time being non-explosive and readily controlled .
The relative lethargy of the reaction between oxygen and carbon — witnessed in the difficulty of starting a campfire — is the result of unique features of both the oxygen atom and carbon atom,2 which renders them peculiarly unreactive at ambient temperatures .
This low @ @ @ @ @ @ @ controlled use of fire .
It also means that we do not spontaneously combust at ambient temperatures in the current atmosphere of 21 percent oxygen .
And because of the curious un-reactivity of the oxygen atom at ambient temperatures , oxygen must be activated to utilize its energetic potential : in the body by special catalytic processes and in wood through the application of heat .
Moreover , as I mentioned earlier , it is only because charcoal reacts more vigorously with oxygen than uncooked wood , making possible the high temperatures in @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of metals from their ores and the development of metallurgy was possible at all .
And adding fortuity to fortuity , burning charcoal not only provides the necessary heat but also the reducing conditions in the kiln that strips the oxygen from metal ores , an essential element in the smelting and metallurgy of iron.3 As Arthur Wilson notes : “ It was a fortunate coincidence that the fuel that primitive man used to generate heat [ sufficient to smelt metals ] was also an effective chemical agent for reducing oxidized ores to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ added . )
The fact that the same substance , charcoal , provides the source of heat for smelting metals and the reducing conditions in the kiln necessary strip oxygen from metal ores is another unique and crucial element of fitness which made the development of metallurgy possible .
It is very difficult to imagine how the essential reducing atmosphere in the kiln could be achieved in any other way .
And there are yet other elements of fitness of charcoal for metallurgy .
Being porous , charcoal enables the blacksmith to regulate @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the flow of air through the bellows.5 It is certainly an intriguing element of fitness in nature that , although ordinary wood fires do not generate sufficient heat to smelt copper or iron , charcoal “ was one way in which nature came to the rescue of the early metal workers.
” 6 As mentioned above , burning charcoal in a vented kiln can generate temperatures well above 1,000° C , sufficiently high for extracting these two key metals from their ores .
Given the range of temperatures in the cosmos and the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , it beggars belief that the smelting temperatures of metal ores are in reach of the temperatures that can be generated in wood or charcoal fires — a coincidence upon which the whole subsequent development of technology depended .
Tomorrow , “ The Path to Technology Was Built in Nature.
” • Alfred Russel Wallace , The World of Life ( London : Chapman and Hall , 1910 ) , 359-361 .
• Witnessed in the unreactivity of soot , graphite , and coal .
See Nevil Vincent Sidgwick , The Chemical Elements @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( Oxford : Oxford University Press , 1950 ) , 490 .
• King , “ Early Bronze and Copper Technology From the Dawn of History Until Early Historic Times ( 2000 B.C.-400 B.C . )
, ” Roman History , Coins , and Technology Backpages , 2006 , accessed May 18 , 2016 , http : //www.jaysromanhistory.com/romeweb/glossary/timeln/t09.htm : “ Nature did work in one way to favor the early metalsmiths… Charcoal is produced as part of the burning process .
This natural tendency of a fire to produce essentially pure carbon is @ @ @ @ @ @ @ to the rescue of the early metalworkers , for pure carbon is the only fuel the ancients had available to them that could even come close to producing the temperatures needed to smelt metals .
Pure carbon will burn quite hotly in the presence of a forced air draft… While a fire burning naturally will produce mostly carbon dioxide and ash , with a little carbon monoxide , a forced fire will produce greatly increased quantities of super hot carbon monoxide [ an excellent reducing agent which draws the oxygen from the metal @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . )

Photo credit: Manuel Meurisse, via Unsplash.
Editor’s note: We are pleased to present a series adapted from biologist Michael Denton’s book, Fire-Maker: How Humans Were Designed to Harness Fire and Transform Our Planet, from Discovery Institute Press. Find the whole series here. Dr. Denton’s forthcoming book, The Miracle of the Cell, will be published in September.
Of course, human determination, inventiveness, and sheer genius played a major role in the development of technology. But this is only part of the story. On even the most cursory reading, the march of technological advance from the Stone Age to Curiosity was only possible because of what would appear to be an outrageously fortuitous set of environmental conditions, without which, despite our genius, we would still be hunter-gatherers and, as Alfred Russell Wallace noted a century ago, no advance beyond the most primitive stone tools would have been possible.1 In short, in the development of technology, nature lent a hand.
The combustion of wood or coal may seem so familiar as to be unworthy of any comment. But combustion — the reaction between reduced carbon (in wood, coal, or charcoal) and oxygen — is anything but ordinary. On the contrary, it is a unique chemical reaction, providing enormous energy and heat to perform many useful tasks while at the same time being non-explosive and readily controlled. The relative lethargy of the reaction between oxygen and carbon — witnessed in the difficulty of starting a campfire — is the result of unique features of both the oxygen atom and carbon atom,2 which renders them peculiarly unreactive at ambient temperatures.
This low chemical reactivity allows for the safe and controlled use of fire. It also means that we do not spontaneously combust at ambient temperatures in the current atmosphere of 21 percent oxygen. And because of the curious un-reactivity of the oxygen atom at ambient temperatures, oxygen must be activated to utilize its energetic potential: in the body by special catalytic processes and in wood through the application of heat.
Adding Fortuity to Fortuity
Moreover, as I mentioned earlier, it is only because charcoal reacts more vigorously with oxygen than uncooked wood, making possible the high temperatures in kilns and furnaces, that the extraction of metals from their ores and the development of metallurgy was possible at all. And adding fortuity to fortuity, burning charcoal not only provides the necessary heat but also the reducing conditions in the kiln that strips the oxygen from metal ores, an essential element in the smelting and metallurgy of iron.3 As Arthur Wilson notes: “It was a fortunate coincidence that the fuel that primitive man used to generate heat [sufficient to smelt metals] was also an effective chemical agent for reducing oxidized ores to the metallic state.”4 (Emphasis added.)
The fact that the same substance, charcoal, provides the source of heat for smelting metals and the reducing conditions in the kiln necessary strip oxygen from metal ores is another unique and crucial element of fitness which made the development of metallurgy possible. It is very difficult to imagine how the essential reducing atmosphere in the kiln could be achieved in any other way. And there are yet other elements of fitness of charcoal for metallurgy. Being porous, charcoal enables the blacksmith to regulate the temperature in the kiln by changing the flow of air through the bellows.5
It is certainly an intriguing element of fitness in nature that, although ordinary wood fires do not generate sufficient heat to smelt copper or iron, charcoal “was one way in which nature came to the rescue of the early metal workers.”6 As mentioned above, burning charcoal in a vented kiln can generate temperatures well above 1,000° C, sufficiently high for extracting these two key metals from their ores. Given the range of temperatures in the cosmos and the fantastic diversity of the properties of matter, it beggars belief that the smelting temperatures of metal ores are in reach of the temperatures that can be generated in wood or charcoal fires — a coincidence upon which the whole subsequent development of technology depended.
Tomorrow, “The Path to Technology Was Built in Nature.”
Notes


evolutionnewsandviews--2020-07-25--DNA as a Clue: How Intelligence Detects Information, and Creates It

On a classic episode of ID the Future , attorney and engineer Eric Anderson continues his discussion hosted by science @ @ @ @ @ it means that there is information in DNA , and how this distinguishes it from @ @ @ @ @ Download the podcast or listen to it here .
Andrerson , co-author of the new @ @ @ @ @ ID , Evolution and Intelligent Design in a Nutshell , talks about what intelligence really @ @ @ @ @ why we know it ’ s involved in creating the unique information in DNA .
@ @ @ @ @ answer we can give to those who “ dig their heels in ” and disagree @ @ @ @ @ .

On a classic episode of ID the Future, attorney and engineer Eric Anderson continues his discussion hosted by science historian Mike Keas about what it means that there is information in DNA, and how this distinguishes it from most other physical objects. Download the podcast or listen to it here.
Andrerson, co-author of the new compact and accessible introduction to ID, Evolution and Intelligent Design in a Nutshell, talks about what intelligence really is and does — and why we know it’s involved in creating the unique information in DNA. Additionally, he recommends an answer we can give to those who “dig their heels in” and disagree on what information is about.


evolutionnewsandviews--2020-07-24--The Path to Technology Was Built into Nature

Editor ’ s note : We are pleased to present a series adapted from biologist Michael Denton ’ s book , Fire-Maker : How Humans Were Designed to Harness Fire and Transform Our Planet , from Discovery Institute Press .
Find the whole series here .
Dr. Denton ’ s forthcoming book , The Miracle of the Cell , will be published in September .
Another intriguing element of fitness in nature , which must have first introduced our ancestors to the phenomenon of fire , is the existence of natural fires , caused by lightning strikes and other natural @ @ @ @ @ @ @ volcanoes .
Without recurrent natural fires in the environment , it is hard to see how man could ever have conceived of the phenomenon and attempted to mimic nature by initiating fire himself .
A strong hint that this is so is the fact that , as the authors of a recent paper point out , man ’ s utilization of fire coincided with a period between two and three million years ago in tropical Africa , when the paleo-environmental conditions were progressively fire-prone.1 Restricted to the high arctic , to wetlands , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ never have witnessed fire , let alone understood or mastered its primeval powers and potential !
The development of metallurgy depended on other “ lucky ” elements of fitness as well .
The existence of plentiful and common metal ore-bearing strata requires a variety of tectonic processes being “ just right , ” including magmatic , hydrothermal , and metamorphic processes.2 Yet another element of fitness in nature crucial to the development of metallurgy is the existence of woody plants , which provided the fuel for fire and the raw material for the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of fitness in nature for the development of technology , which were crucial to mankind ’ s rise to civilization , long preceded man ’ s arrival on Earth .
Our becoming a fire-maker , and thus a tool-maker , and eventually a voyager into space , the maker of the Curiosity , bee-sized drones , and a laser that can illuminate the moon , has not been due to our own genius alone .
It has been due mainly to the fortuitous conditions on our planetary home and the set of propitious @ @ @ @ @ @ @ allowed us to harness the power of fire and initiated our long journey of technological innovation via ceramics and metallurgy to the industrial revolution , to electronic computers , and the 21st century .
The path , it seems , was already built into nature .
Moreover , the path followed ( from fire , to charcoal , ceramics , kilns , and metallurgy ) , would appear to be unique .
No one to my knowledge has described an alternative path that might have been taken by our ancestors on Earth nor @ @ @ @ @ @ @ an alien exo-planet very different in chemical and physical condition to our own .
And not only does the path appear to be unique , but only biological beings similar to modern humans , possessed of our android design and conscious creative agency on a planet similar to the Earth could ever have exploited the wonderful fitness of nature for fire and for metallurgy .
This suggests that if there are extraterrestrial civilizations possessed of an advanced technology , they will have followed the same route , resemble closely beings of our biology @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the Earth .
The conditions necessary for man to be a fire-maker are specific and comprehensive .
In following posts I will explore in more detail some of the things that make harnessing fire — and thus the long march from fire to the technological advancements of the last few hundred years — possible .
Next , “ Earth Is the Right Planet .
”

Editor’s note: We are pleased to present a series adapted from biologist Michael Denton’s book, Fire-Maker: How Humans Were Designed to Harness Fire and Transform Our Planet, from Discovery Institute Press. Find the whole series here. Dr. Denton’s forthcoming book, The Miracle of the Cell, will be published in September.
Another intriguing element of fitness in nature, which must have first introduced our ancestors to the phenomenon of fire, is the existence of natural fires, caused by lightning strikes and other natural phenomenon, such as lava flows from volcanoes. Without recurrent natural fires in the environment, it is hard to see how man could ever have conceived of the phenomenon and attempted to mimic nature by initiating fire himself.
A strong hint that this is so is the fact that, as the authors of a recent paper point out, man’s utilization of fire coincided with a period between two and three million years ago in tropical Africa, when the paleo-environmental conditions were progressively fire-prone.1 Restricted to the high arctic, to wetlands, or to treeless deserts, humans would never have witnessed fire, let alone understood or mastered its primeval powers and potential!
Further Strokes of “Luck”
The development of metallurgy depended on other “lucky” elements of fitness as well. The existence of plentiful and common metal ore-bearing strata requires a variety of tectonic processes being “just right,” including magmatic, hydrothermal, and metamorphic processes.2
Yet another element of fitness in nature crucial to the development of metallurgy is the existence of woody plants, which provided the fuel for fire and the raw material for the manufacture of charcoal.
All these elements of fitness in nature for the development of technology, which were crucial to mankind’s rise to civilization, long preceded man’s arrival on Earth.
Our Genius Alone?
Our becoming a fire-maker, and thus a tool-maker, and eventually a voyager into space, the maker of the Curiosity, bee-sized drones, and a laser that can illuminate the moon, has not been due to our own genius alone. It has been due mainly to the fortuitous conditions on our planetary home and the set of propitious coincidences in the properties of matter that allowed us to harness the power of fire and initiated our long journey of technological innovation via ceramics and metallurgy to the industrial revolution, to electronic computers, and the 21st century. The path, it seems, was already built into nature.
Moreover, the path followed (from fire, to charcoal, ceramics, kilns, and metallurgy), would appear to be unique. No one to my knowledge has described an alternative path that might have been taken by our ancestors on Earth nor by exotic non-carbon based life forms inhabiting an alien exo-planet very different in chemical and physical condition to our own. And not only does the path appear to be unique, but only biological beings similar to modern humans, possessed of our android design and conscious creative agency on a planet similar to the Earth could ever have exploited the wonderful fitness of nature for fire and for metallurgy. This suggests that if there are extraterrestrial civilizations possessed of an advanced technology, they will have followed the same route, resemble closely beings of our biology, and inhabit a world similar to the Earth.
The conditions necessary for man to be a fire-maker are specific and comprehensive. In following posts I will explore in more detail some of the things that make harnessing fire — and thus the long march from fire to the technological advancements of the last few hundred years — possible.
Next, “Earth Is the Right Planet.”
Notes


evolutionnewsandviews--2020-07-24--Darwinist: ID Could Have Redeemed Itself by Leaping to Prejudged Conclusion on COVID-19

Just when you thought Darwinists had exhausted their imagination and couldn ’ t come up with any silly new put-downs of intelligent design , along comes science historian Adam Shapiro .
He has an article at American Scientist , unveiling a brand new zinger .
Give him credit for novelty if not for coherence .
His argument is that ID , a disreputable and unscientific theory , could have redeemed itself in the coronavirus pandemic by proclaiming that the virus is no lab-designed bioweapon .
He offers the usual bouquet of misrepresentations .
There is the Judge Jones trope , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ PA , is fit to determine that “ intelligent design ’ s appeal to nonnatural explanations or supernatural creators is not scientific.
” But ID is not an “ appeal ” to the “ supernatural.
” it ’ s an inference to intelligent agency , and its validity is not a question for a judge to decide .
There is the trope of tarring ID as “ antievolution , ” when in any normal use of English , defining the limits of unguided evolution is not “ antievolution , ” any more than @ @ @ @ @ @ @ say that science as a whole has limits to what it can do or what it can tell us .
There is the “ injecting religion into schools ” trope .
See our Science Education Policy , which couldn ’ t be clearer that Discovery Institute opposes “ injecting ” anything into schools other than a more balanced , objective treatment of evolutionary theory .
In Shapiro ’ s view , ID and its proponents are merely about “ casting stones at Darwin.
” His proposal explains how ID could have redeemed itself @ @ @ @ @ @ @ would say that when it comes to ID he hasn ’ t got the foggiest idea what he ’ s talking about , except that he does seem to have made a quick study of several recent posts at Evolution News , by Michael Behe and Michael Egnor .
Shapiro quotes Behe , writing here on March 10 , fairly early in the corona crisis : Was that not clear enough for him ?
Shapiro himself waves away the idea of COVID as a bioweapon with a sentence : “ It ’ s @ @ @ @ @ @ @ virus that has these effects and transmission patterns would be weaponized and released in such a fashion.
” He worries about media discussions : Dr. Shapiro should look up “ elide ” in a dictionary .
He seems to mean “ conflate ” or “ confuse.
” The problem is that ID , unlike Adam Shapiro , doesn ’ t prejudge questions , nor does it conflate or confuse them .
What is desirable to conclude is not necessarily what is valid to conclude .
Darwinists often forget that .
The more important @ @ @ @ @ @ @ is to resist the temptation to prejudge .
Whether aspects of nature bear evidence of design is the most important question science can ask , and so it calls for careful application of the tools that ID has developed .
Those tools might be valid or they might be invalid .
That is not for Judge Jones to decide , nor is it to be decided by whether ID comes to conclusions that align well with a certain view of reality , or with someone ’ s political preferences .
If ID as @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , ” as Shapiro thinks , following Judge Jones , then how does it become redeemed as science by reaching a conclusion about COVID that is pleasing to Adam Shapiro ?
If it ’ s valid , or at least arguably valid , then its coming to one conclusion or another about COVID , or no conclusion yet at all , is not a coherent objection .
Weighing the validity of ID , not by distorting its conclusions or imputing false intentions to it , but fairly and objectively , is what evolutionary @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Darwinists could redeem themselves , anytime , by grappling in a serious manner with the scientific evidence for design .

Image source: CDC, via Unsplash.
Just when you thought Darwinists had exhausted their imagination and couldn’t come up with any silly new put-downs of intelligent design, along comes science historian Adam Shapiro. He has an article at American Scientist, unveiling a brand new zinger. Give him credit for novelty if not for coherence. His argument is that ID, a disreputable and unscientific theory, could have redeemed itself in the coronavirus pandemic by proclaiming that the virus is no lab-designed bioweapon.
He offers the usual bouquet of misrepresentations. There is the Judge Jones trope, whereby a federal judge in Harrisburg, PA, is fit to determine that “intelligent design’s appeal to nonnatural explanations or supernatural creators is not scientific.” But ID is not an “appeal” to the “supernatural.” it’s an inference to intelligent agency, and its validity is not a question for a judge to decide.
There is the trope of tarring ID as “antievolution,” when in any normal use of English, defining the limits of unguided evolution is not “antievolution,” any more than it’s “anti-science” to say that science as a whole has limits to what it can do or what it can tell us.
There is the “injecting religion into schools” trope. See our Science Education Policy, which couldn’t be clearer that Discovery Institute opposes “injecting” anything into schools other than a more balanced, objective treatment of evolutionary theory.
“Casting Stones at Darwin”
In Shapiro’s view, ID and its proponents are merely about “casting stones at Darwin.” His proposal explains how ID could have redeemed itself, morally, but failed.
I would say that when it comes to ID he hasn’t got the foggiest idea what he’s talking about, except that he does seem to have made a quick study of several recent posts at Evolution News, by Michael Behe and Michael Egnor. Shapiro quotes Behe, writing here on March 10, fairly early in the corona crisis:
Behe wrote that although he believes that viruses in general are the products of intelligent design, the emergence of the coronavirus that causes COVID-19 was an act of random evolution. “Viral mutations can change the shape of the skeleton key at random. Most of the time the process doesn’t work but, every once in a while, the virus hits the jackpot.”
Was that not clear enough for him? Shapiro himself waves away the idea of COVID as a bioweapon with a sentence: “It’s both biologically and diplomatically unlikely that a virus that has these effects and transmission patterns would be weaponized and released in such a fashion.” He worries about media discussions:
The suggestion that the virus was a deliberate (or unintentional) bioweapon is sometimes elided [sic] with valid criticism of China’s communication and response to the initial outbreak to strengthen efforts to blame the Asian country for the global pandemic.
Intelligent Design Doesn’t Prejudge
Dr. Shapiro should look up “elide” in a dictionary. He seems to mean “conflate” or “confuse.” The problem is that ID, unlike Adam Shapiro, doesn’t prejudge questions, nor does it conflate or confuse them. What is desirable to conclude is not necessarily what is valid to conclude. Darwinists often forget that. The more important the question, the more important it is to resist the temptation to prejudge. Whether aspects of nature bear evidence of design is the most important question science can ask, and so it calls for careful application of the tools that ID has developed.
Those tools might be valid or they might be invalid. That is not for Judge Jones to decide, nor is it to be decided by whether ID comes to conclusions that align well with a certain view of reality, or with someone’s political preferences.
If ID as a methodology is invalid, “unscientific,” as Shapiro thinks, following Judge Jones, then how does it become redeemed as science by reaching a conclusion about COVID that is pleasing to Adam Shapiro? If it’s valid, or at least arguably valid, then its coming to one conclusion or another about COVID, or no conclusion yet at all, is not a coherent objection.
Weighing the validity of ID, not by distorting its conclusions or imputing false intentions to it, but fairly and objectively, is what evolutionary biology has largely refused to do. Darwinists could redeem themselves, anytime, by grappling in a serious manner with the scientific evidence for design.


evolutionnewsandviews--2020-07-27--John Lennox: What (Not) to Expect of Artificial Intelligence in 2084

On a new episode of ID the Future , host Robert J .
Marks interviews Oxford University mathematician John Lennox @ @ @ @ @ book , 2084 : Artificial Intelligence and the Future of Humanity .
A key question @ @ @ @ @ future , says Lennox , is what does it mean to be human ?
Download @ @ @ @ @ it here .
It ’ s a wide-ranging discussion about AI ’ s advantages already @ @ @ @ @ , for example ; AI ’ s supposed potential to achieve human-like consciousness ; ethical @ @ @ @ @ have to grapple with ; effects that AI will have on the economy and individual @ @ @ @ @ associated with living in an AI world where your every movement is tracked .

John Lennox
On a new episode of ID the Future, host Robert J. Marks interviews Oxford University mathematician John Lennox on Lennox’s new book, 2084: Artificial Intelligence and the Future of Humanity. A key question as we move toward this future, says Lennox, is what does it mean to be human? Download the podcast or listen to it here.
It’s a wide-ranging discussion about AI’s advantages already being realized, in medicine, for example; AI’s supposed potential to achieve human-like consciousness; ethical issues that AI programmers will have to grapple with; effects that AI will have on the economy and individual workers; and the risks associated with living in an AI world where your every movement is tracked.


evolutionnewsandviews--2020-07-27--Many “Miracles”: Navigation Arose Independently Across Diverse Animal Species

Biologists continue to learn about animal navigation .
Some animals spend their lives in limited areas , but many travel long distances each year .
Not having GPS , phone apps , or hand-held compasses , how do they get from point A to point B , if the route is hundreds or thousands of miles long ?
It ’ s not like one animal got the ability through a random mutation that was passed on through its progeny , because very different animal groups can do this : birds , reptiles , insects , and mammals .
Evolutionists posit @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
That multiples the number of chance “ miracles ” that had to occur .
Moreover , some animals navigate in water ; some on land , and some in the air , but can use some of the same environmental cues .
The story of sea turtle migration features in Illustra Media ’ s film Living Waters .
One amazing thing is that newly hatched baby turtles find the route to their feeding ground , never having been there before , swimming through trackless ocean water .
This implies that a mental @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
Cues to the route appear to include scents of the beach where they were born , landforms on the ocean bottom , and the geomagnetic field .
Previous studies had used tags to record the departure of individual turtles and their arrival at a destination .
New work with GPS loggers can follow them en route .
A new study indicates that some turtles wander off the route and can significantly overshoot the mark .
Individuals may seem “ lost ” for a while , then backtrack and weave till they get @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the targets are small islands .
Scientists at Swansea University tracked female green turtles : This should not be considered a defective design for several reasons .
Looking at the big picture over time , green turtles would have gone extinct had not the system worked well .
The scientists are assuming that green turtles have a one-track mind to get to the target by the shortest path , but who knows ?
Maybe turtles enjoy the scenic route or like to explore .
Thinking critically , a scientist might also investigate if @ @ @ @ @ @ @ turtles ’ magnetic sense , which surely must be extremely sensitive to follow such a weak signal .
The research , furthermore , only tested one species of sea turtle .
The point is , the turtles did make it , even by the “ scenic route , ” and that is a wonder in itself .
The findings support the view that sea turtles have a true navigation system in the open ocean , which includes a map sense .
The authors conclude , “ While their routes to isolated islands are @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the best practical solution to a challenging navigational problem within the constraints of the acuity with which they can use navigational cues , such as the earth ’ s geomagnetic field.
” One shouldn ’ t disparage a “ best practical solution ” to a challenging problem .
The ability of animals to use Earth ’ s magnetic field for navigation may rely on quantum mechanical effects .
Helen Matsos at Astrobiology Magazine ( see Phys.org ) describes how the mechanism of quantum entanglement might work in proteins called cryptochromes .
If that @ @ @ @ @ @ @ different organisms learn about radical pairs , electron spin and back-electron transfer ?
How did they find out a way to use quantum physics to do navigation ?
Speaking of loggers , scientists sponsored by the American Geophysical Union attached data monitoring devices onto whales with suction cups .
Many species of whales migrate thousands of kilometers .
The devices allowed researchers from Stanford University and from Southwestern University to measure the swimming efficiency of the large beasts .
They studied various species , from the blue whales — the largest animals on @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Minke whales .
Propulsive efficiency was found to vary differently from thrust , depending on the species , but these factors balanced out .
“ In general , propulsive efficiency was extremely high for all the whales , ” researchers found , “ around 85-90 % .
” That was true even for the fat humpback whales .
Incidentally , the British Antarctic Survey was happily surprised to find an “ astonishing ” number of blue whales at South Georgia Island near the Antarctic , reports the BBC News .
Their numbers had @ @ @ @ @ @ @ are climbing back — a big success story that marine biologists hope will continue .
Here ’ s a brief tidbit from veteran biologist and specialist in animal navigation Nathan F. Putnam He reports in Current Biology that seabirds follow shifts in the magnetic field .
Birds , salmon , whales , turtles , mammals , and butterflies — how did these very diverse animals all gain the ability to navigate by the Earth ’ s magnetic field ?
Now there is even a suggestion that dogs may have this ability !
Science @ @ @ @ @ @ @ that were observed to run back and forth for about 20 meters along a north-south axis before finding their way back to their owner .
A particularly amazing example of homing in dogs was reported by Breitbart .
A golden retriever named Cleo went missing from her new home in Kansas .
A week later , she showed up on the porch of her former home , 57 miles away in Missouri .
The owners are baffled about how she found her way there , which included crossing a river .
The dog @ @ @ @ @ @ @ including her keen sense of smell and perhaps the Earth ’ s magnetic field , to cover the distance .
These animals clearly make use of cues in the environment , like geomagnetism , odors , temperature , and landforms .
In a recent podcast on ID the Future , Eric Anderson explained that environmental cues do not qualify as “ information ” without a receiver and a processor .
Saturn ’ s rings , for example , only contain information when a scientist measures them and makes use of the observations for @ @ @ @ @ @ @ just “ out there ” in the world .
They become informational when a being receives and uses the data , such as publishing findings about Saturn ’ s rings .
By analogy , “ food ” is not informative without a complex digestive system that can utilize it , and air is not informative without lungs to breathe it in and use it for respiration .
The animals in these stories fit that description : they come equipped with receivers and processors to take in cues and use them as information .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ the availability of a magnetic field is enough to cause animals to emerge to utilize it , simply because it could be useful .
They “ could , ” but why would they ?
There is nothing about a magnetic field line or an odor of a beach that requires an organism to use it .
Without the sensory apparatus , the organism will be oblivious to it .
And even if a sensory mechanism emerged by a wild stroke of luck , the environmental cue is still useless without a complex system @ @ @ @ @ @ @ say nothing of a genetic system capable of encoding it in genes and passing it on to the offspring .
Rather than presuming that a cue in the environment somehow “ causes ” the animal to navigate , the scientifically reasonable approach is to focus on the equipment embedded in the animal : the sensory apparatus and brain that makes raw data in the environment useful .
The ability to receive raw data from the environment , process it into information , and then act on it requires a plan and foresight .
@ @ @ @ @ @ @ finesse of the equipment with which these creatures have been endowed .

Photo credit: Emily Rusch via Unsplash.
Biologists continue to learn about animal navigation. Some animals spend their lives in limited areas, but many travel long distances each year. Not having GPS, phone apps, or hand-held compasses, how do they get from point A to point B, if the route is hundreds or thousands of miles long? It’s not like one animal got the ability through a random mutation that was passed on through its progeny, because very different animal groups can do this: birds, reptiles, insects, and mammals. Evolutionists posit that each group gained the ability independently. That multiples the number of chance “miracles” that had to occur. Moreover, some animals navigate in water; some on land, and some in the air, but can use some of the same environmental cues.
Sea Turtles
The story of sea turtle migration features in Illustra Media’s film Living Waters. One amazing thing is that newly hatched baby turtles find the route to their feeding ground, never having been there before, swimming through trackless ocean water. This implies that a mental map of the route is inherited somehow. Cues to the route appear to include scents of the beach where they were born, landforms on the ocean bottom, and the geomagnetic field.
Previous studies had used tags to record the departure of individual turtles and their arrival at a destination. New work with GPS loggers can follow them en route. A new study indicates that some turtles wander off the route and can significantly overshoot the mark. Individuals may seem “lost” for a while, then backtrack and weave till they get oriented. This is particularly true when the targets are small islands. Scientists at Swansea University tracked female green turtles:
Since the time of Charles Darwin, scientists have marveled at sea turtles’ impressive ability to make their way — often over thousands of kilometers — through the open ocean and back to the very places where they themselves hatched years before. Now, researchers reporting in the journal Current Biology on July 16 have evidence that the turtles pull off these impressive feats of navigation with only a crude map to guide them on their way, sometimes going far off course before correcting their direction. [Emphasis added.]
This should not be considered a defective design for several reasons. Looking at the big picture over time, green turtles would have gone extinct had not the system worked well. The scientists are assuming that green turtles have a one-track mind to get to the target by the shortest path, but who knows? Maybe turtles enjoy the scenic route or like to explore. Thinking critically, a scientist might also investigate if the logging mechanism somehow interfered with the turtles’ magnetic sense, which surely must be extremely sensitive to follow such a weak signal. The research, furthermore, only tested one species of sea turtle. The point is, the turtles did make it, even by the “scenic route,” and that is a wonder in itself.
“We were also surprised at the distance that some turtles migrated. Six tracked turtles travelled more than 4,000 kilometers to the east African coast, from Mozambique in the south, to as far north as Somalia. So, these turtles complete round-trip migrations of more than 8,000 kilometers to and from their nesting beaches in the Chagos Archipelago.”
The findings support the view that sea turtles have a true navigation system in the open ocean, which includes a map sense. The authors conclude, “While their routes to isolated islands are not perfect, turtles may be finding the best practical solution to a challenging navigational problem within the constraints of the acuity with which they can use navigational cues, such as the earth’s geomagnetic field.” One shouldn’t disparage a “best practical solution” to a challenging problem.
Using the Magnetic Field
The ability of animals to use Earth’s magnetic field for navigation may rely on quantum mechanical effects. Helen Matsos at Astrobiology Magazine (see Phys.org) describes how the mechanism of quantum entanglement might work in proteins called cryptochromes.
The genesis of this sense, which is also found in birds, lobsters, rainbow trout, newts, mole-rats and other animals, as well as many plants, has long stymied researchers, but a recent study by scientists from the University of Pennsylvania, Temple University, and the University of Oxford provides new insight into a biophysical process known as the radical pair mechanism, which may be a protein-based basis of magnetoreception.
If that is the case, how did such different organisms learn about radical pairs, electron spin and back-electron transfer? How did they find out a way to use quantum physics to do navigation?
Whales
Speaking of loggers, scientists sponsored by the American Geophysical Union attached data monitoring devices onto whales with suction cups.
“[The device] is not large at all and it has a lot of the same things that an iPhone has: magnetometers, gyroscopes, and accelerometers to measure speed, position, and orientation, as well as GPS and cameras so we can see what the whale’s doing underwater,” said Hayden Smith, a student at Southwestern University who is presenting the new research.
Many species of whales migrate thousands of kilometers. The devices allowed researchers from Stanford University and from Southwestern University to measure the swimming efficiency of the large beasts. They studied various species, from the blue whales — the largest animals on Earth at 150 tons — to smaller Minke whales. Propulsive efficiency was found to vary differently from thrust, depending on the species, but these factors balanced out. “In general, propulsive efficiency was extremely high for all the whales,” researchers found, “around 85-90%.” That was true even for the fat humpback whales.
Incidentally, the British Antarctic Survey was happily surprised to find an “astonishing” number of blue whales at South Georgia Island near the Antarctic, reports the BBC News. Their numbers had been decimated by whaling, but now are climbing back — a big success story that marine biologists hope will continue.
Birds and Even Dogs
Here’s a brief tidbit from veteran biologist and specialist in animal navigation Nathan F. Putnam He reports in Current Biology that seabirds follow shifts in the magnetic field.
Shifts in the return locations of juvenile seabirds migrating from the Irish Sea to Argentina can be accurately predicted by changes in Earth’s magnetic field, suggesting that these birds rely on a geomagnetic map for navigation.
Birds, salmon, whales, turtles, mammals, and butterflies — how did these very diverse animals all gain the ability to navigate by the Earth’s magnetic field? Now there is even a suggestion that dogs may have this ability! Science Magazine tells about experiments with hunting dogs that were observed to run back and forth for about 20 meters along a north-south axis before finding their way back to their owner.
[Hynek] Burda thinks the dogs run along a north-south axis to figure out which way they are. “It’s the most plausible explanation,” he says. [Catherine] Lohmann says the implication is that dogs can remember their previous heading and use the reference to the magnetic compass to figure out the most direct route home. “I’m intrigued,” she says.
A particularly amazing example of homing in dogs was reported by Breitbart. A golden retriever named Cleo went missing from her new home in Kansas. A week later, she showed up on the porch of her former home, 57 miles away in Missouri. The owners are baffled about how she found her way there, which included crossing a river. The dog must have relied on multiple cues, including her keen sense of smell and perhaps the Earth’s magnetic field, to cover the distance.
How Environmental Cues Become “Information”
These animals clearly make use of cues in the environment, like geomagnetism, odors, temperature, and landforms. In a recent podcast on ID the Future, Eric Anderson explained that environmental cues do not qualify as “information” without a receiver and a processor. Saturn’s rings, for example, only contain information when a scientist measures them and makes use of the observations for a purpose. Otherwise, they are just “out there” in the world. They become informational when a being receives and uses the data, such as publishing findings about Saturn’s rings. By analogy, “food” is not informative without a complex digestive system that can utilize it, and air is not informative without lungs to breathe it in and use it for respiration.
The animals in these stories fit that description: they come equipped with receivers and processors to take in cues and use them as information. Matsos makes a mistake in thinking that the availability of a magnetic field is enough to cause animals to emerge to utilize it, simply because it could be useful.
Magnetoreception also has astrobiological implications, especially on planets with stronger (and less atmospherically shielded) magnetic fields than Earth’s. [Astrobiologist Chris] Bialas believes that extraterrestrial organisms could use magnetoreception to find resources such as iron, or to avoid poisonous substances like Chromium (VI) salts. Organisms could use their magnetic sense to evade prey or to hunt ferric bacteria.
They “could,” but why would they? There is nothing about a magnetic field line or an odor of a beach that requires an organism to use it. Without the sensory apparatus, the organism will be oblivious to it. And even if a sensory mechanism emerged by a wild stroke of luck, the environmental cue is still useless without a complex system to interpret and use it, to say nothing of a genetic system capable of encoding it in genes and passing it on to the offspring.
Rather than presuming that a cue in the environment somehow “causes” the animal to navigate, the scientifically reasonable approach is to focus on the equipment embedded in the animal: the sensory apparatus and brain that makes raw data in the environment useful. The ability to receive raw data from the environment, process it into information, and then act on it requires a plan and foresight. Everyone can stand in awe at the finesse of the equipment with which these creatures have been endowed.


evolutionnewsandviews--2020-07-27--Why Do We Not Spontaneously Combust?

Why Do We Not Spontaneously Combust?

Editor ’ s note : We are pleased to present a series adapted from biologist Michael Denton ’ s book , Fire-Maker : How Humans Were Designed to Harness Fire and Transform Our Planet , from Discovery Institute Press .
Find the whole series here .
Dr. Denton ’ s forthcoming book , The Miracle of the Cell , will be published in September .
Given the great quantities of energy released in combustion — and given that our bodies are composed of reduced carbon compounds — a question arises , one that intrigued novelist Arthur C. Clarke : Why @ @ @ @ @ @ @ even at ambient temperatures , given the inherent thermodynamic energy of oxidations ?
1 Indeed , why don ’ t forests do the same ?
A forest fire is ample proof of the enormous amounts of potential energy ( thermodynamic ) that “ lie within.
” It is claimed that in the great wet era — the Carboniferous , when the Earth was a massive swamp and the first amphibians crawled in the watery margins of the lakes and streams — oxygen levels reached 30 percent or even slightly higher .
This is @ @ @ @ @ @ @ s levels , and the evidence suggests that those “ wet forests ” burned in conflagrations of unimaginable ferocity.2 The effects of these great conflagrations were attenuated only because the Earth was wet and most life was aquatic or lived on the margins of rivers and swamps .
James Lovelock has pointed out that atmospheric levels of oxygen much above about 25 percent , let alone 30 percent,3 would cause raging conflagrations today even in tropical rain forests .
So controlling fire in a normobaric atmosphere of more than 25 percent oxygen would @ @ @ @ @ @ @ levels close to 21 percent are just about ideal for controlled combustion : high enough to get a fire started , but not so high that the fire spreads uncontrollably.4 The reason why neither humans nor trees spontaneously combust at the current 21 percent oxygen levels ( = pO of 160 mm Hg ) is because both the carbon atom and molecular oxygen ( O , or dioxygen ) are relatively inert at ambient temperatures because of their peculiar atomic structures , which greatly attenuates their reactivity.5 This attenuation of the reactivity of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ high metabolic rates of mammals on our planet .
It means that atmospheric levels of 21 percent oxygen , which are required to supply air-breathing , energy-hungry organisms ( like mammals and birds and flying insects , etc . )
with sufficient oxygen to satisfy their metabolic needs,6 do not at the same time lead to spontaneous combustion .
As Roman Boulatov comments : “ The biosphere benefits greatly from this inertness of O ( dixoygen ) as it allows the existence of highly reduced organic matter in an atmosphere rich in a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ chemical inertness of O is a potential problem for life as well as a benefit .
Boulatov continues , “ [ S ] uch inertness also means that rapid aerobic oxidation will only occur if energy is put into the system to overcome the intrinsic kinetic barriers [ e.g.
, heat is used to start a camp fire ] or the reaction is catalyzed ” 8 by enzymes that contain either iron or copper ions within their active sites.9 It is another element of fortuity in nature that the properties of the transitional @ @ @ @ @ @ @ copper , have just the right atomic characteristics to “ gently ” activate oxygen for chemical reactions .
In fact , all the oxygen-handling enzymes in the body , even those not specifically involved in oxygen activation such as hemoglobin ( which is involved in oxygen transport ) , make use of transitional metal atoms .
So the inertness of oxygen at ambient temperatures is rescued in the body by the unique properties of the transitional metal atoms that activate it for energy generation in air-breathing organisms like ourselves , whose high metabolic @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the energy of oxidations.10 If not for our unique oxygen-handling capacities , we as carbon-based life forms dependent on oxidations for our metabolic energy would certainly not be here .
In short , the inertness of dioxygen is clearly fit in several ways for air-breathing organisms obtaining their oxygen in gaseous form supplied from an atmosphere : It enables the energy of oxidations to be utilized in the body ; it prevents us from spontaneously combusting ; and it allows for the controlled utilization of fire .
It is worth noting that the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a fitness in nature particularly relevant for terrestrial , air-breathing organisms like ourselves , preventing spontaneous combustion and at the same time allowing for the mastery of fire .
It does not apply to aquatic organisms that extract their supply of oxygen from water and are incapable of ever lighting a fire .
And of course these characteristics are completely irrelevant to anaerobic bacteria and those extremophiles entombed in the crustal rocks , far removed from the concerns of life with oxygen.11 Tomorrow , “ Our Planet Is Just the Right Size.
” @ @ @ @ @ @ @ m asked about more than any other—spontaneous human combustion , ” says Arthur C. Clarke , author of 2001 , in the episode “ The Burning Question ” of his 1994 TV series Mysterious Universe .
“ …Yet some cases seem to defy explanation , and leave me with a creepy and very unscientific feeling .
If there ’ s anything more to SHC , I simply don ’ t want to know.
” • Nick Lane , Oxygen the Molecule That Made the World ( Oxford ; New York : Oxford University @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Lovelock , Gaia : A New Look at Life on Earth ( New York : Oxford University Press , 2000 ) , Chapter Five .
• David C. Catling , Christopher R. Glein , Kevin J. Zahnle , Christopher P. McKay .
“ Why O2 Is Required by Complex Life on Habitable Planets and the Concept of Planetary ‘ Oxygenation Time , ’ ” Astrobiology 5 , no .
3 ( June 2005 ) : 415–38 .
doi:10.1089/ast.2005.5.415 .
• Roman Boulatov , “ Understanding the Reaction That Powers This World : Biomimetic @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Oxidase , ” Pure and Applied Chemistry 76 , no .
2 ( 2004 ) : 303–319 , doi:10.1351/pac200476020303 .
• Corinna R. Hess , Richard W. D. Welford , and Judith P. Klinman , “ Oxygen-Activating Enzymes , Chemistry of , ” in Wiley Encyclopedia of Chemical Biology ( Hoboken , NJ : John Wiley & Sons , Inc. , 2008 ) .
http : //doi.wiley.com/10.1002/9780470048672.wecb431 .
The authors comment : “ Nature has developed a diverse array of catalysts to overcome this kinetic barrier .
These dioxygen-activating enzymes are divided into @ @ @ @ @ @ @ Oxygenases incorporate directly at least one atom from dioxygen into the organic products of their reaction .
Oxidases couple the reduction of dioxygen with the oxidation of substrate .
Typically , enzymes that react with dioxygen contain transition metal ions and/or conjugated organic molecules as cofactors.
” • Thomas Gold , The Deep Hot Biosphere ( New York : Copernicus , Springer-Verlag New York , Inc. , 1999 ) .

Photo credit: Alfred Kenneally, via Unsplash.
Editor’s note: We are pleased to present a series adapted from biologist Michael Denton’s book, Fire-Maker: How Humans Were Designed to Harness Fire and Transform Our Planet, from Discovery Institute Press. Find the whole series here. Dr. Denton’s forthcoming book, The Miracle of the Cell, will be published in September.
Given the great quantities of energy released in combustion — and given that our bodies are composed of reduced carbon compounds — a question arises, one that intrigued novelist Arthur C. Clarke: Why don’t we spontaneously combust, even at ambient temperatures, given the inherent thermodynamic energy of oxidations?1 Indeed, why don’t forests do the same?
A forest fire is ample proof of the enormous amounts of potential energy (thermodynamic) that “lie within.” It is claimed that in the great wet era — the Carboniferous, when the Earth was a massive swamp and the first amphibians crawled in the watery margins of the lakes and streams — oxygen levels reached 30 percent or even slightly higher. This is a huge proportion compared to today’s levels, and the evidence suggests that those “wet forests” burned in conflagrations of unimaginable ferocity.2 The effects of these great conflagrations were attenuated only because the Earth was wet and most life was aquatic or lived on the margins of rivers and swamps.
James Lovelock has pointed out that atmospheric levels of oxygen much above about 25 percent, let alone 30 percent,3 would cause raging conflagrations today even in tropical rain forests. So controlling fire in a normobaric atmosphere of more than 25 percent oxygen would likely be highly problematic. Current ambient levels close to 21 percent are just about ideal for controlled combustion: high enough to get a fire started, but not so high that the fire ignites spontaneously and spreads uncontrollably.4
Ideals Levels, but Why?
The reason why neither humans nor trees spontaneously combust at the current 21 percent oxygen levels (= pO 2 of 160 mm Hg) is because both the carbon atom and molecular oxygen (O 2 , or dioxygen) are relatively inert at ambient temperatures because of their peculiar atomic structures, which greatly attenuates their reactivity.5
This attenuation of the reactivity of oxygen makes it possible to sustain the high metabolic rates of mammals on our planet. It means that atmospheric levels of 21 percent oxygen, which are required to supply air-breathing, energy-hungry organisms (like mammals and birds and flying insects, etc.) with sufficient oxygen to satisfy their metabolic needs,6 do not at the same time lead to spontaneous combustion. As Roman Boulatov comments: “The biosphere benefits greatly from this inertness of O 2 (dixoygen) as it allows the existence of highly reduced organic matter in an atmosphere rich in a powerful oxidant.”7
A Problem and Benefit for Life
Ironically, the chemical inertness of O 2 is a potential problem for life as well as a benefit. Boulatov continues, “[S]uch inertness also means that rapid aerobic oxidation will only occur if energy is put into the system to overcome the intrinsic kinetic barriers [e.g., heat is used to start a camp fire] or the reaction is catalyzed”8 by enzymes that contain either iron or copper ions within their active sites.9
It is another element of fortuity in nature that the properties of the transition metal atoms, such as iron and copper, have just the right atomic characteristics to “gently” activate oxygen for chemical reactions. In fact, all the oxygen-handling enzymes in the body, even those not specifically involved in oxygen activation such as hemoglobin (which is involved in oxygen transport), make use of transition metal atoms. So the inertness of oxygen at ambient temperatures is rescued in the body by the unique properties of the transition metal atoms that activate it for energy generation in air-breathing organisms like ourselves, whose high metabolic rates and active lifestyles depend critically on the energy of oxidations.10 If not for our unique oxygen-handling capacities, we as carbon-based life forms dependent on oxidations for our metabolic energy would certainly not be here.
Lucky for Us
In short, the inertness of dioxygen is clearly fit in several ways for air-breathing organisms obtaining their oxygen in gaseous form supplied from an atmosphere: It enables the energy of oxidations to be utilized in the body; it prevents us from spontaneously combusting; and it allows for the controlled utilization of fire.
It is worth noting that the inertness of oxygen at ambient temperatures is a fitness in nature particularly relevant for terrestrial, air-breathing organisms like ourselves, preventing spontaneous combustion and at the same time allowing for the mastery of fire. It does not apply to aquatic organisms that extract their supply of oxygen from water and are incapable of ever lighting a fire. And of course these characteristics are completely irrelevant to anaerobic bacteria and those extremophiles entombed in the crustal rocks, far removed from the concerns of life with oxygen.11
Tomorrow, “Our Planet Is Just the Right Size.”
Notes


evolutionnewsandviews--2020-07-27--A College Student Gets Educated on Darwinian “Morality”

A got an email from a college student who described some of his experiences in a course about ethics , learning about the origins of morality .
The curriculum is straight updated Darwin .
It ’ s amazing stuff .
He refers to the movie God ’ s Not Dead , which features what you might think is an over-the-top portrayal of an atheist instructor .
Not so !
When I first watched God ’ s Not Dead , I thought the portrayal of the militant atheist professor was somewhat of an exaggeration , for dramatic effect .
That is @ @ @ @ @ @ @ myself .
In taking an ethics class , I expected an emphasis on moral relativism and situational ethics , but I wasn ’ t prepared for the new twist on morality .
The first assignment in the class was to read required materials , titled respectively , “ Morality is not in need of a belief in a deity , ” and “ Do Our Values Come from God ?
The Evidence Says No.
” The latter is an essay by the late atheist physicist Victor Stenger , There were no pro-theistic moral @ @ @ @ @ @ @ “ recommended readings ” included a book by Dr. Stenger , God : The Failed Hypothesis : How Science Shows That God Does Not Exist .
One lesson covered how the student is to think about “ moral intuitions.
” According to the lesson , we can , “ if we choose , act contrary to them .
We can do this without blasphemy , because it is our own nature , not God , that is the source of our species morality.
” The lesson then posed this question : “ Does @ @ @ @ @ @ @ deity for a sense of what makes an action morally good ?
The answer must be , NO !
” I felt like I was in a Marxist or Nietzschean “ God ’ s dead ” reeducation camp .
The message was clear : Don ’ t even think that morality can come from a divine source : “ The answer must be , NO !
” I imagined my classmates , after getting inundated with one article after another on atheistic ideology , wondering , “ So if the concept of morality @ @ @ @ @ @ @ where does it come from ?
” The lesson had a ready answer : “ If human morals and values do not arise out of divine command , then where do they come from ?
A considerable literature exists on the possible natural ( biological , cultural , evolutionary ) origins of morality.
” Just in case the student missed that important point , it ’ s repeated in another section : “ If morality , then , is not founded on the dictates of some divine source , from where does it @ @ @ @ @ @ @ .
In The Descent of Man , Charles Darwin addressed the development of a moral sense from a naturalistic perspective.
” The lesson continued , “ READ : ‘ Scientist Finds the Beginnings of Morality in Primate Behavior , ’ ” pointing us to a New York Times article by Nicholas Wade .
The article cites primatologist Frans de Waal who “ sees human morality as having grown out of primate sociality.
” Of evolutionary biologists , Wade notes , “ They further believe that if morality grew out of behavioral rules shaped @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , not philosophers or theologians , to say what these rules are.
” Listen up , students !
In this and many other courses I have taken , when questions of biological origins come up , only research that supports a naturalistic cause ( naturalistic materialism ) is allowed in discussions .
It seems that many educators today have unstated ( or even stated ) “ rules ” that science and the social sciences should exclude any and all references to an intelligent agent acting in nature .
In the study of evolutionary @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the focus .
Or , again , as our class curriculum expressed it , quoting philosopher Timothy Madigan , “ Our moral sense involves looking not toward heaven , but rather toward our fellow members of the animal kingdom , particularly the three great apes.
” I had a flashback to a nature documentary I saw once .
A chimp was fatally cracking another chimp over the head with an improvised club .
I remember watching as the alpha chimp casually went back to business foraging leaves .
It was the type of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ I read , “ Murder ‘ comes naturally ’ to chimpanzees.
” It was hard to see any signs of remorse , or pangs of conscience .
It was just another day in Darwin ’ s evolving moral jungle .
“ Primate morality ” is evident in the actions of Hitler and Stalin , both influenced by Darwinism .
That ’ s certainly not the kind of evolved morality mentioned in the lesson .
On the other hand , it seems the more our own culture traces morality to animals , the more @ @ @ @ @ @ @ come as no surprise .

A got an email from a college student who described some of his experiences in a course about ethics, learning about the origins of morality. The curriculum is straight updated Darwin. It’s amazing stuff. He refers to the movie God’s Not Dead, which features what you might think is an over-the-top portrayal of an atheist instructor. Not so!
When I first watched God’s Not Dead, I thought the portrayal of the militant atheist professor was somewhat of an exaggeration, for dramatic effect. That is, until I went back to college myself. In taking an ethics class, I expected an emphasis on moral relativism and situational ethics, but I wasn’t prepared for the new twist on morality.
The first assignment in the class was to read required materials, titled respectively, “Morality is not in need of a belief in a deity,” and “Do Our Values Come from God? The Evidence Says No.”
The latter is an essay by the late atheist physicist Victor Stenger, There were no pro-theistic moral arguments or articles presented in the curriculum.Other “recommended readings” included a book by Dr. Stenger, God: The Failed Hypothesis: How Science Shows That God Does Not Exist.
One lesson covered how the student is to think about “moral intuitions.” According to the lesson, we can, “if we choose, act contrary to them. We can do this without blasphemy, because it is our own nature, not God, that is the source of our species morality.” The lesson then posed this question: “Does a society need a belief in a deity for a sense of what makes an action morally good? The answer must be, NO!”
I felt like I was in a Marxist or Nietzschean “God’s dead” reeducation camp. The message was clear: Don’t even think that morality can come from a divine source: “The answer must be, NO!” I imagined my classmates, after getting inundated with one article after another on atheistic ideology, wondering, “So if the concept of morality doesn’t come from God, where does it come from?”
The lesson had a ready answer: “If human morals and values do not arise out of divine command, then where do they come from? A considerable literature exists on the possible natural (biological, cultural, evolutionary) origins of morality.”
Just in case the student missed that important point, it’s repeated in another section: “If morality, then, is not founded on the dictates of some divine source, from where does it arise? Perhaps it is perfectly natural. In The Descent of Man, Charles Darwin addressed the development of a moral sense from a naturalistic perspective.”
The lesson continued, “READ: ‘Scientist Finds the Beginnings of Morality in Primate Behavior,’” pointing us to a New York Times article by Nicholas Wade. The article cites primatologist Frans de Waal who “sees human morality as having grown out of primate sociality.” Of evolutionary biologists, Wade notes, “They further believe that if morality grew out of behavioral rules shaped by evolution, it is for biologists, not philosophers or theologians, to say what these rules are.” Listen up, students!
In this and many other courses I have taken, when questions of biological origins come up, only research that supports a naturalistic cause (naturalistic materialism) is allowed in discussions. It seems that many educators today have unstated (or even stated) “rules” that science and the social sciences should exclude any and all references to an intelligent agent acting in nature.
In the study of evolutionary ethics, primate “morality” is the focus. Or, again, as our class curriculum expressed it, quoting philosopher Timothy Madigan, “Our moral sense involves looking not toward heaven, but rather toward our fellow members of the animal kingdom, particularly the three great apes.”
I had a flashback to a nature documentary I saw once. A chimp was fatally cracking another chimp over the head with an improvised club. I remember watching as the alpha chimp casually went back to business foraging leaves. It was the type of behavior featured in a BBC News article I read, “Murder ‘comes naturally’ to chimpanzees.” It was hard to see any signs of remorse, or pangs of conscience. It was just another day in Darwin’s evolving moral jungle.
“Primate morality” is evident in the actions of Hitler and Stalin, both influenced by Darwinism. That’s certainly not the kind of evolved morality mentioned in the lesson. On the other hand, it seems the more our own culture traces morality to animals, the more our morality becomes primal, which should come as no surprise.